title: Giro d'Italia

text: Since the organizers lacked the 25,000 lire needed to hold the race, they consulted Primo Bongrani, an accountant at the bank Cassa di Risparmio and friend of the three organizers. Bongrani proceeded to go around Italy asking for donations to help hold the race. Bongrani's efforts were largely successful, he had procured enough money to cover the operating costs. Prize money was supplied by a casino in San Remo who Francesco Sghirla, a former "Gazzetta" employee, encouraged to contribute to the race. Even "Corriere", "La Gazzetta"'s rival, gave 3,000 lire to the race's fund.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: On 13 May 1909 at 02:53 am 127 riders started the first Giro d'Italia at Loreto Place in Milan. The race was split into eight stages covering . A total of 49 riders finished, with Italian Luigi Ganna winning. Ganna won three individual stages and the General Classification. Ganna received 5,325 lire as a winner's prize, with the last rider in the general classification receiving 300 lire. The Giro's director received only 150 lire a month, 150 lire fewer than the last-placed rider.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The first Giro was won by Luigi Ganna, while Carlo Galetti won the two following Giros. In 1912, there was no individual classification, instead there was only a team classification, which was won by Team Atala. The 1912 Giro is the only time the competition has not had an individual classification. From 1914 onwards the scoring format was changed from a points-based system to a time-based system, in which the cyclist who had the lowest aggregate time at the end of the race would win. The Giro was suspended for four years from 1915 to 1918, due to the First World War. Costante Girardengo was the winner of the first Giro after the war in 1919.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The dominant figure in the 1920s was Alfredo Binda, who won his first Giro in 1925 and followed this up with another victory in 1927, in which he won 12 of the 15 stages. Victory in 1929 came courtesy of eight successive stage wins. At the height of his dominance Binda was called to the head office of "La Gazzetta dello Sport" in 1930; the newspaper accused him of ruining the race and offered him 22,000 lire to be less dominant, which he refused. Binda won five Giros before he was usurped as the dominant cyclist by Gino Bartali. Nicknamed the "Iron Man of Tuscany" for his endurance, Bartali won two Giros during the 1930s, in 1936 and 1937. Bartali's dominance was challenged in 1940, the last Giro before the Second World War, when he was defeated by his 20-year-old teammate Fausto Coppi.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The rivalry between Bartali and Coppi intensified after the war. Bartali won his last Giro in 1946, with Coppi winning his second the following year. Coppi won a further three Giros and in 1952 he became the first cyclist to win the Tour de France and Giro in the same year. Swiss Hugo Koblet became the first non-Italian to win the race in 1950. No one dominated the tour during the 1950s, Coppi, Charly Gaul and Fiorenzo Magni each won two Giros during the decade. The 1960s were similar, five-time Tour de France winner Jacques Anquetil won in 1960, and 1964, while Franco Balmamion won two successive Giros in 1962 and 1963.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: Belgian Eddy Merckx was the dominant figure during the 1970s. His first victory came in 1968; another triumph in 1970 was followed by three successive victories from 1972 to 1974, which is the record for the most successive victories in the Giro. Merckx was also wearing the Maglia Rosa late in the 1969 edition when he was accused of doping in one of the most controversial scandals in Giro history. The UCI would lift his suspension almost immediately but Merckx was not allowed to start stage 17 and Felice Gimondi outperformed all of the remaining riders to claim the victory. Unfortunately in 1976 a rider died in an accident early in the race which stunned the riders, fans and race officials equally. By the third week it seemed as though Belgian rider Johan De Muynck was going to claim victory, but much to the delight of the Tifosi Gimondi rode a very strong final Individual Time Trial and won his third Giro by a very small margin in rather stunning fashion as he was getting older and not even considered a pre-race favorite. Belgians Michel Pollentier and Johan De Muynck won the two subsequent Giros in 1977 and 1978. In 1980, Frenchman Bernard Hinault became France's first winner since Anquetil in 1964. He would win another two Giros in 1982 and 1985.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: American Andrew Hampsten became the first non-European winner in 1988, and the first South American winner was Nairo Quintana of Colombia in 2014. Spaniard Miguel Indurain, winner of five Tours, won successive Giros in 1991 and 1992. Ivan Gotti's wins in 1997 and 1999 were either side of the first win by Marco Pantani's win in 1998, a year in which he completed the Tour and Giro double.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: Gilberto Simoni was the winner in 2001 and 2003, with Paolo Savoldelli victorious in 2002 and 2005. Other repeat winners this century have been Ivan Basso (2006 and 2010), Spaniard Alberto Contador in 2008 and 2015 and Vincenzo Nibali in 2013 and 2016. Contador also looked to have won the 2011 edition, a race during which Wouter Weylandt suffered a fatal crash on the third stage, but he was later stripped of the title after he was found guilty of doping in the 2010 Tour de France, and runner-up Michele Scarponi was awarded the victory. In 2017 Tom Dumoulin became the first Dutch rider to win the Giro. In 2018 Simon Yates seemed to be in very good position to become the first British rider to win, but he cracked late in the race which gave Dumoulin an opportunity to repeat as champion, however Chris Froome ended up launching a surprising long range solo attack to steal the victory, which made him the first British rider to ever win the Giro. In 2019 Richard Carapaz, from Ecuador, became the first rider from his country to win the race.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the postponement of the Giro to October, marking the only time in history that the Giro was not raced in May or June. This race was won by Tao Geoghegan Hart, making him the second British rider to win the race; then in the 2021 edition Egan Bernal became the second Colombian to ever win and in 2022 Jai Hindley became the first ever Australian to win.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: A few riders from each team aim to win overall but there are three further competitions to draw riders of all specialties: points, mountains, and a classification for young riders with general classification aspirations. The oldest of the four classifications is the general classification. The leader of each aforementioned classifications wears a distinctive jersey. If a rider leads more than one classification that awards, he wears the jersey of the most prestigious classification. The abandoned jersey is worn by the rider who is second in the competition.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The most sought after classification in the Giro d'Italia is the general classification. All of the stages are timed to the finish, and after finishing the riders' times are compounded with their previous stage times, so the rider with the lowest aggregate time is the leader of the race. The leader is determined after each stage's conclusion. The leader of the race also has the privilege to wear the race leader's pink jersey. The jersey is presented to the leader rider on a podium in the stage's finishing town. If a rider is leading more than one classification that awards a jersey, he will wear the maglia rosa since the general classification is the most important one in the race. The lead can change after each stage.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The color pink was chosen as the magazine that created the Giro, La Gazzetta dello Sport, printed its newspapers on pink paper. The pink jersey was added to the race in the 1931 edition and it has since become a symbol of the Giro d'Italia. The first rider to wear the pink jersey was Learco Guerra. Riders usually try to make the extra effort to keep the jersey for as long as possible in order to get more publicity for the team and the sponsor(s) of the team. Eddy Merckx wore the jersey for 78 stages, more than any other rider in the history of the Giro d'Italia. Three riders have won the general classification five times in their career: Alfredo Binda, Fausto Coppi, and Eddy Merckx.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The general classification winner was not always determined by a time system. In the inaugural Giro d'Italia the organizers chose to have a points system over a system based around elapsed time after the scandal that engulfed the 1904 Tour de France. In addition to that, the organizers chose the point system since it would be cheaper to count the placings of the riders rather than clocking the riders during each stage. The race leader was calculated by adding up each rider's placings in each stage and the rider with the lowest total was the leader; if a rider placed second in the first stage and third in the second stage, he would have five points total. The system was modified a year later to give the riders who placed 51st or higher in a stage 51 points and keep the point distribution system the same for the riders who placed 1st through 50th in a stage. The calculation remained unmodified until 1912 where the organizers chose to have the race be centered around teams, while still keeping the point system. The next year race organizers chose to revert to the system used in 1911. In 1914, the organizers shifted to the system used nowadays, where riders would have their finishing times for each stage totaled together to determine the overall leader.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: These are the time bonuses that the riders receive for crossing the lines in the first few positions:


