title: Cracking (chemistry)

text: The major products from hydrocracking are jet fuel and diesel, but low sulphur naphtha fractions and LPG are also produced. All these products have a very low content of sulfur and other contaminants. It is very common in Europe and Asia because those regions have high demand for diesel and kerosene. In the US, fluid catalytic cracking is more common because the demand for gasoline is higher.


title: Cracking (chemistry)

text: The hydrocracking process depends on the nature of the feedstock and the relative rates of the two competing reactions, hydrogenation and cracking. Heavy aromatic feedstock is converted into lighter products under a wide range of very high pressures (1,000-2,000 psi) and fairly high temperatures (750°-1,500 °F, 400-800 °C), in the presence of hydrogen and special catalysts.


title: Cracking (chemistry)

text: Outside of the industrial sector, cracking of C-C and C-H bonds are rare chemical reactions. In principle, ethane can undergo homolysis:


title: Cracking (chemistry)

text: Because C-C bond energy is so high (377 kJ/mol), this reaction is not observed under laboratory conditions. More common examples of cracking reactions involve retro-Diels-Alder reactions. Illustrative is the thermal cracking of dicyclopentadiene to produce cyclopentadiene.


title: Raynor Winn

text: Raynor Winn (born 1962) is a British long-distance walker and writer; her first book The Salt Path was a "Sunday Times" bestseller in 2018. Winn and her husband Moth, who was diagnosed with corticobasal degeneration, became homeless after a business deal with a friend went wrong and decided to walk the South West Coast Path.


title: Raynor Winn

text: "The Salt Path" was shortlisted for the 2018 Wainwright Prize, and the 2018 Costa Book Awards in the biography category. The judges described it as "An absolutely brilliant story that needs to be told about the human capacity to endure and keep putting one foot in front of another." In May 2019 "The Salt Path" won the inaugural RSL Christopher Bland Prize. In September 2019 it was the number one bestselling book in UK independent bookstores.


title: Raynor Winn

text: Winn also writes about nature, homelessness and wild camping. Her second book "The Wild Silence" was published by Michael Joseph (a subsidiary of Penguin Books) in September 2020. It was shortlisted for the 2021 Wainwright Prize for Nature Writing"."


title: Raynor Winn

text: Winn's third book "Landlines" (2022) describes a journey with her husband along the Cape Wrath Trail in north-west Scotland, described as "the toughest and wildest Britain has to offer", and onwards through Scotland and England to the South West Coast Path.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated from Newton's laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation. Orbital mechanics is a core discipline within space-mission design and control.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of gravity, including both spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets. Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbital plane changes, and interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: General relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and it is sometimes necessary to use it for greater accuracy or in high-gravity situations (e.g. orbits near the Sun).


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Until the rise of space travel in the twentieth century, there was little distinction between orbital and celestial mechanics. At the time of Sputnik, the field was termed 'space dynamics'. The fundamental techniques, such as those used to solve the Keplerian problem (determining position as a function of time), are therefore the same in both fields. Furthermore, the history of the fields is almost entirely shared.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Johannes Kepler was the first to successfully model planetary orbits to a high degree of accuracy, publishing his laws in 1605. Isaac Newton published more general laws of celestial motion in the first edition of "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687), which gave a method for finding the orbit of a body following a parabolic path from three observations. This was used by Edmund Halley to establish the orbits of various comets, including that which bears his name. Newton's method of successive approximation was formalised into an analytic method by Leonhard Euler in 1744, whose work was in turn generalised to elliptical and hyperbolic orbits by Johann Lambert in 1761–1777.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Another milestone in orbit determination was Carl Friedrich Gauss's assistance in the "recovery" of the dwarf planet Ceres in 1801. Gauss's method was able to use just three observations (in the form of pairs of right ascension and declination), to find the six orbital elements that completely describe an orbit. The theory of orbit determination has subsequently been developed to the point where today it is applied in GPS receivers as well as the tracking and cataloguing of newly observed minor planets. Modern orbit determination and prediction are used to operate all types of satellites and space probes, as it is necessary to know their future positions to a high degree of accuracy.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Astrodynamics was developed by astronomer Samuel Herrick beginning in the 1930s. He consulted the rocket scientist Robert Goddard and was encouraged to continue his work on space navigation techniques, as Goddard believed they would be needed in the future. Numerical techniques of astrodynamics were coupled with new powerful computers in the 1960s, and humans were ready to travel to the Moon and return.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The following rules of thumb are useful for situations approximated by classical mechanics under the standard assumptions of astrodynamics outlined below. The specific example discussed is of a satellite orbiting a planet, but the rules of thumb could also apply to other situations, such as orbits of small bodies around a star such as the Sun.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The consequences of the rules of orbital mechanics are sometimes counter-intuitive. For example, if two spacecraft are in the same circular orbit and wish to dock, unless they are very close, the trailing craft cannot simply fire its engines to go faster. This will change the shape of its orbit, causing it to gain altitude and actually slow down relative to the leading craft, missing the target. The space rendezvous before docking normally takes multiple precisely calculated engine firings in multiple orbital periods, requiring hours or even days to complete.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: To the extent that the standard assumptions of astrodynamics do not hold, actual trajectories will vary from those calculated. For example, simple atmospheric drag is another complicating factor for objects in low Earth orbit.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: These rules of thumb are decidedly inaccurate when describing two or more bodies of similar mass, such as a binary star system (see n-body problem). Celestial mechanics uses more general rules applicable to a wider variety of situations. Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws, hold strictly only in describing the motion of two gravitating bodies in the absence of non-gravitational forces; they also describe parabolic and hyperbolic trajectories. In the close proximity of large objects like stars the differences between classical mechanics and general relativity also become important.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The fundamental laws of astrodynamics are Newton's law of universal gravitation and Newton's laws of motion, while the fundamental mathematical tool is differential calculus.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Every orbit and trajectory outside atmospheres is in principle reversible, i.e., in the space-time function the time is reversed. The velocities are reversed and the accelerations are the same, including those due to rocket bursts. Thus if a rocket burst is in the direction of the velocity, in the reversed case it is opposite to the velocity. Of course in the case of rocket bursts there is no full reversal of events, both ways the same delta-v is used and the same mass ratio applies.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Standard assumptions in astrodynamics include non-interference from outside bodies, negligible mass for one of the bodies, and negligible other forces (such as from the solar wind, atmospheric drag, etc.). More accurate calculations can be made without these simplifying assumptions, but they are more complicated. The increased accuracy often does not make enough of a difference in the calculation to be worthwhile.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Kepler's laws of planetary motion may be derived from Newton's laws, when it is assumed that the orbiting body is subject only to the gravitational force of the central attractor. When an engine thrust or propulsive force is present, Newton's laws still apply, but Kepler's laws are invalidated. When the thrust stops, the resulting orbit will be different but will once again be described by Kepler's laws which have been set out above. The three laws are:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The formula for an escape velocity is derived as follows. The specific energy (energy per unit mass) of any space vehicle is composed of two components, the specific potential energy and the specific kinetic energy. The specific potential energy associated with a planet of mass "M" is given by


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Since energy is conserved, formula_4 cannot depend on the distance, formula_5, from the center of the central body to the space vehicle in question, i.e. "v" must vary with "r" to keep the specific orbital energy constant. Therefore, the object can reach infinite formula_5 only if this quantity is nonnegative, which implies


