title: Magnitogorsk

text: Magnitogorsk was mentioned in the Blacksmith Institute's 2007 survey of the world's worst polluted cities, placed in the report's unranked list of the 25 most-polluted places outside the top ten. Pollutants include lead, sulfur dioxide, heavy metals and other air pollutants. According to the local hospital, only 1% of all children living in the city are in good health. The Blacksmith Institute says that, according to a local newspaper report, "only 28% of infants born in 1992 were healthy, and only 27% had healthy mothers". However, according to Blacksmith Institute, plant managers have upgraded much of their equipment in recent years and emissions have been reduced by about 60%.


title: Magnitogorsk

text: Magnitogorsk has a distinct four-season humid continental climate (Dfb) with relatively severe winters for the latitude. This climate type is typical for southerly Russian areas far from large bodies of water. The average July high is around with lows of with January averages ranging from in daytime high to in average low. Temperatures approaching or above have been measured from May to September with real severe frosts below have been measured in all other months than that except transitional months April and October.


title: Fleming's right-hand rule

text: In electromagnetism, Fleming's right-hand rule (for generators) shows the direction of induced current when a conductor attached to a circuit moves in a magnetic field. It can be used to determine the direction of current in a generator's windings.


title: Fleming's right-hand rule

text: When a conductor such as a wire attached to a circuit moves through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced in the wire due to Faraday's law of induction. The current in the wire can have two possible directions. Fleming's right-hand rule gives which direction the current flows.


title: Fleming's right-hand rule

text: The right hand is held with the thumb, index finger and middle finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as shown in the diagram.


title: Fleming's right-hand rule

text: The bolded letters in the directions above give a mnemonic way to remember the order. Another mnemonic for remembering the rule is the initialism "FBI", standing for Force (or otherwise motion), B the symbol for the magnetic field, and I the symbol for current. The subsequent letters correspond to subsequent fingers, counting from the top: thumb → F; first finger → B; second finger → I.


title: Fleming's right-hand rule

text: There is also a Fleming's left-hand rule (for electric motors). The appropriately handed rule can be recalled from the letter "g", which is in "right" and "generator".


title: KMD

text: KMD (" K.M.D.", "Kausing Much Damage", or "A Positive Kause in a Much Damaged Society") was an American hip hop trio active in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The core of the group was composed of brothers Daniel "Zev Love X" Dumile and Dingilizwe "DJ Subroc" Dumile. The group's original third member, Jade 1 (believed to later be known as Rodan), left before the group signed with Elektra Records, being replaced with Onyx the Birthstone Kid. The group dissolved in 1994 following the departure of Onyx, the sudden death of DJ Subroc in 1993, and conflicts with Elektra that resulted in them being dropped from the label.


title: KMD

text: KMD released two studio albums, "Mr. Hood" (1991) and "Black Bastards"; the latter of which was cancelled by Elektra in 1994 and not officially released until 2000. Zev Love X subsequently changed his moniker to MF Doom and achieved success as a solo artist. Doom attempted to revive the KMD name in the 2010s, releasing a new song and announcing a comeback album in 2017, but no further updates or recordings surfaced before his death in October 2020.


title: KMD

text: Zev Love X, DJ Subroc, and Jade 1 formed KMD in Long Beach, New York, in 1988. The three were Black Muslims active in the Nuwaubian Nation. KMD began as a graffiti crew; they also practiced breakdance.


title: KMD

text: Onyx the Birthstone Kid soon replaced Jade 1, who left the group in order to finish high school. MC Serch, a native of nearby Far Rockaway, met the group at community functions and recruited them for a guest spot on "The Gas Face," a single off 3rd Bass' "The Cactus Album". The guest appearance caught the attention of A&R executive Dante Ross, who signed KMD to Elektra Records.


title: KMD

text: KMD released their debut album "Mr. Hood" in 1991. Its songs focus on racism and black empowerment in a comical manner. Subroc heavily sampled old children's television shows and recordings, including drops of "Sesame Street" character Bert on the singles "Who Me?" and "Humrush." Skits featuring KMD interacting with "Mr. Hood" (a series of samples from a language instruction tape) tie the album together. Stimulated Dummies co-produced "Mr. Hood"; the album also featured fellow Five Percenters, Brand Nubian appearing on "Nitty Gritty." Around the same time "Mr. Hood" was released, Zev Love X and Onyx testified before the United States Congress in support of the National Voter Registration Act, on behalf of Rock the Vote.


title: KMD

text: The group recorded their follow up, "Black Bastards", in 1993. The album was a departure from their lighthearted previous release with songs celebrating sex ("Plumskinnz"), drugs ("Smokin' That S*#%", "Contact Blitt", "Suspended Animation"), and drinking ("Sweet Premium Wine"). Onyx left the group during the recording sessions. His verse was removed from "Plumskinzz" (the B-side to the "Nitty Gritty" single off "Mr. Hood"), which was included on "Black Bastards" as two separate tracks, "Plumskinzz.(Loose Hoe, God & Cupid)" (Zev Love X's verse) and "Plumskinzz.(Oh No I Don't Believe It!)" (Subroc's verse). Zev Love X created the cover art, a Sambo caricature being hanged in a game of hangman.


title: KMD

text: Shortly before finishing "Black Bastards", Subroc was killed while attempting to cross the 878 Nassau Expressway on April 23, 1993. Zev Love X completed the album alone over the course of the next months and advance copies were finally sent out in early 1994. "What a Nigga Know?" was released as the first single in March that same year and "Black Bastards" was announced to be released on May 3, 1994. Soon afterwards Elektra Records unexpectedly cancelled the album and dropped KMD. The album's title and cover art proved too controversial for Elektra's management, who instructed Dante Ross to give Zev Love X the "Black Bastards" master tapes and $20,000 as incentive to leave the label. The album was heavily bootlegged until it was officially released on ReadyRock Records in 2000. Zev Love X dropped out of the New York hip hop scene until 1997, when he reemerged as MF Doom.


title: KMD

text: On August 16, 2017, MF Doom premiered the first new KMD track in ten years, "True Lightyears", on NPR Music. It was the first single from KMD's still-unreleased comeback album "Crack In Time" and featured Jay Electronica and MF Doom. The track was also released as part of MF Doom's 2017 compilation album "The Missing Notebook Rhymes".


title: Bob Gale

text: Michael Robert Gale (born May 25, 1951) is an American screenwriter, comic book writer, film producer and director. He is best known for co-writing the science fiction comedy film "Back to the Future" with his writing partner Robert Zemeckis. Gale co-produced all three films of the franchise and later served as associate producer of the animated TV series. Actor Michael J. Fox has referred to Gale as "gatekeeper of the ["Back to the Future"] franchise".


title: Bob Gale

text: Gale was born to a Jewish family in University City, Missouri, the son of Maxine, née Kippel, (died 2010), an art dealer and violinist, and Mark R. Gale (1922–2018), an attorney, World War II veteran, and later a University City councilman. He has two younger brothers, Charlie, who wrote the screenplay for "Ernest Scared Stupid", and Randy. Gale received a B.A. in Cinema in 1973 from the University of Southern California, where he wrote fanzine reviews for classmate Mike Glyer's fanzine, and met classmate Zemeckis.


title: Bob Gale

text: As a child, Gale dreamed he would one day "go to Hollywood and work for Walt Disney", who was his hero. As a teen, he created his own comic book, "The Green Vomit", using spirit duplication, and co-founded a popular comic book club in St. Louis. Later, he and his brother Charlie made their own amateur three-film series parody of the Republic Pictures "Commando Cody" serials, using the character name "Commando Cus". The last two of these were made in collaboration with Richard Rosenberg. (Rosenberg had taken over the series with the third, 1973's "Commando Cus vs. Kung Fu Killers", in which Gale made a cameo appearance as the title character without his face-covering helmet, and was working on a fourth at the time of his death.)


title: Bob Gale

text: As screenwriters, Gale and Zemeckis have collaborated on a number of films including "1941", "I Wanna Hold Your Hand", "Used Cars", and "Trespass", the last set in East St. Louis, Illinois, near Gale's home town. Gale and Zemeckis were nominated for an Academy Award for their screenplay for "Back to the Future". In 2002, Gale debuted as a feature-film director with "Interstate 60: Episodes of the Road". He had previously directed and written the 20-minute theatrical release "". Gale's other work includes the novelization for his movie "1941" and helped develop the arcade game "Tattoo Assassins".


title: Bob Gale

text: On 31 January 2014, it was announced that a stage musical adaptation of the first "Back to the Future" film was in production.


title: Bob Gale

text: As a teenager, Bob Gale was a regular Marvel reader, and his fan letter appeared in "Iron Man" #2, published in June 1968.


title: Bob Gale

text: Gale began writing for comics in the late 90s, and his earliest work includes "Ant-Man's Big Christmas" for Marvel and "Batman" for DC Comics. In 2001, Gale had a short run on Marvel's "Daredevil" with artists Phil Winslade and Dave Ross. In 2008, Gale worked as one of the writers among the rotating writer/artist teams on "The Amazing Spider-Man", which at the time was published three times a month. Gale's further comics work includes the "Back to the Future" monthly series published by IDW Publishing. The first issue was released in stores on October 21, 2015, the same date that Marty travels with Doc Brown to the future depicted in the storyline for "Part II".


title: Bad trip

text: A bad trip (also known as challenging experiences, acute intoxication from hallucinogens, psychedelic crisis, or emergence phenomenon) is an acute adverse psychological reaction to classic hallucinogens. With proper screening, preparation, and support in a regulated setting these are usually benign. A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, and agitation, or even psychotic episodes. As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available.