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The mountains classification is the second oldest jersey awarding classification in the Giro d'Italia. The mountains classification was added to the Giro d'Italia in 1933 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Alfredo Binda. During mountain stages of the race, points are awarded to the rider who is first to reach the top of each significant climb. Points are also awarded for riders who closely follow the leader up each climb. The number of points awarded varies according to the hill classification, which is determined by the steepness and length of the course.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The climbers' jersey is worn by the rider who, at the start of each stage, has the largest number of climbing points. If a rider leads two or more of the categories, the climbers' jersey is worn by the rider in second, or third, place in that contest. At the end of the Giro, the rider holding the most climbing points wins the classification. In fact, some riders, particularly those who are neither sprinters nor particularly good at time-trialing, may attempt only to win this particular competition within the race. The Giro has four categories of mountains. They range from category 4, the easiest, to category 1, the hardest. There is also the "Cima Coppi", the highest point reached in a particular Giro, which is worth more points than the race's other first-category climbs. Gino Bartali has won the mountains classification a record seven times.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The classification awarded no jersey to the leader until the 1974 Giro d'Italia, when the organizers decided to award a green jersey to the leader. The green jersey was used until 2012, when the classification's sponsor, Banca Mediolanum, renewed its sponsorship for another four years and desired the jersey to be blue rather than green.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The points classification is the third oldest of the four jersey current awarding classifications in the Giro d'Italia. It was introduced in the 1966 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Gianni Motta. Points are given to the rider who is first to reach the end of, or determined places during, any stage of the Giro. The red jersey is worn by the rider who at the start of each stage, has the largest number of points. The rider who, at the end of the Giro, holds the most points, wins the points competition. Each stage win, regardless of the stage's categorization, awards 25 points, second place is worth 20 points, third 16, fourth 14, fifth 12, sixth 10, and one point less per place down the line, to a single point for fifteenth. This means that a true sprinter might not always win the points classification. The classification was added to draw the participation of the sprinters. The classification has been won four times by two riders: Francesco Moser and Giuseppe Saronni.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: In addition, stages can have one or more intermediate sprints: 8, 6, 4, 3, 2, 1 point(s) are/is awarded to the first six cyclists passing these lines. These points also count toward the TV classification ("Traguardo Volante", or "flying sprint"), a separate award.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The first year the points classification was used, it had no jersey that was given to the leader of the classification. In the 1967 Giro d'Italia, the red jersey was added for the leader of the classification. However, in 1969 the red jersey was changed to a cyclamen (purple) colored jersey. It remained that color until 2010 when the organizers chose to change the jersey back to the color red in a return to the original color scheme for the three minor classifications, which reflected the colors of the Italian flag. However, in April 2017 RCS Sport, the organisers of the Giro, announced that the "maglia ciclamino" would be revived for the 2017 Giro d'Italia.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The Young rider classification is restricted to the riders that are under the age of 25. The leader of the classification is determined the same way as the general classification, with the riders' times being added up after each stage and the eligible rider with lowest aggregate time is dubbed the leader. This classification was added to the Giro d'Italia in the 1976 edition, with Alfio Vandi being the first to win the classification after placing seventh overall. The classification was not contested between the years of 1995 and 2006. The classification was reintroduced in the 2007, and has been in each Giro since. The Giro d'Italia awards a white jersey to the leader of the classification. Evgeni Berzin, Nairo Quintana and Tao Geoghegan Hart won the young rider classification and the general classification in the same year : in 1994, 2014 and 2020. Four riders have won the young rider classification twice in their respective careers: Vladimir Poulnikov, Pavel Tonkov, Bob Jungels and Miguel Ángel López.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: There are two team classifications that are contested at the Giro d'Italia: the "Trofeo Fast Team" and the "Trofeo Super Team". The "Trofeo Fast Team" is the older of the two as it was introduced in the first Giro d'Italia. It was first won by Atala. The "Trofeo Fast Team" is determined by adding the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage; the leading team is the team with the lowest total time. The classification was simply called the team classification in each edition until the organizers changed it to the "Trofeo Fast Team" for the 1994 Giro d'Italia. won the "Trofeo Fast Team" classification in 2018.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The "Trofeo Super Team" was introduced at the 1993 Giro d'Italia. The name "Trofeo Super Team" was adopted for the 1994 edition of the Giro and been used ever since. The classification was first won by Ariostea in 1993. The classification is a team points classification, with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points (20 for first place, 19 for second place and so on, down to a single point for 20th) for their team. The Trofeo Super Team classification was discontinued in 2017, when it was won by .


title: Giro d'Italia

text: Other less well-known classifications, whose leaders did not receive a special jersey, are awarded during the Giro. These awards were based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour. Each mass-start stage had one intermediate sprint, the "Traguardo Volante", or T.V. The T.V. gave bonus seconds towards the general classification, points towards the regular points classification, and also points towards the T.V. classification. This award was known by various names in previous years, and was previously time-based. In 2013 this classification was renamed to the sprints classification and was won by Rafael Andriato.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: Other awards include the Combativity classification, which was a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints, mountain passes and stage finishes. It was won by Mark Cavendish in 2013. The Azzurri d'Italia classification is based on finishing order; however, points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage. It was also most recently won by Mark Cavendish. Additionally, the "Trofeo Fuga Pinarello" rewarded riders who took part in a breakaway at the head of the field, each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders getting one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear. 's Rafael Andriato was first in this competition in 2013. Teams were given penalty points for minor technical infringements. Several teams tied for the Fair Play classification in 2018 (and also in 2021), not receiving any points (the team's best placed rider in the General Classification then serves as a tie-breaker).


title: Giro d'Italia

text: In 1946 the maglia nera (black jersey) was introduced and awarded the cyclist who was last in the general classification. Riders sometimes deliberately wasted time in order to become last overall and so wear the black jersey. The classification was short lived, as it was last contested in the 1951 Giro d'Italia. The classification was won twice by Luigi Malabrocca, who won the classification in 1946 and 1947. The last winner of the maglia nera was Giovanni Pinarello.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The intergiro classification was introduced in 1989 and first won by Yugoslavian Jure Pavlič. In each stage there would be a point, before the finish, where the riders would be timed until they crossed the line. The times from each stage would then be added together for each rider to determine the leader of the classification. The leader of the classification was awarded a blue jersey. The classification was run each year since its addition until 2005. The last winner of the classification was Stefano Zanini. Fabrizio Guidi won the classification three times, the most by any rider. Guidi won the classification in 1996, 1999, and 2000.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: There was also a combination classification that was introduced in the 1985 Giro d'Italia and was first won by Urs Freuler. The classification was discontinued after the 1988 Giro d'Italia. For the 1988 edition of the Giro, the classification awarded a blue jersey. However, the classification was reintroduced for the 2006 Giro d'Italia and was won by Paolo Savoldelli. The classification was not brought back in the 2007 Giro d'Italia.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The Giro d'Italia contains either 21 or 20 stages and a prologue (an individual time trial under in length) and two or three rest days. There are three types of stages that are used in the Giro d'Italia: the mass-start stages, individual time trials, and team time trials. The mass-start stages make up most of the 21 racing days of each year's Giro d'Italia, there are usually two time trials in each edition of the Giro d'Italia, and sometimes three if there is a prologue or team time trial. In mass start stages there are time bonuses of ten, six and four seconds for the first three finishers, and, in some years, bonuses of three, two and one seconds at intermediate sprints. Italian Mario Cipollini holds the record of 42 stage victories.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The Giro d'Italia is known for its steep and difficult climbs. Each race features a few stages that contain many climbs of high severity. The race traditionally passes through the Alps with some of the longest climbs in the Dolomites. The first Alpine pass included was the Sestriere in 1911. The Dolomites were first included in the Giro in 1937, when the race crossed over the Rolle Pass and the Passo di Costalunga. Some of the most famous mountains used in the Giro are the Passo dello Stelvio, Passo Pordoi, and the Passo di Gavia. Since 1965 the highest point in the Giro d'Italia has been dubbed the "Cima Coppi" in honor of the great Italian climber Fausto Coppi.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The first Giro time trial was over between Bologna and Ferrara in 1933 and was won by Alfredo Binda. A time trial is sometimes used as the penultimate or final stage, and some editions have featured a mountain time trial stage. The first stage in modern Giros is often a short trial, a "prologue", to decide who wears pink on the opening day. The first prologue occurred in the 1968 Giro d'Italia. The route stretched around the streets of Campione d'Italia and was won by the Frenchman Charly Grosskost. The riders raced the course in an unusual format, with the riders racing in ten groups of thirteen and the time not being counted towards their overall time.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The first team time trial occurred in the 1937 Giro d'Italia and was won by the Italian team, Legnano. The course was in length and stretched from Viareggio to Marina di Massa.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The Giro takes place mainly in Italy, but some stages have departure or conclusion locations in, or pass through, the neighboring countries of San Marino, France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia and Vatican City State. The other countries visited, usually in connection with the opening stages of the race, are Belgium, Luxembourg, Croatia, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Greece, Israel, Netherlands, Monaco and the United Kingdom.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: For nearly half a century, the Giro started and finished by Milan, the city where the headquarters of the "Gazzetta dello Sport" is located. In 1911 these events took place in Rome to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Italy's unification. With the occasional exception, the start and finish in Milan were the standard for the Giro d'Italia. However, since the 1960s the place of departure has changed each year and finishes in cities such as Verona, Brescia, Trieste, Turin and Rome have become more frequent.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: The start of the Giro d'Italia ("La Grande Partenza") is a significant occasion and cities invest heavily, hoping to recoup the cost in tourism, exposure and other benefits: Denmark spent an estimated $3.86 million to host the opening stages of the 2012 edition.


title: Giro d'Italia

text: For the first 47 editions of the race, the race started on Italian soil. In 1965 the race made its first foreign start in San Marino, and has since had twelve more foreign starts. The 2018 start in Jerusalem, Israel was met with controversy as activists called for the race to be moved, claiming that the race whitewashes Israel's human rights record. Ultimately, the race went ahead as scheduled and every team selected for the Giro took part, including two teams of Arabic ownership: the Bahrain-Mérida team and the United Arab Emirates team. The intended start of the 2020 race in Hungary was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: Hemkund Sahib (also spelled Hemkunt), formally known as "Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib Ji", is a Sikh place of worship and pilgrimage site in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, India. It is devoted to Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708), the tenth Sikh Guru, and finds mention in "Dasam Granth". With its setting of a glacial lake surrounded by seven mountain peaks, each adorned by a Nishan Sahib on its cliff, it is according to the Survey of India located in the Garhwal Himalaya at an elevation of . It is approached from Govindghat on the Rishikesh-Badrinath highway. The main town near Gobindghat is Joshimath. The elevation of the lake at Hemkund is approximately 13,650 feet.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: Hemkund is a Sanskrit name derived from "Hem" ("Snow") and "Kund" ("bowl"). Dasam Granth says this is the place where Pandu Raja practiced Yoga. In addition, the Dasam Granth says that in a former life, Guru Gobind Singh meditated intensely at Hemkund on Akaal


