title: Sovereign

text: There is a sailing race held in Kinsale which references back to the chief officer of the town council. When looking to name a new trophy the local yacht club discovered that the ‘Sovereign of Kinsale’ used to put up a trophy for a sailing race in the late 1700s. The result is that the race and trophy today is known as The Sovereign's cup. Kinsale had been given its charter to set up a borough led by a Sovereign around 1319.


title: Second Ladies and Gentlemen of the United States

text: The second gentleman or second lady of the United States (SGOTUS or SLOTUS respectively) is the informal title held by the spouse of the vice president of the United States, concurrent with the vice president's term of office. Coined in contrast to "first lady", albeit used less commonly, the title "second lady" was apparently first used by Jennie Tuttle Hobart (wife of Garret Hobart, vice president 1897–1899) to refer to herself. Second gentleman of the United States is the title held by Doug Emhoff, the husband of Vice President Kamala Harris.


text: Twelve second ladies have gone on to become first ladies during their husbands' terms as president. The first to do this was Abigail Adams, who was married to John Adams, who was the first vice president from 1789 to 1797 and then the second president from 1797 to 1801. Thus Abigail was the first second lady and the second first lady. The most recent to do this is Jill Biden, who is married to Joe Biden, the 47th vice president from 2009 to 2017 and then the 46th president since 2021.


text: The current second gentleman is Douglas Emhoff, as his wife Kamala Harris became the 49th vice president of the United States on January 20, 2021. Emhoff is the first second gentleman of the United States.


text: There are five living former second ladies: Marilyn Quayle (wife of Dan Quayle), Tipper Gore (separated wife of Al Gore), Lynne Cheney (wife of Dick Cheney), First Lady Jill Biden (wife of Joe Biden), and Karen Pence (wife of Mike Pence).


text: The second spouse's visibility in the public sphere has been a somewhat recent development. Although the role of the first lady as White House hostess dates from the beginning of the republic (and was typically filled by another member of the president's family if the president was unmarried or a widower), with a few exceptions, it was generally not until the late 20th century and early 21st century that vice-presidential wives took on public roles that attracted significant media attention.


text: In one notable exception, Floride Calhoun, wife of Vice President John C. Calhoun, was a central figure in the Petticoat Affair, a social-political scandal which involved the social ostracism of Secretary of War John H. Eaton and his wife Margaret O'Neill Eaton, further damaging already-strained relations between Vice President Calhoun and President Andrew Jackson.


text: Pat Nixon, wife of Vice President Richard Nixon, was the first second spouse to add a great deal of substance to the role of the vice president's wife. When Nixon assumed the position in 1953, the role's only official function was to preside over the once-annual Senate Ladies Luncheon. Instead, Nixon launched her own initiatives, sensing great opportunities that her role provided. She established a schedule separate from that of her husband, which often consisted of solo activities. As second lady, Nixon traveled more than 125,000 miles around the world to six continents, including a two-month, 42,000-mile journey through Asia in 1953. As she undertook missions of goodwill across the world, she insisted on visiting schools, orphanages, hospitals and village markets rather than attend tea or coffee functions. In this sense, Nixon essentially created the modern role of the second lady; historian Kate Andersen Brower wrote, "she helped to define this nebulous role for an entire generation of women who would succeed her."


text: In 1978, Muriel Humphrey, wife of Vice President Hubert Humphrey, became the only former second lady to hold public office; after her husband, who had returned to the U.S. Senate after his term as vice president, died in office, she was appointed by Minnesota governor Rudy Perpich to continue her husband's term. Tipper Gore, separated wife of Vice President Al Gore, was active in several campaigns to remove material she found objectionable from popular American entertainment like movies, television shows and music, starting when her husband was a senator. She challenged performers over their use of profane lyrics and often debated with her critics, such as Dead Kennedys singer Jello Biafra. Lynne Cheney, wife of Vice President Dick Cheney, championed education reform, citing specific failures of the American public education system during her tenure as second lady. She is a particularly outspoken supporter of American history education, having written five bestselling books on this topic for children and their families. Jill Biden, wife of President Joe Biden, works as an English professor at Northern Virginia Community College, and is thought to be the first second lady to hold a paying job while her husband was vice president. She has been involved in various causes, including breast cancer awareness and literacy.


text: There have been 17 periods of vacancy in the role, the longest of which continued for 16 years between the service of vice presidential spouses Abigail Adams and Ann Gerry when there were three widower vice presidents and a one-year vacancy in the vice presidency. The most recent second lady vacancy was for 132 days in 1974, between the service of Betty Ford and Happy Rockefeller, when the vice presidency was also vacant.


text: 12 second ladies went on to become first lady following their husbands becoming president, the first being Abigail Adams and most recent being Jill Biden.


text: Various other spouses of vice presidents of the United States are not considered as second ladies of the United States because their marriages were not during the vice presidential terms of their husbands.


text: One U.S. vice president was widowed before his vice presidency and remarried during his vice presidency:


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven" is a power ballad by American heavy metal band Metallica. It was released as the second single from their eponymous fifth album "Metallica" (also known as "The Black Album"). Though one of the slower tracks on the album, its chord progression is distinctly one of the heaviest ballads featured on the album. The song deals with the theme of the struggle of the individual against the efforts of those who would subjugate him.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: The song has since spawned two sequels, in the form of "The Unforgiven II", from the album "Reload", and "The Unforgiven III", from the album "Death Magnetic".


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: Lars Ulrich explained that the band wanted to try something new with the idea of a ballad. Instead of the standard melodic verse and heavy chorus – as evidenced on their previous ballads "Fade to Black", "Welcome Home (Sanitarium)" and "One" – the band opted to reverse the dynamic, with heavy, distorted verses and a softer, melodic chorus, played with undistorted electric and acoustic guitars. The opening section contains percussive instruments performed by Ulrich, and also a small amount of keyboards.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: The horn intro was essentially taken from "The Unforgiven" (a Western movie) and then reversed so its source would be hidden, as Hetfield later explained on the documentary "Classic Albums: Metallica - Metallica".


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: Kirk Hammett said his solo was a last minute improvisation of "raw emotion" after the ideas he came with at the studio ended up not working. Pleased with the result, Hammett said it was the starting point of him playing less scripted solos in future songs.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven" was played live as part of Metallica's "Wherever We May Roam" and "Nowhere Else to Roam" world tours, which lasted from 1991 to 1993, in support of "The Black Album". It was played again on the Madly in Anger with the World Tour in 2003 and 2004 and has been continued to be played during all of the bands' tours since.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: The live version of "The Unforgiven" includes a second solo near the end of the song that the original recording did not have, although this part has rarely been played since the early 2000s.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: An accompanying video was released for the song. The black-and-white video is themed around a boy born in captivity who spends his life in a windowless stone room. As the video progress, he ages into an adult and then an old man. He spends his entire life carving into the stone to create a window while occasionally grasping his one possession: a locket. It is implied that another captive lives on the other side of the stone room. The video ends with the old man finally creating a window, through which he deposits his possession. He blocks off the tunnel through which he crawled to access the cell using the square of stone he created when he made the window, then lies down to die. An 11:33 long, "theatrical" version of the video exists, featuring several minutes of introductory scenes that precede the timeline of the main portion of the video. This version was featured on "The Videos 1989–2004", the band's 2006 music video compilation.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven II" was written by James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich and Kirk Hammett and appears on the album "Reload" as a sequel to "The Unforgiven." Both songs have similar musical themes. The chord progression during the verses is strikingly similar to the one used in the chorus on "The Unforgiven".


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven II" video is similar to the first video's story, though a tunnel is substituted for the blank room shown in the first video. It begins with a shirtless boy stuck in a wall, showing the wall breaking piece by piece as the boy ages. As the video progresses, it becomes more abstract, with waves crashing on the other side of the wall and rupturing it, making the wall smaller each time. The final scene shows the remaining piece of the wall turning into a woman, with the now older boy's hand still embedded in her back. The boy opens his hand, allowing the woman to take the key out of his hand and allowing him to take his hand out of the wall.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven II" was first performed live on December 8, 1997, at that year's Billboard Music Awards. The song was not played in a live setting again for the next 17 years, until Metallica re-introduced it into the setlist for their 2015 European festival tours. Following its performance in Gelsenkirchen, Germany's Rock Im Revier festival, Metallica then included it in the setlists of their next three shows.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: "The Unforgiven III" appears on the album "Death Magnetic", released in 2008. "The Unforgiven III" is structured similarly to "The Unforgiven", containing a heavy verse and a soft chorus, "The Unforgiven II" had the opposite by having a soft verse and a heavy chorus. The chorus of "The Unforgiven III" is missing the "What I've felt, what I've known" phrase that was included in its predecessors' choruses. "The Unforgiven III" is also missing the opening horn note, instead beginning with an acoustic piano with a horn section in the background. The chords progression during the piano intro is the same as the choruses of the previous songs. Unlike its predecessors, "The Unforgiven III" features as the seventh track on "Death Magnetic", due to the band wanting "The Day That Never Comes" to be the fourth track after they returned to writing ballads. However, due to the song being the counterpart of "The Day That Never Comes", it is the fourth song from closing the album. This is the first "Unforgiven" not to be released as a single or to have a music video.