title: Bad trip

text: Bad trips can be exacerbated by the inexperience or irresponsibility of the user or the lack of proper preparation and environment for the trip, and are often reflective of unresolved psychological tensions triggered during the course of the experience. In clinical research settings, precautions including the screening and preparation of participants, the training of the session monitors who will be present during the experience, and the selection of appropriate physical setting can minimize the likelihood of psychological distress. Researchers have suggested that the presence of professional "trip sitters" (i.e., session monitors) may significantly reduce the negative experiences associated with a bad trip. In most cases in which anxiety arises during a supervised psychedelic experience, reassurance from the session monitor is adequate to resolve it; however, if distress becomes intense it can be treated pharmacologically, for example with the benzodiazepine diazepam.


title: Bad trip

text: The psychiatrist Stanislav Grof wrote that unpleasant psychedelic experiences are not necessarily unhealthy or undesirable, arguing that they may have the potential for psychological healing and lead to breakthrough and resolution of unresolved psychic issues. Drawing on narrative theory, the authors of a 2021 study of 50 users of psychedelics found that many described bad trips as having been sources of insight or even turning points in life.


title: Bad trip

text: Medical treatment consists of supportive therapy and minimization of external stimuli. In some cases, sedation is used when necessary to control self-destructive behavior, or when hyperthermia occurs. Diazepam is the most frequently used sedative for such treatment, but other benzodiazepines such as lorazepam are also effective. Such sedatives will only decrease fear and anxiety, but will not subdue hallucinations. In severe cases, antipsychotics such as haloperidol can reduce or stop hallucinations. Haloperidol is effective against acute intoxication caused by LSD and other tryptamines, amphetamines, ketamine, and phencyclidine.


title: Bad trip

text: In a 1975 book, Grof suggested that painful and difficult experiences during a trip could be a result of the mind reliving experiences associated with birth, and that experiences of imprisonment, eschatological terror, or suffering far beyond anything imaginable in a normal state, if seen through to conclusion, often resolve into emotional, intellectual and spiritual breakthroughs. From this perspective, Grof suggests that interrupting a bad trip, while initially seen as beneficial, could potentially trap the tripper in unresolved psychological states. Grof also suggests that many cathartic experiences within psychedelic states, while not necessarily crises, may be the effects of consciousness entering a perinatal space.


title: The PJs

text: The PJs is an American adult animated stop-motion black sitcom created by Eddie Murphy, Larry Wilmore, and Steve Tompkins. It portrayed life in an urban public housing project, modeled after the Cabrini–Green housing projects in Chicago. The series starred Eddie Murphy, and was produced by Imagine Entertainment by Ron Howard and Brian Grazer, The Murphy Company and Will Vinton Studios in association with Touchstone Television (seasons 1-2), marking the show as Disney's first adult animated series; and Warner Bros. Television (season 3). The original run of the series debuted on Fox on January 10, 1999, following the network's coverage of the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Two days later, the second episode aired in its regular Tuesday night time slot, following "King of the Hill". The series ended on May 20, 2001. The title is an abbreviation for "the projects", referring to the show's public housing highrise.


title: The PJs

text: Forty-four episodes aired during the show's run of 2 years and 4 months. Each took over 2 months to produce, owing to the laborious stop-motion process.


title: The PJs

text: While co-creator Eddie Murphy is credited as the voice of Thurgood Stubbs on every episode, actor Phil Morris says that in some episodes, he provided the voice of Thurgood; according to Morris, Murphy did not want to show up on some days to record the voice of Thurgood Stubbs, so the producers hired Morris to record Thurgood's lines, where he worked in a separate booth from the other actors, allowing the producers to replace Morris' recordings with Murphy's voice in case Murphy decided he wanted to record his dialogue.


title: The PJs

text: After two seasons on Fox, the show moved to The WB in 2000. Its high budget and declining ratings led to its cancellation in 2001; the final 2 episodes weren't aired until 2003. The show aired in syndication for a time on Trio, Fuse, MTV2, and Cartoon Network night block's Adult Swim. As of 2020, the series is no longer syndicated by other television networks, but is occasionally shown on the ad-supported video on demand service Pluto TV, specifically on the service's Kevin Hart's Laugh Out Loud! Network and the entire series is available for viewing on NBCUniversal's streaming service Peacock.


title: The PJs

text: "The PJs" won 3 Emmy Awards and one Annie Award during its run. Quincy Jones' son QD3, along with George Clinton, produced the theme music for the show.


title: The PJs

text: Lionsgate Home Entertainment (under license from Disney) has released all 3 seasons on DVD in Region 1.


title: The PJs

text: The series has aired reruns on Adult Swim, Fuse, MTV2, and TV One. Episodes are available on demand for streaming on several apps and websites in the United States including Pluto TV on the LOL! Network and Plex.


title: Heinz dilemma

text: The Heinz dilemma is a frequently used example in many ethics and morality classes. One well-known version of the dilemma, used in Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, is stated as follows:


title: Heinz dilemma

text: From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the participant thinks that Heinz should "do". Kohlberg's theory holds that the justification the participant offers is what is significant, the "form" of their response. Below are some of many examples of possible arguments that belong to the six stages:


title: Max Kilman

text: Maximilian William Kilman (born 23 May 1997) is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Max Kilman

text: Kilman was born in Chelsea, Greater London, to a Ukrainian father, an arts dealer, and a Ukrainian mother, who worked as a catwalk model. His father was from Odesa, and his mother is from Kyiv. Kilman speaks Russian in addition to English.


title: Max Kilman

text: Kilman began his career in the academy at Fulham. As a teenager, he joined futsal club Genesis Futsal Club while continuing to play the 11-a-side game. He later joined the academy at Gillingham before signing for Maidenhead United in 2015, after making a single London Senior Cup appearance for Welling United against Cockfosters in October 2014. Kilman was loaned out to Southern Football League side Marlow for the 2016–17 season.


title: Max Kilman

text: Kilman returned the following season and made his debut for the Magpies on the opening day of the 2017–18 season against Maidstone United, while continuing his futsal career, signing for Helvécia. He went on to make 39 appearances for Maidenhead before signing for Wolverhampton Wanderers for an undisclosed fee on transfer deadline day in August 2018.


title: Max Kilman

text: Kilman spent the season with the club's under-23 side, helping them to win promotion from the second tier of the Premier League reserve competition. In April 2019, head coach Nuno Espírito Santo stated that "Max is 100 per cent integrated into the (first team) squad... I just see him as a very good football player, a centre-half with quality. He's big, aggressive. He has to improve like all young players, but we're really, really happy with Max." Kilman was first included in a senior matchday squad in December 2018, and was an unused substitute on five occasions before he made his senior debut on 4 May 2019, coming on as a last-minute substitute in a 1–0 win against Fulham in the Premier League. In doing so, he became the first player to go directly from non-League to the Premier League, with no loans in between, since Chris Smalling moved from Maidstone United to Fulham in 2008. Kilman made his full senior debut for Wolves in a 4–0 home win against FC Pyunik of Armenia in the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League Qualifying Third Round, 2nd Leg, on 15 August.


title: Max Kilman

text: On 21 April 2020, Wolverhampton's "Express & Star" announced that Kilman's contract with Wolves had been extended until the summer of 2022. On 21 October, Wolves announced that Kilman had extended his contract with the club until the summer of 2025.


title: Max Kilman

text: On 1 November 2021, Kilman scored the opening goal in Wolves's 2–1 win over Everton at Molineux. The goal, a well-taken header, following a corner from the left from Rayan Aït-Nouri, was Kilman's first for Wolves (in his 44th appearance for the club at senior level) and his first in the Premier League. Four days later, Kilman signed a new long-term deal with Wolves until 2026.


title: Max Kilman

text: Kilman made his debut for the England national futsal team at the age of 18. He went on to accumulate 25 caps for the Three Lions. Kilman's futsal career was put on hiatus when he signed for Wolves in August 2018. He was also eligible to play international football for Russia or Ukraine through his parents.


title: Max Kilman

text: In March 2021, Ukraine coach Andriy Shevchenko announced that he had formally asked FIFA to switch Kilman's national allegiance to Ukraine, but also enquired of them as to whether his appearances for the England futsal team would make him ineligible for Ukraine. On 7 April 2021, FIFA rejected the application, confirming that his appearances for England in competitive futsal matches ties him to playing for England in any form of football.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: St. James's Gate Brewery is a brewery founded in 1759 in Dublin, Ireland, by Arthur Guinness. The company is now a part of Diageo, a company formed from the merger of Guinness and Grand Metropolitan in 1997. The main product of the brewery is Draught Guinness.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Originally leased in 1759 to Arthur Guinness at £45 per year for 9,000 years, the St. James's Gate area has been the home of Guinness ever since. It became the largest brewery in Ireland in 1838, and the largest in the world by 1886, with an annual output of 1.2 million barrels. Although no longer the largest brewery in the world, it remains as the largest brewer of stout. The company has since bought out the originally leased property, and during the 19th and early 20th centuries, the brewery owned most of the buildings in the surrounding area, including many streets of housing for brewery employees, and offices associated with the brewery. The brewery had its own power plant.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: There is an attached exhibition on the 250-year-old history of Guinness, called the Guinness Storehouse.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Arthur Guinness started brewing ales in Leixlip, County Kildare, and then from 1759 at the St. James's Gate Brewery in Dublin. On 31 December he signed a 9,000-year lease at £45 per annum for the unused brewery. However, the lease is no longer in effect because the brewery property has been bought out when it expanded beyond the original 4-acre site.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Ten years after establishment, on 19 May 1769 Guinness exported his beer (he had ceased ale brewing by then) for the first time, when six and a half barrels were shipped to England. The business expanded by adopting steam power and further exporting to the English market. On the death of Benjamin Guinness in 1868 the business was worth over £1 million, and the brewery site had grown from about 1 acre to over 64 acres. In 1886 his son Edward sold 65 per cent of the business by a public offering on the London Stock Exchange for £6 million.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The company pioneered several quality control efforts. The brewery hired the statistician William Sealy Gosset in 1899, who achieved lasting fame under the pseudonym "Student" for techniques developed for Guinness, particularly Student's t-distribution and the even more commonly known Student's t-test.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Because of the Irish Free State's "Control of Manufactures Act" in 1932, the company moved its headquarters to London later that year. Guinness brewed its last porter in 1974.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In 1983, a non-family chief executive Ernest Saunders was appointed and arranged the reverse takeover of the leading Scotch whisky producer Distillers in 1986. Saunders was then asked to resign following revelations that the Guinness stock price had been illegally manipulated (see Guinness share-trading fraud).