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: Hemkund is inaccessible from October through April because of snowbound paths and glaciers. Sikh pilgrims arrive in May and set to work to repair the damage to the path over the winter, which tradition is called "kar seva" ("selfless service"), a concept which forms an important tenet of the Sikh faith.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: The take-off point for Hemkund Sahib is the town of Govindghat, about from Rishikesh. The trek is along a reasonably well-maintained path to the village of Ghangaria (also called Govinddham). This path can be covered either by walk or by pony and a Gurudwara here gives shelter to pilgrims. In addition, there are a few hotels and a campground with tents and mattresses. A climb on a of stone paved path leads to Hemkund. Overnight stay is not allowed at Hemkund Sahib, so it is necessary to leave by 2 PM to make it back to Govindghat by dusk.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: From Delhi, tourists take the train to Haridwar and then travel by bus to Govindghat via Rishikesh. It is also possible to drive from Delhi to Govindghat, a distance of about which takes around 18 hours to cover. Recently, an Indian airline company has started a helicopter service between Govindghat and Ghangria. The flight takes about 5 minutes.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: A recent study examining altitude sickness at Hemkund Sahib found that almost one-third of pilgrims who traveled to Hemkund suffered from Acute Mountain Sickness (a form of altitude sickness). As approximately 150,000 pilgrims are believed to travel to Hemkund Sahib each trekking season, almost 50,000 people are at risk of developing Acute Mountain Sickness each year. The authors stated the difficult nature of the trek, limited water consumption, and lack of awareness regarding altitude sickness as the main contributory factors.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: Design and construction of the present gurudwara at Hemkund was started in the mid-1960s, after Major General Harkirat Singh, KCIO, Engineer-in-Chief, Indian Army visited the gurudwara. The engineering brain behind the gurudwara project, Major General Harkirat Singh selected Architect Manmohan Singh Siali of the Military Engineering Services (MES) to head the design and construction effort. Thereafter, Architect Siali made annual trips to Hemkund Sahib and organized and supervised complex construction. M/s Sahib Singh, Harbhajan Singh & Gursharan Singh were the dedicated Gursikh contractors who worked on the construction, overcoming numerous weather, altitude, terrain, and logistic challenges. The unique design and construction are acclaimed as marvels, both of which have borne the test of sustainability over the past many decades.


title: Gurudwara Shri Hemkund Sahib

text: About from Gobinddham is the long Valley of Flowers. The Indian Government has declared this valley a national park. It is situated in Nanda Devi Bio Reserve, and all activities are carefully regulated to preserve the valley in pristine condition. The best months to visit are July and August, during the monsoons. Legend has it that a flower called "Brahma-Kamal" blossoms here every 12 years. The trek to the valley is for advanced trekkers, especially during an extended period of rainfall. Almost every single rock on the path to the valley of flowers is wobbly and requires significant level of concentration to avoid an unnecessary injury. It is a popular second destination for pilgrims visiting Hemkunt Sahib and definitely worth spending a day.


title: 1987: When the Day Comes

text: 1987: When the Day Comes is a 2017 South Korean political thriller film directed by Jang Joon-hwan and written by Kim Kyung-chan. The film stars Kim Yoon-seok, Ha Jung-woo, Yoo Hae-jin, Kim Tae-ri, Park Hee-soon and Lee Hee-joon. Set in 1987 and based on a true story, the film focuses on the events that led up to the June Democratic Uprising in Korea, triggered by the death of a student protester during police interrogation which the authorities conspire to cover up. Jang has compared the overall structure of the film to a relay race, with the focus of the story shifting between several characters to convey the collective effort of the political resistance. The film was released in theaters on December 27, 2017.


title: 1987: When the Day Comes

text: Under the military regime of President Chun Doo-hwan, a student activist named Park Jong-chul dies during interrogation. Park Cheo-won, a ruthless commissioner in charge of investigating suspected communists, has oversight of the interrogation, and opts to cover it up, quickly cremating the body before an autopsy can be carried out and reporting the death as a heart attack. Commissioner Park's men approach a drunken Prosecutor Choi to approve the hasty cremation, but he refuses and resists their efforts to strong-arm him. The autopsy takes place despite Commissioner Park's efforts, with Jong-chul's uncle present as it is made evident the student's death was the result of foul play. The uncle declares this outside the hospital building, and Prosecutor Choi, after being fired, leaves evidence from the autopsy to Yoon Sang-sam, a reporter hoping to investigate the story despite a country-wide regulation against reporting on the death. Yoon's findings reveal to the public that Park Jong-chul died by asphyxiation, rather than the official police report of a cardiac arrest.


title: ODESSA

text: ODESSA is an American codename (from the German: "Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen", meaning: Organization of Former SS Members) coined in 1946 to cover Nazi underground escape plans at the end of World War II by a group of SS officers with the aim of facilitating secret escape routes, and any directly ensuing arrangements. The idea has been widely circulated in fictional spy novels and movies, including Frederick Forsyth's best-selling thriller "The Odessa File" (1972). The routes are also called ratlines. Known goals included allowing the SS members to escape to Argentina or the Middle East under false passports.


title: ODESSA

text: Though an unknown number of wanted Nazis and war criminals did in fact escape Germany, and often Europe, the existence of an organisation called ODESSA is rejected by most experts. However, once again, the term itself is only recorded certainly as an American construction, to cover a range of planning, arrangements, including those enacted and those simply envisaged, and both known and hypothesised groups. There has been and remains some confusion over the years of the use of the term ODESSA.


title: ODESSA

text: About 300 Nazis did find their way to Argentina with support from Juan Perón after he came to power in Argentina in 1946.


title: ODESSA

text: Uki Goñi maintains that archival evidence paints a picture that "does not even include an organization actually named Odessa, but it is sinister nonetheless, and weighted in favour of an actual organized escape network." Guy Walters, in his 2009 book "Hunting Evil", stated he was unable to find any evidence of the existence of the ODESSA network as such, although numerous other organisations such as "Konsul", "Scharnhorst", "Sechsgestirn", "Leibwache", and "Lustige Brüder" have been named, including "Die Spinne" ("The Spider") run in part by Hitler's commando chief Otto Skorzeny. Historian Daniel Stahl in his 2011 essay stated that the consensus among historians is that an organisation called ODESSA did not actually exist.


title: ODESSA

text: Goñi's book "The Real Odessa" describes the role of Juan Perón in providing cover for Nazi war criminals with cooperation from the Vatican, the Argentinean government and the Swiss authorities through a secret office set up by Perón's agents in Bern. Heinrich Himmler's secret service had prepared an escape route in Madrid in 1944. In 1946, this operation moved to the Presidential palace in Buenos Aires. Goñi states that the operation stretched from Scandinavia to Italy, aiding war criminals and bringing in gold that the Croatian treasury had stolen.


title: ODESSA

text: The codeword "Odessa"—as used by the Allies—appeared for the first time in a memo dated July 3, 1946, by the United States Army Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) whose principal role was to screen displaced persons for possible suspects. The CIC discovered that the word "ODESSA" was used at the KZ Bensheim-Auerbach internment camp for SS prisoners who used this watchword in their secret attempts to gain special privileges from the International Red Cross, wrote historian Guy Walters. Neither the Americans nor the British were able to verify the claims extending any further than that.


title: ODESSA

text: According to Simon Wiesenthal, the ODESSA was set up in 1944 to aid fugitive Nazis. However, a documentary produced by the German TV station ZDF also suggested that the ODESSA was never the single world-wide secret organisation that Wiesenthal described, but several organisations, both overt and covert, that helped ex-SS men. The truth may have been obscured by antagonism between the Wiesenthal Organisation and West German military intelligence. It is known that Austrian authorities were investigating the organization several years before Wiesenthal went public with his information.


title: ODESSA

text: Similarly, historian Gitta Sereny wrote in her book "Into That Darkness" (1974), based on interviews with the former commandant of the Treblinka extermination camp, Franz Stangl, that an organisation called ODESSA had never existed although there were Nazi aid organisations:


title: ODESSA

text: This view is supported by historian Guy Walters in his book "Hunting Evil", where he also indicates networks were used, but there was not such a thing as a setup network covering Europe and South America, with an alleged war treasure. For Walters, the reports received by the allied intelligence services during the mid-1940s suggest that the appellation "ODESSA" was "little more than a catch-all term used by former Nazis who wished to continue the fight."


title: ODESSA

text: Nazi concentration camp supervisors denied the existence of an organisation called ODESSA. The US War Crimes Commission reports and the American Office of Strategic Services neither confirmed nor denied claims about the existence of such an organisation. Wechsberg, who after emigrating to the United States had served as an OSS officer and member of the US War Crimes Commission, however, claimed that in interviews of outspoken German anti-Nazis some asserted that plans were made for a Fourth Reich before the fall of the Third, and that this was to be implemented by reorganising in remote Nazi colonies overseas: "The Nazis decided that the time had come to set up a world-wide clandestine escape network."


title: ODESSA

text: In his interviews with Sereny, Stangl denied any knowledge of a group called the ODESSA. Recent biographies of Adolf Eichmann, who also escaped to South America, and Heinrich Himmler, the alleged founder of the ODESSA, made no reference to such an organisation. However, Hannah Arendt, in her book, "Eichmann in Jerusalem", states that "in 1950, [Eichmann] succeeded in establishing contact with ODESSA, a clandestine organisation of SS veterans, and in May of that year, he was passed through Austria to Italy, where a priest, fully informed of his identity, equipped him with a refugee passport in the name of Richard Klement and sent him on to Buenos Aires." Notorious Auschwitz doctor Josef Mengele also escaped to Argentina, and later fled to Paraguay and finally Brazil.


title: ODESSA

text: Sereny attributed the escape of SS members to postwar chaos and the inability of the Catholic Church, the Red Cross and the United States Armed Forces to verify the claims of people who came to them for help, rather than to the activities of an underground Nazi organisation. She identified a Vatican official, Bishop Aloïs Hudal, not former SS men, as the principal agent in helping Nazis leave Italy for South America, mainly Brazil.


title: ODESSA

text: Of particular importance in examining the postwar activities of high-ranking Nazis was Paul Manning's book "Martin Bormann: Nazi in Exile," which detailed Martin Bormann's rise to power through the Nazi Party and as Hitler's Chief of Staff. During the war, Manning himself was a correspondent for CBS News in London, and his reporting and subsequent researches presented Bormann's cunning and skill in the organisation and planning for the flight of Nazi-controlled capital from Europe during the last years of the war—notwithstanding the strong possibility of Bormann's death in Berlin on 1 May 1945, especially in light of DNA identification in 1998 of skeletal remains unearthed near the Lehrter Bahnhof in 1972 as Bormann's.


title: ODESSA

text: According to Manning, "eventually, over 10,000 former German military made it to South America along escape routes set up by (the) ODESSA and the "Deutsche Hilfsverein"...". The ODESSA itself was incidental, says Manning, with the continuing existence of the Bormann Organisation a much larger and more menacing fact. None of this had yet been convincingly proven.