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The escape velocity from the Earth's surface is about 11 km/s, but that is insufficient to send the body an infinite distance because of the gravitational pull of the Sun. To escape the Solar System from a location at a distance from the Sun equal to the distance Sun–Earth, but not close to the Earth, requires around 42 km/s velocity, but there will be "partial credit" for the Earth's orbital velocity for spacecraft launched from Earth, if their further acceleration (due to the propulsion system) carries them in the same direction as Earth travels in its orbit.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Orbits are conic sections, so the formula for the distance of a body for a given angle corresponds to the formula for that curve in polar coordinates, which is:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: formula_11 is called the gravitational parameter. formula_12 and formula_13 are the masses of objects 1 and 2, and formula_14 is the specific angular momentum of object 2 with respect to object 1. The parameter formula_15 is known as the true anomaly, formula_16 is the semi-latus rectum, while formula_17 is the orbital eccentricity, all obtainable from the various forms of the six independent orbital elements.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: All bounded orbits where the gravity of a central body dominates are elliptical in nature. A special case of this is the circular orbit, which is an ellipse of zero eccentricity. The formula for the velocity of a body in a circular orbit at distance "r" from the center of gravity of mass "M" can be derived as follows:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: To properly use this formula, the units must be consistent; for example, formula_21 must be in kilograms, and formula_5 must be in meters. The answer will be in meters per second.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The quantity formula_23 is often termed the standard gravitational parameter, which has a different value for every planet or moon in the Solar System.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Once the circular orbital velocity is known, the escape velocity is easily found by multiplying by formula_24:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: To escape from gravity, the kinetic energy must at least match the negative potential energy. Therefore, formula_26


title: Orbital mechanics

text: If formula_28, then the denominator of the equation of free orbits varies with the true anomaly formula_15, but remains positive, never becoming zero. Therefore, the relative position vector remains bounded, having its smallest magnitude at periapsis formula_30, which is given by:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The maximum value formula_5 is reached when formula_33. This point is called the apoapsis, and its radial coordinate, denoted formula_34, is


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Let formula_36 be the distance measured along the apse line from periapsis formula_37 to apoapsis formula_38, as illustrated in the equation below:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: a is the semimajor axis of the ellipse. Solving for formula_16, and substituting the result in the conic section curve formula above, we get:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Under standard assumptions the orbital period (formula_43) of a body traveling along an elliptic orbit can be computed as:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Under standard assumptions the orbital speed (formula_48) of a body traveling along an elliptic orbit can be computed from the Vis-viva equation as:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Under standard assumptions, specific orbital energy (formula_54) of elliptic orbit is negative and the orbital energy conservation equation (the Vis-viva equation) for this orbit can take the form:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: As the true anomaly θ approaches 180°, the denominator approaches zero, so that "r" tends towards infinity. Hence, the energy of the trajectory for which "e"=1 is zero, and is given by:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: describes the geometry of the hyperbolic orbit. The system consists of two symmetric curves. The orbiting body occupies one of them; the other one is its empty mathematical image. Clearly, the denominator of the equation above goes to zero when formula_74. we denote this value of true anomaly


title: Orbital mechanics

text: since the radial distance approaches infinity as the true anomaly approaches formula_76, known as the "true anomaly of the asymptote". Observe that formula_76 lies between 90° and 180°. From the trigonometric identity formula_78 it follows that:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Under standard assumptions, specific orbital energy (formula_54) of a hyperbolic trajectory is greater than zero and the orbital energy conservation equation for this kind of trajectory takes form:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Under standard assumptions the body traveling along a hyperbolic trajectory will attain at formula_86 infinity an orbital velocity called hyperbolic excess velocity (formula_87) that can be computed as:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: With Kepler's formula, finding the time-of-flight to reach an angle (true anomaly) of formula_15 from periapsis is broken into two steps:


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Finding the eccentric anomaly at a given time (the inverse problem) is more difficult. Kepler's equation is transcendental in formula_95, meaning it cannot be solved for formula_95 algebraically. Kepler's equation can be solved for formula_95 analytically by inversion.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Alternatively, Kepler's Equation can be solved numerically. First one must guess a value of formula_95 and solve for time-of-flight; then adjust formula_95 as necessary to bring the computed time-of-flight closer to the desired value until the required precision is achieved. Usually, Newton's method is used to achieve relatively fast convergence.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The main difficulty with this approach is that it can take prohibitively long to converge for the extreme elliptical orbits. For near-parabolic orbits, eccentricity formula_107 is nearly 1, and substituting formula_108 into the formula for mean anomaly, formula_109, we find ourselves subtracting two nearly-equal values, and accuracy suffers. For near-circular orbits, it is hard to find the periapsis in the first place (and truly circular orbits have no periapsis at all). Furthermore, the equation was derived on the assumption of an elliptical orbit, and so it does not hold for parabolic or hyperbolic orbits. These difficulties are what led to the development of the universal variable formulation, described below.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: For simple procedures, such as computing the delta-v for coplanar transfer ellipses, traditional approaches are fairly effective. Others, such as time-of-flight are far more complicated, especially for near-circular and hyperbolic orbits.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The Hohmann transfer orbit alone is a poor approximation for interplanetary trajectories because it neglects the planets' own gravity. Planetary gravity dominates the behavior of the spacecraft in the vicinity of a planet and in most cases Hohmann severely overestimates delta-v, and produces highly inaccurate prescriptions for burn timings. A relatively simple way to get a first-order approximation of delta-v is based on the 'Patched Conic Approximation' technique. One must choose the one dominant gravitating body in each region of space through which the trajectory will pass, and to model only that body's effects in that region. For instance, on a trajectory from the Earth to Mars, one would begin by considering only the Earth's gravity until the trajectory reaches a distance where the Earth's gravity no longer dominates that of the Sun. The spacecraft would be given escape velocity to send it on its way to interplanetary space. Next, one would consider only the Sun's gravity until the trajectory reaches the neighborhood of Mars. During this stage, the transfer orbit model is appropriate. Finally, only Mars's gravity is considered during the final portion of the trajectory where Mars's gravity dominates the spacecraft's behavior. The spacecraft would approach Mars on a hyperbolic orbit, and a final retrograde burn would slow the spacecraft enough to be captured by Mars. Friedrich Zander was one of the first to apply the patched-conics approach for astrodynamics purposes, when proposing the use of intermediary bodies' gravity for interplanetary travels, in what is known today as a gravity assist.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: where formula_112 is the semimajor axis of the planet's orbit relative to the Sun; formula_113 and formula_114 are the masses of the planet and Sun, respectively.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: This simplification is sufficient to compute rough estimates of fuel requirements, and rough time-of-flight estimates, but it is not generally accurate enough to guide a spacecraft to its destination. For that, numerical methods are required.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: To address computational shortcomings of traditional approaches for solving the 2-body problem, the universal variable formulation was developed. It works equally well for the circular, elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic cases, the differential equations converging well when integrated for any orbit. It also generalizes well to problems incorporating perturbation theory.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The universal variable formulation works well with the variation of parameters technique, except now, instead of the six Keplerian orbital elements, we use a different set of orbital elements: namely, the satellite's initial position and velocity vectors formula_115 and formula_116 at a given epoch formula_117. In a two-body simulation, these elements are sufficient to compute the satellite's position and velocity at any time in the future, using the universal variable formulation. Conversely, at any moment in the satellite's orbit, we can measure its position and velocity, and then use the universal variable approach to determine what its initial position and velocity "would have been" at the epoch. In perfect two-body motion, these orbital elements would be invariant (just like the Keplerian elements would be).