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In 1986, Guinness PLC was in the midst of a bidding war for the much larger Distillers Company. In the closing stages, Guinness' stock rose 25 per cent — which was unusual, since the stock of the acquiring company usually falls in a takeover situation. Guinness paid several people and institutions, most notably American arbitrageur Ivan Boesky, about US$38 million to buy US$300 million worth of Guinness stock. The effect was to increase the value of its offer for Distillers, whose management favoured merging with Guinness.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In the course of the investigation, it emerged that Bank Leu was involved in half of the purchases. Two of Guinness' directors signed under-the-table agreements in which Bank Leu subsidiaries in Zug and Lucerne bought 41 million Guinness shares. Guinness secretly promised to redeem the shares at cost, including commissions. To fulfil its end of the bargain, Guinness deposited $76 million with Bank Leu's Luxembourg subsidiary.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: As Distillers was worth more than Guinness plc, the Guinness family shareholding in the merged company went below 10 per cent, and today no member of the family sits on the board. Guinness acquired the Distillers Company in 1986.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The company merged with Grand Metropolitan in 1997, to form Diageo plc, capitalised in 2006 at about 40 billion euros.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The Guinness brewery in Park Royal, London closed in 2005. The production of all Guinness sold in the UK and Ireland was switched to St. James's Gate Brewery Dublin.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In 2018, Guinness opened its first brewery in 64 years in the United States, in Baltimore, Maryland. The last Guinness brewery in the US closed in 1954. This US location will focus on "special news" and Guinness Blonde American Lager, but not the classic stout, which will still only be brewed in Dublin.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: According to a Diageo publication in 2019, the St James' Gate brewery was then operating at over 90 percent capacity and one of the "most profitable breweries in the world".


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The main product is Guinness Draught, a 4.2% ABV dry stout that is one of the most successful beer brands worldwide. For many years a portion of the drink was aged to give a sharp lactic flavour, although Guinness has refused to confirm whether this still occurs. The thick creamy head is the result of the beer being mixed with nitrogen when being poured. It is popular with Irish people both in Ireland and abroad and, in spite of a decline in consumption over recent years, is the best-selling alcoholic drink of all time in Ireland where Guinness & Co. makes almost €2 billion annually. The brewery also produces "Guinness Original", a 4.3% ABV version of the Draught, without the nitrogen; Kaliber, a low alcohol pale lager; Guinness Bitter, a 4.4% bitter sold in a can with a widget; and the 7.5% Guinness Foreign Extra Stout.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In 2005, Guinness announced the Brewhouse Series, a limited-edition collection of draught stouts available for roughly six months each. There were three beers in the series:


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Despite an announcement in June 2007 that the fourth Brewhouse stout would be launched in October that year, no new beer appeared and, at the end of 2007, the Brewhouse series appeared to have been quietly cancelled.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness's Brite Lager, Guinness's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner, Guinness Breó (a slightly citrusy wheat beer), Guinness Shandy, and Guinness Special Light. Breó (meaning 'glow' in ancient Irish) was a wheat beer; it cost around 5 million Irish pounds to develop.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: For a short time in the late 1990s, Guinness produced the "St James's Gate" range of craft-style beers, available in a small number of Dublin pubs. The beers were: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: A grandson of the original Arthur Guinness, Sir Benjamin Guinness, was a Lord Mayor of Dublin and was created a baronet in 1867, only to die the next year. His eldest son Arthur, Baron Ardilaun (1840–1915), sold control of the brewery to Sir Benjamin's third son Edward (1847–1927), who was created Lord Iveagh in 1891 and Earl of Iveagh in 1919. Edward Guinness launched the company on the London Stock Exchange in 1886. Up until then, the only other partners outside of the Guinness family were members of the Purser family, who shared control of the brewery throughout most of the nineteenth century. He, his son Rupert and great-grandson Benjamin, the second and third Earls, chaired the Guinness company until the third earl's death in 1992. There are no longer any members of the Guinness family on the board.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: On 17 June 2007, "The Sunday Independent" first reported that Diageo was considering selling most of the St. James's Gate Brewery to take advantage of high property prices in Ireland. The story was widely picked up by both national and international media organisations, but the proposal to build a new Dublin brewery at Leixlip on land belonging to Desmond Guinness was cancelled by the end of 2008. By then Irish property prices had dropped, and so the possibility of selling much of the current brewery to meet the lower cost of building a new one had passed.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The following day, the "Irish Daily Mail" ran a follow-up story with a double-page spread complete with images and a history of the plant since 1759. Initially, Diageo said that talk of a move was pure speculation but in the face of mounting speculation in the wake of the "Sunday Independent" article, the company confirmed that it is undertaking a "significant review of its operations". This review is largely due to the efforts of the company's ongoing drive to reduce the environmental impact of brewing at the St James's Gate plant.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: On 23 November 2007, an article appeared in the "Evening Herald", a Dublin newspaper, stating that Dublin City Council, in the best interests of the city of Dublin, had put forward a motion to prevent planning permission ever being granted for the development of the site thus making it very difficult for Diageo to sell off the site for residential development.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: On 9 May 2008, Diageo announced that the St James's Gate brewery will remain open and undergo renovations, but that breweries in Kilkenny and Dundalk will be closed by 2013 when a new larger brewery is opened near Dublin. The result will be a loss of roughly 250 jobs across the entire Diageo/Guinness workforce in Ireland. Two days later, the "Sunday Independent" again reported that Diageo chiefs had met with Tánaiste Mary Coughlan, the deputy leader of the Government of Ireland, about moving operations to Ireland from the UK to benefit from its lower corporation tax rates. Several UK firms have made the move to pay Ireland's 12.5 per cent rate rather than the UK's 28 per cent rate.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: In 2015, Diageo launched the Brewers Project, in an attempt to diversify the company's product range and expand into the craft beer industry which had become popular. Hop House 13, a lager named after a store at the St James's Gate brewery extant in the early 20th century, was heavily promoted on YouTube and social media.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: St. James's Gate in Dublin was traditionally the main starting point for Irish pilgrims to begin their journey on the Camino de Santiago (Way of St. James). The pilgrims' "passports" were stamped here before setting sail, usually for A Coruña, north of Santiago. It is still possible for Irish pilgrims to get these traditional documents stamped both at Guinness Storehouse and St James' Church, and many do, while on their way to Santiago de Compostela.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Guinness Storehouse, the "Home of Guinness", is Dublin's most popular tourist attraction. A converted brewing factory, it is now a Guinness museum, incorporating elements from the old brewing factory to explain the history of its production. Some of the old brewing equipment is on show, as well as stout ingredients, brewing techniques, advertising methods and storage devices.


title: Guinness Brewery

text: The exhibition takes place over seven floors, in the shape of a 14 million-pint glass of Guinness. The final floor is the Gravity Bar, which has an almost 360° panorama over the city, where visitors can claim a pint of "the black stuff".


title: Guinness Brewery

text: Guinness Storehouse visitors do not get to see the beer being brewed in front of them, but from various vantage points in the building, you may see parts of the brewhouse, vats, grain silos and the keg yard.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: The naming of the Americas, or America, occurred shortly after Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the Americas in 1492. It is generally accepted that the name derives from Amerigo Vespucci, the Italian explorer, who explored the new continents in the following years on behalf of Spain and Portugal. However, some have suggested other explanations, including being named after a mountain range in Nicaragua, or after Richard Amerike of Bristol.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: In modern English, North and South America are generally considered separate continents, and taken together are called "the Americas" in the plural, parallel to similar situations such as the Carolinas and the Dakotas. When conceived as a unitary continent, the form is generally "the continent of America" in the singular. However, without a clarifying context, singular "America" in English commonly refers to the United States of America.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Historically, in the English-speaking world, the term America used to refer to a single continent until the 1950s (as in Van Loon's "Geography" of 1937): According to historians Kären Wigen and Martin W. Lewis,


title: Naming of the Americas

text: This shift did not seem to happen in most other cultural hemispheres on Earth, such as Romance-speaking (including France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Romania, Switzerland, and the postcolonial Romance-speaking countries of Latin America and Africa), Germanic (but excluding English) speaking (including Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, The Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands), Baltic-Slavic languages (including Czechia, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Latvia, Russia, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria) and elsewhere, where America is still considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, as well as Central America.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: The earliest known use of the name "America" dates to April 25, 1507, when it was applied to what is now known as South America. It appears on a small globe map with twelve time zones, together with the largest wall map made to date, both created by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller in Saint-Dié-des-Vosges in France. These were the first maps to show the Americas as a land mass separate from Asia. An accompanying book, "Cosmographiae Introductio", anonymous but apparently written by Waldseemüller's collaborator Matthias Ringmann, states, "I do not see what right any one would have to object to calling this part [that is, the South American mainland], after Americus who discovered it and who is a man of intelligence, Amerigen, that is, the Land of Americus, or America: since both Europa and Asia got their names from women". "America" is also inscribed on the Paris Green Globe (or "Globe vert") which has been attributed to Waldseemüller and dated to 1506–07: as well as the single name inscribed on the northern and southern parts of the New World, the continent also bears the inscription: "America ab inuentore nuncupata" (America, named after its discoverer).


title: Naming of the Americas

text: "Americus Vesputius" was the Latinized version of the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci's name, the forename being an old Italianization (compare modern Italian Enrico) of Medieval Latin (see Saint Emeric of Hungary), from the Old High German name Emmerich, which may have been a merger of several Germanic names – Amalric, Ermanaric and Old High German "Haimirich", from Proto-Germanic "*amala-" ('vigor, bravery'), "*ermuna-" ('great; whole') or "*haima-" ('home') + "*rīk-" ('ruler') (compare "*Haimarīks").