title: ODESSA

text: German historian has examined an idea of ODESSA as a myth, or inflation of real circumstances (which remained largely unknown for a long time), suggesting reasons why such a phenomenon may become popular. He emphasized both the dashed dreams of fervent Nazis, and the horrible nightmares of Nazi victims. He suggested both impulses sustained a belief in a false myth, also conflating within that American government interest in delegitimizing the Peron regime.


title: ODESSA

text: In the realm of fiction, Frederick Forsyth's best-selling thriller "The Odessa File" (1972) brought the organisation to popular attention. (The novel was turned into a film starring Jon Voight.) In the novel, Forsyth's ODESSA smuggled war criminals to South America, but also attempted to protect those SS members who remained behind in Germany, and plotted to influence political decisions in West Germany. Many of the novel's readers assumed that ODESSA really existed.


title: ODESSA

text: In the thriller novel by Ira Levin titled "The Boys from Brazil" (1976), Dr. Josef Mengele, the concentration camp medical doctor who performed horrific experiments on camp victims during World War II, is involved in ODESSA. According to a young man and spy on his trail, Mengele is activating the "Kameradenwerk" for a strange assignment: he is sending out six Nazis (former SS officers) to kill 94 men, who share a few common traits. In the book the terms "Kameradenwerk" and "ODESSA" are used interchangeably.


title: ODESSA

text: The BBC TV Serial Kessler is a fictional account of the uncovering by investigative journalists and western intelligence agencies of the ODESSA-like "Kameradenwerk" organisation responsible for the escape and support of Nazis after the war. It features a fictionalised version of Dr. Josef Mengele and other Nazis in hiding in Paraguay.


title: ODESSA

text: During the Watergate scandal, G. Gordon Liddy referred to the White House Plumbers as ODESSA in reference to the Nazi organization.


title: ODESSA

text: It was mentioned in three Phoenix Force novels: "Ultimate Terror" (1984), "The Twisted Cross" (1986) and "Terror In The Dark" (1987). It was also mentioned, sometimes in veiled terms, in Philip Kerr's 2006 novel, "The One from the Other"—one of Kerr's Bernie Gunther mysteries. Novelist Eric Frattini has emphasised his belief in ODESSA and incorporates elements in his novels, such as the 2010 thriller, "The Mephisto's Gold".


title: ODESSA

text: During the confession sequence of the first episode of "Archer"’s 5th season, Dr. Krieger mentions ODESSA and ratlines, affirming him being a reference to "The Boys from Brazil"


title: ODESSA

text: The First Order, the main antagonists from the "Star Wars" sequel trilogy, were based on the concept of ODESSA, in particular the theory that several Nazis escaped into Argentina.


title: ODESSA

text: Bormann's survival and the ratline are also part of the History Channel TV series "Hunting Hitler" (2015–2018) in which former CIA agent Bob Baer, Gerrard Williams (author of "Grey Wolf: The Escape of Adolf Hitler") and Tim Kennedy, a former member of the 7th Special Forces Group of the US Army, try to prove that Hitler might have survived WWII and fled to Argentina.


title: ODESSA

text: ODESSA and another secret society was mentioned in Terry Hayes' novel "I Am Pilgrim". In the novel, the main character, disguised as an FBI agent in Damascus, is searching for a secret passage and encounters a tunnel with German inscriptions. Names of SS military personnel involved with the construction of the tunnel are listed.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: Viduthalai () is an upcoming Tamil-language crime thriller film written and directed by Vetrimaaran. Produced by Elred Kumar under the banners of RS Infotainment. The film stars Soori, Vijay Sethupathi and Gautham Vasudev Menon. This film was presented by RS Infotainment. The film is adapted from short story "Thunaivan" written by Jeyamohan.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: During the pre-production works of "Vaadivaasal", Vetrimaaran was reported to collaborate with Soori for another project in July 2019, due to the extensive pre-production of the former. Vetrimaaran decided to adapt late Na. Muthukumar's short story "Pattamppoochi Virpavan" and later opted for Meeran Moideen's novel "Ajnabi", which involved multiple foreign locations such as Oman, Qatar and Saudi Arabia. In April 2020, due to the restrictions in air travel in order to curb COVID-19 pandemic, Vetrimaaran had decided to make changes in the script and used the lockdown period for pre-production works. Media reports later claimed that, Vetrimaaran had adapted the short story "Thunaivan" written by B. Jeyamohan, with the film being titled the same. However, the makers decided to title the film as "Viduthalai", which was officially confirmed on 21 April 2021 with the first look being released.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: In January 2021, Vijay Sethupathi joined the film's cast and also shot few portions during the commencement of the shoot, thus marking his first collaboration with Vetrimaaran. Vetrimaaran revealed that Sethupathi would play the role of Soori's mentor in the film, which is said to be a crucial one, although Soori plays a crucial part in the story. The team recreated Sethupathi's character, which is based on Vaathiyaar, a member from Tamil Desiyam Group. While Soori's character is based on the Indian bandit Veerappan, the team rubbished the rumours clarifying that there is no connection of Veerappan with the script.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: Bharathiraja was reported to join the film in his first collaboration with Vetrimaaran, although he was replaced by Kishore during the filming of the first schedule. Ilaiyaraaja was reported to compose music for the film marking his first collaboration with Vetrimaaran. In January 2021, Bhavani Sre, sister of composer G. V. Prakash Kumar was announced playing the female lead, in her third feature film after "Ka Pae Ranasingam" and "Paava Kadhaigal". In April 2021, Gautham Menon was reported to play the role of a cop in the film.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: The team moved to Sathyamangalam forest to shoot major sequences featuring Soori during December 2020, and filming eventually began on 4 January 2021. Bharathiraja opted out of this schedule citing the climatic conditions, which led Vetrimaaran to replace him with Kishore. The entire film has been shot in an iPhone, which is used in order to control production costs. The shooting of the film took place in Sathyamangalam for three months, and the team moved to Chengalpattu in April 2021, in which the team erected a huge police camp set, and shooting of the film happened for 20 days. The team later planned to shoot the last leg of the film at Sathyamangalam after the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown.


title: Viduthalai (upcoming film)

text: The films soundtrack is composed by Ilaiyaraaja in his maiden collaboration with Vetrimaaran. Ilaiyaraaja composed the song of the film in his newly launched music studio in Kodambakkam, after his fallout with Prasad Studios where he recorded songs for nearly four decades; It marks his first work being recorded at his new studio where music composition of the film began in February 2021. As of May 2021, Ilaiyaraaja recorded three out of eight songs being planned for the film and are touted to be "situational numbers" as per sources.


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: The national flag of Uruguay () is one of the three official flags of Uruguay along with the flag of Artigas and the flag of the Treinta y Tres. It has a field of nine equal horizontal stripes alternating white and blue. The canton is white, charged with the Sun of May, from which 16 rays extend, alternating between triangular and wavy. The flag was first adopted by law on 18 December 1828, and had 19 alternating stripes of white and blue until 11 July 1830, when a new law reduced the number of alternating stripes to nine. The flag was designed by Joaquín Suárez.


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: The horizontal stripes on the flag represent the nine original departments of Uruguay, based on the U.S. flag, where the stripes represent the original 13 colonies. The first flag designed in 1828 had 9 light blue stripes; this number was reduced to 4 in 1830 due to visibility problems from distance. The stripes of blue and white were inspired by the flag of Argentina, making the flag of Uruguay part of both the Stars and Stripes and Belgrano flag families.


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: The golden Sun of May represents the May Revolution of 1810; the Sun of May is a figurative sun that represents Inti, the sun god and mythological founder of the Incan Empire. It also appears in the Flag of Argentina and the Coat of Arms of Bolivia.


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: The specific color hues of the flag are not officially defined by law, however most representations use the following:


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: The National Pavilion shares its official status with two other flags, although it possesses a higher hierarchical position amongst them:


title: Flag of Uruguay

text: During the Great Siege of Montevideo (1843–1851) Uruguay had two parallel governments, with two different flags:


title: ConnectU

text: ConnectU (originally HarvardConnection) was a social networking website launched on May 21, 2004, that was founded by Harvard students Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler Winklevoss, and Divya Narendra in December 2002. Users could add people as friends, send them messages, and update their personal profiles to notify friends about themselves. Users were placed in networks based upon the domain name associated with the email address they used for registration.


title: ConnectU

text: In December 2002, Harvard students and friends Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler Winklevoss, and Divya Narendra wanted a better way to connect with fellow students at Harvard and other universities. As a result, the three conceived of a social network for Harvard students named HarvardConnection, which was to expand to other schools around the country. In January 2003, they enlisted the help of fellow Harvard student, programmer and friend Sanjay Mavinkurve to begin building HarvardConnection. Sanjay commenced work on HarvardConnection but left the project in the spring of 2003 when he graduated and went to work for Google.


title: ConnectU

text: After the departure of Sanjay Mavinkurve, the Winklevosses and Narendra approached Narendra's friend, Harvard student and programmer Victor Gao to work on HarvardConnection. Gao, a senior in Mather House, had opted not to become a full partner in the venture, instead agreeing to be paid in a work for hire capacity on a rolling basis. He was paid $400 for his work on the website code during the second half of 2003, then excused himself thereafter due to personal obligations.


title: ConnectU

text: In November 2003, upon the referral of Victor Gao, the Winklevosses and Narendra approached Mark Zuckerberg about joining the HarvardConnection team. By this point, the previous HarvardConnection programmers had already made progress on a large amount of the coding: front-end pages, the registration system, a database, back-end coding, and a way users could connect with each other, which Gao called a "handshake". In early November, Narendra emailed Zuckerberg saying, "We're very deep into developing a site which we would like you to be a part of and ... which we know will make some waves on campus." Within days, Zuckerberg was talking to the HarvardConnection team and preparing to take over programming duties from Gao.


title: ConnectU

text: On the evening of November 25, 2003, the Winklevosses and Narendra met with Zuckerberg in the dining hall of Harvard's Kirkland House, where they explained to Zuckerberg the HarvardConnection website, the plan to expand to other schools after launch, the confidential nature of the project, and the importance of getting there first. During the meeting, Zuckerberg allegedly entered into an oral contract with Narendra and the Winklevosses and became a partner in HarvardConnection. He was given the private server location and password for the unfinished HarvardConnection website and code, with the understanding that he would finish the programming necessary for launch. Zuckerberg allegedly chose to be compensated in the form of sweat equity.