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: In an interview for MTV, James Hetfield said that the song is "continuation of the same storyline about sin and consequence, forgiveness and unforgiveness." Hetfield has also said that, of all parts of "The Unforgiven," this is his favorite. Robert Trujillo said "it's got a great flow and it's very dynamic. It's somehow connected to the [remaining] body music of the album."


title: The Unforgiven (song)

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic in his review of the album, described the song as having "symphonic tension". It was not released as a single, as its predecessors were. A live version was performed for the first time on April 14, 2010, in Oslo, Norway, and only played a few times afterwards with the last performance being on November 21, 2010. It was played for the first time in almost eight years in Lincoln, Nebraska, on September 6, 2018, and was next performed on the two nights of Metallica and the San Francisco Symphony's "S&M2" at the Chase Center, albeit in an alternate form featuring only Hetfield and the orchestra. In 2010, it was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance but lost to "War Machine" by AC/DC.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The 2017–18 season was Arsenal's 26th in the Premier League and 99th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. The club participated in the Premier League, the FA Cup (as holders), the EFL Cup, the FA Community Shield and the UEFA Europa League.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: This was the first season that Arsenal did not participate in the UEFA Champions League since 1997–98. It was the first time they had played in the UEFA Europa League since its rebranding, having last participated in the 1999–2000 UEFA Cup. A relatively poor season saw Arsenal fail to maintain a consistent challenge for Champions League qualification, with their away form being a major factor, only winning four away games in the league all season with 11 defeats, and they were, until the final game of the season, the only team in England's top 4 divisions to not get a point away from home in the 2018 calendar year. A total of 13 defeats were recorded throughout the league campaign, the highest since the 1994–95 season, which resulted in a 6th-place finish. Furthermore, a shock 4–2 defeat at Nottingham Forest meant that Arsenal were knocked out of the FA Cup third round for the first time since 1996.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal were runners-up in the League Cup, being defeated 3–0 in the final against Manchester City. Arsenal were close to winning their first European trophy since the Cup Winners' Cup in 1994, but a 2–1 defeat on aggregate against Atlético Madrid in the semi-finals resulted in another season in the Europa League.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The season was the 21st straight and final season under manager Arsène Wenger, who announced his departure from the club on 20 April 2018. This season covered the period from 1 July 2017 to 30 June 2018.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal took a 25-man squad to play in Australia. The squad included seven under-23s, including Reiss Nelson and Joe Willock, plus both new signings Sead Kolašinac and Alexandre Lacazette. The first match was on 13 July, which was a 2–0 win over Sydney FC, where captain Per Mertesacker scored an overhead kick and Lacazette scored a debut goal after coming on as a substitute. Two days later, Arsenal faced a second Sydney side, Western Sydney Wanderers, in front of 83,000 people. Arsenal won 3–1 after first-half goals from Olivier Giroud, Aaron Ramsey and Mohamed Elneny. Arsenal then travelled to China to face Bayern Munich in Shanghai in the International Champions Cup. Alex Iwobi scored an equalizer in the dying seconds of the match, which Arsenal would win on penalties 3–2. The 25-man squad travelled up to Beijing to face Premier League rivals Chelsea. "The Blues" won rather convincingly, scoring three times. On 29 and 30 July, the Emirates Cup was held. Arsenal, Benfica, RB Leipzig and Sevilla all took part in the tournament, which Arsenal won after a 5–2 win over Benfica, but a 2–1 loss to Sevilla. Over the tournament, Theo Walcott was the top scorer with two goals, both against Benfica. Giroud and Iwobi also scored one each against Benfica, while Lacazette scored one against Sevilla.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal concluded their pre-season in the Community Shield, the traditional curtain raiser in English football. New signing Alexandre Lacazette hit the post on his competitive debut in a first half that saw Per Mertesacker replaced after a facial injury, with new signing Sead Kolašinac making his competitive debut as Mertesacker's replacement. After an end to the first half that yielded no goals, Chelsea took an early second half lead through Victor Moses, his close-range strike coming from a poorly defended corner. Several saved shots made it appear Arsenal were going to suffer defeat, until a rash challenge by Chelsea winger Pedro saw him sent off. The resulting free-kick was headed in by Kolašinac for a debut goal, and forced a penalty shootout. Arsenal were victorious 4–1 through goals by Theo Walcott, Nacho Monreal, Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain and Olivier Giroud, with Thibaut Courtois and Álvaro Morata missing penalties in the shootout that introduced the ABBA format. The result secured Arsenal's third FA Community Shield in four seasons.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal began their Premier League campaign at home to Leicester City, with "the Gunners" having lost their last two openers, both at home to West Ham and Liverpool. The record looked to be extended when Jamie Vardy and Shinji Okazaki scored for "the Foxes" after a record equaling 94th-second opener from new signing Lacazette, opening his league debut with his first competitive Arsenal goal with only his second touch of the game. Danny Welbeck drew Arsenal level in the last minute of first-half stoppage time, but Vardy scored a second ten minutes into the second half to put Leicester ahead once more. "The Gunners" looked set to lose their first match to "the Foxes" since 1994 when the final ten minutes approached, but a five-minute period of pressure yielded two goals from Aaron Ramsey and Olivier Giroud to make it 4–3, which "the Gunners" held on to for only their second opening day victory since 2012.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: However, Arsenal's form slipped as August began to end. They suffered a 1–0 defeat against Stoke City after a poor defensive performance and a controversially disallowed goal from Alexandre Lacazette. The poor defence form continued as they were crushed 4–0 by Liverpool and failed to register a single shot on target, sending them near the relegation zone, despite the returns of suspended defender Laurent Koscielny and injured forward Alexis Sánchez.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal began September with a 3–0 win over Bournemouth at home in the Premier League. Danny Welbeck scored either side of Alexandre Lacazette for an emphatic win. Five days on the Gunners would play in the Europa League having failed to secure a place for the usual Champions League. They played at home to German minnows FC Cologne and horrendously conceded a 40-yard goal as an unfortunate consequence of a mistake by second choice goalkeeper David Ospina thus were booed off the pitch at half time. However, Arsenal responded in the second half. Sead Kolašinac volleyed in the equaliser then Alexis Sánchez scored to give the Gunners the lead and Héctor Bellerín added a third as the match ended 3–1 in Arsenal's favor. Moreover, the match saw Jack Wilshere return for his first Gunners appearance in over a year. On 17 September Arsenal resumed the Premier League campaign as they played against champions Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. The match ended 0–0 despite Aaron Ramsey hitting the post and Chelsea defender David Luiz being sent off on 87 minutes. Three days later Arsenal played in the League Cup third round against League One team Doncaster Rovers at the Emirates. Theo Walcott scored the only goal of the match to send the Gunners into the fourth round but it was an unconvincing performance by Arsenal as they only managed a 1–0 win over a third-tier team. On 25 September Arsenal were at home to West Bromwich Albion in the Premier League. The Gunners won 2–0 with Lacazette scoring both goals. To end September Arsenal played the second Europa League match of this season. They took the trip to Belarus and won 4–2 against BATE Borisov. Walcott scored two before a first Arsenal goal for Rob Holding as well as Olivier Giroud's 100th goal for Arsenal as the Gunners took those three points to England.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On the 1st of October, the Gunners played the 7th league match of the season against newly promoted Brighton & Hove Albion at the Emirates. Arsenal won the match 2–0 thanks to goals by Nacho Monreal and Alex Iwobi. Two weeks on following an international break the Gunners were away to Watford. Captain Per Mertesacker gave the Gunners a first-half lead but Watford went on to win 2–1: during the second half Troy Deeney converted a penalty which was controversially given by referee Neil Swarbrick. Then in stoppage time former Manchester United and Everton player Tom Cleverley gave Watford the win. On 19 October Arsenal made the trip to Serbia for the third Europa League match against Red Star Belgrade. The Gunners won 1–0 with Olivier Giroud scoring an exceptional overhead kick. Three days sooner Arsenal went to Goodison Park to face struggling Everton. During the first half the out-of-form Toffees took the lead through a shot by Wayne Rooney just outside the 18-yard box but Arsenal equalised with Monreal's rebounded shot five minutes before the break. In the second half Mesut Özil got his first goal of the season, heading home Alexis Sánchez's cross. Then 15 minutes later Everton's Idrissa Gueye was sent off for two yellow cards, which proved to set up the Merseyside team's capitulation as goals by Alexandre Lacazette and Aaron Ramsey put Arsenal 4–1 up. In stoppage time Oumar Niasse scored to give Everton hope following a mistake by Petr Čech who failed to control a tame back pass by Monreal. But then Sánchez scored the fifth goal for Arsenal in the final minute of stoppage time as the match ended 5–2 to the Gunners. Only two days later Arsenal played in the League Cup fourth round at home to Championship team Norwich City. During the first half Norwich grabbed a shock 1–0 lead as the Gunners were booed off on the half time whistle. However, on 85 minutes youngster Eddie Nketiah went off the bench to score an equalizer for Arsenal — his first goal on his home debut — as the match went to extra time where Nketiah scored once more for Arsenal, heading in a set piece delivery to put them 2–1 up. The match ultimately ended 2–1 to take the Gunners into the fifth round. The final match of this October was in the Premier League at home to Swansea City. The Gunners were embarrassed to be 1–0 down at half time for a second consecutive home match but they went on to win 2–1 with goals by Sead Kolašinac and Ramsey to keep the three points in Arsenal's favor.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The Gunners played the fourth Europa League match at home to Red Star Belgrade on 2 November but they lacked a cutting edge as they drew 0–0. Next they faced league leaders Manchester City at the Etihad in the Premier League. The Gunners were outplayed from the beginning to end: Kevin De Bruyne handed City the lead and a controversial penalty by Sergio Agüero put them 2–0 up. Sub Alexandre Lacazette gave Arsenal a glimmer of hope but then Gabriel Jesus scored a third Manchester City goal to end the match 3–1 to City. On 18 November following the international break, it was North London derby day in the league as the Gunners played at home to Tottenham. Arsenal won the match 2–0 with first half goals by Shkodran Mustafi and Alexis Sánchez to give the Gunners' first win over Tottenham in the league since 2014. Five days on Arsenal took the trip to Germany as they played the fifth match of the Europa League schedule against Cologne but despite the Gunners' heavy momentum on the back of the North London derby win they suffered a humiliating 1–0 defeat by the Bundesliga bottom team. Three days sooner Arsenal were away to Burnley in the league. Only a stoppage time penalty by Alexis Sánchez would give the Gunners the lead as the match ended 1–0 to Arsenal. The final match of November would see them play newly promoted Huddersfield at home in the Premier League. Mesut Özil produced a dazzling performance as Arsenal won 5–0 with Alexandre Lacazette scoring the opener, Olivier Giroud scoring the second and fifth, Sánchez scoring the third and Özil himself scoring the fourth. The big win meant that Arsenal would have huge momentum going into the next Premier League match to be played in December — a big one at home to Manchester United.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Unfortunately, Arsenal ended up losing 3–1 to Manchester United. Antonio Valencia gave the visitors an early 4th-minute lead then, only 7 minutes later, Jesse Lingard made it 2–0. The Gunners tried to take a goal back before half-time as they dominated much of the first half but United goalkeeper David de Gea produced an outstanding performance to stop them doing this. Alexandre Lacazette hit the bar and just before the break De Gea made a point-blank save to prevent United conceding an own goal. During the second half on 49 minutes the Gunners finally got a goal back as Lacazette made it 2–1 but then, with 27 minutes remaining, Lingard scored a third for United as the Arsenal defense was exposed during a United counterattack. In the 74th minute, Paul Pogba was sent off for a rash challenge but it never proved to change the match as Manchester United won 3–1 and took the three points to Manchester. On 7 December Arsenal bounced back as they hammered BATE Borisov 6–0 in the final Europa League group stage match with goals by Mathieu Debuchy, Theo Walcott, Jack Wilshere, Olivier Giroud and Mohamed Elneny as well as an own goal by one of the BATE Borisov players. The Gunners topped the group and would go on to face Swedish team Östersund in the round of 32 of the Europa League which would be held in February. On 10 December Arsenal went to the South Coast to face Southampton in the league but could only manage a 1–1 draw. Three days later the Gunners faced West Ham United away from home in the Premier League but the match yielded no goals. Three more days later the Gunners played against Newcastle United at the Emirates in a third consecutive Premier League match. The match ended 1–0 to Arsenal with Mesut Özil scoring a stunning volley. On 19 December the Gunners played in the fifth round of the League Cup against West Ham at home. Danny Welbeck scored the only goal of the match to send the Gunners into the semi finals. On 22 December, three days before Christmas, Arsenal faced Liverpool at the Emirates in the Premier League. Philippe Coutinho gave the visitors a first half lead then, 7 minutes into the second half, Mohamed Salah made it 2–0 to Liverpool. However, Arsenal responded in quick fashion as they scored three goals in five minutes. Goals by Alexis Sánchez, Granit Xhaka and Özil turned the match round as they led 3–2 but then on 71 minutes Roberto Firmino scored a third Liverpool goal to equalise. No further goals occurred as the match ended 3–3 with some describing it as the match of the season. On 28 December the Gunners were away to Crystal Palace in the league and earned a hard-fought 3–2 win with Shkodran Mustafi scoring the opener and Sánchez scoring a brace. Arsenal's final match of 2017 was in the Premier League at West Brom. Baggies midfielder James McClean deflected Sánchez's free kick into his own net to give the Gunners a 1–0 lead on 83 minutes but then Arsenal conceded an 89th-minute penalty which was controversially and wrongly given by referee Mike Dean as the match concluded as a 1–1 draw. 2017 ended in disappointment for the Gunners.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The Gunners' first match of the year saw them play at home to Chelsea in the league. The match yielded no goals during the first half but the deadlock was broken by Arsenal 27 minutes before the end. Jack Wilshere put the Gunners into the lead but it lasted only four minutes and Chelsea turned the game round: Eden Hazard scored a penalty and on 84 minutes Marcos Alonso made it 2–1 to Chelsea. It seemed that it was determined for Chelsea to go on and win the match but then in the second minute of stoppage time Arsenal grabbed a late equalizer through Héctor Bellerín. In the dying moments Chelsea nearly bagged a winning goal but Davide Zappacosta hit the woodwork. The match ended 2–2. On 7 January the Gunners began the FA Cup campaign and played in the third round against Nottingham Forest who were troubled and had no manager. Arsenal who were the defending champions of the competition were expected to win this tie comfortably against a team whom they hammered in the League Cup last season but it turned out that the match was a giant killing: Arsenal were humiliated 4–2 by the Championship team and were knocked out of the FA Cup third round for the first time under Arsène Wenger. Three days later the Gunners played in the League Cup semi final first leg against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. The match was dull and below par and no goals occurred. On 14 January Arsenal resumed the Premier League campaign at Bournemouth. Bellerín gave the Gunners the lead on 52 minutes but Bournemouth went on to win 2–1: a mistake by Petr Čech enabled former Liverpool player Jordon Ibe to equalize in the 70th minute and only four minutes later Callum Wilson struck the winner. On 20 January the Gunners played the next Premier League match at home to Crystal Palace and won 4–1 with first half goals by Nacho Monreal, Alex Iwobi, Laurent Koscielny and Alexandre Lacazette. Four days on Arsenal faced Chelsea at the Emirates in the second leg of the League Cup semi final. During the first half Eden Hazard gave the visitors the lead but the Gunners equalized with Chelsea defender Antonio Rüdiger diverting Monreal's effort into his own net. Twenty minutes into the second half Granit Xhaka put Arsenal in front and they went on to win 2–1 thus sending the Gunners into the final of the League Cup where they would face Manchester City. On 30 January Arsenal's optimism and enthusiasm were dampened suffering a shock 3–1 defeat at Swansea City in the Premier League – a match which involved a second mistake by Petr Čech of the month. The Czech goalkeeper had failed to keep a clean sheet in seven league matches and was aiming to earn his 200th in the Premier League.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On 3 February the Gunners played in the Premier League at home to Everton — a match where Arsenal handed home debuts and first starts for January signings Henrikh Mkhitaryan and Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang, both of whom played together previously for Borussia Dortmund. Arsenal won the match 5–1 with Mkhitaryan bagging three assists, Aaron Ramsey scoring a hat-trick and Aubameyang scoring one. It felt like a new beginning for Arsenal with those new signings — and Mesut Özil's new contract — but it never seemed to be different on 9 February: the Gunners faced Tottenham at Wembley in a Premier League North London derby and lost 1–0 thanks to a goal by Harry Kane. Five days on Arsenal would play the first leg of the Europa League round of 32 at Swedish team Östersund where the Gunners prevailed 3–0. The next Arsenal match would be the second leg of the round at the Emirates where Östersund rallied scoring two goals in the first half. One more goal would even the tie but then in the second half Sead Kolašinac sent the Gunners back into the comfort zone making it 4–2 on aggregate. Arsenal progressed into the next round of the Europa League despite the shock 2–1 home defeat by the Swedish underdogs. On 25 February Arsenal returned to Wembley where they would face Manchester City in the League Cup final. The Gunners were horrendously outplayed by the runaway Premier League leaders and lost 3–0. Sergio Agüero handed Manchester City the lead following a big Arsenal defensive error. On 58 minutes skipper Vincent Kompany made it 2–0 to City and David Silva added a third. Following the Arsenal humiliation former Gunner Ian Wright said that it was 'an insipid performance' by Arsenal.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On 1 March Arsenal resumed the Premier League campaign by playing at home to Manchester City. The Gunners failed to avenge the League Cup final defeat and they were beaten 3–0 with first half goals by Bernardo Silva, David Silva and Leroy Sané while Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang missed a penalty in the second half. This Arsenal defeat would send City nearer to title triumph and would only inflict more misery on the Gunners and Arsène Wenger. It only got worse for them on 4 March where the Gunners lost 2–1 at Brighton in the Premier League further increasing the pressure on Wenger. However, on 8 March the Gunners responded in the Europa League first leg match where they won 2–0 against A.C. Milan in Italy and three days on they would win 3–0 at home to Watford thanks to goals by Shkodran Mustafi, Aubameyang and Henrikh Mkhitaryan. It was also the match where Petr Čech finally kept his 200th Premier League clean sheet and he had to save Troy Deeney's penalty to ensure this. The Gunners' final match of March was the second leg of the Europa League round at the Emirates. Milan took the lead on 35 minutes but Arsenal went on to win 3–1 with goals by Danny Welbeck and Granit Xhaka with the former scoring a brace. The Gunners won the tie 5–1 on aggregate thus taking them into the quarter-finals of the Europa League.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal's next league encounter was on 1 April 2018, at home to a struggling Stoke City side seemingly bound for relegation. It took Arsenal 75 minutes to break the deadlock, achieved via Pierre–Emerick Aubameyang's penalty, before his terrific volley made it 2–0 in Arsenal's favor with four minutes remaining. Aubameyang then had the chance to complete his hat–trick with another spot–kick awarded at the death, but Aubameyang permitted Alexandre Lacazette to take, and he duly did as Arsenal ultimately won 3–0.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: In the next match, Arsenal played host to Russians CSKA Moscow in the first leg of their UEFA Europa League quarter–final. After going ahead via Aaron Ramsey, CSKA levelled via Aleksandr Golovin’s stunning free kick. Lacazette then netted from the spot before one of the goals of the year from Aaron Ramsey, an ingenious back–heeled volley, coupled with Lacazette's second later in the half, sealed a commanding 4–1 first leg triumph.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: In their fifth successive home match in all competitions, Arsenal secured a dramatic 3–2 home win over Southampton. After Irishman Shane Long put the Saints ahead, goals from Aubameyang and Welbeck made it 2–1 to the hosts. However, Charlie Austin's equalizer tier up a grand finale, decided via Welbeck's second of the evening on 81 minutes.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal then progressed to the semi–finals of the Europa League as late goals from Welbeck and Ramsey saw Arsenal overcome a 2–0 deficit and earn a 2–2 draw in the Russian capital, subsequently winning the tie 6–3 on aggregate.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: However, despite the recent upturn in results, goals from Ayoze Perez and Matt Ritchie saw Lacazette's early goal rendered worthless at St James Park, with Newcastle United recording a 2–1 victory.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: With the pressure mounting, Arsène Wenger's departure as Arsenal boss was announced, so ending a 22-year, trophy–laden association with the club. He would take charge for the remainder of the season prior to the announcement of the new boss.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Against West Ham next time hour, Nacho Monreal had his 52nd-minute strike cancelled out by Marko Arnautović, before Ramsey restores Arsenal's lead late on. A brace later from Lacazette saw Arsenal ultimately secure a 4–1 win and duly keep alive their top four hopes.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: However, a damaging 1–1 home draw with Spanish club Atlético Madrid saw Arsenal on the back foot following the first leg of the Europa League semi–final. Despite leading against ten men through Alexandre Lacazette's header, Antoine Griezmann pegged back the Gunners late on.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Things worsened next time out, as, despite Henrikh Mkhitaryan scoring on his return to Old Trafford, goals in either half from Paul Pogba and Marouane Fellaini saw Manchester United earn a 2–1 victory over the struggling Gunners.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Things got worse later in the week, as Diego Costa's first–half strike earned Atlético Madrid a 1–0 win at the Wanda Metropolitano and eliminate Arsenal from the tournament, ending Arsène Wenger's last chance of winning a trophy in his final season