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Amerigo Vespucci (March 9, 1454February 22, 1512) was an Italian explorer, financier, navigator and cartographer who may have been the first to assert that the West Indies and corresponding mainland were not part of Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus's voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to the Europeans.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Vespucci was apparently unaware of the use of his name to refer to the new landmass, as Waldseemüller's maps did not reach Spain until a few years after his death. Ringmann may have been misled into crediting Vespucci by the widely published Soderini Letter, a sensationalized version of one of Vespucci's actual letters reporting on the mapping of the South American coast, which glamorized his discoveries and implied that he had recognized that South America was a continent separate from Asia. Spain officially refused to accept the name "America" for two centuries, saying that Columbus should get credit, and Waldseemüller's later maps, after Ringmann's death, did not include it; in 1513 he labelled it "Terra Incognita" with a note about Columbus's discovery of the land.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Following Waldseemüller, the Swiss scholar Heinrich Glarean included the name America in a 1528 work of geography published in Basel. There, four years later, the German scholar Simon Grinaeus published a map, which Hans Holbein and Sebastian Münster (who had made sketches of Waldseemüller's 1507 map) contributed to; this labelled the continent America Terra Nova (America, the New Land). In 1534, Joachim von Watt labelled it simply America. Gerardus Mercator applied the names North and South America on his influential 1538 world map; by this point, the naming was irrevocable. Acceptance may have been aided by the "natural poetic counterpart" that the name "America" made with "Asia, Africa," and "Europa".


title: Naming of the Americas

text: In 1874, Thomas Belt published the indigenous name of the Amerrisque Mountains in present-day Nicaragua. The next year, Jules Marcou suggested a derivation of the continent's name from this mountain range. Marcou corresponded with Augustus Le Plongeon, who wrote: "The name AMERICA or AMERRIQUE in the Mayan language means, a country of perpetually strong wind, or the Land of the Wind, and ... the [suffixes] can mean ... a spirit that breathes, life itself."


title: Naming of the Americas

text: In this view, native speakers shared this indigenous word with Columbus and members of his crew, and Columbus made landfall in the vicinity of these mountains on his fourth voyage. The name America then spread via oral means throughout Europe relatively quickly even reaching Waldseemüller, who was preparing a map of newly reported lands for publication in 1507. Waldseemüller's work in the area of denomination takes on a different aspect in this view. Jonathan Cohen of "Stony Brook University" writes:The baptismal passage in the "Cosmographiae Introductio" has commonly been read as argument, in which the author said that he was naming the newly discovered continent in honor of Vespucci and saw no reason for objections. But, as etymologist Joy Rea has suggested, it could also be read as an explanation, in which he indicates that he has heard the New World was called America, and the only explanation lay in Vespucci's name.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Among the reasons which proponents give in adopting this theory include the recognition of, in Cohen's words, "the simple fact that place names usually originate informally in the spoken word and first circulate that way, not in the printed word". In addition, Waldseemüller not only is exonerated from the charge of having arrogated to himself the privilege of naming lands, which privilege was reserved to monarchs and explorers, but also is freed from the charge of violating the long-established and virtually inviolable ancient European tradition of using only the first name of royal individuals as opposed to the last name of commoners (such as Vespucci) in bestowing names to lands.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Bristol antiquarian Alfred Hudd suggested in 1908 that the name was derived from the surname "Amerike" or "ap Meryk" and was used on early British maps that have since been lost. Richard ap Meryk, anglicised to Richard Amerike (or Ameryk) ( 1445–1503) was a wealthy Anglo-Welsh merchant, royal customs officer and sheriff of Bristol. According to some historians, he was the principal owner of the "Matthew", the ship sailed by John Cabot during his voyage of exploration to North America in 1497. The idea that Richard Amerike was a 'principal supporter' of Cabot has gained popular currency in the 21st century. There is no known evidence to support this. Similarly, and contrary to a recent tradition that names Amerike as principal owner and main funder of the "Matthew", Cabot's ship of 1497, academic enquiry does not connect Amerike with the ship. Her ownership at that date remains uncertain. Macdonald asserts that the caravel was specifically built for the Atlantic crossing.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Hudd proposed his theory in a paper which was read at the 21 May 1908 meeting of the Clifton Antiquarian Club, and which appeared in Volume 7 of the club's "Proceedings". In "Richard Ameryk and the name America," Hudd discussed the 1497 discovery of North America by John Cabot, an Italian who had sailed on behalf of England. Upon his return to England after his first (1497) and second (1498–1499) voyages, Cabot received two pension payments from Henry VII. Of the two customs officials at the Port of Bristol who were responsible for delivering the money to Cabot, the more senior was Richard Ameryk (High Sheriff of Bristol in 1503). Hudd postulated that Cabot named the land that he had discovered after Ameryk, from whom he received the pension conferred by the king. He stated that Cabot had a reputation for being free with gifts to his friends, such that his expression of gratitude to the official would not be unexpected. Hudd also thought it unlikely that America would have been named after Vespucci's given name rather than his family name. Hudd used a quote from a late 15th-century manuscript (a calendar of Bristol events), the original of which had been lost in an 1860 Bristol fire, that indicated the name America was already known in Bristol in 1497. Hudd reasoned that the scholars of the 1507 "Cosmographiae Introductio", unfamiliar with Richard Ameryk, assumed that the name America, which he claimed had been in use for ten years, was based on Amerigo Vespucci and, therefore, mistakenly transferred the honour from Ameryk to Vespucci. While Hudd's speculation has found support from some authors, there is no strong evidence to substantiate his theory that Cabot named America after Richard Ameryk.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: Moreover, because Amerike's coat of arms was similar to the flag later adopted by the independent United States, a legend grew that the North American continent had been named for him rather than for Amerigo Vespucci. It is not widely accepted - the origin is usually attributed to the flag of the British East India Company.


title: Naming of the Americas

text: In 1977, the World Council of Indigenous Peoples (Consejo Mundial de Pueblos Indígenas) proposed using the term Abya Yala instead of "America" when referring to the continent. There are also names in other indigenous languages such as Ixachitlan and Runa Pacha. Some scholars have adopted the term as an objection to colonialism.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) is a small, leaf-nosed bat native to Latin America. It is one of three extant species of vampire bat, the other two being the hairy-legged and the white-winged vampire bats. The common vampire bat practices hematophagy, mainly feeding on the blood of livestock. The bat usually approaches its prey at night while they are sleeping. It then uses its razor-sharp teeth to cut open the skin of its hosts and lap up their blood with its long tongue.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The species is highly polygynous, and dominant adult males defend groups of females. It is one of the most social of bat species with a number of cooperative behaviors such as social grooming and food sharing. Because it feeds on livestock and is a carrier of rabies, the common vampire bat is considered a pest. Its conservation status is categorized as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) because of "its wide distribution, presumed large population tolerance of a degree of habitat modification, and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category."


title: Common vampire bat

text: The common vampire bat was first described as "Phyllostoma rotundum" by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1810. Another description was published in 1826 as a new species "Desmodus rufus" by Maximilian Wied, in the second volume of his work detailing his explorations in Brazil, erecting a new genus "Desmodus".


title: Common vampire bat

text: The species received several scientific names before being given its current one—"Desmodus rotundus"—by Oldfield Thomas in 1901. It is classified under the subfamily Desmodontinae along with two other species: the hairy-legged vampire bat ("Diphylla ecaudata"), and the white-winged vampire bat ("Diaemus youngi"). These three species compose the "true" vampire bats, as opposed to the "false" vampires of the family Megadermatidae and the spectral bat. All three species of Desmodontinae specialize in feeding on the blood of warm-blooded animals. However, the common vampire bat feeds on mammalian blood more than the other two species, which primarily feed on that of birds. The three species resemble each other, but the common vampire bat can be distinguished by its longer thumb. It is the only extant member of its genus, although other fossil species have been described. It has a haploid number of 14, for a karyotype of 28 chromosomes.


title: Common vampire bat

text: A description published under the name "Desmodus puntajudensi" (Cuban vampire bat) by Woloszyn and Mayo in 1974 was later recognized as synonymous with this species.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The common vampire bat is short-haired, with silver-gray fur on its undersides, demarcated from the darker fur on its back. It has a deeply grooved lower lip, and a flat, leaf-shaped nose. A well-developed, clawed thumb on each wing is used to climb onto prey and to assist the animal in take-off. The bat averages about 9 cm (3.5 in) long with a wingspan of 18 cm (7 in). It commonly weighs about 25–40  grams (2 oz), but its weight can drastically increase after a single feeding. The braincase is relatively large, but the snout is reduced to accommodate large incisors and canines. It has the fewest teeth among bats. The upper incisors lack enamel, which keeps them razor-sharp. Its dental formula is , for a total of 18 teeth.


title: Common vampire bat

text: While most other bats have almost completely lost the ability to maneuver on land, vampire bats are an exception. They can run using a unique, bounding gait in which the forelimbs are used instead of the hindlimbs to propel forward, as the wings are much more powerful than the legs. This ability likely evolved independently within the bat lineage. Three pads under the thumb function like a sole. It is also capable of leaping in various directions, heights, and distances. When making a jump, the bat pushes up with its pectoral limbs. The hindlimbs keep the body over the pectoral limbs which are stabilized by the thumbs.