title: Orbital mechanics

text: However, perturbations cause the orbital elements to change over time. Hence, we write the position element as formula_118 and the velocity element as formula_119, indicating that they vary with time. The technique to compute the effect of perturbations becomes one of finding expressions, either exact or approximate, for the functions formula_118 and formula_119.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The following are some effects which make real orbits differ from the simple models based on a spherical earth. Most of them can be handled on short timescales (perhaps less than a few thousand orbits) by perturbation theory because they are small relative to the corresponding two-body effects.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Over very long timescales (perhaps millions of orbits), even small perturbations can dominate, and the behavior can become chaotic. On the other hand, the various perturbations can be orchestrated by clever astrodynamicists to assist with orbit maintenance tasks, such as station-keeping, ground track maintenance or adjustment, or phasing of perigee to cover selected targets at low altitude.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: In spaceflight, an orbital maneuver is the use of propulsion systems to change the orbit of a spacecraft. For spacecraft far from Earth—for example those in orbits around the Sun—an orbital maneuver is called a "deep-space maneuver (DSM)".


title: Orbital mechanics

text: Transfer orbits are usually elliptical orbits that allow spacecraft to move from one (usually substantially circular) orbit to another. Usually they require a burn at the start, a burn at the end, and sometimes one or more burns in the middle.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: For the case of orbital transfer between non-coplanar orbits, the change-of-plane thrust must be made at the point where the orbital planes intersect (the "node"). As the objective is to change the direction of the velocity vector by an angle equal to the angle between the planes, almost all of this thrust should be made when the spacecraft is at the node near the apoapse, when the magnitude of the velocity vector is at its lowest. However, a small fraction of the orbital inclination change can be made at the node near the periapse, by slightly angling the transfer orbit injection thrust in the direction of the desired inclination change. This works because the cosine of a small angle is very nearly one, resulting in the small plane change being effectively "free" despite the high velocity of the spacecraft near periapse, as the Oberth Effect due to the increased, slightly angled thrust exceeds the cost of the thrust in the orbit-normal axis.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: In a gravity assist, a spacecraft swings by a planet and leaves in a different direction, at a different speed. This is useful to speed or slow a spacecraft instead of carrying more fuel.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: This maneuver can be approximated by an elastic collision at large distances, though the flyby does not involve any physical contact. Due to Newton's Third Law (equal and opposite reaction), any momentum gained by a spacecraft must be lost by the planet, or vice versa. However, because the planet is much, much more massive than the spacecraft, the effect on the planet's orbit is negligible.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: The Oberth effect can be employed, particularly during a gravity assist operation. This effect is that use of a propulsion system works better at high speeds, and hence course changes are best done when close to a gravitating body; this can multiply the effective delta-v.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: It is now possible to use computers to search for routes using the nonlinearities in the gravity of the planets and moons of the Solar System. For example, it is possible to plot an orbit from high earth orbit to Mars, passing close to one of the Earth's Trojan points. Collectively referred to as the Interplanetary Transport Network, these highly perturbative, even chaotic, orbital trajectories in principle need no fuel beyond that needed to reach the Lagrange point (in practice keeping to the trajectory requires some course corrections). The biggest problem with them is they can be exceedingly slow, taking many years. In addition launch windows can be very far apart.


title: Orbital mechanics

text: They have, however, been employed on projects such as Genesis. This spacecraft visited the Earth-Sun point and returned using very little propellant.


title: Digital video recorder

text: A digital video recorder (DVR) is an electronic device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card, SSD or other local or networked mass storage device. The term includes set-top boxes with direct to disk recording, portable media players and TV gateways with recording capability, and digital camcorders. Personal computers are often connected to video capture devices and used as DVRs; in such cases the application software used to record video is an integral part of the DVR. Many DVRs are classified as consumer electronic devices; such devices may alternatively be referred to as personal video recorders (PVRs), particularly in Canada. Similar small devices with built-in (~5 inch diagonal) displays and SSD support may be used for professional film or video production, as these recorders often do not have the limitations that built-in recorders in cameras have, offering wider codec support, the removal of recording time limitations and higher bitrates.


title: Digital video recorder

text: The first working DVR prototype was developed in 1998 at Stanford University Computer Science department. The DVR design was a chapter of Edward Y. Chang's PhD dissertation, supervised by Professors Hector Garcia-Molina and Jennifer Widom. Two design papers were published 2017 VLDB conference,


title: Digital video recorder

text: and 1999 ICDE conference. The prototype was developed in 1998 at Prof. Pat Hanrahan's CS488 class: Experiments in Digital Television, and the prototype was demoed to industrial partners including SONY, Intel, and Apple.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Consumer digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo were launched at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada. Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability, but this did not become available until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Network's DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31, 1999. ReplayTV won the "Best of Show" award in the video category with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member, but TiVo was more successful commercially. "Ad Age" cited Forrester Research as saying that market penetration by the end of 1999 was "less than 100,000."


title: Digital video recorder

text: Legal action by media companies forced ReplayTV to remove many features such as automatic commercial skip and the sharing of recordings over the Internet, but newer devices have steadily regained these functions while adding complementary abilities, such as recording onto DVDs and programming and remote control facilities using PDAs, networked PCs, and Web browsers.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In contrast to VCRs, hard-disk based digital video recorders make "time shifting" more convenient and also allow for functions such as pausing live TV, instant replay, chasing playback (viewing a recording before it has been completed) and skipping over advertising during playback.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Many DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digital video. Video recording capabilities have become an essential part of the modern set-top box, as TV viewers have wanted to take control of their viewing experiences. As consumers have been able to converge increasing amounts of video content on their set-tops, delivered by traditional 'broadcast' cable, satellite and terrestrial as well as IP networks, the ability to capture programming and view it whenever they want has become a must-have function for many consumers.


title: Digital video recorder

text: At the 1999 CES, Dish Network demonstrated the hardware that would later have DVR capability with the assistance of Microsoft software. which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, over 200,000 units were sold.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In the UK, digital video recorders are often referred to as "plus boxes" (such as BSKYB's Sky+ and Virgin Media's V+ which integrates an HD capability, and the subscription free Freesat+ and Freeview+). Freeview+ have been around in the UK since the late 2000s, although the platform's first DVR, the Pace Twin, dates to 2002. British Sky Broadcasting marketed a popular combined receiver and DVR as Sky+, now replaced by the Sky Q box. TiVo launched a UK model in 2000, and is no longer supported, except for third party services, and the continuation of TiVo through Virgin Media in 2010. South African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their DStv platform. In addition to ReplayTV and TiVo, there are a number of other suppliers of digital terrestrial (DTT) DVRs, including Technicolor SA, Topfield, Fusion, Commscope, Humax, VBox Communications, AC Ryan Playon and Advanced Digital Broadcast (ADB).


title: Digital video recorder

text: Many satellite, cable and IPTV companies are incorporating digital video recording functions into their set-top box, such as with DirecTiVo, DISHPlayer/DishDVR, Scientific Atlanta Explorer 8xxx from Time Warner, Total Home DVR from AT&T U-verse, Motorola DCT6412 from Comcast and others, Moxi Media Center by Digeo (available through Charter, Adelphia, Sunflower, Bend Broadband, and soon Comcast and other cable companies), or Sky+. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX, which was the first PVR in Malaysia but was phased out two years after its introduction.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In the case of digital television, there is no "encoding" necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The digital video recorder simply stores the digital stream directly to disk. Having the broadcaster involved with, and sometimes subsidizing, the design of the DVR can lead to features such as the ability to use interactive TV on recorded shows, pre-loading of programs, or directly recording encrypted digital streams. It can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically expiring recordings.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In the United States, the FCC has ruled that starting on July 1, 2007, consumers will be able to purchase a set-top box from a third-party company, rather than being forced to purchase or rent the set-top box from their cable company. This ruling only applies to "navigation devices," otherwise known as a cable television set-top box, and not to the security functions that control the user's access to the content of the cable operator. The overall net effect on digital video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In Europe Free-To-Air and Pay TV TV gateways with multiple tuners have whole house recording capabilities allowing recording of TV programs to Network Attached Storage or attached USB storage, recorded programs are then shared across the home network to tablet, smartphone, PC, Mac, Smart TV.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner digital video recorders. In the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two independent tuners within the same receiver. The main use for this feature is the capability to record a live program while watching another live program simultaneously or to record two programs at the same time, possibly while watching a previously recorded one. Kogan.com introduced a dual-tuner PVR in the Australian market allowing free-to-air television to be recorded on a removable hard drive. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to output to two separate television sets at the same time. The PVR manufactured by UEC (Durban, South Africa) and used by Multichoice and Scientific Atlanta 8300DVB PVR have the ability to view two programs while recording a third using a triple tuner.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Where several digital subchannels are transmitted on a single RF channel, some PVRs can record two channels and view a third, so long as all three subchannels are on two channels (or one).