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: However, his last home match in charge at least ended positively, with a 5–0 annihilation of Burnley. Pierre–Emerick Aubameyang opened and closed the scoring, with Lacazette, Sead Kolasinac and Alex Iwobi all scoring one goal each.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: His penultimate game at the helm ended in a disappointing 3–1 defeat at Leicester City, despite Aubameyang levelling for the ten-man Gunners shortly before the break.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsène Wenger's tenure as Arsenal manager ended as it began all the way back in 1996; with an away win and clean sheet. Huddersfield Town was the Frenchman's final opponents, with Aubameyang grabbing his tenth of the season in the 36th minute to seal a 1–0 victory.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal's announced their first summer signing, Sead Kolašinac, on 6 June 2017. The left-back arrived on a free transfer when his contract at Schalke 04 expired. He was joined by Alexandre Lacazette just under a month later, who joined from Lyon for a reported club-record fee of £46.5 million on 5 July. Arsenal's first January transfer window signing was Greek defender Konstantinos Mavropanos from PAS Giannina, while acquiring Armenian international Henrikh Mkhitaryan in a swap-deal with Alexis Sánchez on 22 January 2018. The club then reunited Mkhitaryan with former teammate Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang in a club-record deal worth £56.0 million on 31 January.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal released Yaya Sanogo, Stefan O'Connor, Kostas Pilea and Kristopher Da Graca on 9 June 2017. Sanogo's four-year stay only included 11 league appearances for the club, while O'Connor, Pilea and Da Graca never appeared for the first team. Academy product Chris Willock joined Benfica on June 30 upon the expiry of his contract, signing a five-year deal. Kaylen Hinds, another academy product, departed the club on 8 July, joining Wolfsburg for £2.5 million on a three-year deal. Additional reserve players Glen Kamara and Daniel Crowley also departed the club, joining Dundee and Willem II respectively. Wojciech Szczęsny, who amassed over 150 appearances for the club during an eight-year stay, joined Italian champions Juventus for £10.0 million after his two-year loan at Roma expired. Meanwhile, club mainstay Kieran Gibbs departed for West Bromwich Albion for a £7.0 million fee, leaving after recording 230 appearances over 11 seasons. On deadline day, Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, who was in the final year of his contract at the club, transferred to Liverpool for a record sale fee of £35.0 million and Donyell Malen returned to the Netherlands to join PSV Eindhoven. In the January window, Arsenal allowed the departures of many first-team players, including Theo Walcott and Francis Coquelin, who left for combined fees of £32.0 million. Moreover, Alexis Sánchez departed to Manchester United in a swap-deal which saw Henrikh Mkhitaryan arrive at the Emirates, while also sanctioning the departures of French first-team pair Olivier Giroud and Mathieu Debuchy, while academy product Marcus McGuane joined Barcelona. All in all, 22 players departed the club.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Takuma Asano had his season-long loan at Stuttgart from the previous season extended for an additional year. Marc Bola later joined Bristol Rovers on a season-long loan. About three weeks later, Emiliano Martínez left for Getafe and Stephy Mavididi went to Preston North End. Meanwhile, English full-back pair Carl Jenkinson and Cohen Bramall were loaned to Birmingham City, while reserve player Kelechi Nwakali departed to join Eredivisie outfit VVV-Venlo. On deadline day, fringe players Lucas Pérez and Joel Campbell, who have compiled 34 domestic appearances collectively, joined Spanish outfits Deportivo La Coruña and Real Betis respectively. In January, Stephy Mavididi had his loan cut short from Preston North End and, for the second time, was then loaned out to Charlton Athletic. English duo Tafari Moore and Ben Sheaf were then loaned out to fourth-tier sides Wycombe Wanderers and Stevenage, respectively, while four additional loans were completed on deadline day. Reserve pair Julio Pleguezuelo and Krystian Bielik joined Gimnàstic Tarragona and Walsall, while fringe first-team players Chuba Akpom and Jeff Reine-Adélaïde were also loaned out to conclude Arsenal's transfers for the season.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: On , Arsenal announced they would travel to Australia as part of their pre-season schedule and play two matches against Sydney FC and Western Sydney Wanderers. The club also faced Bayern Munich in Shanghai as a part of the International Champions Cup, and Chelsea in Beijing. Arsenal then hosted the 2017 Emirates Cup, and played Benfica and Sevilla as part of the tournament.