title: Common vampire bat

text: Common vampire bats have good eyesight. They are able to distinguish different optical patterns and may use vision for long-range orientation. These bats also have well-developed senses of smell and hearing: the cochlea is highly sensitive to low-frequency acoustics, and the nasal passages are relatively large. They emit echolocation signals orally, and thus fly with their mouths open for navigation. They can identify a metal strip wide at a distance of , which is moderate compared to other bats.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The common vampire bat is found in parts of Mexico, Central America, and South America, as well as the Caribbean islands of Margarita and Trinidad. They can be found as far north as south of the Mexico–United States border. Fossils of this species have been found in Florida and states bordering Mexico. The common vampire is the most common bat species in southeastern Brazil. The southern extent of its range is Uruguay, northern Argentina, and central Chile. In the West Indies, the bat is only found on Trinidad. It prefers warm and humid climates, and uses tropical and subtropical woodlands and open grasslands for foraging. Bats roost in trees, caves, abandoned buildings, old wells, and mines. Vampire bats will roost with about 45 other bat species, and tend to be the most dominant at roosting sites. They occupy the darkest and highest places in the roosts; when they leave, other bat species move in to take over these vacated spots.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The common vampire bat feeds primarily on mammalian blood, particularly that of livestock such as cattle and horses. Vampire bats feed on wild prey like the tapir, but seem to prefer domesticated animals, and favor horses over cattle when given the choice. Female animals, particularly those in estrus, are more often targeted than males. This could be because of the hormones.


title: Common vampire bat

text: Vampire bats hunt at night, using echolocation and olfaction to track down prey. They feed in a distance of from their roosts. When a bat selects a target, it lands on it, or jumps up onto it from the ground, usually targeting the rump, flank, or neck of its prey; heat sensors in the nose help it to detect blood vessels near the surface of the skin. It pierces the animal's skin with its teeth, biting away a small flap, and laps up the blood with its tongue, which has lateral grooves adapted to this purpose. The blood is kept from clotting by an anticoagulant in the saliva.


title: Common vampire bat

text: They are protective of their host and will fend off other bats while feeding. It is uncommon for two or more bats to feed on the same host, with the exception of mothers and their offspring.


title: Common vampire bat

text: During estrus, a female releases one egg. Mating usually lasts three to four minutes; the male bat mounts the female from the posterior end, grasps her back with his teeth, holds down her folded wings, and inseminates her. Vampire bats are reproductively active year-round, although the number of conceptions and births peak in the rainy season. Females give birth to one offspring per pregnancy, following a gestation period of about seven months. The young are raised primarily by the females. Mothers leave their young to hunt, and call their young to feed upon returning. The young accompany their mothers to hunt at six months, but are not fully weaned until nine months. Female offspring usually remain in their natal groups into adulthood, unless their mothers die or move. The occasional movements of unrelated females between groups leads to the formation of multiple matrilines within groups. Male offspring tend to live in their natal groups until they are one to two years old, sometimes being forced out by the resident adult males.


title: Common vampire bat

text: Regurgitated food sharing in common vampire bats has been studied in both the lab and field, and is predicted by kinship, association, and reciprocal help In a field study conducted in Costa Rica from 1978 to 1983, vampire bats frequently switched between several roost trees and co-roosted with kin and non-kin. Mean genetic kinship within roosting groups was low (r = 0.03 − 0.11), but 95% of food sharing observed in the wild occurred between close kin (first cousins or higher). Most observed food sharing (70%) was mothers feeding their pups. The non-maternal sharing events were kin-biased suggesting that vampire bats prefer to help relatives. However, non-maternal food sharing is even better explained by frequency of interaction, even after controlling for kinship. Food sharing was only observed when the co-roosting association was greater than 60%. Food sharing appears to require social bonds that require development over long periods of time. Among familiar bats, the amount of food given from bat A to bat B is best predicted by the amount of food given from bat B to A. Reciprocal sharing is most obvious over longer time spans as found in primate cooperation.


title: Common vampire bat

text: Vampire bats also participate in mutual grooming; two bats groom each other simultaneously to clean one another, and to strengthen social bonds. Bats that groom one another also share food. It was suggested that while grooming, a bat might assess the size of its partner's abdomen to determine if it really needs to eat.


title: Common vampire bat

text: According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, most bats in the US do not have rabies. For example, even among bats submitted for rabies testing because they could be captured, were obviously weak or sick, or had been captured by a cat, only about 6% had rabies. However, of the few cases of rabies reported in the United States every year, most are caused by bat bites.


title: Common vampire bat

text: The highest occurrence of rabies in vampire bats occurs in the large populations found in South America. The danger is not so much to the human population, but rather to livestock. Joseph Lennox Pawan, a government bacteriologist in Trinidad, found the first infected vampire bat in March 1932. He soon proved various species of bat, including the common vampire bat, are capable of transmitting rabies for an extended period of time without artificial infection or external symptoms. Fruit bats of the genus "Artibeus" were later shown to demonstrate the same abilities. During this asymptomatic stage, the bats continue to behave normally and breed. At first, Pawan's finding that bats transmitted rabies to people and animals were thought fantastic and were ridiculed.


title: Common vampire bat

text: Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes them more likely to come into contact with humans. There is evidence that it is possible for the rabies virus to infect a host purely through airborne transmission, without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat. Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats, one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. Medical attention should be given to any person who awakens to discover a vampire bat in their sleeping quarters. It is possible that young children may not fully awaken due to the presence of a bat (or its bite).


title: Common vampire bat

text: The unique properties of the vampire bats' saliva have found some positive use in medicine. A genetically engineered drug called desmoteplase, which uses the anticoagulant properties of the saliva of "Desmodus rotundus", has been shown to increase blood flow in stroke patients.


title: Leave the World Behind (film)

text: Leave the World Behind is an upcoming psychological thriller film written, directed and produced by Sam Esmail, based on the novel of the same name by Rumaan Alam.


title: Leave the World Behind (film)

text: Due to strange events occurring in the city, a black family return to their summer cottage, which they have rented to a white family. As the strange events continue outside, tensions between the families rise.


title: Leave the World Behind (film)

text: Netflix won a bidding war for the rights to the novel in July 2020, with Sam Esmail directing and writing the film. Julia Roberts and Denzel Washington are set to star in and produce the film.


title: Leave the World Behind (film)

text: In September 2021, Mahershala Ali had been cast in the film, replacing Washington who had exited by that point. Ethan Hawke and Myha'la Herrold would join in January 2022.


title: Leave the World Behind (film)

text: Filming began in April 2022 on Long Island. There was additional filming in Katonah, New York on May 19th, 2022.


title: Sexual frustration

text: Sexual frustration is a sense of dissatisfaction stemming from a discrepancy between a person's desired and achieved sexual activity. It may result from physical, mental, emotional, social, and religious or spiritual barriers. It may also derive from not being satisfied during sex, which may be due to issues such as anorgasmia, anaphrodisia, premature ejaculation, delayed ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, or an incompatibility or discrepancy (or self-sensed feeling of discrepancy) in libido. It may also relate to broader existential frustration.


title: Sexual frustration

text: Sexual frustration can result from an individual's lacking one or more of the organs needed for achieving sexual release. This may occur when a male is born without a penis or has it removed, or when a female's clitoris is removed for cultural or medical reasons.