title: ConnectU

text: On November 30, 2003, Zuckerberg told Cameron Winklevoss in an email that he did not expect completion of the project to be difficult. Zuckerberg wrote: "I read over all the stuff you sent and it seems like it shouldn't take too long to implement, so we can talk about that after I get all the basic functionality up tomorrow night." The next day, on December 1, 2003, Zuckerberg sent another email to the HarvardConnection team. "I put together one of the two registration pages so I have everything working on my system now. I'll keep you posted as I patch stuff up and it starts to become completely functional." On December 4, 2003, Zuckerberg writes: "Sorry I was unreachable tonight. I just got about three of your missed calls. I was working on a problem set."


title: ConnectU

text: On December 10, 2003: "The week has been pretty busy thus far, so I haven't gotten a chance to do much work on the site or even think about it really, so I think it's probably best to postpone meeting until we have more to discuss. I'm also really busy tomorrow so I don't think I'd be able to meet then anyway." A week later: "Sorry I have not been reachable for the past few days. I've basically been in the lab the whole time working on a cs problem set which I'm still not finished with." On December 17, 2003, Zuckerberg met with the Winklevosses and Narendra in his dorm room, allegedly confirming his interest and assuring them that the site was almost complete. On the whiteboard in his room, Zuckerberg allegedly had scrawled multiple lines of code under the heading "Harvard Connection," and this would be the only time they saw any of his work.


title: ConnectU

text: On January 8, 2004, Zuckerberg emailed to say he was "completely swamped with work [that] week" but had "made some of the changes ... and they seem[ed] to be working great" on his computer. He said he could discuss the site starting the following Tuesday, on January 13, 2004. On January 11, 2004, Zuckerberg registered the domain name thefacebook.com. On January 12, 2004, Zuckerberg e-mailed Eduardo Saverin, saying that the site thefacebook.com was almost complete and that they should discuss marketing strategies. Two days later, on January 14, 2004, Zuckerberg met again with the HarvardConnection team; he never mentioned registering the domain name thefacebook.com nor a competing social networking website, rather he reported progress on HarvardConnection, told them he would continue to work on it, and would email the group later in the week. On February 4, 2004, Zuckerberg launched thefacebook.com, a social network for Harvard students, designed to expand to other schools around the country.


title: ConnectU

text: On February 6, 2004, the Winklevosses and Narendra first learned of thefacebook.com while reading a press release in the Harvard student newspaper "The Harvard Crimson". According to Gao, who looked at the HarvardConnection code afterward, Zuckerberg had left the HarvardConnection code incomplete and non-functional, with a registration that did not connect with the back-end connections. On February 10, 2004, the Winklevosses and Narendra sent Zuckerberg a cease and desist letter. They also asked the Harvard administration to act on what they viewed as a violation of the university's honor code and student handbook. They lodged a complaint with the Harvard Administrative Board and university president Larry Summers, but both viewed the matter to be outside of the university's jurisdiction. President Summers advised the HarvardConnection team to take their matter to the courts.


title: ConnectU

text: The About section of the ConnectU website included this sentence, which was live on December 4, 2004: "We've cycled through several programmers, even one who stole our ideas to create a competing site, without informing us of his intentions."


title: ConnectU

text: Between November 29, 2003 and February 4, 2004, Zuckerberg exchanged a total of 52 emails with the HarvardConnection team and engaged in several in-person meetings. In this period, Zuckerberg engaged in multiple electronic instant message communications with people outside of the HarvardConnection team. On March 5, 2010, certain electronic instant messages from Mark Zuckerberg's hard drive were leaked. On September 20, 2010, Facebook confirmed the authenticity of these leaked instant messages in a "New Yorker" article.


title: ConnectU

text: A partnership allegedly formed between i2hub, a popular peer-to-peer service at the time, and ConnectU (HarvardConnection). The partnership, called The Winklevoss Chang Group, jointly advertised their properties through bus advertisements as well as public press releases. i2hub integrated its popular software with ConnectU's website, as part of the partnership. The team also jointly launched several projects and initiatives, including:


title: ConnectU

text: In 2004, ConnectU filed a lawsuit against Facebook alleging that creator Mark Zuckerberg had breached an oral contract to develop ConnectU and used their source code and idea to create TheFacebook.com. The suit alleged that Zuckerberg had copied their idea and illegally used source code intended for the website he was hired to create. Facebook countersued in regard to Social Butterfly, a project put out by The Winklevoss Chang Group. It named among the defendants ConnectU, Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler Winklevoss, Divya Narendra, and Wayne Chang, founder of i2hub. A settlement agreement for both cases was reached in February 2008, reportedly valued at $65 million. This included buying the domain name ConnectU.com and shutting it down. In May 2010, it was reported that ConnectU was accusing Facebook of securities fraud on the value of the stock that was part of the settlement and wanted to get the settlement undone. According to ConnectU's allegations, the stock was worth $11 million instead of $45 million that Facebook presented at the time of settlement. This meant the settlement value, at the time, was $31 million, instead of the $65 million. On August 26, 2010, "The New York Times" reported that Facebook shares were trading at $76 per share in the secondary market, putting the total settlement value at close to $120 million. If the lawsuit adjusted the settlement to match the difference, the value would quadruple to over $466 million.


title: ConnectU

text: In May 2011, after the Court of Appeals found against the Winklevosses, the twins announced that they would petition the Supreme Court of the United States to hear the case. In June 2011 the Winklevosses, in a filing with the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, said that "after careful consideration," they would not file their petition with the U.S. Supreme Court. In a new filing, the Winklevoss brothers and their business partner Divya Narendra asked the judge to investigate whether Facebook "intentionally or inadvertently suppressed evidence."


title: ConnectU

text: One of ConnectU's law firms, Quinn Emanuel, disclosed the confidential settlement amount in marketing material by printing "WON $65 million settlement against Facebook". Quinn Emanuel sought $13 million of the settlement as part of a contingency agreement. ConnectU fired Quinn Emanuel and sued the law firm for malpractice. On August 25, 2010, an arbitration panel ruled that Quinn Emanuel "earned its full contingency fee". It also found that Quinn Emanuel committed no malpractice.


title: ConnectU

text: On December 21, 2009, i2hub founder Wayne Chang and The i2hub Organization launched a lawsuit against ConnectU and its founders, Cameron Winklevoss, Tyler Winklevoss, and Divya Narendra, seeking 50% of the settlement. The complaint says "The Winklevosses and Howard Winklevoss filed [a] patent application, U.S. Patent Application No 20060212395, on or around March 15, 2005, but did not list Chang as a co-inventor." It also states "Through this litigation, Chang asserts his ownership interest in The Winklevoss Chang Group and ConnectU, including the settlement proceeds." Lee Gesmer (of law firm Gesmer Updegrove, LLP) posted the 33-page complaint online.


title: ConnectU

text: On May 13, 2011, it was reported that Judge Peter Lauriat had made a ruling against the Winklevosses. Chang's case against them could proceed. The Winklevosses argued that the court lacked jurisdiction because the settlement with Facebook had not been distributed and therefore Chang had not suffered any injury. Judge Lauriat wrote, "The flaw in this argument is that defendants appear to conflate loss of the settlement proceed with a loss of rights. Chang alleges that he has received nothing in return for the substantial benefits he provided to ConnectU, including the value of his work, as well as i2hub's users and goodwill." Lauriat also wrote that, although Chang's claims to the settlement are "too speculative to confer standing, his claims with respect to ownership in ConnectU are not. They constitute an injury separate and distinct from his possible share of the settlement proceeds. The court concludes that Chang has pled sufficient facts to confer standing with respect to his claims against the Winklevoss defendants."


title: ConnectU

text: On December 24, 2014, summary judgment in favor of the Winklevosses was granted. Chang's suit sought a portion of the settlement via two independent arguments. The first, that he formed a partnership with the Winklevosses, was dismissed based on May 25, 2005, chat where the partnership was dissolved. The second, a memorandum of understanding granting him the option to acquire a fifteen percent stake in ConnectU, was ruled a contract claim against ConnectU, the corporation, not the Winklevosses, former shareholders.


title: ConnectU

text: The story of the relationship between ConnectU and Facebook is depicted in "The Social Network", a film directed by David Fincher and written by Aaron Sorkin, based on the book "The Accidental Billionaires" by Ben Mezrich.


title: Wah Ching

text: Wah Ching (), meaning Chinese Youth, is a Chinese American criminal organization and street gang that was founded in San Francisco, California in 1964. The Wah Ching has been involved in crimes including narcotic sales, racketeering and gambling.


title: Wah Ching

text: The Wah Ching (Youth of China) was founded in 1964 mainly by immigrants from Hong Kong and China working at Hop Sing Tong gambling establishments in San Francisco's Chinatown. The gang was first formed as a protection group from the ABCs (American born Chinese) and later evolved into a criminal gang. Beginning in 1969, the Wah Ching fought a war with the Suey Sing Tong for control of Chinatown's gambling, loan-sharking and extortion rackets. After a number of shootings and homicides, the Suey Sing relinquished their territory and reestablished themselves in Oakland. Wah Ching first received widespread media attention because of the 1977 Golden Dragon Massacre (GDM) involving another Chinese gang, the Chung Ching Yee, or Joe Boys (JBS). The event took place at the Golden Dragon Restaurant in San Francisco's Chinatown. Five people were killed, and eleven others were injured. None of the victims were gang members. Five Joe Boys members were convicted of the shooting. The cause of the attack was vandalism by Wah Ching to the graves of several Joe Boy members and a shootout that took place a few months earlier that left one Joe Boy dead and two others wounded. After the shootout occurred, the Wah Ching, though none of them had been killed or even injured in the attack, still killed several Joe Boys in retaliation.