title: 2017–18 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The Goal of the Season was awarded to Aaron Ramsey with his lobbed volley against CSKA Moscow in the UEFA Europa League.


title: Silenus

text: In Greek mythology, Silenus (; , ) was a companion and tutor to the wine god Dionysus. He is typically older than the satyrs of the Dionysian retinue ("thiasos"), and sometimes considerably older, in which case he may be referred to as a Papposilenus. The plural "sileni" refers to the mythological figure as a type that is sometimes thought to be differentiated from a satyr by having the attributes of a horse rather than a goat, though usage of the two words is not consistent enough to permit a sharp distinction.


title: Silenus

text: Silenus presides over other daemones and is related to musical creativity, prophetic ecstasy, drunken joy, drunken dances and gestures.


title: Silenus

text: The original Silenus resembled a folkloric man of the forest, with the ears of a horse and sometimes also the tail and legs of a horse. The later sileni were drunken followers of Dionysus, usually bald and fat with thick lips and squat noses, and having the legs of a human. Later still, the plural "sileni" went out of use and the only references were to one individual named Silenus, the teacher and faithful companion of the wine-god Dionysus.


title: Silenus

text: A notorious consumer of wine, he was usually drunk and had to be supported by satyrs or carried by a donkey. Silenus was described as the oldest, wisest and most drunken of the followers of Dionysus, and was said in Orphic hymns to be the young god's tutor. This puts him in a company of phallic or half-animal tutors of the gods, a group that includes Priapus, Hermaphroditus, Cedalion and Chiron, but also includes Pallas, the tutor of Athena.


title: Silenus

text: When intoxicated, Silenus was said to possess special knowledge and the power of prophecy. The Phrygian King Midas was eager to learn from Silenus and caught the old man by lacing a fountain with wine from which Silenus often drank. As Silenus fell asleep, the king's servants seized and took him to their master. An alternative story was that when lost and wandering in Phrygia, Silenus was rescued by peasants and taken to Midas, who treated him kindly. In return for Midas' hospitality Silenus told him some tales and the king, enchanted by Silenus' fictions, entertained him for five days and nights. Dionysus offered Midas a reward for his kindness toward Silenus, and Midas chose the power of turning everything he touched into gold. Another story was that Silenus had been captured by two shepherds, and regaled them with wondrous tales.


title: Silenus

text: In Euripides's satyr play "Cyclops", Silenus is stranded with the satyrs in Sicily, where they have been enslaved by the Cyclopes. They are the comic elements of the story, a parody of Homer's "Odyssey" IX. Silenus refers to the satyrs as his children during the play.


title: Silenus

text: Silenus may have become a Latin term of abuse around 211 BC, when it is used in Plautus' "Rudens" to describe Labrax, a treacherous pimp or "leno", as "...a pot-bellied old Silenus, bald head, beefy, bushy eyebrows, scowling, twister, god-forsaken criminal". In his satire "The Caesars", the emperor Julian has Silenus sitting next to the gods to offer up his comments on the various rulers under examination, including Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Marcus Aurelius (whom he reveres as a fellow philosopher-king), and Constantine I.


title: Silenus

text: Silenus commonly figures in Roman bas-reliefs of the train of Dionysus, a subject for sarcophagi, embodying the transcendent promises of Dionysian cult.


title: Silenus

text: Papposilenus is a representation of Silenus that emphasizes his old age, particularly as a stock character in satyr play or comedy. In vase painting, his hair is often white, and as in statuettes, Papposilenus has a pot belly, flabby breasts and shaggy thighs. In these depictions, it is often clear that the Papposilenus is an actor playing a part. His costuming includes a body stocking tufted with hair ("mallōtos chitōn") that seems to have come into use in the mid-5th century BC.


title: Silenus

text: A theme in Greek philosophy and literature is the wisdom of Silenus, which posits an antinatalist philosophy:


title: Silenus

text: You, most blessed and happiest among humans, may well consider those blessed and happiest who have departed this life before you, and thus you may consider it unlawful, indeed blasphemous, to speak anything ill or false of them, since they now have been transformed into a better and more refined nature. This thought is indeed so old that the one who first uttered it is no longer known; it has been passed down to us from eternity, and hence doubtless it is true. Moreover, you know what is so often said and passes for a trite expression. What is that, he asked? He answered: It is best not to be born at all; and next to that, it is better to die than to live; and this is confirmed even by divine testimony. Pertinently to this they say that Midas, after hunting, asked his captive Silenus somewhat urgently, what was the most desirable thing among humankind. At first he could offer no response, and was obstinately silent. At length, when Midas would not stop plaguing him, he erupted with these words, though very unwillingly: 'you, seed of an evil genius and precarious offspring of hard fortune, whose life is but for a day, why do you compel me to tell you those things of which it is better you should remain ignorant? For he lives with the least worry who knows not his misfortune; but for humans, the best for them is not to be born at all, not to partake of nature's excellence; not to be is best, for both sexes. This should be our choice, if choice we have; and the next to this is, when we are born, to die as soon as we can.' It is plain therefore, that he declared the condition of the dead to be better than that of the living.


title: Silenus

text: This passage is redolent of Theognis' "Elegies" (425–428). Silenus' wisdom appears in the writings of Arthur Schopenhauer, who endorsed this famous dictum. Via Schopenhauer, Nietzsche discusses the "wisdom of Silenus" in "The Birth of Tragedy".


title: Silenus

text: Both Socrates and Aesop were sometimes described as having a physical appearance like that of Silenus, with broad flat faces and fat bellies.


title: Silenus

text: In the Renaissance, a court dwarf posed for the Silenus-like figure astride a tortoise at the entrance to the Boboli Gardens, Florence. Rubens painted (1616–17), now conserved in the Alte Pinakothek, Munich – the subject was also treated by van Dyck and Ribera.


title: Silenus

text: During the late 19th century in Germany and Vienna, symbolism from ancient Greece was reinterpreted through a new Freudian prism. Around the same time Vienna Secession artist Gustav Klimt uses the irreverent, chubby-faced Silenus as a motif in several works to represent "buried instinctual forces".