title: Sexual frustration

text: Historical methods of dealing with sexual frustration have included fasting and the taking of libido suppressants such as anaphrodisiacs (food supplements) or antaphrodisiacs (medicinal supplements). Sexual frustration can be pertinent despite an individual being sexually active, as may be the case for example with sexually active hypersexual people. Sexual frustration has been shown to be a natural stage of the development throughout youth, when going through puberty as a teenager.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The commonly shortened to the Famicom Disk System or just Disk System, is a peripheral for Nintendo's Family Computer home video game console, released only in Japan on February 21, 1986. It uses proprietary floppy disks called "Disk Cards" for cheaper data storage and it adds a new high-fidelity sound channel for supporting Disk System games.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Fundamentally, the Disk System serves simply to enhance some aspects already inherent to the base Famicom system, with better sound and cheaper gamesthough with the disadvantages of high initial price, slow speed, and lower reliability. However, this boost to the market of affordable and writable mass storage temporarily served as an enabling technology for the creation of new types of video games. This includes the vast, open world, progress-saving adventures of the best-selling "The Legend of Zelda" (1986) and "Metroid" (1986), games with a cost-effective and swift release such as the best-selling "", and nationwide leaderboards and contests via the in-store Disk Fax kiosks, which are considered to be forerunners of today's online achievement and distribution systems.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: By 1989, the Famicom Disk System was inevitably obsoleted by the improving semiconductor technology of game cartridges. The Disk System's lifetime sales reached 4.4 million units by 1990, making it the most successful console add-on of all time, despite not being sold outside of Japan. Its final game was released in 1992, its software was discontinued in 2003, and Nintendo officially discontinued its technical support in 2007.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: By 1985, Nintendo's Family Computer was dominating the Japanese home video game market, selling over three million units within a year and a half. Because of its success, the company had difficulty with keeping up demand for new stock, often getting flooded with calls from retailers asking for more systems. Retailers also requested for cheaper games; the cost of chips and semiconductors made cartridges expensive to make, and often cost a lot of money for both stores and consumers to purchase. Chip shortages also created supply issues. To satisfy these requests, Nintendo began thinking of ways to potentially lower the cost of games. It turned towards the home computer market for inspiration; Nintendo specifically looked to floppy disks which were quickly becoming the standard for storage media for personal computers. Floppy disks were cheap to produce and rewritable, allowing games to be easily produced during the manufacturing process. Seeing its potential, Nintendo began work on a disk-based peripheral for the Famicom.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: For its proprietary diskette platform, which they dubbed the "Disk Card", Nintendo chose to base it on Mitsumi's Quick Disk media format, a cheaper alternative to floppy disks for Japanese home computers. The Disk Card format presented a number of advantages over cartridges, such as increased storage capacity that allowed for larger games, additional sound channels, and the ability to save player progress. The add-on itself was produced by Masayuki Uemura and Nintendo Research & Development 2, the same team that designed the Famicom itself. Following several delays, the Famicom Disk System was released on February 21, 1986, at a retail price of ¥15000 (US$80). The same day, Nintendo released "The Legend of Zelda" as a launch title, alongside disk re-releases of earlier Famicom games. Marketing material for the Disk System featured a yellow mascot character named Diskun, or Mr. Disk. The Famicom Disk System sold over 300,000 units within three months, jumping to over 2 million by the end of the year. Nintendo remained confident the Disk System would be a sure-fire success, and ensured that all future first-party releases would be exclusive to the peripheral.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Coinciding with the Disk System's release, Nintendo installed several "Disk Writer" kiosks in various toy and electronic stores across the country. These kiosks allowed customers to bring in their disk games and have a new game rewritten onto them for a ¥500 fee; blank disks could also be purchased for ¥2000. Nintendo also introduced special high-score tournaments for specific Disk System games, where players could submit their scores directly to Nintendo via "Disk Fax" machines found in retail stores. Winners would receive exclusive prizes, including Famicom-branded stationary sets and a gold-colored "Punch-Out!!" cartridge. Nintendo of America announced plans to release the Disk System for the Famicom's international counterpart, the Nintendo Entertainment System, however these plans were eventually scrapped.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Despite the Famicom Disk System's success and advantages over the Famicom itself, it also imposed many problems of its own. Most common was the quality of the Disk Cards; Nintendo removed the shutters on most Disk System games to reduce costs, instead placing them in a wax sleeve and clear plastic shell. The disks themselves are fragile, and the lack of a shutter made them collect dust and fingerprints, eventually rendering them unplayable as a result. Piracy was also rampant, with disk copying devices and bootleg games becoming commonplace in stores and in magazine advertisements. Third-party developers for the Disk System were also angered towards Nintendo's strict licensing terms, requiring that it receive 50% copyright ownership of any and all software released — this led to several major developers, such as Namco and Hudson Soft, refusing to produce games for it. Four months after the Disk System was released, Capcom released a Famicom conversion of "Ghosts 'n Goblins" on a 128k cartridge - larger than the Disk Card's 112k capacity - which, as a result, made consumers and developers less impressed with the Disk System's technological features. Retailers disliked the Disk Writer kiosks for taking up too much space and for generally being unprofitable. The Disk System's vague error messages, long loading times, and the poor quality of the rubber drive belt that spun the disks are also cited as attributing to its downfall.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: By 1989, advancements in technology made cartridge games much cheaper and easier to produce, leaving the Famicom Disk System obsolete. Retailers were critical of Nintendo simply abandoning the Disk Writers and leaving stores with large kiosks that took up vital space, while companies began to release or move their games from the Disk System to a standard cartridge; towards the end of development, Squaresoft ported "Final Fantasy" over to the Famicom as a cartridge game, with its own battery backup save feature. Nintendo officially discontinued the Famicom Disk System in 1990, selling around 4.4 million units total. Disk writing services were still kept in operation until 2003, while technical services were serviced up until 2007.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Widespread copyright violation in Japan's predominantly personal-computer-based game rental market inspired corporations to petition the government to ban the rental of all video games in 1984. With games then being available only via full purchase, demand rose for a new and less expensive way to access more games. In 1986, as video gaming had increasingly expanded from computers into the video game console market, Nintendo advertised a promise to install 10,000 Famicom Disk Writer kiosks in toy and hobby stores across Japan within one year. These jukebox style stations allowed users to copy from a rotating stock of the latest games to their disks and keep each one for an unlimited time. To write an existing disk with a new game from the available roster was (then about and 1/6 of the price of many new games). Instruction sheets were given by the retailer, or available by mail order for . Some game releases, such as "Kaette Kita Mario Bros.", were exclusive to these kiosks.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: In 1987, Disk Writer kiosks in select locations were also provisioned as Disk Fax systems as Nintendo's first online concept. Players could take advantage of the dynamic rewritability of blue floppy disk versions of Disk System games (such as "" and "Golf Japan Course") in order to save their high scores at their leisure at home, and then bring the disk to a retailer's Disk Fax kiosk, which collated and transmitted the players' scores via fax to Nintendo. Players participated in a nationwide leaderboard, with unique prizes.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The kiosk service was very popular and remained available until 2003. In subsequent console generations, Nintendo would relaunch this online national leaderboard concept with the home satellite-based Satellaview subscription service in Japan from 1995-2000 for the Super Famicom. It would relaunch the model of games downloadable to rewritable portable media from store kiosks, with the Nintendo Power service in Japan which is based on rewritable flash media cartridges for the Super Famicom and Game Boy from 1997–2007.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Calling the Disk Writer "one of the coolest things Nintendo ever created", Kotaku says modern "digital distribution could learn from [Disk Writer]", and that the system's premise of game rental and achievements would still be innovative in today's retail and online stores. "NintendoLife" said it "was truly ground-breaking for its time and could be considered a forerunner of more modern distribution methods [such as] Xbox Live Arcade, PlayStation Network, and Steam".


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The device is connected to the Famicom console by plugging its RAM Adapter cartridge into the system's cartridge port, and attaching that cartridge's cable to the disk drive. The RAM Adapter contains 32 kilobytes (KB) of RAM for temporarily caching program data from disk, 8 KB of RAM for tile and sprite data storage, and an ASIC named the 2C33. The ASIC acts as a disk controller, plus single-cycle wavetable-lookup synthesizer sound hardware. Finally, embedded in the 2C33 is an 8KB BIOS ROM. The Disk Cards used are double-sided, with a total capacity of 112 KB per disk. Many games span both sides of a disk and a few span multiple disks, requiring the user to switch at some point during gameplay. The Disk System is capable of running on six C-cell batteries or the supplied AC adapter. Batteries usually last five months with daily game play. The inclusion of a battery option is due to the likelihood of a standard set of AC plugs already being occupied by a Famicom and a television.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The Disk System's Disk Cards are somewhat proprietary 71 mm × 76 mm (2.8 × 3 in) 56K-per-side double-sided floppy. They are a slight modification of Mitsumi's Quick Disk 71 mm 2.8 in square disk format which is used in a handful of Japanese computers and various synthesizer keyboards, along with a few word processors. QuickDisk drives are in a few devices in Europe and North America. Mitsumi already had close relations with Nintendo, as it manufactured the Famicom and NES consoles, and possibly other Nintendo hardware.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Modifications to the standard Quick Disk format include the "NINTENDO" moulding along the bottom of each Disk Card. In addition to branding the disk, this acts as a rudimentary form of copy protection - a device inside the drive bay contains raised protrusions which fit into their recessed counterparts, ostensibly ensuring that only official disks are used. If a disk without these recessed areas is inserted, the protrusions cannot raise, and the system will not allow the game to be loaded. This was combined with technical measures in the way data was stored on the disk to prevent users from physically swapping copied disk media into an official shell. However, both of these measures were defeated by pirate game distributors; in particular, special disks with cutouts alongside simple devices to modify standard Quick Disks were produced to defeat the physical hardware check, enabling rampant piracy. An advertisement containing a guide for a simple modification to a Quick Disk to allow its use with a Famicom Disk System was printed in at least one magazine.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: There are about 200 games in the Famicom Disk System's library. Some are FDS exclusives, some are Disk Writer exclusives, and many were re-released years later on the cartridge format such as "The Legend of Zelda" for NES in 1987 and for Famicom in 1994. The most notable FDS originals include "The Legend of Zelda", "", "Kid Icarus", "Metroid", and "Akumajō Dracula" ("Castlevania").


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Square Co., Ltd. had a branch called Disk Original Group, a software label that published Disk System games from Japanese PC software companies. The venture was largely a failure and almost pushed a pre-"Final Fantasy" Square into bankruptcy. "Final Fantasy" was to be released for the FDS, but a disagreement over Nintendo's copyright policies caused Square to change its position and release the game as a cartridge.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Nintendo released a disk version of "Super Mario Bros." in addition to the cartridge version. The Western-market "Super Mario Bros. 2" originated from a disk-only game called "".