title: Digital video recorder

text: In the United States, DVRs were used by 32 percent of all TV households in 2009, and 38 percent by 2010, with viewership among 18- to 40-year-olds 40 percent higher in homes that have them.


title: Digital video recorder

text: DVRs are integrated into some television sets (TVs). These systems simplify wiring and operation because they employ a single power cable, have no interconnected ports (e.g., HDMI), and share a common remote control.


title: Digital video recorder

text: VESA-compatible DVRs are designed to attach to the VESA mounting holes (100×100 mm) on the back of an LCD television set (TV), allowing users to combine the TV and DVR into an integrated unit.


title: Digital video recorder

text: "Over-the-air" DVRs are standalone set-top-boxes that record broadcast television programs. Several companies have launched over-the-air DVR products for the consumer market over the past few years.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some pay-TV operators provide set-top boxes that allow subscribers to attach their own network-attached storage (NAS) hard drives or solid-state or flash memory to record video and other media files (e.g., audio and photos).


title: Digital video recorder

text: Software and hardware are available which can turn personal computers running Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X into DVRs, and is a popular option for home-theater PC (HTPC) enthusiasts.


title: Digital video recorder

text: There are many free and open source software DVR applications available for Linux. For example, TV gateway interfaces to DVB tuners and provides network tuner and TV server functions, which allows live viewing and recording over IP networks. Other examples include MythTV, Video Disk Recorder (VDR), LinuxMCE, TiVo, VBox Home TV Gateway, and Kodi (formerly XBMC).


title: Digital video recorder

text: Geniatech makes a series of digital video recording devices called EyeTV. The software supplied with each device is also called EyeTV, and is available separately for use on compatible third-party tuners from manufacturers such as Pinnacle, TerraTec, and Hauppauge.


title: Digital video recorder

text: SageTV provided DVR software for the Mac but no longer sells it. Previously sold devices support the Hauppauge HVR-950, myTV.PVR and HDHomeRun hardware with its DVR software. SageTV software also included the ability to watch YouTube and other online video with a remote control.


title: Digital video recorder

text: MythTV (see above) also runs under Mac OS X, but most recording devices are currently only supported under Linux. Precompiled binaries are available for the MythTV front-end, allowing a Mac to watch video from (and control) a MythTV server running under Linux.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Apple provides applications in the FireWire software developer kit which allow any Mac with a FireWire port to record the MPEG2 transport stream from a FireWire-equipped cable box (for example: Motorola DCT62xx, including HD streams). Applications can also change channels on the cable box via the firewire interface. Only broadcast channels can be recorded as the rest of the channels are encrypted. "FireRecord (formerly iRecord)" is a free scheduled-recording program derived from this SDK.


title: Digital video recorder

text: There are several free digital video recording applications available for Microsoft Windows including GB-PVR, MediaPortal, and Orb (web-based remote interface).


title: Digital video recorder

text: There are also several commercial applications available including CyberLink, SageTV (which is no longer available after Google acquired it in June 2011), Beyond TV (which is considered discontinued despite an official announcement from SnapStream since the last update was October 2010 and they are concentrating on their enterprise search products), DVBViewer, Showshifter, InterVideo WinDVR, the R5000-HD and Meedio (now a dead product – Yahoo! bought most of the company's technology and discontinued the Meedio line, and rebranded the software Yahoo! Go – TV, which is now a free product but only works in the U.S.). Most TV tuner cards come bundled with software which allows the PC to record television to hard disk. See TV tuner card. For example, Leadtek's WinFast DTV1000 digital TV card comes bundled with the WinFast PVR2 software, which can also record analog video from the card's composite video input socket.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Windows Media Center is a DVR software by Microsoft which was bundled with the Media Center edition of Windows XP, the Home Premium / Ultimate editions of Windows Vista, as well as most editions of Windows 7. When Windows 8 was released in 2012, Windows Media Center was not included with Windows 8 OEM or Retail installations, and was only available as a $15 add-on pack (including DVD Playback codecs) to Windows 8 Pro users.


title: Digital video recorder

text: An "embeddable" DVR is a standalone device that is designed to be easily integrated into more complex systems. It is typically supplied as a compact, bare circuit board that facilitates mounting it as a subsystem component within larger equipment. The control keypad is usually connected with a detachable cable, to allow it to be located on the system's exterior while the DVR circuitry resides inside the equipment.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Television and video are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably, but differ in their technical meaning. Video is the visual portion of television, whereas television is the combination of video and audio modulated onto a carrier frequency (i.e., a television channel) for delivery. Most DVRs can record both video and audio.


title: Digital video recorder

text: The first digital video recorders were designed to record analog television in NTSC, PAL or SECAM formats.


title: Digital video recorder

text: To record an analog signal a few steps are required. In the case of a television signal, a television tuner must first demodulate the radio frequency signal to produce baseband video. The video is then converted to digital form by a frame grabber, which converts each video image into a collection of numeric values that represent the pixels within the image. At the same time, the audio is also converted to digital form by an analog-to-digital converter running at a constant sampling rate. In many devices, the resulting digital video and audio are compressed before recording to reduce the amount of data that will be recorded, although some DVRs record uncompressed data. When compression is used, video is typically compressed using formats such as H.264 or MPEG-2, and audio is compressed using AAC or MP3.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Many consumer DVRs implement a copy-protection system called "Copy Generation Management System—Analog" (CGMS-A), which specifies one of four possible copy permissions by means of two bits encoded in the vertical blanking interval:


title: Digital video recorder

text: CGMS-A information may be present in analog broadcast TV signals, and is preserved when the signal is recorded and played back by analog VCRs. VCRs do not understand the meanings of the bits but preserve them in case there is a subsequent attempt to copy the tape to a DVR.


title: Digital video recorder

text: DVRs such as TiVo also detect and act upon analog protection systems such as Macrovision and DCS Copy Protection which were originally designed to block copying on analog VCRs.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Recording digital signals is generally a straightforward capture of the binary MPEG data being received. No expensive hardware is required to quantize and compress the signal (as the television broadcaster has already done this in the studio).


title: Digital video recorder

text: DVD-based PVRs available on the market as of 2006 are not capable of capturing the full range of the visual signal available with high-definition television (HDTV). This is largely because HDTV standards were finalized at a later time than the standards for DVDs. However, DVD-based PVRs can still be used (albeit at reduced visual quality) with HDTV since currently available HDTV sets also have standard A/V connections.


title: Digital video recorder

text: ATSC television broadcasting is primarily used in North America. The ATSC data stream can be directly recorded by a digital video recorder, though many DVRs record only a subset of this information (that can later be transferred to DVD). An ATSC DVR will also act as a set-top box, allowing older televisions or monitors to receive digital television.


title: Digital video recorder

text: The U.S. FCC attempted to limit the abilities of DVRs with its "broadcast flag" regulation. Digital video recorders that had not won prior approval from the FCC for implementing "effective" digital rights management would have been banned from interstate commerce from July 2005, but the regulation was struck down on May 6, 2005.