title: Silenus

text: In "Gargantua and Pantagruel", Rabelais referred to Silenus as the foster father of Bacchus. In 1884 Thomas Woolner published a long narrative poem about Silenus. In Oscar Wilde's 1890 novel "The Picture of Dorian Gray", Lord Henry Wooton turns praise of folly into a philosophy which mocks "slow Silenus" for being sober. In Brian Hooker's 1923 English translation of Edmond Rostand's "Cyrano de Bergerac", Cyrano disparagingly refers to the ham actor Montfleury as "That Silenus who cannot hold his belly in his arms."


title: Silenus

text: Professor Silenus is a character in Evelyn Waugh's first novel, "Decline and Fall". He features as the disaffected architect of King's Thursday and provides the novel with one of its primary motifs. In the prophetic style of the traditional Greek Silenus he informs the protagonist that life is


title: Silenus

text: a great disc of polished wood that revolves quickly. At first you sit down and watch the others. They are all trying to sit in the wheel, and they keep getting flung off, and that makes them laugh, and you laugh too. It's great fun... Of course at the very centre there's a point completely at rest, if one could only find it... Lots of people just enjoy scrambling on and being whisked off and scrambling on again... But the whole point about the wheel is that you needn't get on it at all... People get hold of ideas about life, and that makes them think they've got to join in the game, even if they don't enjoy it. It doesn't suit everyone...


title: Silenus

text: Silenus is one of the two main characters in Tony Harrison's 1990 satyr play "The Trackers of Oxyrhynchus", partly based on Sophocles' play "Ichneutae" (5th century BC).


title: History of the Huns

text: The history of the Huns spans the time from before their first secure recorded appearance in Europe around 370 AD to after the disintegration of their empire around 469. The Huns likely entered Western Asia shortly before 370 from Central Asia: they first conquered the Goths and the Alans, pushing a number of tribes to seek refuge within the Roman Empire. In the following years, the Huns conquered most of the Germanic and Scythian barbarian tribes outside of the borders of the Roman Empire. They also launched invasions of both the Asian provinces of Rome and the Sasanian Empire in 375. Under Uldin, the first Hunnic ruler named in contemporary sources, the Huns launched a first unsuccessful large-scale raid into the Eastern Roman Empire in Europe in 408. From the 420s, the Huns were led by the brothers Octar and Ruga, who both cooperated with and threatened the Romans. Upon Ruga's death in 435, his nephews Bleda and Attila became the new rulers of the Huns, and launched a successful raid into the Eastern Roman Empire before making peace and securing an annual tribute and trading raids under the Treaty of Margus. Attila appears to have killed his brother and became sole ruler of the Huns in 445. He would go on to rule for the next eight years, launching a devastating raid on the Eastern Roman Empire in 447, followed by an invasion of Gaul in 451. Attila is traditionally held to have been defeated in Gaul at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, however some scholars hold the battle to have been a draw or Hunnic victory. The following year, the Huns invaded Italy and encountered no serious resistance before turning back.


title: History of the Huns

text: Hunnic dominion over Barbarian Europe is traditionally held to have collapsed suddenly after the death of Attila the year after the invasion of Italy. The Huns themselves are usually thought to have disappeared after the death of his son Dengizich in 469. However, some scholars have argued that the Bulgars in particular show a high degree of continuity with the Huns. Hyun Jin Kim has argued that the three major Germanic tribes to emerge from the Hunnic empire, the Gepids, the Ostrogoths, and the Sciri, were all heavily Hunnicized, and may have had Hunnic rather than native rulers even after the end of Hunnic dominion in Europe.


title: History of the Huns

text: It is possible that the Huns were directly or indirectly responsible for the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and they have been directly or indirectly linked to the dominance of Turkic tribes on the Eurasian steppe following the fourth century.


title: History of the Huns

text: The 2nd century AD geographer Ptolemy mentioned a people called Χοῦνοι "Khunnoi", when listing the peoples of the west Eurasian steppe. (In the Koine Greek used by Ptolemy, Χ generally denoted a voiceless velar fricative sound; hence contemporary Western Roman authors Latinised the name as "Chuni" or "Chunni".) The "Khunnoi" lived "between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani", according to Ptolemy. However, modern scholars such as E. A. Thompson have claimed that the similarity of the ethnonyms "Khunnoi" and Hun were coincidental. Maenchen-Helfen and Denis Sinor also dispute the association of the "Khunnoi" with Attila's Huns. However, Maenchen-Helfen concedes that Ammianus Marcellinus referred to Ptolemy's report of the "Khunnoi", when stating that the Huns were "mentioned only cursorily" by previous writers.


title: History of the Huns

text: A tribe called the Ουρουγούνδοι "Ourougoúndoi" (or "Urugundi") who, according to Zosimus, invaded the Roman Empire from north of the Lower Danube in , may have been synonymous with the Βουρουγουνδοι "Bourougoundoi", whom Agathias (6th century) listed among the Hunnish tribes. Other scholars have regarded both names as referring to a Germanic tribe, the Burgundi (Burgundians), although this identification was rejected by Maenchen-Helfen (who speculated that one or both names may have approximated an early Turkic ethnonym, such as ""Vurugundi"").


title: History of the Huns

text: The Huns' sudden appearance in the written sources suggests that the Huns crossed the Volga River from the east not much earlier. The reasons for the Huns' sudden attack on the neighboring peoples are unknown. One possible reason may have been climate change, however, Peter Heather notes that in the absence of reliable data this is unprovable. As a second possibility, Heather suggests some other nomadic group may have pushed them westward. Peter Golden suggests that the Huns may have been pushed west by the Jou-jan. A third possibility may have been a desire to increase their wealth by coming closer to the wealthy Roman Empire.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Romans became aware of the Huns when the latter's invasion of the Pontic steppes forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376, according to the contemporaneous Ammianus Marcellinus. There are also some indications that the Huns were already raiding Transcaucasia in the 360s and 370s. These raids eventually forced the Eastern Roman Empire and Sasanian Empire to jointly defend the passes through the Caucasus mountains.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Huns first invaded the land of the Alans, which was located to the east of the Don River, defeating them and forcing the survivors to submit themselves to them or to flee across the Don. Maenchen-Helfen believes that rather than a direct conquest, the Huns instead allied themselves with groups of Alans. Writing much later, the historian Jordanes mentioned that the Huns also conquered "the Alpidzuri, the Alcildzuri, Itimari, Tuncarsi, and Boisci" in a battle by the Maeotian Swamp. These were potentially Turkic-speaking nomadic tribes who are later mentioned living under the Huns along the Danube.


title: History of the Huns

text: Jordanes claimed that the Huns at this time were led by a king Balamber. E. A. Thompson doubts that such a figure ever existed, but argues that "they were operating [...] with a much larger force than any one of their tribes could have put to the field". Hyun Jin Kim argues that Jordanes has invented Balamber on the basis of the 5th century figure Valamer. However, Maenchen-Helfen credits that Balamber was a historic king, and Denis Sinor suggests that "Balamber was merely the leader of a tribe or an "ad hoc" group of warriors".


title: History of the Huns

text: After they subjugated the Alans, the Huns and their Alan auxiliaries started plundering the wealthy settlements of the Greuthungi, or eastern Goths, to the west of the Don. Maenchen-Helfen suggests that it was as a result of their new alliance with these Alans that the Huns were able to threaten the Goths. The Greuthungic king, Ermanaric, resisted for a while, but finally "he found release from his fears by taking his own life", according to Ammianus Marcellinus. Marcellinus's report refers either to Ermanaric's suicide or to his ritual sacrifice. His great-nephew, Vithimiris, succeeded him. According to Ammianus, Vithimiris hired Huns to fight against the Alans who invaded the Greuthungi's land, but he was killed in a battle. Kim suggests that Ammianus has muddled events: the Alans, fleeing the Huns, likely attacked the Goths, who then called upon the Huns for aid. The Huns, having dealt with the Alans, "probably then in Machiavellian fashion fell upon the weakened Greuthungi Goths and conquered them as well".


title: History of the Huns

text: After Vithimiris's death, most Greuthungi submitted themselves to the Huns: they retained their own king, named Hunimund, whose name means "protégé of the Huns". Those who decided to resist marched to the Dniester River which was the border between the lands of the Greuthungi and the Thervingi, or western Goths. They were under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax, because Vithimiris's son, Viderichus, was a child. Athanaric, the leader of the Thervingi, met the refugees along the Dniester at the head of his troops. However, a Hun army bypassed the Goths and attacked them from the rear, forcing Athanaric to retreat towards the Carpathian Mountains. Athanaric wanted to fortify the borders, but Hun raids into the land west of the Dniester continued.


title: History of the Huns

text: Most Thervingi realized that they could not resist the Huns. They went to the Lower Danube, requesting asylum in the Roman Empire. The still resisting Greuthingi under the leadership of Alatheus and Saphrax also marched to the river. Most Roman troops had been transferred from the Balkan Peninsula to fight against the Sassanid Empire in Armenia. Emperor Valens permitted the Thervingi to cross the Lower Danube and to settle in the Roman Empire in the autumn of 376. The Thervingi were followed by the Greuthingi, and also by the Taifali and "other tribes that formerly dwelt with the Goths and Taifali" to the north of the Lower Danube, according to Zosimus. Food shortage and abuse stirred the Goths to revolt in early 377. The ensuing war between the Goths and the Romans lasted for more than five years.


title: History of the Huns

text: During the Gothic War, the Goths appear to have allied with a group of Huns and Alans, who crossed the Danube and forced the Romans to allow the Goths to advance further into Thrace. The Huns are mentioned intermittently among their allies until 380, after which they apparently returned beyond the Danube. Additionally, in 381, the Sciri and Carpi, together with at least some Huns, launched an unsuccessful attack upon Pannonia. Once Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius I made peace with the Goths in 382, the historian Eunapius claims that he gave them land and cattle in order to form "an unconquerable bulwark against the inroads of the Huns." After this, the Huns are recorded to have launched a raid into Scythia Minor in 384 or 385. Soon afterwards, in 386, a group of Greuthungi under Odotheus fled the Huns into Thrace, followed by several attempts by the Sarmatians. This is the last serious migration into Roman territory until after the end of Hun rule, and Kim suggests that this indicates that the Huns were securely in control of the tribes beyond Rome at this time.