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Nintendo utilized the cheaper and more dynamic disk medium for a Disk Writer exclusive, as an early advergame. "Kaettekita Mario Bros." (lit. The Return of Mario Bros.) is a remastered version of "Mario Bros." with enhanced jump controls and high score saving, plus a new slot machine minigame co-branded for the Nagatanien food company.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The final FDS game release was "Janken Disk Jō" in December 1992, a rock paper scissors game featuring the Disk System mascot, Disk-kun.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: The Famicom Disk System briefly served as an enabling technology for the creation of a new wave of home console video games and a new type of video game experience, mostly due to tripling the size of cheap game storage compared to affordable cartridge ROMs, and by storing gamers' progress within their vast new adventures. These games include the open world design and enduring series launches of "The Legend of Zelda" (1986) and "Metroid" (1986), with its launch game "Zelda" becoming very popular and leading to sequels which are considered some of the greatest games of all time. Almost one decade ahead of Nintendo's Satellaview service, the FDS's writable and portable storage technology served as an enabling technology for the innovation of online leaderboards and contests via the in-store Disk Fax kiosks, which are now seen as the earliest forerunners of modern online gaming and distribution.


title: Famicom Disk System

text: Within its library of 200 original games, some are FDS-exclusive and many were re-released one or two years later on cartridges for Famicom and NES, though without the FDS's additional sound channel.


title: Ofuda

text: In Shinto and Buddhism in Japan, an is a talisman made out of various materials such as paper, wood, cloth or metal. are commonly found in both Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples and are considered to be imbued with the power of the deities () or Buddhist figures revered therein. Such amulets are also called .


title: Ofuda

text: Certain kinds of are intended for a specific purpose (such as protection against calamity or misfortune, safety within the home, or finding love) and may be kept on one's person or placed on other areas of the home (such as gates, doorways, kitchens, or ceilings). Paper may also be referred to as , while those made of wood may be called . , another kind of Japanese amulet, originated and may be considered as a smaller, portable version of .


title: Ofuda

text: A specific type of is a talisman issued by a Shinto shrine on which is written the name of the shrine or its enshrined and stamped with the shrine's seal. Such , also called , or , are often placed on household Shinto altars () and revered both as a symbol of the shrine and its deity (or deities) – containing the 's essence or power by virtue of its consecration – and a medium through which the in question can be accessed by the worshiper. In this regard they are somewhat similar to (but not the same as) , physical objects which serve as repositories for in Shinto shrines.


title: Ofuda

text: In a similar vein, Buddhist are regarded as imbued with the spirit and the virtue of buddhas, bodhisattvas, or other revered figures of the Buddhist pantheon, essentially functioning in many cases as a more economic alternative to Buddhist icons and statuary.


title: Ofuda

text: The practice of creating originated from Onmyōdō – which adopted elements of Daoism – and Buddhism. Indeed, such and were heavily influenced by the Daoist . Later, similar talismans also came to be produced at Shinto shrines. The three shrines of Kumano in Wakayama Prefecture were particularly famous for their paper talisman, the , also known as the , which were stamped on one side with intricate designs of stylized crows. During the medieval period, these and similar produced by other shrines were often employed in oath taking and contract drafting, with the terms of the oath or agreement being written on the blank side of the sheet.


title: Ofuda

text: The currently found in most Shinto shrines meanwhile are modeled after the talisman issued by the Grand Shrines of Ise (Ise Jingū) called . were originally that wandering preachers associated with the shrines of handed out to devotees across the country as a sign and guarantee that prayers were conducted on their behalf. These wands, called , were contained either in packets of folded paper – in which case they are called (also ), due to the packet's shape resembling a – or in boxes called . The widespread distribution of first began in the Muromachi period and reached its peak in the Edo period: a document dating from 1777 (An'ei 6) indicates that eighty-nine to ninety percent of all households in the country at the time owned an Ise talisman.


title: Ofuda

text: In 1871, an imperial decree abolished the and allotted the production and distribution of the amulets, now renamed , to the shrine's administrative offices. It was around this time that the talisman's most widely known form – a wooden tablet containing a sliver of cedar wood known as wrapped in paper on which is printed the shrine's name () and stamped with the seals of the shrine () and its high priest () – developed. In 1900, a new department, the , took over production and distribution duties. The distribution of was eventually delegated to the in 1927 and finally to its successor, the Association of Shinto Shrines, after World War II. The Association nowadays continues to disseminate to affiliated shrines throughout Japan, where they are made available alongside the shrines' own amulets.


title: Ofuda

text: come in a variety of forms. Some are slips or sheets of paper, others like the are thin rectangular plaques () enclosed in an envelope-like casing (which may further be covered in translucent wrapping paper), while still others are wooden tablets () which may be smaller or larger than regular . Some shrines distribute , which consists of a sliver of wood placed inside a fold of paper. The issued by the shrines of Ise before the Meiji period were usually in the form of ; while the variety is currently more widespread, of the type are still distributed in Ise Shrine.


title: Ofuda

text: In a altar, the is placed in the middle, with the of one's local on its left (observer's right) and the of one's favourite shrine on its right (observer's left). Alternatively, in a , the three talismans are laid on top of one another, with the on the front. One may own more ; these are placed on either side of or behind the aforementioned three. Regular (preferably daily) worship before the or and offerings of rice, salt, water, and/or to the (with additional foodstuffs being offered on special occasions) are recommended. The manner of worship is similar to those performed in shrines: two bows, two claps, and a final bow, though a prayer () – also preceded by two bows – may be recited before this.


title: Ofuda

text: Other are placed in other parts of the house. For instance, of patron deities of the hearth – Sanbō-Kōjin in Buddhism, (the 'Three Deities of the Hearth': Kagutsuchi, Okitsuhiko and Okitsuhime) in Shinto – are placed in the kitchen. In toilets, a talisman of the Buddhist wrathful deity Ucchuṣma (Ususama Myōō), who is believed to purify the unclean, may be installed. Protective such as , a depiction of the Tendai monk Ryōgen in the form of a yaksha or an are placed on doorways or entrances.


title: Ofuda

text: Japanese spirituality lays great importance on purity and pristineness (), especially of things related to the divine. It is for this reason that periodic (usually annual) replacement of and are encouraged. It is customary to obtain new before the end of the year at the earliest or during the New Year season, though (as with ) one may purchase one at other times of the year as well. While ideally, old and are to be returned to the shrine or temple where they were obtained as a form of thanksgiving, most Shinto shrines in practice accept talismans from other shrines. (Buddhist are however not accepted in many shrines and vice versa.) Old and are burned in a ceremony known either as or , also or ) held during the Little New Year (January 14th or 15th), the end of the Japanese New Year season.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: The film is a series of vignettes following the daily lives of the Yamada family: Takashi and Matsuko (the father and mother), Shige (Matsuko's mother), Noboru (aged approximately 13, the son), Nonoko (aged approximately 7, the daughter), and Pochi (the family dog).


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: Each of the vignettes is preceded by a title such as "Father as Role Model", "A Family Torn Apart" or "Patriarchal Supremacy Restored". These vignettes cover such issues as losing a child in a department store, the relationships between father and son, or husband and wife, the wisdom of age, meeting one's first girlfriend and many more. Each is presented with humour, presenting a very believable picture of family life which crosses cultural boundaries. The relationships between Matsuko, Takashi and Shige are particularly well observed, with Shige giving advice and proverbs to all the family members, and having a great strength of character. Takashi and Matsuko's relationship is often the focus of the episodes, their rivalries, such as arguing about who has control of the television, their frustrations and their difficulties, but the overriding theme is their love for one another despite their flaws, and their desire to be the best parents possible for their children.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: Based on the yonkoma manga "Nono-chan" by Hisaichi Ishii, it is the first completely digital Studio Ghibli film. Takahata wanted "Yamada-kun" to have the art style of watercolor pictures rather than cel pictures. To achieve that, the traditional paint-on-cel techniques were replaced with digital technology, making "Yamada-kun" the first Ghibli film to have animation drawings painted entirely on computers.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: The soundtrack was composed by Akiko Yano and it is characterised by very short piano themes, rather than the long orchestral themes composed by Joe Hisaishi, further adding to the film's distinction from the rest of Ghibli's filmography. Classical pieces played by Czech Philharmonic Chamber Orchestra conducted by Mario Klemens.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: The film was released in Japan on July 17, 1999. It was the only film produced by Ghibli to not be released by Toho or the Toei Company. It is one of only two films from Miyazaki or Takahata to be distributed by neither company, the other being "Gauche the Cellist".


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: The film received positive reviews, with praise to its unique visual style, humor and its observational look at modern Japanese suburban family life. On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes, "My Neighbors the Yamadas" has an approval rating of 78% based on 8 reviews and an average rating of 7.1/10. Ryan Lambie of "Den of Geek" awarded the film four stars and said, "Anyone expecting the soaring beauty of a typical Studio Ghibli production will probably be a little bemused by the mundanity of the Yamadas’ existence, but there’s a soothing calm to their daily struggles, a haiku-like sense of tranquillity." "Empire" rated it four stars and described the film as "an episodic piece that swaps narrative through-lines for a string of comedic observations on family dynamics. Witty, playful and gorgeous to look at." Sam Sewell-Peterson of "The Film Magazine" praised the film's visuals and called it "a soothing balm, a leisurely and pleasant look at domestic mundanity.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: Despite the positive reviews, the film did not fare as well at the box office in Japan as other Ghibli films had done.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: The movie was released on VHS and DVD in Japan by Buena Vista Home Entertainment Japan on November 17, 2000. It is the first Studio Ghibli movie to be released on DVD.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: "My Neighbors the Yamadas" was released on DVD in America on August 16, 2005, alongside another Takahata film, "Pom Poko" by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. A Blu-ray version was released in Japan in 2010, and in the UK the following year. The US never got a Blu-ray release by Disney, but GKIDS released the film on Blu-ray for the first time in the US, as well as re-issuing the DVD under a new deal with Studio Ghibli on January 16, 2018.