title: Wah Ching

text: During the mid 1960s, Wah Ching established themselves in Southern California, mainly around Chinatown, Los Angeles and the San Gabriel Valley. The Southern California branch of Wah Ching was led by David Quon and Philip Lee throughout the 1960s and 1970s. During this time, Wah Ching in Los Angeles operated illegal gambling houses, brothels, extortion rackets, and loan-sharking. Nearing the mid 1970s, Los Angeles Wah Ching recruited Joe Young, whom later became the leader of Southern California Wah Ching in the 1980s up until around mid 1990s.


title: Wah Ching

text: During the 1960s and 1970s in Chinatown, Los Angeles, the contest for gang dominance was between the Joe Boys, Yao Lai, and the Wah Ching. However, Wah Ching was able to push these gangs out Los Angeles Chinatown and took over their illegal establishments. Wah Ching became the dominate gang in Chinatown, Los Angeles throughout most of the 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Wah Ching

text: In 1991, Danny "Ah Pai" Wong, the leader of Wah Ching, was shot and killed by Wo Hop To (WHT) 3 hitmen from Seattle Chinatown. After the murder, most of the Wah Ching members began to leave town, change sides, or retired.


title: Wah Ching

text: After law enforcement cracked down on the Wo Hop To around 1992, former Wah Ching members who had defected to the Wo Hop To founded the Jackson Street Boys, a gang based in San Francisco's Chinatown which resumed what a SFPD officer described in 2000 as "the same stuff on a smaller scale and without the same visibility", including extortion of local merchants and operating gambling dens.


title: Wah Ching

text: By the mid 1990s, Southern California Wah Ching had already divided itself into four main branches because of internal disagreements. The four original Wah Ching branches (called sides) are called Sonny-Side, Paul-Side, Ken-Side, and Taiwanese-Side, all named after their founders names or aliases. Despite Wah Ching breaking up into several branches, there was no internal war between the different Wah Ching sides and all sides were led by a "lung tao" ('dragon head') or "dai lao" ('older brother') who oversaw their group's activities.


title: Wah Ching

text: In the mid-1990s, the Wah Ching was reported as being engaged in murder, extortion, drug trafficking and gambling, and expanded into software bootlegging.


title: Wah Ching

text: The Wah Ching Gang has an ongoing conflict with another rival Asian gang in Los Angeles, the Asian Boyz (ABZ), who also aligned themselves with the Vietnamese Boyz (VBZ) in opposition to Wah Ching. Wah Ching's move from its original home in the Bay Area to Southern California is probably one of the sources of the disputes over gang turf. Over the decades, the Wah Ching has evolved from a street gang to an organized crime group, however, due to the fact that a lot of the Wah Ching's criminal activity and murders have been motivated by political agendas. There is law enforcement anecdotal evidence that suggests as a group the gang has developed strong associations with other Asian organized crime groups, such as the 14K and Sun Yee On triads in Hong Kong.


title: Wah Ching

text: The Wah Ching has been in a long conflict with the Asian Boyz. One of the first shootouts between the two gangs occurred in the 1990s. The shooting occurred in El Monte at a pool hall. An Asian Boyz gang member, Lea Mek, was killed by Wah Ching gang member Chieu Luong Yang. Another shootout between the two gangs occurred in San Marino that led to the deaths of two youths at a San Marino High School graduation party in June. After an investigation by the authorities, police claimed that when the Asian Boyz gang members arrived at the party, they noticed that Wah Ching gang members were there, prompting them to leave and return with weapons. At least nine gang members were arrested, and police seized five weapons from homes searched in conjunction with the arrests. The shootouts between the two gangs were called "Summer Madness" by the Asian Boyz gang, and resulted in at least 42 deaths on both sides.


title: Wah Ching

text: On June 2, 2007, Anh Duoc Nguyen, a member of Monterey Park-Side Wah Ching shot at five people in Westminster's Bowling Green Park, severely injuring one. The shootout was believed to be motivated by the fact that one of the victims changed his Myspace page bio to read "garden gang".


title: Wah Ching

text: The Wah Ching's main structure consists of one main boss under the union and various factions called "sides" who have leaders or "lung tao" ('dragon head') or "dai lao" ('older brother') who work together to organize their syndicates with the sole purpose of making money. The number of members in each side can vary anywhere from a few dozen to a couple thousand, and the total number of sides is believed to be around 10.


title: Wah Ching

text: The four original sides, Ken-Side, Paul-Side, T-Side, and Sonny-Side, have a close relationship with one another and high-ranking members.


title: Wah Ching

text: Since 1969 to 1991, there have been five murders associated with Chinatown Wah Ching gang. Here is the chronology of violence:


title: Wah Ching

text: March 9, 1972 when Harry Quan (or Kwan) was shot from a car with a .32 caliber automatic as he stood with a group of youths in front of 815 Stockton Street, location of the Police Athletic League.


title: Wah Ching

text: Harry Ng, murdered in his Kung Fu studio March 13, 1972, is believed to have been a courier between the Wah Chings and a mysterious person in Hong Kong known only by a code name. Ng gunned down on a Monday, had airline reservations for Hong Kong the following Saturday.


title: Wah Ching

text: The 60 year old Ng ("The Professor"), police say, was mentor of the Wah Ching thugs, teaching them extortion tactics.


title: Wah Ching

text: Former leader of the Wah Chings, Anton Wong, murdered in broad daylight May 23 at Powell and Jackson Streets.


title: Wah Ching

text: On the night of August 12, at a service station at 19th Avenue and Irving Street where he was employed, Wayne Fung was killed by seven bullets from a .38 caliber automatic.


title: Wah Ching

text: The gunman, an Asian youth, fired the shots and ran to a waiting car parked on 18th Avenue, witnesses said. Fung, 19, was a member of the Wah Ching.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Kelly Jean Killoren Bensimon (born May 1, 1968) is an American real estate agent, author, the Editor of "Elle Accessories", and a former model. She appeared as a full-time cast member on the Bravo television series "The Real Housewives of New York City" from seasons 2 to season 4.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Kelly graduated from Keith Country Day School, a college prep academy in Rockford, Illinois before attending college. She attended Trinity College, Connecticut, but left after a year. She graduated in 1998 from Columbia's School of General Studies for non-traditional students, with a degree in Literature and Writing. She completed an MBA with a focus on International Marketing at Northeastern University in 2015.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: As a model, she appeared in magazines such as "Elle", "Cosmopolitan", and "Harper's Bazaar," and she was once the face of Clarins. She appeared on the cover and in a six-page pictorial in the March 2010 edition of "Playboy", which was photographed by her ex-husband Gilles Bensimon. In September 2011, Killoren Bensimon was on the cover of "Shape" and was featured in a pictorial based on her exercise routine.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: She has worked as a host of various events including IMG fashion week, and of the IMG swim shows in Miami. She was a spokesperson in 2006 for Wool as part of their Test Marketing Productions (TMP);. Bensimon hosted and modeled in menswear events with "GQ" magazine. She was also an "ambassador" for Spring 2007 Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week in New York City.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Killoren Bensimon has had several jewelry collections. Her first line of jewelry was sold exclusively at Barneys New York. Her second line of jewelry was sold at Bloomingdale's in fall 2007. On June 24, 2010, Killoren Bensimon announced the launch of her fourth jewelry collection, Kelly by Kelly Killoren Bensimon. The collection included mixed metals, leather, feathers and crystals and was sold at Intermix stores across the U.S. to support Feeding America. For spring 2011, Bensimon's jewelry collection was sold at Wink, W Hotels, and Dash. She also sold a jewelry collection on HSN. In 2013, she launched a fragrance, "In the Spirit of," and a candle line called "Baiser Rose." In 2019, she launched an outerwear line called Enville by Pologeorgis.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Her television career most notably includes Bravo's "The Real Housewives of New York City" (seasons 2-4), which she joined in 2009 as a full cast member. She experienced a controversial onscreen nervous breakdown while on a cast trip to the island of Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands. Killoren Bensimon appeared on Bravo's "Odd Mom Out" in episodes 9 and 10 of season 2. She also appeared on WEtv's reality series "Million Dollar Matchmaker".


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Killoren Bensimon has also worked as a writer, producing three books for Assouline Publishing: "In the Spirit of the Hamptons" (2 volumes), "American Style", and "The Bikini Book". A portion of the author's proceeds were donated to the Costume Institute of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Her fourth book, "I Can Make You Hot", was published by St. Martin's Press in April 2012. A portion of the author's proceeds were donated to Generositywater.org. In June 2016, Simon & Schuster published Bensimon's novel, "A Dangerous Age." In August 2017, Killoren launched the sequel "The Second Course", an odyssey about the food world. Bensimon also wrote a column in "Page Six Magazine" called "The Socializer: Kelly Bensimon". She is a style columnist for the newspaper "AM New York". She is the editor at large for "Hamptons Magazine", a free weekly with circulation of 40,000 to 50,000 and "Gotham Magazine". Both publications are owned by Niche Media. She became the founding editor of "Elle Accessories", but left after two issues.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: After obtaining her real estate agent's license, Killoren joined Dolly Lenz Realty in New York in 2018. She moved to the Douglas Elliman real estate group in 2019. She has also made numerous appearances on "Million Dollar Listing New York".