title: Digital video recorder

text: DVB digital television contains audio/visual signals that are broadcast over the air in a digital rather than analog format. The DVB data stream can be directly recorded by the DVR. Devices that can use external storage devices (such as hard disks, SSDs, or other flash storage) to store and recover data without the aid of another device are sometimes called telememory devices.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Recording satellite television or digital cable signals on a digital video recorder can be more complex than recording analog signals or broadcast digital signals. There are several different transmission schemes, and the video streams may be encrypted to restrict access to subscribers only.


title: Digital video recorder

text: A satellite or cable set-top box both decrypts the signal if encrypted, and decodes the MPEG stream into an analog signal for viewing on the television. In order to record cable or satellite digital signals the signal must be captured after it has been decrypted but before it is decoded; this is how DVRs built into set-top boxes work.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Cable and satellite providers often offer their own digital video recorders along with a service plan. These DVRs have access to the encrypted video stream, and generally enforce the provider's restrictions on copying of material even after recording.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Many DVD-based DVRs have the capability to copy content from a source DVD (ripping). In the United States, this is prohibited under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act if the disc is encrypted. Most such DVRs will therefore not allow recording of video streams from encrypted movie discs.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some DVD-based DVRs incorporate connectors that can be used to capture digital video from a camcorder. Some editing of the resulting DVD is usually possible, such as adding chapter points.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some digital video recorders can now record to solid state flash memory cards (called "flash camcorders"). They generally use Secure Digital cards, can include wireless connections (Bluetooth and Wi-Fi), and can play SWF files. There are some digital video recorders that combine video and graphics in real time to the flash card, called DTE or "direct to edit". These are used to speed-up the editing workflow in video and television production, since linear videotapes do not then need to be transferred to the edit workstation (see Non-linear editing system).


title: Digital video recorder

text: DVRs can usually record and play H.264, MPEG-4 Part 2, MPEG-2 .mpg, MPEG-2 .TS, VOB and ISO images video, with MP3 and AC3 audio tracks. They can also display images (JPEG and PNG) and play music files (MP3 and Ogg).


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some devices can be updated to play and record in new formats. DVRs usually record in proprietary file systems for copy protection, although some can use FAT file systems. Recordings from standard-definition television usually have 480p/i/576p/i while HDTV is usually in 720p/1080i.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Digital video recorders configured for physical security applications record video signals from closed-circuit television cameras for detection and documentation purposes. Many are designed to record audio as well. DVRs have evolved into devices that are feature rich and provide services that exceed the simple recording of video images that was previously done through VCRs. A DVR CCTV system provides a multitude of advanced functions over VCR technology including video searches by event, time, date and camera. There is also much more control over quality and frame rate allowing disk space usage to be optimized and the DVR can also be set to overwrite the oldest security footage should the disk become full. In some DVR security systems remote access to security footage using a PC can also be achieved by connecting the DVR to a LAN network or the Internet.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some of the latest professional digital video recorders include video analytics firmware, to enable functionality such as 'virtual tripwire' or even the detection of abandoned objects on the scene.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Security DVRs may be categorized as being either PC-based or embedded. A PC-based DVR's architecture is a classical personal computer with video capture cards designed to capture video images. An embedded type DVR is specifically designed as a digital video recorder with its operating system and application software contained in firmware or read-only memory.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Hardware features of security DVRs vary between manufacturers and may include but are not necessarily limited to:


title: Digital video recorder

text: Some (very few), but certainly not all, digital video recorders which are designed to send information to a service provider over a telephone line or Internet (or any other way) can gather and send real-time data on users' viewing habits. This problem was noted back in 2000 and was still considered a problem, specifically with TiVo, in 2015.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Digital video recorders are also changing the way television programs advertise products. Watching pre-recorded programs allows users to fast-forward through commercials, and some technology allows users to remove commercials entirely. Half of viewers in the United States, for example, use DVRs to skip commercials entirely. This feature has been controversial for the last decade, with major television networks and movie studios claiming it violates copyright and should be banned.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In 1985, an employee of Honeywell's Physical Sciences Center, David Rafner, first described a drive-based DVR designed for home TV recording, time shifting, and commercial skipping. U.S. Patent 4,972,396 focused on a multi-channel design to allow simultaneous independent recording and playback. Broadly anticipating future DVR developments, it describes possible applications such as streaming compression, editing, captioning, multi-channel security monitoring, military sensor platforms, and remotely piloted vehicles.


title: Digital video recorder

text: The first DVR which had a built-in commercial skipping feature introduced in 1999 by ReplayTV at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. In 2002, five owners of the ReplayTV DVR sued the main television networks and movie studios, asking the federal judge to uphold consumers' rights to record TV shows and skip commercials, claiming that features such as commercial skipping help parents protect their kids from excessive consumerism. ReplayTV was purchased by SONICblue in 2001 and in March 2003, SONICblue filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy after fighting a copyright infringement suit over the ReplayTV's ability to skip commercials. In 2007, DirecTV purchased the remaining assets of ReplayTV.


title: Digital video recorder

text: A third-party add-on for Windows Media Center called "DVRMSToolbox" has the ability to skip commercials.


title: Digital video recorder

text: There is a command-line program called Comskip that detects commercials in an MPEG-2 file and saves their positions to a text file. This file can then be fed to a program like MEncoder to actually remove the commercials.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Many speculate that television advertisements will be eliminated altogether, replaced by advertising in the TV shows themselves. For example, "Extreme Makeover: Home Edition" advertises Sears, Kenmore, Kohler, and Home Depot by specifically using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Sprint Cup of NASCAR are named after sponsors.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Another type of advertisement shown more and more, mostly for advertising television shows on the same channel, is where the ad overlays the bottom of the television screen, blocking out some of the picture. "Banners", or "logo bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is done in much the same way as severe weather warnings are done. Sometimes, these take up only 5–10% of the screen, but in the extreme, can take up as much as 25% of the viewing area. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example of this is the 2E ads for "Three Moons Over Milford" in the months before its premiere. A video taking up approximately 25% of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television program.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Because of this widely used new technology, advertisers are now looking at a new way to market their products on television. An excerpt from the magazine "Advertising Age" reads: "As advertisers lose the ability to invade the home, and consumer's minds, they will be forced to wait for an invitation. This means that they have to learn what kinds of advertising content customers will actually be willing to seek out and receive."


title: Digital video recorder

text: With ad skipping and the time-sensitive nature of certain ads, advertisers are wary of buying commercial time on shows that are heavily digitally video-recorded. However, technology today makes it possible for networks to insert ads dynamically on videos being played in DVRs. Advertisers could inject time-relevant ads to recorded programs when the program is viewed. This way the ads could be not just topical but also personalized to viewers interests. DirecTV in March 2011 signed an arrangement with NDS Group to enable the delivery of such addressable advertisement.


title: Digital video recorder

text: It is believed that viewers prefer to forward ads, than to switch the channel. By switching channels, viewers will have the probability of skipping the beginning of their program. Users might switch to a channel that is also showing ads. Having the ability to pause, rewind, and forward live TV gives users a chance to change the channel fewer times. Forwarding ads can have a later effect on the viewer. Ads that get the viewers' attention will influence the viewers' to rewind and watch what was missed.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In January 2012, Dish Network announced Hopper service, costing $10 extra per month, which recorded prime-time programming from the four major broadcast networks. With the Auto Hop feature, viewers can watch the programs they choose without commercials, without making the effort to fast-forward. On May 24, 2012, Dish and the networks filed suit in federal court.


title: Digital video recorder

text: On July 14, 2005, Forgent Networks filed suit against various companies alleging infringement on , entitled "Computer controlled video system allowing playback during recording". The listed companies included EchoStar, DirecTV, Charter Communications, Cox Communications, Comcast, Time Warner, and Cable One.