title: History of the Huns

text: Otto Maenchen-Helfen and E. A. Thompson argue that the Huns appear to have already been in possession of large parts of Pannonia (the Hungarian plain) as early as 384. Denis Sinor suggests that they may have been settled there as foederati of the Romans rather than as invaders, dating their presence to 380. In 384, the Roman-Frankish general Flavius Bauto employed Hunnic mercenaries to defeat the Juthungi tribe attacking from Rhaetia. However, the Huns, rather than return to their own country, began to ride to Gaul: Bauto was forced to bribe them to turn back. They then attacked the Alamanni.


title: History of the Huns

text: Pacatus Drepanius reports that the Huns then fought with Theodosius against the usurper Magnus Maximus in 388. In 392, however, the Huns were again involved in raids in the Balkans, together with various other tribes. Some of the Huns seem to have settled in Thrace, and these Huns were then used as auxiliaries by Theodosius in 394; Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Romans may have hoped to use the Huns against the Goths. Kim believes that these mercenaries were not really Huns, but rather non-Hunnic groups capitalizing on the Huns' fearsome reputation as warriors. These Huns were eventually wiped up by the Romans in 401 after they began plundering the territory.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attacks on the Romans. In the summer of that year, the Huns crossed over the Caucasus Mountains, while in the winter of 395, another Hunnic invasion force crossed the frozen Danube, pillaged Thrace, and threatened Dalmatia. Sinor argues that these two events were likely not coordinated, but Kim believes they were. The forces in Asia invaded Armenia, Persia, and the Roman provinces in Asia. One group crossed the Euphrates and was defeated by a Roman army, while two armies, recorded in later sources as under the leadership of Basich and Kursich, rode down the Euphrates and threatened the Persian capital of Ctesiphon. One of these armies was defeated by the Persians, while the other successfully retreated by Derbend Pass. A final group of Huns ravaged Asia Minor. The Huns devastated parts of Syria and Cappadocia, threatening Antioch. The devastation was worse because most Roman forces had been moved to the West due to Roman power struggles there. In 398 Eutropius finally succeeded in gathering an army and restoring order in the province. It seems likely, however, that the Huns left of their own accord without Eutropius having defeated them in battle.


title: History of the Huns

text: Sinor argues that the much larger scale of the attacks on Asia Minor and Persia indicates that the bulk of the Huns had remained on the Pontic steppes rather than moving into Europe at this time. It seems clear that the Huns did not intend to conquer or settle the territories they attacked, but rather to plunder the provinces, taking, among other things, cattle. Priscus, writing much later, reports hearing from the Huns at Attila's camp that the raid was launched due to a famine on the steppes. This may also have been the reason for the raids into Thrace. Maenchen-Helfen suggests that Basich and Kursich, the Hun leaders responsible for the invasion of Persia, may have come to Rome in 404 or 407 as mercenaries: Priscus records that they came to Rome to make an alliance.


title: History of the Huns

text: Hunnic attacks against Armenia would continue after this raid, with Armenian sources noting a Hunnic tribe known as the Xailandur as the perpetrators.


title: History of the Huns

text: Uldin, the first Hun identified by name in contemporary sources, is identified as the leader of the Huns in Muntenia (modern Romania east of the Olt River) in 400. It is unclear how much territory or how many tribes of Huns Uldin actually controlled, although he clearly controlled parts of Hungary as well as Muntenia. The Romans referred to him as a "regulus" (sub-king): he himself boasted of immense power.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 400, Gainas, rebellious former Roman "magister militum" fled into Uldin's territory with an army of Goths, and Uldin defeated and killed him, likely near Novae: he sent Gainas's head to Constantinople. Kim suggests that Uldin was interested in cooperating with the Romans while he expanded his control over Germanic tribes in the West. In 406, Hunnic pressure seems to have caused groups of Vandals, Suebi, and Alans to cross the Rhine into Gaul. Uldin's Huns raided Thrace in 404–405, likely in winter.


title: History of the Huns

text: Also in 405, a group of Goths under Radagaisus invaded Italy, with Kim arguing that these Goths originated from Uldin's territory and that they were likely fleeing from some action of his. Stilicho, the Roman "magister militum" responded by asking for Uldin's aid: Uldin's Huns then destroyed Radagaisus's army near Faesulae in modern Tuscany in 406. Kim suggests Uldin acted in order to demonstrate his ability to destroy any groups of barbarians who might flee Hunnic rule. An army of 1000 of Uldin's Huns were also employed by the Eastern Roman Empire to fight against the Goths under Alaric. After Stilicho's death in 408, however, Uldin switched sides and began aiding Alaric under an army under the command of Alaric's brother-in-law Athaulf.


title: History of the Huns

text: Also in 408, the Huns, under Uldin's command, crossed the Danube and captured the important fortress Castra Martis in Moesia. The Roman commander in Thrace attempted to make peace with Uldin, but Uldin refused his offers and demanded an extremely high tribute. However, many of Uldin's commanders subsequently defected to the Romans, bribed by the Romans. It appears that most of his army was actually composed by Sciri and Germanic tribes, whom the Romans subsequently sold into slavery. Uldin himself escaped back across the Danube, after which he is not mentioned again. The Romans responded to Uldin's invasions by attempting to strengthen the fortifications at the border, increasing the defenses at Constantinople, and taking other measures to strengthen their defences.


title: History of the Huns

text: Hunnic mercenaries had also formed Stilicho's bodyguard: Kim suggests they were a gift from Uldin. The guard was either killed with Stilicho, or is the same as an elite unit of 300 Huns who continued to fight for the Romans against Alaric even after Uldin's invasion.


title: History of the Huns

text: During this same time, probably between 405 and 408, the future Roman "magister militum" and opponent of Attila Flavius Aetius was a hostage living among the Huns.


title: History of the Huns

text: Sources on the Huns after Uldin are scarce. In 412 or 413, the Roman statesman and writer Olympiodorus of Thebes was sent on an embassy to "the first of the kings" of the Huns, Charaton. Olympiodorus wrote an account of this event, which exists now only fragmentarily. Olympiodorus had been dispatched to appease Charaton after the death of a certain Donatus, who "was unlawfully put to death". Historians such as E. A. Thompson have assumed that Donatus was a king of the Huns. Denis Sinor, however, argues that given his obviously Roman name Donatus was likely a Roman refugee living among the Huns. Where Olympiodorus met Charaton is also unclear: due to Olympiodorus's traveling by sea, they may have met somewhere on the Pontic steppe. Maenchen-Helfen and Sinor, however, believe it more likely that Charaton was located in Pannonia. Also in 412, the Huns launched a new raid into Thrace.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Huns again raided in 422, apparently under the command of a leader named Ruga. They reached as far as the walls of Constantinople. They appear to have forced the Eastern Empire to pay an annual tribute. In 424, they are noted as fighting for the Romans in North Africa, indicating friendly relations with the Western Roman Empire. In 425, "magister militum" Aetius marched into Italy with a large army of Huns to fight against forces of the Eastern Empire. The campaign ended with reconciliation, and the Huns received gold and returned to their lands. In 427, however, the Romans broke their alliance with the Huns and attacked Pannonia, perhaps reconquerring part of it.


title: History of the Huns

text: It is unclear when Ruga and his brother Octar became the supreme rulers of the Huns: Ruga appears to have ruled the land East of the Carpathians while Octar ruled the territory to the north and west of the Carpathians. Kim argues that Octar was a "deputy" king in his territory while Ruga was the supreme king. Octar died around 430 while fighting the Burgundians, who at the time lived on the right bank of the Rhine. Denis Sinor argues that his nephew Attila likely succeeded him as ruler of the eastern portion of the Huns' empire in this year. Maenchen-Helfen, however, argues that Ruga simply became sole ruler.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 432, Ruga aided Aetius, who had fallen into disfavor, in reobtaining his old office of "magister militum": Ruga either sent or threatened to send an army into Italy. In 433, Aetius surrendered Pannonia Prima to Ruga, perhaps as a reward for aid that Ruga's Huns had given him in securing his position. Either the previous year, in 432, or 434, Ruga sent an emissary to Constantinople announcing that he intended to attack some tribes whom he considered under his authority but who had fled into Roman territory; however, he died after the beginning of this campaign and the Huns left Roman territory.


title: History of the Huns

text: After Ruga's death, his nephews Attila and Bleda became the rulers of the Huns: Bleda appears to have ruled in the eastern portion of the empire, while Attila ruled the west. Kim believes that Bleda was the supreme king of the two. In 435, Bleda and Attila forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus, giving the Huns trade rights and increasing the annual tribute from the Romans. The Romans also agreed to hand over Hunnic refugees and fugitive tribes.


title: History of the Huns

text: Ruga appears to have made a commitment to aid Aetius in Gaul before his death, and Attila and Bleda kept this commitment. In 437, Huns, under the direction of Aetius and possibly with the involvement of Attila, destroyed the Burgundian kingdom on the Rhine under king Gundahar, an event memorialized in medieval Germanic legend. It is possible that the Huns' destruction of the Burgundians was motivated by revenge for the death of Octar in 430. Also in 437, the Huns helped Aetius capture Tibatto, the leader of the Bagaudae, a group of rebellious peasants and slaves. In 438, an army of Huns aided the Roman general Litorius in an unsuccessful siege of the Visigothic capital of Toulouse. Priscus also mentions that the Huns extended their rule in "Scythia" and fought against an otherwise unknown people called the Sorosgi.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 440, the Huns attacked the Romans during one of the annual trading fairs stipulated by the Treaty of Margus: the Huns justified this action by alleging that the bishop of Margus had crossed into Hunnic territory and plundered the Hunnic royal tombs and that the Romans themselves had breached the treaty by sheltering refugees from the Hunnic empire. When the Romans failed to turn over either the bishop of Margus or the refugees by 441, the Huns sacked a number of towns and captured the city of Viminacium, razing it to the ground. The bishop of Margus, terrified that he would be handed over to the Huns, made a deal to betray the city to the Huns, which was likewise razed. The Huns also captured the fortress of Constantia on the Danube, as well as capturing and razing the cities of Singidunum and Sirmium. After this the Huns agreed to a truce. Maenchen-Helfen supposes that their army may have been hit by a disease, or that a rival tribe may have attacked Hunnic territory, necessitating a withdrawal. Thompson dates a further large campaign against the Eastern Roman Empire to 443; however Maenchen-Helfen, Kim, and Heather date it to around 447, after Attila had become sole ruler of the Huns.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 444, tensions rose between the Huns and the Western Empire, and the Romans made preparations for war; however, the tensions appear to have resolved the following year through the diplomacy of Cassiodorus. The terms seem to have involved the Romans handing over some territory to the Huns on the Sava River and may also have been when Attila was made "magister militum" to draw a salary.