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: Killoren Bensimon was married to fashion photographer Gilles Bensimon until the couple divorced in 2007. They have two daughters, Sea Louise, born in 1998, and Thaddeus Ann, born in 2000. In August 2017, ten years after her divorce, Killoren Bensimon explained in a video that she would be dropping her ex-husband's last name, and would again be using the name Kelly Killoren.


title: Kelly Killoren Bensimon

text: On March 5, 2009, Killoren Bensimon was arrested on allegations of domestic violence and assault against her ex-boyfriend. Her ex-boyfriend alleged that she punched him in the face during an argument. Killoren Bensimon entered into a plea agreement with the State of New York, under which she was required to perform two days of community service.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded is an epistolary novel first published in 1740 by English writer Samuel Richardson. Considered one of the first true English novels, it serves as Richardson's version of conduct literature about marriage. "Pamela" tells the story of a fifteen-year-old maidservant named Pamela Andrews, whose employer, Mr. B, a wealthy landowner, makes unwanted and inappropriate advances towards her after the death of his mother. Pamela strives to reconcile her strong religious training with her desire for the approval of her employer in a series of letters and, later in the novel, journal entries all addressed to her impoverished parents. After various unsuccessful attempts at seduction, a series of sexual assaults, and an extended period of kidnapping, the rakish Mr. B eventually reforms and makes Pamela a sincere proposal of marriage. In the novel's second part Pamela marries Mr. B and tries to acclimatise to her new position in upper-class society. The full title, "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded", makes plain Richardson's moral purpose. A best-seller of its time, "Pamela" was widely read but was also criticised for its perceived licentiousness and disregard for class barriers. Furthermore, "Pamela" was an early commentary on domestic violence and brought into question the dynamic line between male aggression and a contemporary view of love. Moreover, "Pamela," despite the controversies, was able to shed light on social issues that transcended the novel for the time such as gender roles, early false-imprisonment, and class barriers present in the eighteenth century. The action of the novel is told through letters and journal entries from Pamela to her parents. Richardson highlights a theme of naivety, illustrated through the eyes of Pamela. Richardson paints Pamela herself as innocent and meek to further contribute to the theme of her being short-sighted to emphasize the ideas of childhood innocence and naivety.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Two years after the publication of "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded", Richardson published a sequel, "Pamela in her Exalted Condition" (1742). He revisited the theme of the rake in his "Clarissa" (1748), and sought to create a "male Pamela" in "Sir Charles Grandison" (1753).


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Since Ian Watt discussed it in "The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding" in 1957, literary critics and historians have generally agreed that "Pamela" played a critical role in the development of the novel in English.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Pamela Andrews is a pious, virtuous fifteen-year-old, the daughter of impoverished labourers, who works for Lady B as a maid in her Bedfordshire estate. Following Lady B's death, her son, Mr. B, inherits the estate, and begins to pay Pamela romantic attention: first gifting her his mother's fine clothes, and then attempting to seduce her. Pamela rejects Mr. B's advances multiple times, by fleeing and locking herself in her bedroom. In one instance, she faints, and finds the laces of her stays have been cut.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: When Mr. B attempts to pay her to keep his failed seduction secret, she confides in her best friend and housekeeper of the estate, Mrs. Jervis. Later, Mr. B hides in Pamela's closet and tries to kiss her when she undresses for bed, causing Pamela to consider leaving her position and returning to her parents to preserve her innocence. She is insistent on remaining at the estate to finish embroidering a waistcoat for Mr. B, hoping that by doing so he will let her leave on good terms.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Angry at Pamela for telling Mrs. Jervis of his attempted seductions, Mr. B informs Pamela that he intends to marry her off to Mr. Williams, his chaplain in Lincolnshire, and gives money to her parents to persuade them to give consent. Pamela refuses the engagement and decides to leave the estate, but Mr. B intercepts her letters to her parents and tells them she is having an affair with a poor clergyman, and that he will send her to a safe place to preserve her chastity. Pamela is forcibly taken to Mr. B's Lincolnshire Estate by Mr. B's servant Monsieur Colbrand, where she begins a journal with the intention of sending it to her parents. The Lincolnshire housekeeper, Mrs. Jewkes, is "odious" and "unwomanly", devoted to Mr. B, and keeps Pamela as her bedfellow. Mr. B promises he won't approach Pamela without her leave, and stays away from the estate for some time.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: As Pamela is mistreated by Mrs. Jewkes, she begins communicating with Mr. Williams by letters, which they leave for one another in the gardens. After Mrs. Jewkes beats Pamela after she calls her a "Jezebel", Mr. Williams entreats the village gentry for help; though they pity Pamela, they too are loyal to Mr. B, and are convinced a seduction would either not occur or be inconsequential due to Pamela's low social standing. Mr. Williams proposes marriage to her to help her escape the estate and Mr. B's advances, but shortly after is attacked and beaten by robbers. Pamela attempts to flee home to her parents, but is terrified by two cows she mistakes for bulls. Mr. Williams accidentally reveals his correspondence with Pamela to Mrs. Jewkes, and so Mr. B has him arrested, announcing that he will marry Pamela to one of his servants. Desperate, Pamela attempts unsuccessfully to escape by climbing a wall, and, injured, gives up.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Mr. B returns and offers Pamela a list of conditions he would meet, should she accept his hand in marriage, but she refuses, citing her reluctance to think above her social station to become his mistress. In league with Mrs. Jewkes, Mr. B molests Pamela while she is in bed, dressed as the housemaid Nan. Pamela is sent into hysteria and seems likely to die: Mr. B repents and is kinder in his seductions, but Pamela implores him to stop altogether. Mr. B implies he loves Pamela, but will not marry her due to her social status.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Pamela has hidden a parcel of letters to her parents in the garden, but they are seized by Mrs. Jewkes, who gives them to Mr. B. He sympathises with Pamela on reading her account of their relationship, and once again proposes. Pamela, still doubtful of his intentions, begs him to let her return; though vexed, he does so, to her surprise.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: On leaving for home, Pamela is strangely sad, and on her way home he sends her an apologetic letter that prompts her to realise she is, in fact, in love. When she hears that he is ill, she returns to him. The two reunite and become engaged, and Pamela explains that she rejected Mr. B's advances because she feared he would attempt to take advantage of her without marrying her.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Mr. Williams is released from prison, and the neighbouring gentry come to the estate and admire Pamela. Pamela's father arrives at the estate, fearing that she accepted Mr. B's proposal by force, but is reassured when he sees her happy. Pamela and Mr. B wed. When Mr. B leaves to attend to a sick man, his sister, Lady Davers, arrives at the estate and threatens Pamela, calling her marriage a sham. Pamela escapes by the window and is taken by Colbrand to Mr. B. The following day, Lady Davers enters their bedroom without permission, revealing that Mr. B previously seduced a girl called Sally Godfrey and had a child with her.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Pamela reconciles the furious siblings; they return to Bedfordshire. Pamela rewards her friends and servants with money and forgives her father for attempting to end her engagement. They visit a farmhouse where they meet Mr. B's daughter, and learn that her mother now lives, married, in Jamaica; Pamela proposes taking the girl home with them. The neighbourhood gentry who once despised Pamela now praise her.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Richardson began writing "Pamela" after he was approached by two book sellers who requested that he make them a book of letter templates. Richardson accepted the request, but only if the letters had a moral purpose. As Richardson was writing the series of letters turned into a story. Writing in a new form, the novel, Richardson attempted to both instruct and entertain. Richardson wrote "Pamela" as a conduct book, a sort of manual which codified social and domestic behavior of men, women, and servants, as well as a narrative in order to provide a more morally concerned literature option for young audiences. Ironically, some readers focused more upon the bawdy details of Richardson's novel, resulting in some negative reactions and even a slew of literature satirizing "Pamela", and so he published a clarification in the form of "A Collection of the Moral and Instructive Sentiments, Maxims, Cautions, and Reflexions, Contained in the Histories of" Pamela, Clarissa, "and" Sir Charles Grandison in 1755. Many novels, from the mid-18th century and well into the 19th, followed Richardson's lead and claimed legitimacy through the ability to teach as well as amuse.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Epistolary novels—novels written as series of letters—were popular in the eighteenth century, but sustained popularity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries as well. Fictional epistolary narratives originated in their early form in 16th-century England; however, they acquired wider renown with the publication of Richardson's "Pamela".


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: In the novel, Pamela writes two kinds of letters. At the beginning, while she decides how long to stay on at Mr. B's after his mother's death, she tells her parents about her various moral dilemmas and asks for their advice. After Mr. B. abducts her and imprisons her in his country house, she continues to write to her parents, but since she does not know if they will ever receive her letters, the writings are also considered a diary. Eventually, Mr. B finds out about Pamela's letters to her parents and encroached upon her privacy by refusing to let her send them.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: The plot of "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded" is bound up in the back-and-forth between Pamela and Mr. B as the former eludes B's attempt and the latter, growing frustrated, continues in his attempts. According to Barbara Belyea, Pamela's “duty to resist him without compromise has become a duty to obey him without question” (411). In other words, readers of "Pamela" experience the trajectory of the plot, and the romance between the hero and heroine, as a back-and-forth, pendulum-like swing. Belyea claims this oscillation persists through readers' interpretations as "Pamela" sustains the formative action of the plot through the letters she writes to her parents detailing her ordeal: "Within the fictional situation, the parents' attitude to their child's letters is the closest to that of Richardson's reader. The parents' sympathy for the heroine and anxiety for a happy end anticipate the reader's attitude to the narrative" (413). Pamela's parents are the audience for her letters and their responses (as recipients of the letters) mimic what Belyea argues are readers’ responses to Richardson's novel. Arguably, Richardson's "Pamela" invokes an audience within an audience and "[c]areful attention to comments and letters by other characters enables the reader to perceive that Pamela's passionate defence of her chastity is considered initially as exaggerated, fantastic--in a word, romantic" (412). "Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded" demonstrates morality and realism as bound up in individuals’ identities and social class because of its form as an epistolary novel.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Considered by many literary experts as the first English novel, "Pamela" was the best-seller of its time. It was read by countless buyers of the novel and was also read in groups. An anecdote which has been repeated in varying forms since 1777 described the novel's reception in an English village: "The blacksmith of the village had got hold of Richardson's novel of "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded", and used to read it aloud in the long summer evenings, seated on his anvil, and never failed to have a large and attentive audience... At length, when the happy turn of fortune arrived, which brings the hero and heroine together, and sets them living long and happily... the congregation were so delighted as to raise a great shout, and procuring the church keys, actually set the parish bells ringing."