title: Digital video recorder

text: Scientific-Atlanta and Motorola, the manufacturers of the equipment sold by the above-mentioned companies, filed a counter-suit against Forgent Networks claiming that their products do not violate the patent, and that the patent is invalid. The two cases were combined into case 6:06-cv-208, filed in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas, Tyler Division.


title: Digital video recorder

text: According to court documents, on June 20, 2006, Motorola requested that the United States Patent and Trademarks Office reexamine the patent, which was first filed in 1991, but has been amended several times.


title: Digital video recorder

text: On March 23, 2007, Cablevision Systems Corp lost a legal battle against several Hollywood studios and television networks to introduce a network-based digital video recorder service to its subscribers. However, on August 4, 2008, Cablevision won its appeal. John M. Walker Jr., a Second Circuit judge, declared that the technology "would not directly infringe" on the media companies' rights. An appeal to the Supreme Court was rejected.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In court, the media companies argued that network digital video recorders were tantamount to video-on-demand, and that they should receive license fees for the recording. Cablevision and the appeals court disagreed. The company noted that each user would record programs on his or her own individual server space, making it a DVR that has a "very long cord."


title: Digital video recorder

text: In 2004, TiVo sued EchoStar Corp, a manufacturer of DVR units, for patent infringement. The parties reached a settlement in 2011 wherein EchoStar pays a one-time fee (in three structured payments) that grants Echostar full rights for life to the disputed TiVo patents upon first payment(as opposed to indefinite and escalating license fees to be constantly renegotiated), and Echostar granted TiVo full rights for life to certain Echostar patents and dropped their counter-suit against TiVo.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In January 2012, AT&T settled a similar suit brought by TiVo claiming patent infringement (just as with Echostar) in exchange for cash payments to TiVo totaling $215 million through June 2018 plus "incremental recurring per subscriber monthly license fees" to TiVo through July 2018, but grants no full lifetime rights as per the Echostar settlement.


title: Digital video recorder

text: In May 2012, Fox Broadcasting sued Dish Network, arguing that Dish's set-top box with DVR function, which allowed the users to automatically record prime-time programs and skip commercials, was copyright infringement and breach of contract. In July 2013, the 9th circuit rejected Fox's claims.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: Raymond Kopa (né Kopaszewski; 13 October 1931 – 3 March 2017) was a French professional footballer, integral to the France national team of the 1950s. At club level he was part of the legendary Real Madrid team of the 1950s, winning three European Cups.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: Often considered one of the best players of his generation, Kopa was an attacking midfielder who was quick, agile and known for his dribbling, playmaking, and prolific scoring. In 1958, Kopa was awarded the Ballon d'Or. In 1970, he became the first football player to receive the Légion d'honneur, and in 2004, Pelé named him one of the 125 Greatest Living Footballers at a FIFA Awards Ceremony.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: Kopa was born to a family of Polish immigrants. His grandparents were originally from Kraków and migrated to Germany, where his parents were born. They then migrated to France after the First World War. His surname was shortened to Kopa from Kopaszewski while he was at school. At the age of 14, he followed in the footsteps of his grandfather, father and brother by working in the coal mines of Nœux-les-Mines. During this time Kopa lost a finger in a mining accident.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: Kopa married Christiane, the sister of a teammate of his at Angers. After retiring from the game he launched his own sportswear brand, eventually settling in Corsica. Kopa died in Angers on 3 March 2017, aged 85.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: After finishing second in the French national youth football trials in 1949, Kopa began his professional career at age 17 with Angers in Ligue 2 and was transferred two years later to Reims, with whom he won French championships in 1953 and 1955. He won the 1953 Latin Cup with Reims, where they defeated Milan 3–0 in the final, and helped them reach the 1956 European Cup Final, which the team lost to Alfredo Di Stéfano's Real Madrid, 4–3.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: Kopa had first attracted attention in Spain when he played for France against Spain in a match in Madrid in March 1955, after which the Spanish sports newspaper "Marca" nicknaming him "Little Napoleon". Kopa was transferred to Real Madrid for the 1956–57 season, where he was soon joined by Ferenc Puskás. Despite playing as an inside right at Real Madrid rather than as the no. 10, his usual position, Kopa helped the club to three successive European cup victories and the Spanish league title in 1957 and 1958. Kopa was also the first French player to win the European Cup when Madrid defeated Fiorentina 2–0 in the 1957 final. He would go on to be European champion again in 1958 and 1959, the latter against former side Reims, where Just Fontaine was playing. In the 1959–60 season, Kopa returned to France to finish his career with Reims, where he won further "Championnats" in 1960 and 1962. In total, he scored 75 goals in 346 matches in France's top flight, and was awarded the "Ballon d'or" by "France Football" in 1958.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: With the France national team, Kopa scored 18 goals in 45 matches between 1952 and 1962. He played in the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden, where he performed outstandingly and was one of the players of the tournament, scoring three goals as he led France to the semi-finals, where they succumbed to a strong Brazil team. The French team finished third in the tournament.


title: Raymond Kopa

text: In March 2004, Kopa was named by Pelé as one of the top 125 greatest living footballers. In 2018, France Football's Kopa Trophy, awarded to the best young football player in the calendar year was named in Raymond's honor. The first recipient was fellow Frenchman Kylian Mbappé.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: Kang Min-hyuk (; born June 28, 1991) is a South Korean musician, singer-songwriter, and actor. He is the drummer of South Korean rock band CNBLUE.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: Kang became a member of CNBLUE in 2009. The group debuted in Japan with the mini album "Now or Never" on August 19, 2009, with an indie label AI Entertainment. They officially debuted in Korea in 2010 with the mini album "Bluetory", and the title track "I'm a Loner" became an instant hit in Korea.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2010, Kang began his acting career in an omnibus film "Acoustic" alongside his fellow CNBLUE member Lee Jong-hyun. He then made his small-screen debut in the SBS drama "It's Okay, Daddy's Girl".


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2011, he was cast in MBC's youth melodrama "Heartstrings", which stars fellow CNBLUE member Jung Yong-hwa. He sang an OST for the drama, titled "Star".


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2012, he starred in KBS's weekend family drama "My Husband Got a Family", and gained recognition for his role as a playboy. The series topped the weekly ratings chart for 25 consecutive weeks and reached a ratings peak of 45.8 percent (TNmS) and 52.3 percent (AGB Nielsen), making it the highest rated Korean drama in 2012.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: Kang continued to gain more popularity after starring in "The Heirs" (2013), a teen drama penned by Kim Eun-sook. Along with his co-star Krystal Jung, they were voted as the Best Onscreen Couple at the 2013 DramaFever Awards.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2015, Kang became a fixed cast of KBS's reality-variety show "Brave Family", and became a host of JTBC's show "Mum is Watching".


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: After a three-year hiatus, Kang made his television comeback in SBS's musical drama "Entertainer" in 2016, for which he won an Excellence Award at the SBS Drama Awards. The same year, he became a host of KBS's live music show "Music Bank" with Laboum's Solbin from July 2016 to November 2016.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2017, Kang was cast in his first lead role, playing a doctor in MBC's medical drama "Hospital Ship".