title: History of the Huns

text: Bleda died some time between 442 and 447, with the most likely years being 444 or 445. He appears to have been murdered by Attila. Following Bleda's death, a tribe known as the Akatziri either rebelled against Attila or had never been under Attila's rule. Kim suggests that they rebelled specifically because of Bleda's death, as they were more likely to have been under Bleda's control than Attila's. The rebellion was actively encouraged by the Romans, who sent gifts to the Akatziri; however, the Romans offended the supreme chief, Buridach, by giving him gifts second rather than first. He subsequently appealed to Attila for help against the other rebellious leaders. Attila's forces then defeated the tribe after several battles: Buridach was allowed to rule his own tribe, but Attila placed his own son Ellac in command of the remaining Akatziri.


title: History of the Huns

text: Maenchen-Helfen argues that the Huns likely fought a war against the Longobards, living in modern Moravia, in 446, in which the Longobards successfully resisted Hunnic domination.


title: History of the Huns

text: Some time after Bleda's death, while the Huns were busy with internal affairs, Theodosius had ceased paying the stipulated tribute to the Huns. In 447, Attila sent an embassy to complain, threatening war and noting that his people were dissatisfied and that some had even begun raiding Roman territory. The Romans, however, refused to resume the tribute payments or hand over any refugees, and Attila began a full-scale attack by capturing the forts along the Danube. His forces included not only Huns, but also his subject peoples the Gepids, led by their king Ardaric, and the Goths under their king Valamer, as well as others. After they had cleared the Danube of Roman defences, the Huns then marched westward and defeated a large Roman army under the command of Arnegisclus at the Battle of the Utus. The Huns then sacked and razed Marcianople. The Huns then set out for Constantinople itself, whose walls had been partially destroyed by an earthquake earlier in the year. While the Constantinoplitans were able to rebuild the walls before Attila's army approached, the Romans suffered another major defeat on the Gallipoli peninsula. The Huns proceeded to raid as far south as Thermopylae and captured most of the major towns in the Balkans except for Hadrianople and Heracleia. Theodosius was forced to sue for peace: in addition to the tribute the Romans had failed to pay before, the amount of yearly tribute was raised, and the Romans were forced to evacuate a large swath of territory south of the Danube to the Huns, thus leaving the border defenseless.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 450, Attila negotiated a new treaty with the Romans and agreed to withdraw from Roman lands; Heather believes that this was in order for him to plan an invasion of the Western Roman Empire. According to Priscus, Attila contemplated an invasion of Persia at this time as well. The treaty with Constantinople was abrogated shortly afterward by the new emperor Marcian, however, Attila was already occupied with his plans for the Western Empire and did not respond.


title: History of the Huns

text: In spring of 451, Attila invaded Gaul. Relations with the Western Roman Empire appear to have deteriorated already by 449. One of the leaders of the Bagaudae, Eudoxius, had also fled to the Huns in 448. Aetius and Attila had also backed different candidates to be king of the Ripuarian Franks in 450. Attila claimed to the East Roman ambassadors in 450 that he intended to attack the Visigoths at Toulouse as an ally of the Western Emperor Valentinian III. According to one source, Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and asked for his aid in escaping imprisonment at the hands of her brother. Attila then demanded half of Western Roman territory as his dowry and invaded. Kim dismisses this story as of doubtful authenticity and a "ridiculous stor[y]". Heather is similarly skeptical that Attila would invade for this reason, noting that Attila invaded Gaul while Honoria was in Italy. Jordanes claims that Geiseric, king of the Vandals in North Africa, encouraged Attila to attack. Thompson suggests that Attila intended to remove Aetius and actually take up his honorary office as "magister militum". Kim believes that it is unlikely that Attila actually intended to conquer Gaul, but rather to secure his control over Germanic tribes living on the Rhine.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Hunnic army set out from the Hungarian Plain and likely crossed the Rhine near Koblenz. The Hunnic army included, besides Huns, the Gepids, Rugii, Sciri, Thuringi, Ostrogoths. Thompson suggests that Attila's first objection was the Ripuarian Franks, whom he summarily conquered and drafted into his army. They then captured Metz and Trier, before heading to besiege Orléans, with another detachment unsuccessfully attacking Paris. The approach of Aetius' army, consisting of Romans and allies such as the Visigoths under their king Theodoric I, Burgundians, the Alans, and some Franks, forced the Huns to break the siege of Orléans. Somewhere near Troyes, the two armies met and fought in the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields. In the standard scholarly view of the battle, despite the death of Theodoric, Attila's army was defeated and forced to retreat from Gaul. Kim argues that the battle was actually a Hunnic victory: the Huns had already been leaving Gaul after a successful campaign and simply continued to do so after the battle.


title: History of the Huns

text: Upon his return to Pannonia, Attila ordered the launching of raids into Illyricum to encourage the Eastern Roman Empire to resume its tribute. Rather than attacking the Eastern Empire, however, in 452 he invaded Italy. The precise reasons for this are unclear: the "Chronicle of 452" claims that it was due to his anger at his defeat in Gaul the previous year. The Huns crossed the Julian Alps and then besieged the heavily defended city of Aquileia, eventually capturing and razing it after a long siege. They then entered the Po Valley, sacking Padua, Mantua, Vicentia, Verona, Brescia, and Bergamo, before besieging and capturing Milan. The Huns made no attempt to capture Ravenna, and were either stopped or did not try to take Rome. Aetius was unable to offer a meaningful resistance and his authority was greatly damaged. The Huns received a peace embassy led by Pope Leo I and in the end turned back. However, Heather argues that it was a combination of disease and an attack by Eastern Roman troops on the Hunnic homeland in Pannonia that led to the Huns' withdrawal. Kim argues that the attacks by the Eastern Romans are a fiction, as the Eastern Empire was in a worse state than the West. Kim believes that the campaign had been a success and that the Huns simply withdrew after acquiring enough booty to satisfy them.


title: History of the Huns

text: In 453, Attila was reportedly planning a major campaign against the Eastern Romans to force them to resume paying tribute. However, he died unexpectedly, reportedly of a hemorrhage during his wedding to a new bride. He may also have been planning an invasion of the Sasanian Empire; Martin Schottky claims that "Attila’s death in 453 C.E. saved the Sasanians from an armed encounter with the Huns while they were at the height of their military power". Peter Heather, however, finds it unlikely that the Huns would have actually attacked Persia.


title: History of the Huns

text: According to Jordanes, Attila's death precipitated a power struggle between his sons – it is unknown how many there were in total, but ancient sources mention three by name: Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak. The brothers began fighting one another, and this caused the Gepids under Ardaric to rebel. The Huns under Ellac then fought the Gepids and were defeated, resulting in Ellac's death. According to Jordanes, this occurred at the Battle of Nedao in 454, however, Heather speculates that there may have been more than just a single battle. Some tribes, such as the Sciri, fought on the Huns' side against the Gepids. He also notes that, while 454 may have been a significant turning point, it by no means ended Hunnic rule over most of their subject peoples. According to Heather, rather than an immediate collapse, the end of Hunnic rule was a slow process whereby the Huns gradually lost control over their subject peoples.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Huns continued to exist under Attila's sons Dengizich and Ernak. Kim argues that Dengizich had successfully reestablished Hunnic rule over the western part of their empire in 464. In 466, Dengizich demanded that Constantinople resume paying tribute to the Huns and reestablish the Huns' trading rights with the Romans. The Romans refused, however. Dengizich then decided to invade the Roman empire, with Ernak declining to join him to focus on other wars. Kim suggests that Ernak was distracted by the invasion of the Saragurs and other Oghurs, who had defeated the Akatziri in 463. Without his brother, Dengizich was forced to rely on the recently conquered Ostrogoths and the "unreliable" Bittigur tribe. His forces also included the Hunnic tribes of the Ultzinzures, Angiscires, and Bardores. The Romans were able to encourage the Goths in his army to revolt, forcing Dengizich to retreat. He died in 469, with Kim believing he was murdered, and his head was sent to the Romans. Anagastes, the son of Arnegisclus who was slain by Attila, brought Dengzich's head to Constantinople and paraded it through the streets before mounting it on a stake in the Hippodrome. This was the end of Hunnic rule in the West.


title: History of the Huns

text: Kim argues that the war after the death of Attila was actually a rebellion of the western half of the Hunnic empire, led by Ardaric, against the eastern half, led by Ellac as leader of the Akatziri Huns. He further argues that Ardaric, in common with the other leaders of the Gepids, was actually a Hun and not of Germanic origin; he notes that bones from the Gepid period frequently show Asiatic features among the ruling elite. He also notes that Gepid rule in the Carpathian Basin appears to have differed little from that of the Huns. Ardaric's grandson Mundo is identified in sources both as a Hun and as a Gepid. Kim explains the fact that Ardaric's kingdom was identified as a Gepid rather than a Hunnic kingdom from the fact that the western part of the Hunnic empire had been almost entirely Germanic in population.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Sciri also emerged from Attila's empire with a potentially Hunnic King: Edeko is first encountered in sources as Attila's envoy, and is variously identified as having a Hunnic or Thuringian mother. While Heather believes that the latter is more likely, Kim argues that Edeco was in fact a Hun and that Thuringian in the source is a mistake for Torcilingi. Accordingly, his sons Hunoulph ("Hun-wolf") and Odoacer, who would go on to conquer Italy, would also be Huns ethnically, though the armies they led were certainly mostly Germanic. Odoacer would also conquer the "Rogii", a tribe typically identified with the Rugii found in Tacitus' "Germania", but whom Kim holds far more likely to be a newly formed tribe that was named after the Hunnic king Ruga.