title: My Neighbors the Yamadas

text: "My Neighbors the Yamadas" received an Excellence Award for animation at the 1999 Japan Media Arts Festival.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB), or lunar cataclysm, is a hypothesized event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years (Ga) ago, at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth. According to the hypothesis, during this interval, a disproportionately large number of asteroids and comets collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System, including Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These came from both post-accretion and planetary instability-driven populations of impactors. Although widely accepted, it remains difficult to prove conclusively.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Evidence for the LHB derives from rock samples of Moon craters brought back by the Apollo astronauts. Isotopic dating showed that the rocks were last molten during impact events in a rather narrow interval of time, suggesting that a large proportion of craters were formed during this period. Several hypotheses attempt to explain this apparent spike in the flux of impactors in the inner Solar System, but no consensus yet exists. The Nice model, popular among planetary scientists, postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration, scattering objects from the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt, or both, into eccentric orbits, and into the path of the terrestrial planets.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Other researchers doubt the heavy bombardment, arguing that the apparent clustering of lunar impact-melt ages is a statistical artifact produced by sampling rocks scattered from a single large impact. They also note that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar System.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The main piece of evidence for a lunar cataclysm comes from the radiometric ages of impact melt rocks that were collected during the Apollo missions. The majority of these impact melts are thought to have formed during the collision of asteroids or comets tens of kilometres across, forming impact craters hundreds of kilometres in diameter. The Apollo 15, 16, and 17 landing sites were chosen as a result of their proximity to the Imbrium, Nectaris, and Serenitatis basins, respectively.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The apparent clustering of ages of these impact melts, between about 3.8 and 4.1 Ga, led to postulation that the ages record an intense bombardment of the Moon. They called it the "lunar cataclysm" and proposed that it represented a dramatic increase in the rate of bombardment of the Moon around 3.9 Ga.If these impact melts were derived from these three basins, then not only did these three prominent impact basins form within a short interval of time, but so did many others based on stratigraphic grounds. At the time, the hypothesis was considered controversial.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: As more data has become available, particularly from lunar meteorites, this hypothesis, while still controversial, has become more popular. The lunar meteorites are thought to randomly sample the lunar surface, and at least some of these should have originated from regions far from the Apollo landing sites. Many of the feldspathic lunar meteorites probably originated from the lunar far side, and impact melts within these have recently been dated. Consistent with the cataclysm hypothesis, none of their ages was found to be older than about 3.9 Ga. Nevertheless, the ages do not "cluster" at this date, but span between 2.5 and 3.9 Ga.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Dating of howardite, eucrite and diogenite (HED) meteorites and H chondrite meteorites originating from the asteroid belt reveal numerous ages from 3.4–4.1 Ga and an earlier peak at 4.5 Ga. The 3.4–4.1 Ga ages has been interpreted as representing an increase in impact velocities as computer simulations using hydrocode reveal that the volume of impact melt increases 100–1,000 times as the impact velocity increases from the current asteroid belt average of 5 km/s to 10 km/s. Impact velocities above 10 km/s require very high inclinations or the large eccentricities of asteroids on planet-crossing orbits. Such objects are rare in the current asteroid belt but the population would be significantly increased by the sweeping of resonances due to giant planet migration.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Studies of the highland crater size distributions suggest that the same family of projectiles struck Mercury and the Moon during the Late Heavy Bombardment. If the history of decay of late heavy bombardment on Mercury also followed the history of late heavy bombardment on the Moon, the youngest large basin discovered, Caloris, is comparable in age to the youngest large lunar basins, Orientale and Imbrium, and all of the plains units are older than 3 billion years.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: While the cataclysm hypothesis has recently become more popular (in the last fifty years), particularly among dynamicists who have identified possible causes for such a phenomenon, it is still controversial and based on debatable assumptions. Two criticisms are that (1) the "cluster" of impact ages could be an artifact of sampling a single basin's ejecta, and (2) that the lack of impact melt rocks older than about 4.1 Ga is related to all such samples having been pulverized, or their ages being reset.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The first criticism concerns the origin of the impact melt rocks that were sampled at the Apollo landing sites. While these impact melts have been commonly attributed to having been derived from the closest basin, it has been argued that a large portion of these might instead be derived from the Imbrium basin. The Imbrium impact basin is the youngest and largest of the multi-ring basins found on the central nearside of the Moon, and quantitative modeling shows that significant amounts of ejecta from this event should be present at all of the Apollo landing sites. According to this alternative hypothesis, the cluster of impact melt ages near 3.9 Ga simply reflects material being collected from a single impact event, Imbrium, and not several. Additional criticism also argues that the age spike at 3.9 Ga identified in Ar/Ar dating could also be produced by an episodic early crust formation followed by partial Ar losses as the impact rate declined.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: A second criticism concerns the significance of the lack of impact melt rocks older than about 4.1 Ga. One hypothesis for this observation that does not involve a cataclysm is that old melt rocks did exist, but that their radiometric ages have all been reset by the continuous effects of impact cratering over the past 4 billion years. Furthermore, it is possible that these putative samples could all have been pulverized to such small sizes that it is impossible to obtain age determinations using standard radiometric methods. Scientists continue to study the bombardment history of the moon in an attempt to clarify the history of the inner solar system.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: If a cataclysmic cratering event truly occurred on the Moon, Earth would have been affected as well. Extrapolating lunar cratering rates to Earth at this time suggests that the following number of craters would have formed:


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Before the formulation of the LHB hypothesis, geologists generally assumed that Earth remained molten until about 3.8 Ga. This date could be found in many of the oldest-known rocks from around the world, and appeared to represent a strong "cutoff point" beyond which older rocks could not be found. These dates remained fairly constant even across various dating methods, including the system considered the most accurate and least affected by environment, uranium–lead dating of zircons. As no older rocks could be found, it was generally assumed that Earth had remained molten until this date, which defined the boundary between the earlier Hadean and later Archean eons. Nonetheless, in 1999, the oldest known rock on Earth was dated to be 4.031 ± 0.003 billion years old, and is part of the Acasta Gneiss of the Slave Craton in northwestern Canada.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Older rocks could be found, however, in the form of asteroid fragments that fall to Earth as meteorites. Like the rocks on Earth, asteroids also show a strong cutoff point, at about 4.6 Ga, which is assumed to be the time when the first solids formed in the protoplanetary disk around the then-young Sun. The Hadean, then, was the period of time between the formation of these early rocks in space, and the eventual solidification of Earth's crust, some 700 million years later. This time would include the accretion of the planets from the disk and the slow cooling of Earth into a solid body as the gravitational potential energy of accretion was released.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Later calculations showed that the rate of collapse and cooling depends on the size of the rocky body. Scaling this rate to an object of Earth mass suggested very rapid cooling, requiring only 100 million years. The difference between measurement and theory presented a conundrum at the time.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The LHB offers a potential explanation for this anomaly. Under this model, the rocks dating to 3.8 Ga solidified only after much of the crust was destroyed by the LHB. Collectively, the Acasta Gneiss in the North American cratonic shield and the gneisses within the Jack Hills portion of the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia are the oldest continental fragments on Earth, yet they appear to post-date the LHB. The oldest mineral yet dated on Earth, a 4.404 Ga zircon from Jack Hills, predates this event, but it is likely a fragment of crust left over from before the LHB, contained within a much younger (~3.8 Ga old) rock.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: The Jack Hills zircon led to an evolution in understanding of the Hadean eon. Older references generally show that Hadean Earth had a molten surface with prominent volcanos. The name "Hadean" itself refers to the "hellish" conditions assumed on Earth for the time, from the Greek Hades. Zircon dating suggested, albeit controversially, that the Hadean surface was solid, temperate, and covered by acidic oceans. This picture derives from the presence of particular isotopic ratios that suggest the action of water-based chemistry at some time before the formation of the oldest rocks (see Cool early Earth).


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Of particular interest, Manfred Schidlowski argued in 1979 that the carbon isotopic ratios of some sedimentary rocks found in Greenland were a relic of organic matter. There was much debate over the precise dating of the rocks, with Schidlowski suggesting they were about 3.8 Ga old, and others suggesting a more "modest" 3.6 Ga. In either case it was a very short time for abiogenesis to have taken place, and if Schidlowski was correct, arguably too short a time. The Late Heavy Bombardment and the "re-melting" of the crust that it suggests provides a timeline under which this would be possible: life either formed immediately after the Late Heavy Bombardment, or more likely survived it, having arisen earlier during the Hadean. A 2002 study suggest that the rocks Schidlowski found are indeed from the older end of the possible age range at about 3.85 Ga, suggesting the latter possibility is the most likely answer. Studies from 2005, 2006 and 2009 have found no evidence for the isotopically-light carbon ratios that were the basis for the original claims.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: A similar study of Jack Hills rocks from 2008 shows traces of the same sort of potential organic indicators. Thorsten Geisler of the Institute for Mineralogy at the University of Münster studied traces of carbon trapped in small pieces of diamond and graphite within zircons dating to 4.25 Ga. The ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 was unusually high, normally a sign of "processing" by life.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: Three-dimensional computer models developed in May 2009 by a team at the University of Colorado at Boulder postulate that much of Earth's crust, and the microbes living in it, could have survived the bombardment. Their models suggest that although the surface of Earth would have been sterilized, hydrothermal vents below Earth's surface could have incubated life by providing a sanctuary for thermophile microbes.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: In April 2014, scientists reported finding evidence of the largest terrestrial meteor impact event to date near the Barberton Greenstone Belt. They estimated the impact occurred about 3.26 billion years ago and that the impactor was approximately wide. The crater from this event, if it still exists, has not yet been found.


title: Late Heavy Bombardment

text: In the Nice model, the Late Heavy Bombardment is the result of a dynamical instability in the outer Solar System. The original Nice model simulations by Gomes "et al." began with the Solar System's giant planets in a tight orbital configuration surrounded by a rich trans-Neptunian belt. Objects from this belt stray into planet-crossing orbits, causing the orbits of the planets to migrate over several hundred million years. Jupiter and Saturn's orbits drift apart slowly until they cross a 2:1 orbital resonance, causing the eccentricities of their orbits to increase. The orbits of the planets become unstable and Uranus and Neptune are scattered onto wider orbits that disrupt the outer belt, causing a bombardment of comets as they enter planet-crossing orbits. Interactions between the objects and the planets also drive a faster migration of Jupiter and Saturn's orbits. This migration causes resonances to sweep through the asteroid belt, increasing the eccentricities of many asteroids until they enter the inner Solar System and impact the terrestrial planets.