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2018, Kang had a supporting role in the period comedy film, "The Princess and the Matchmaker". The film was shot back in 2015.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In 2019, Kang released two Japanese singles, Moontalk and On the Cheek, on January 7 and February 14, respectively. He dropped the album containing these two singles along with three more Japanese tracks on March 13.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: Following his discharge from the military in early 2020, Kang made his acting comeback in a romantic comedy-drama, "How to Be Thirty". The streaming television series premiered on "KakaoTV" in February 2021.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: On March 25, 2022, Kang made his debut as a writer in the MD book "Not Everything", and an exhibition of books will be held together. This MD includes mugs, mugs, coasters, blankets, and punctuation stickers.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: In September 2022, it was announced that Kang will be holding the 2022 KANG MIN HYUK FROM CNBLUE 'THE PASSION' FAN MEETING IN BANGKOK fan meeting on October 9.However, it has been postponed. in October 2022, It was announced that Kang will be holding the 2022 KANG MIN HYUK FROM CNBLUE FAN MEETING IN TAIPEI fan meeting in Taipei, Taiwan on December 4.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: Kang has been discharged as of March 19, 2020 without returning to his base from his ETS leave according to the Ministry of National Defense's policy.


title: Kang Min-hyuk

text: On April 6, 2019, it was reported that Kang donated 10 million won to the victims of forest fires in Goseong County and Sokcho in Gangwon Province. According to Hope Bridge National Disaster Relief Association, the donation will be used for the recovery of damaged areas.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: The Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova () consist of the National Army (which is divided into the Land Forces Command and the Air Forces Command) and the Trupele de Carabinieri under the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Until 2012, the Moldovan Border Police (then known as the Border Troops) belonged to the armed forces.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: On 2 November 1990, prior to the formation of the state of Moldova, the Supreme Soviet of the Moldovan SSR ordered creation of the "Republican Guard" (Romanian: Garda Republicană) as a militarized government agency. This force subsequently became the Moldovan military upon independence.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Moldova has accepted all relevant arms control obligations of the former Soviet Union. On October 30, 1992, Moldova ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment and provides for the destruction of weapons in excess of those limits. It acceded to the provisions of the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in October 1994 in Washington, DC. It does not have nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: A transition to a professional force of 12,000 to 15,000 volunteers was planned at first, but when fighting erupted in 1991 between supporters of the central government in Chișinău and supporters of separatist regions (Transnistria conflict), males between eighteen and forty years of age were mobilized, and the size of Moldova's military was temporarily expanded to meet the demands of the Transnistria War. In early 1995, the armed forces totaled some 11,000 volunteers, and there were plans to gradually create a professional army.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and a series of explosions in Transnistria in 2022, the then President of Moldova Maia Sandu declared on 27 April of that year that the Moldovan army had been left largely neglected for three decades and that it was unable to defend Moldova in the face of danger. She said the Moldovan army would go through a process of modernization and professionalization in the future. Later, on 4 May, the President of the European Council Charles Michel said that the European Union would provide aid to Moldova, including additional military equipment for its armed forces. The support would come from the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace and would not include lethal weaponry. This caused controversy among the socialist opposition leaders of the time, who strove for further cooperation with Russia.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: At the beginning of 1994, the Moldovan Ground Forces (under the Ministry of Defense) consisted of 9,800 men organized into three motor rifle brigades, one artillery brigade, and one reconnaissance/assault battalion. The Library of Congress Country Studies wrote that its armaments consisted of fifty-six ballistic missile defenses; seventy-seven armored personnel carriers and sixty-seven "look-alikes." ("Look-alikes" is a Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty term denoting modifications of armored personnel carriers for specialised missions such as anti-tank missile carriage, reconnaissance, or engineer duties). This data appears garbled; in the 1995/96 edition of the IISS "Military Balance", armored infantry fighting vehicles were listed as 54 BMDs (Boyevaya Mashina Desanta, Airborne Combat Vehicle), there were sundry armored personnel carriers, and 67 "look-alikes".


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Artillery included eighteen 122 mm and fifty-three 152 mm towed artillery units; nine 120 mm combined guns/mortars; seventy AT-4 Spigot, nineteen AT-5 Spandrel, and twenty-seven AT-6 Spiral anti-tank guided weapons; one hundred thirty-eight 73 mm SPG-9 recoilless launcher, forty-five MT-12 100 mm anti-tank guns; and thirty ZU-23 23 mm and twelve S-60 57 mm air defense guns. Moldova has received some arms from former Soviet stocks maintained on the territory of the republic as well as undetermined quantities of arms from Romania, particularly at the height of the fighting with Transnistria.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: By 2006–7, the Moldovan Ground Forces had been reduced to a strength of 5,710, including three motor rifle brigades, one artillery brigade, and independent Special forces and engineer battalions, plus an independent guard unit. Equipment and weaponry included 44 BMD-1 AIFVs, and 266 APCs, including 91 TAB-71s, as well as 227 artillery pieces.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: In 2022, during the Russian war in Ukraine, various western countries pledged to support Moldova's territorial integrity and provide energy and military aid. During a visit to Chișinau, German Defense Minister Christine Lambrecht said that Germany is prepared to offer purchases of drones and military training to Moldova. Later that month, Moldovan Defense Minister Anatolie Nosatii expressed that 90 percent of Moldova's military equipment dates back to the Soviet era and is in need of urgent replacement. He also mentioned that the armed forces face equipment shortages due to insufficient funding.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: In 1994 the Moldovan Air Force consisted of 1,300 men organized into one fighter regiment, one helicopter squadron, and one missile brigade. Armaments used by the air force included thirty-one MiG-29 Fulcrum aircraft, eight Mi-8 Hip helicopters, five transport aircraft (including an Antonov An-72 Coaler), and twenty-five SA-3 Goa/SA-5 Gammon surface-to-air missiles.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: The 86th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment had been located at Mărculești since October 1951, and had been reequipped with MiG-29s in 1988. It had been part of the 119th Fighter Aviation Division, which had been resubordinated to the Soviet Black Sea Fleet since December 1989.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Twenty-one of the MiG-29s were sold to the United States in October 1997 to prevent their sale on the world market, and for research purposes. All the spare parts for those aircraft were also purchased, as were the accompanying 500 air-to-air missiles.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: The Trupele de Carabinieri is the gendarmerie-type force of the military, based on the Italian Carabinieri. The Moldovan Carabinieri is designed to ensure, together with the General Police Inspectorate or independently, public order and the protection of rights and freedoms of citizens.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: The Moldovan Border Police was founded on 3 September 1991, being entrusted to the Ministry of National Security under the subordination of the subunit of the former Soviet Border Troops deployed on Moldovan territory. On 11 January 1992, Colonel in June 1992, the Border Troops became an official separate branch of the armed forces, In December 1999, it was reorganized into the Department of the Border Guard Troops of Moldova and was withdrawn from the Ministry of National Security a month and a half later. On 1 July 2012, Prime Minister Vlad Filat ordered its shift from the armed forces to the internal affairs ministry.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: The Danube Forces of Moldova is a small militarized river flotilla. It is based in the port of Giurgiulesti. They have at their disposal several unarmed boats of various types and auxiliary boats.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: On 3 September, the National Army marks its professional holiday, "Ziua Armatei Naționale" (Day of the National Army). The President of Moldova as well as the Prime Minister of Moldova usually present congratulations to all active servicemen. On September 2, the Ministry of Defense organizes large demonstrations on the occasion of holiday. Military and civilian staff lay flowers at the Stephen the Great Monument and the Eternity Memorial Complex. There is also a ceremony of the decoration of state and National Army distinctions, as well as honor diplomas to the best military and civilian employees. Festive activities are also organized in Balti, Cahul, Edineţ and Ungheni, in common with the local public administrations. In 2018, the National Army Day silver jubilee celebrations were held at the base of the 1st Motorized Infantry Brigade "Moldova" in Bălți.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: On 2 March, the armed forces celebrates its Remembrance Day, which honours the memory of the Transnistria War. Remembrance Day events are usually organized throughout the country from 1–4 March. Flowers are usually laid at the Stephen the Great Monument. The participants have also organized the Memory March, walking from Great National Assembly Square to the Maica Indurerata (Grieving Mother) Monument at Eternitate Memorial.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Moldovans who served in WWII, the Soviet–Afghan War, as liquidators at the Chernobyl disaster, and the Transnistrian War are eligible for a range of benefits such as discounts, medical services, and free use of public transportation. In 1990, the Republican Council of Soldiers-Internationalists was created, it was headed by the military commissar of the then Oktyabrsky District of Chișinău, Colonel Vitaly Zavgorodniy, a veteran of the war in Afghanistan. The Union of Veterans of the War in Afghanistan of the Republic of Moldova is a veteran's group based in Moldova that advocates for the well-being of veterans of the Afghan War. On 15 May 2000, after the Government's initiative to abolish benefits for veterans of the war in Afghanistan, sympathizers went to Great National Assembly Square. In 2001, the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova, which came to power, radically changed the position of all veterans in the country.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Other military forces also remain within Moldova. In early 1994, the government of Transnistria had armed forces of about 5,000 which included the Dniester battalion of the Republic Guard and some 1,000 Cossacks.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: As of early 1994, the former Soviet 14th Guards Army (about 9,200 troops) consisted of one army headquarters, the 59th Guards Motor Rifle Division, one tank battalion, one artillery regiment, and one anti-aircraft brigade. Their equipment and weaponry consisted of 120 main battle tanks, 180 armoured fighting vehicles, and 130 artillery pieces/multiple rocket launchers/mortars. The remainder of the 14th Guards Army had been over the border in Ukraine and was absorbed by the Ukrainian armed forces.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Around 1994, peacekeepers in Transnistria consisted of six airborne battalions supplied by Russia, three infantry battalions supplied by Moldova, and three airborne battalions supplied by Transnistria.