title: History of the Huns

text: The Goths led by the Amali dynasty under their king Valamir also became independent some time after 454. This did not include all Goths, however, some of whom are recorded as continuing to fight with the Huns as late as 468. Kim argues that even the Amali-led Goths remained loyal to the Huns until 459, when Valamir's nephew Theoderic was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, or even 461, when Valimir made an alliance with the Romans. Heather argues that the Amali united various groups of Goths sometime after Attila's death, though Jordanes claims that he did it while Attila was still alive. As he has for Ardaric and Ediko, Kim argues that Valimir, who is first attested as a confidant of Attila, was actually a Hun. Around 464, Valamir's Goths fought the Sciri, resulting in Valamir's death – this in turn caused the Goths to virtually destroy the Sciri. Dengizich then intervened – Kim supposes that the Sciri appealed to him for help, and that they together defeated the Goths. In a battle dated by Jordanes to 465, but by Kim to 470 after the death of Dengizich, the Sciri led an alliance of various tribes, including the Suebi, Rogii, Gepids, and Sarmatians against the Goths at the Battle of Bolia. The Gothic victory confirmed their independence and the end of Hunnic rule in the West.


title: History of the Huns

text: Therefore, despite the collapse of the Western Hunnic Empire, Kim argues that the most important Barbarian leaders in Europe after Attila were all themselves Huns or were closely associated with Attila's empire.


title: History of the Huns

text: It is unclear what happened to Attila's youngest son Ernak. Heather states that Ernak and a group of Huns were settled, with Roman permission, in northern Dobruja. Maenchen-Helfen notes that Ernak seems to have left this territory at some time before Dengizich's invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire. The rulers of the Bulgars, a Turkic nomadic people who first appear in historical sources around 480, may have claimed to be descended from Attila via Ernak, as recorded in the Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans. Kim and Denis Sinor argue that Ernak combined the remaining Huns with new Oghur-speaking Turkic tribes that had been pushed east from the steppe to form the Bulgars. Kim also argues that the Kutrigurs and Utigurs, often considered a separate people, were in fact simply part of the Hunno-Bulgar state. While many scholars dismiss medieval sources that refer to people after Dengizich's demise as Huns, Kim argues that these designations accurately describe the identity of the people in question, at least during the sixth century.


title: History of the Huns

text: Ancient sources appear to indicate that not all Hunnic peoples were incorporated into Ernak's Bulgar state. Huns continue to appear as mercenaries and allies of both the Persians and Romans in the sixth century as well. The Hunnic Altziagiri tribes continued to inhabit the Crimea near Cherson. Jordanes mentions two groups descended from Dengizich's Huns living on Roman territory, the Fossatisii and Sacromontisi. Kim, however, argues that we can distinguish just four large tribal groupings of Huns after the death of Dengizich; he argues that these were likely all ruled by members of Attila's dynasty. These groups often fought each other, however, and Kim argues that this allowed the Avars to conquer them and "recreat[e] the old Hunnic Empire in its entirety". He argues that Avars themselves had Hunnic, but not European Hunnic, elements prior to their invasion.


title: History of the Huns

text: The tribe of Sabirs is sometimes identified in Byzantine sources as Huns, and Denis Sinor argues that they may have contained some Hunnic elements as well. Kim, however, identifies them with the Xianbei.


title: History of the Huns

text: A final possible survival of the Huns are the North Caucasian Huns, who lived in what is now Dagestan. It is unclear whether these Huns were ever under Attila's rule. Kim argues that they are a group of Huns who were separated from the main confederation by the intruding Sabirs. In 503 they raided Persia, and they are recorded raiding Armenia, Cappadocia, and Lycaonia in 515. The Romans hired mercenaries from this group, including a king named Askoum. At some point, the North Caucasian Huns became a vassal state of the Khazar Khaganate. They are recorded to have converted to Christianity in 681. The North Caucasian Huns are last attested in the seventh century, but Kim argues that they may have persisted within the Khazar empire.


title: History of the Huns

text: Peter Golden argues that the Huns, and the migrations that are associated with them, resulted in the transformation of the Western Eurasian steppe from the territory of primarily Iranian-speaking nomads to Turkic-speaking ones, as Turkic speakers moved west from modern Mongolia.


title: History of the Huns

text: Within Europe, the Huns are typically held responsible for the beginning of the Migration period, in which mostly Germanic tribes increasingly moved into the space of the late Roman Empire. Peter Heather has argued that Huns were thereby responsible for the eventual disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, while E. A. Thompson argued that the Huns accelerated Germanic incursions both before and after their own presence on the Roman frontier. Walter Pohl, meanwhile notes that "[w]hat the Huns had achieved was a massive transfer of resources from the Roman empire to the "barbaricum"". Due to his differing opinions on the organization of the Huns, Hyun Jin Kim argues that, rather than by causing migrations of Germanic peoples, the Huns were responsible for the destruction of the Western Roman Empire by the force of their armies and their efficient imperial administration, leading to a collapse of the Roman military.


title: History of the Huns

text: Other scholars have seen the Huns as less important in the end of Rome. J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen described the Hun's under Attila as "for a few years more than a nuisance to the Romans, though at no time a real danger". Other scholars such as J. B. Bury have in fact argued that the Huns held the Germanic tribes back and thus gave the empire a few more years of life.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: The Justice Party, officially the South Indian Liberal Federation, was a political party in the Madras Presidency of British India. It was established on 20 November 1916 in Victoria Public Hall in Madras by Dr C. Natesa Mudaliar and co-founded by T. M. Nair, P. Theagaraya Chetty and Alamelu Mangai Thayarammal as a result of a series of non-Brahmin conferences and meetings in the presidency. Communal division between Brahmins and non-Brahmins began in the presidency during the late-19th and early-20th century, mainly due to caste prejudices and disproportionate Brahminical representation in government jobs. The Justice Party's foundation marked the culmination of several efforts to establish an organisation to represent the non-Brahmins in Madras and is seen as the start of the Dravidian Movement.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: During its early years, the party was involved in petitioning the imperial administrative bodies and British colonial officials demanding more representation for non-Brahmins in government. When a diarchial system of administration was established due to the 1919 Montagu–Chelmsford reforms, the Justice Party took part in presidential governance. In 1920, it won the first direct elections in the presidency and formed the government. For the next seventeen years, it formed four out of the five ministries and was in power for thirteen years. It was the main political alternative to the nationalist Indian National Congress in Madras. After it lost to the Congress in the 1937 election, it never recovered. It came under the leadership of Periyar E. V. Ramaswamy and his Self-Respect Movement. In 1944, Periyar transformed the Justice Party into the social organisation Dravidar Kazhagam and withdrew it from electoral politics. A rebel faction that called itself the original Justice Party, survived to contest one final election, in 1952.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: The Justice Party was isolated in contemporary Indian politics by its many controversial activities. It opposed Brahmins in civil service and politics, and this anti-Brahmin attitude shaped many of its ideas and policies. It opposed Annie Besant and her Home rule movement, because it believed home rule would benefit the Brahmins. The party also campaigned against the non-cooperation movement in the presidency. It was at odds with M. K. Gandhi, primarily due to his praise for Brahminism. Its mistrust of the "Brahmin–dominated" Congress led it to adopt a hostile stance toward the Indian independence movement.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: The Justice Party's period in power is remembered for the introduction of caste-based reservations, and educational and religious reform. In opposition it is remembered for participating in the anti-Hindi agitations of 1937–40. The party had a role in creation of Andhra and Annamalai universities and for developing the area around present-day Theagaroya Nagar in Madras city. The Justice Party and the Dravidar Kazhagam are the ideological predecessors of present-day Dravidian parties like the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam and the All-India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, which have ruled Tamil Nadu (one of the successor states to Madras Presidency) continuously since 1967.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: The Brahmins in Madras Presidency enjoyed a higher position in India's social hierarchy. By the 1850s, Telugu and Tamil Brahmins comprising only 3.2% of the population began to increase their political power by filling most of the jobs which were open to Indian men at that time. They dominated the administrative services and the newly created urban professions in the 19th and early 20th century. The higher literacy and English language proficiency among Brahmins were instrumental in this ascendancy. The political, social, and economical divide between Brahmins and non-Brahmins became more apparent in the beginning of the 20th century. This breach was further exaggerated by Annie Besant and her Home Rule for India movement. The following table shows the distribution of selected jobs among different caste groups in 1912 in Madras Presidency.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: The dominance of Brahmins was also evident in the membership of the Madras Legislative Council. During 1910–20, eight out of the nine official members (appointed by the Governor of Madras) were Brahmins. Apart from the appointed members, Brahmins also formed the majority of the members elected to the council from the district boards and municipalities. During this period the Madras Province Congress Committee (regional branch of the Indian National Congress) was also dominated by Brahmins. Of the 11 major newspapers and magazines in the presidency, two ("The Madras Mail" and "Madras Times") were run by Europeans sympathetic to the crown, three were evangelical non–political periodicals, four ("The Hindu", "Indian Review", "Swadesamithran" and "Andhra Pathrika") were published by Brahmins while New India, run by Annie Besant was sympathetic to the Brahmins. This dominance was denounced by the non-Brahmin leaders in the form of pamphlets and open letters written to the Madras Governor. The earliest examples of such pamphlets are the ones authored by the pseudonymous author calling himself "fair play" in 1895. By the second decade of the 20th century, the Brahmins of the presidency were themselves divided into three factions. These were the Mylapore faction comprising Chetpet Iyers and Vembakkam Iyengars, the Egmore faction led by the editor of "The Hindu", Kasturi Ranga Iyengar and the Salem nationalists led by C. Rajagopalachari. A fourth non-Brahmin faction rose to compete with them and became the Justice party.


title: Justice Party (India)

text: Historians differ about the extent of British influence in the evolution of the non-Brahmin movement. Kathleen Gough argues that although the British played a role, the Dravidian movement had a bigger influence in South India. Eugene F. Irschick (in "Political and Social Conflict in South India; The non-Brahmin movement and Tamil Separatism, 1916–1929") holds the view that British colonial officials in India sought to encourage the growth of non-Brahminism, but does not characterise it as simply a product of that policy. David. A. Washbrook disagrees with Irschick in "The Emergence of Provincial Politics: The Madras Presidency 1870–1920", and states "Non-Brahminism became for a time synonymous with anti-nationalism—a fact which surely indicates its origins as a product of government policy." Washbrook's portrayal has been contested by P. Rajaraman (in "The Justice Party: a historical perspective, 1916–37"), who argues that the movement was an inevitable result of longstanding "social cleavage" between Brahmins and non-Brahmins.