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: The novel was also integrated into sermons as an exemplar. It was even an early "multimedia" event, producing "Pamela"-themed cultural artefacts such as prints, paintings, waxworks, a fan, and a set of playing cards decorated with lines from Richardson's works.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: In 1742, "Pamela" became the first novel printed in America when Benjamin Franklin published it in Philadelphia. However, the novel did not sell well in America.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Given the lax copyright laws at the time, many unofficial sequels were written and published without Richardson's consent, for example, "Pamela's conduct in high life", published 1741 and sometimes attributed to John Kelly (1680?–1751). There were also several satires, the most famous being "An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews" by Henry Fielding, published under the pseudonym "Mr. Conny Keyber". "Shamela" portrays the protagonist as an amoral social climber who attempts to seduce "Squire Booby" while feigning innocence to manipulate him into marrying her. In this version, the author works to invalidate Pamela by pointing out the incongruities between characters and the overall plot of the story. This version suggests that she was not really as virtuous as she may have seemed to be. Another important satire was "The Anti-Pamela; or Feign’d Innocence Detected" (1741) by Eliza Haywood. Although not technically a satire, the Marquis de Sade's "Justine" is generally perceived as a critical response to "Pamela", due in part to its subtitle, "The Misfortunes of Virtue".


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: At least one modern critic has stated that the rash of satires can be viewed as a conservative reaction to a novel that called class, social and gender roles into question by asserting that domestic order can be determined not only by socio-economic status but also by moral qualities of mind.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: The popularity of Richardson's novel led to much public debate over its message and style. Richardson was of the artisanal class, and among England's middle and upper classes, where the novel was popular, there was some displeasure over its at times plebeian style. Apparently certain ladies of distinction took exception to the ways in which their fictional counterparts were represented. Richardson responded to some of these criticisms by revising the novel for each new edition; he also created a "reading group" of such women to advise him. Some of the most significant changes he made were alterations to Pamela's vocabulary: in the first edition her diction is that of a labouring-class woman, but in later editions Richardson made her more linguistically middle-class by removing the working-class idioms from her speech. In this way, he made her marriage to Mr. B less scandalous as she appeared to be more his equal in education. The greatest change was to have her his equal too in birth—by revising the story to reveal her parents as reduced gentlefolks. In the end Richardson revised and released fourteen editions of "Pamela", the last of which was published in 1801 after his death. In consideration of authorial intent, some believe that "Pamela" was a latent fetishization of Richardson's own fantasies and beliefs regarding women in society. Even though Richardson did openly revise "Pamela" multiple times, the justification of male aggression in a "loving" domestic relationship, as evidenced between Pamela and Mr. B, remains controversial to this day.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: A publication, "Memoirs of Lady H, the" "Celebrated Pamela (1741)", claims that the inspiration for Richardson's "Pamela" was the marriage of a coachman's daughter, Hannah Sturges, to the baronet, Sir Arthur Hesilrige, in 1725. Samuel Richardson claimed that the story was based on a true incident related to him by a friend about 25 years before, but did not identify the principals.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Prof Hubert McDermott has posited "Vertue Rewarded", a 1693 Irish novel by an unknown author, as a possible influence – the two books have similar plots: "a beautiful and virtuous young woman of little or no social status falls in love with a prince or libertine who is equally besotted but whose wealth, rank and ambition make him desire only to seduce and debauch the chaste heroine, without having to marry her." Also, the title "virtue rewarded" is not found in any other work of the period.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: "Pamela" has significant similarities to the famous Persian tragic romance of Khosrow and Shirin by the Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi. In both tales a rich, famous, and hedonistic man is trying to seduce the main female character of the story. Even though the female character is truly in love with the male counterpart, she resists his seductions and requests marriage. At the end the male character gives in to marrying the woman he loves and this love causes a gradual and positive change in the male character. The moral of both stories is the triumph of patience, virtue and modesty over despotism and hedonism.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Some believe that Richardson was one of the first male writers to take a feminist view while writing a novel. "Pamela" has been described as being a feminist piece of literature because it rejects traditional views of women and supports the new and changing role of women in society. One of the ways in which feminism is shown in the text is through allowing readers to see the depths of women (i.e. their emotions, feelings, thoughts) rather than seeing women at surface level. However, the poor treatment of Pamela herself, and her intense consideration to her virtue- a societal construct founded in moral religion- might also suggest the opposite. Richardson himself was not a feminist, and "Pamela" consisted of the traditional lily-white heroine trope embellished with a sense of naivety (with Pamela being only fifteen years old.) With respect to authorial intent, Pamela was only driven by here intense fear of having her virtue compromised, and her motivation to keep her virtue intact provided a very narrow scope of womanhood and the sex as a whole. The controversy over the novel is present and ongoing.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: The epistolary form in which "Pamela" is written enables readers of the novel to see inside Pamela's mind and, in doing so, readers are able to better understand her identity and the ways her identity as a woman of lower socioeconomic status intersect and are bound up in that identity. Kacy Tillman compares the written "letter" to the body of the scribe (or "paper body" of which writers and readers of letters struggle to control. Tillman's writes, "...in early American novels, the letter served as a kind of paper body, a contested space where women writers and their readers vied for control over the female body, symbolizing the broader cultural struggle in which women were enmeshed during and shortly after the Revolution" (124), and in Tillman's article she posits that a relationship exists between “epistolarity and gender construction in early American novels: that women were expected to follow an epistolary code of ethics, which men could violate or manipulate as they saw fit: the control of a paper body was connected to the control of a physical one; and that women who failed (even despite trying to abide by the rules of epistolarity) risked ruin" (125). Within the first few chapters of "Pamela, Virtue Rewarded", Pamela is concerned because one of her letters has been lost. Also, in an instance when Mr. B notices Pamela writing a letter, he asks to read it and, because he's her master, she allows him to do so. Of course, Mr. B doesn't find anything written in the letter that he doesn't like, but Mr. B's encroachment on Pamela's privacy mirrors his encroachment on the privacy of her body as he attempts to seduce her over and over again. Tillman argues that, in early modern times when letter-writing was an important and popular method of communication, “male letter readers could intercept and interpret those representations in a way that could void female agency" (125) and, because “letters…[are] an extension of the self" (Tillman 126), Pamela's privacy is at risk in myriad ways. At the end of Tillman's article, she addresses the relationship between the experience of letter-writing and the experience of sharing the letters once written are bound up in the writers’ identities and social expectations: "Just as women must dress according to their station, so letters should adopt a tone and style that fits their situation. Just as women must protect their bodies from seduction, so missives must carefully regulate what they say to a suitor" (127). The letter is performative in that it forms “a paper body that had to be carefully crafted and regulated since every part of it--from the handwriting, to the paper, to the content--could be subject examination and judgment" (Tillman 126). In this way, the letter works to enact and sustain writers’ identities and the relationships cultivated between writers and readers of the letters.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: "Pamela" is strewn with contemporary themes that handle gender roles, male aggression, false imprisonment, classism, and the hierarchy of power evident through her forced stay at Mr. B’s estate and seen through her kidnapping. Pamela had little to no choice in the arrangement and was a victim of Mr. B’s sexual advances. Mr. B saw Pamela as an object of affection, and a pawn to his game.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Around 1742 Francis Hayman also produced two paintings drawing on scenes and themes from the novel for supper boxes 12 and 16 at Vauxhall Gardens. The painting for Box 12 is now lost but showed the departure scene from Letter XXIX, whilst the one for Box 16 shows Pamela fleeing to Mr B.'s coach after revealing her marriage to Lady Davers and Mr B.'s servant Colbrand forcibly defending her from two of Lady Davers' servants. The latter was bought from the Gardens in 1841 by William Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale, whose heirs sold it in 1947 to Henry Hornyold-Strickland, who in turn donated it to the National Trust as part of the house, collections and gardens of Sizergh Castle in 1950.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Soon afterwards, in 1743, Joseph Highmore produced a series of twelve paintings as the basis for a set of engravings. They are a free adaptation of the novel, mainly focusing on the first book. They are now equally divided between Tate Britain, the National Gallery of Victoria and the Fitzwilliam Museum, each of which has four of the series.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Its success also led to several stage adaptations in France and Italy. In Italy, it was adapted by Chiari and Goldoni. In France, Boissy put on a "Paméla ou la Vertu mieux éprouvée", a verse comedy in three acts (Comédiens italiens ordinaires du Roi, 4 March 1743), followed Neufchâteau's five-act verse comedy "Paméla ou la Vertu récompensée" (Comédiens Français, 1 August 1793). Appearing during the French Revolution, Neufchâteau's adaptation was felt to be too Royalist in its sympathies by the Committee of Public Safety, which imprisoned its author and cast (including Anne Françoise Elisabeth Lange and Dazincourt) in the Madelonnettes and Sainte-Pélagie prisons. Mademoiselle Lange's straw hat from the play launched a trend for Pamela hats and bonnets which were worn well into the second half of the nineteenth century.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: Playwright Martin Crimp uses the text as a "provocation" for his stage play "When We Have Sufficiently Tortured Each Other: 12 Variations on Samuel Richardson’s Pamela", opening at the Royal National Theatre in 2019 starring Cate Blanchett and Stephen Dillane directed by Katie Mitchell.


title: Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded

text: The success of "Pamela" soon led to its translation into other languages, most notably into French by abbé Prévost. It was also imitated by Robert-Martin Lesuire in his own novel "la Paméla française, ou Lettres d’une jeune paysanne et d’un jeune ci-devant, contenant leurs aventures". More recently, Bay Area author Pamela Lu's first book "Pamela: A Novel" evokes Richardson's title and also borrows from Richardson the conceit of single-letter names to create a very different type of "quasi-bildungsroman," according to "Publishers Weekly".


title: Paula Nelson

text: Paula Carlene Nelson (born October 27, 1969, in Houston, Texas) is an American country music singer and disc jockey. She is the daughter of country music singer and musician Willie Nelson.


title: Paula Nelson

text: Nelson was born out of wedlock to Willie Nelson and Connie Koepke, while Willie Nelson was married to Shirley Collie Nelson. When Shirley found out about the birth, she divorced him. Willie Nelson then married Koepke. Nelson and Koepke had another daughter, Amy Lee Nelson, before divorcing in 1988.


title: Paula Nelson

text: As a child, Paula often went on tour with her father. Country singers such as Waylon Jennings and Jessi Colter were frequently around.