title: Armed Forces of the Republic of Moldova

text: Since 2007 the Russian force, now designated the Operational Group of Russian Forces in Moldova, under the command of the Western Military District had withered away to a strength of some 1500 which included two motor rifle battalions, an independent security and support battalion, a helicopter detachment and several smaller, administrative detachments.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: Kim started out directing theater but has worked with increasing levels of success in cinema, showing accomplished acting and a detailed stylization in his films. Kim also pays careful attention to the release of his films on DVD and goes to greater than usual lengths to package them with extensive documentary materials and revealing commentary tracks.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: Kim is growing substantially both as a director and a visual stylist as demonstrated by two of his most recent films "A Tale of Two Sisters" and "A Bittersweet Life" both of which were received as critical and commercial successes.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2010 Kim directed the thriller "I Saw the Devil", the cast of which includes Choi Min-sik (which he worked with previously on his film "The Quiet Family") and Lee Byung-hun (whom he worked with previously on "The Good, the Bad, the Weird" and "A Bittersweet Life").


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: Kim's next film was his US debut, featuring the return of Arnold Schwarzenegger to lead acting roles, "The Last Stand", for Lionsgate Films. The film also starred Johnny Knoxville, Forest Whitaker, Peter Stormare, and Daniel Henney.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 1998, Kim directed and wrote his first feature film, "The Quiet Family" (1998), a horror/drama/comedy about a family who owns a mountain inn whose guests continue to commit suicide. The film was his first collaboration with actors Choi Min-sik (whom he would later collaborate with in "I Saw the Devil") and Song Kang-ho (whom he would later collaborate with in "The Foul King" and "The Good, the Bad, the Weird"). The film won Best Live Action film at the 1999 Fantasporto festival, and Best Director and Best Film at the Malaga International Week of Fantastic Cinema. It was also nominated for Best Film at the 1998 Sitges - Catalan International Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2000, Kim directed and wrote his second feature film, "The Foul King" (2000), re-uniting again with Song Kang-ho. The film follows an unproductive and incompetent bank clerk (played by Song Kang-ho) who escapes his demanding, alpha-male boss by entering the pro-wrestling ring and fighting under a pseudonym, "The Foul King." The two worlds eventually end up colliding, however. The film won Best Director at the 2001 Milan International Film Festival, and an Audience Award at the Udine Far East Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2001, Kim directed and wrote a short film entitled "Coming Out" (2001). The film is about vampires, among other things, and Kim wrote and directed "Coming Out" as part of a project to distribute three digital short films online. It was also commissioned by venture group Media 4M, and the project also included shorts by Jang Jin and Ryu Seung-wan. "Coming Out" was shot with a Canon XL-1 camcorder during a time when digital filmmaking in South Korea was still in its infancy, and went on to inspire many other digital productions. It was shown at the Fantasia Festival, and the Puchon International Fantastic Film Festival in 2001 and the Thessaloniki International Film Festival in 2005. "Coming Out" was also included as a special feature on the UK DVD release of "The Quiet Family" and a review at DVDActive praised it as "delicate, cerebral and contemporary cinema at its most profound."


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: Kim next wrote and directed the "Memories" segment in the omnibus film, "Three" (also known as Three Extremes II), also featuring segments directed by Peter Chan and Nonzee Nimibutr. The segment starred Kim Hye-soo.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2003, Kim wrote and directed "A Tale of Two Sisters" (2003), which won a number of awards at a number of film festivals including the Fant-Asia Film Festival (most popular film), Best Actress (Su-jeong Lim), Best Director and Best Film at the Fantasporto, Best Picture at Screamfest Horror Film Festival, Grand Prize and the Youth Jury Grand Prize at the Gerardmer Film Festival, and acting awards for Su-jeong Lim and Jung-ah Yum at the Blue Dragon Film Awards and the Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival. The film was later remade into the 2009 U.S. film "The Uninvited", starring Emily Browning, with Kim being credited with an original story/writer credit.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2005, Kim wrote and directed "A Bittersweet Life" (2005), his first collaboration with actor Lee Byung-hun (whom he would later work with in "The Good, the Bad, the Weird" and "I Saw the Devil"). The film was an ultra-stylish and ultra-violent gangster and mobster picture that was both a critical and commercial success in South Korea. Lee Byung-hun won Best Actor at the Baeksang Arts Awards and Hwang Jung-min won a Best Supporting Actor award at Korea's Grand Bell Awards. Kim also won the "Action Asia Award" at the 2006 Deauville Asian Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2008, Kim wrote and directed "The Good, the Bad, the Weird" (2008), his tribute to spaghetti westerns, westerns and western action films. He would re-team again with Song Kang-ho (who played "The Weird") as well as Lee Byung-hun (who played "The Bad") in the film. The film takes place in 1930s Manchuria and chronicles the struggles of the three main characters in trying to find a piece of treasure. The film won an Achievement in Cinematography Award from the 2008 Asia Pacific Screen Awards, won Best Supporting Actor for Jung Woo-sung (the "Good") at the 2009 Asian Film Awards, and won Best Director and Best Special Effects at the 2008 Sitges - Catalan International Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2010, Kim directed, based on a screenplay from Hoon-jung Park, "I Saw the Devil" (2010), re-uniting with actors Choi Min-sik and Lee Byung-hun. The film won a number of awards, including Best Director and Best Film at Fantasporto, Special Jury Prize, Audience Award, Critics Award at the Gerardmer Film Festival, Best Lighting at the Grand Bell Awards, Best Foreign Language film from the Austin Film Critics Association and Best Editing from the 2011 Asian Film Awards.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2012, Kim directed and wrote the segment known as "The Heavenly Creature" about a robot who achieves enlightenment in a Buddhist temple, in 2012 omnibus film "Doomsday Book" (Yim Pil-sung directed the other two segments). The film won Best International Film at the Fantasia Festival and a Special Award at the Toronto After Dark Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2013, Kim made his U.S. feature directorial debut with the action film, "The Last Stand", starring Arnold Schwarzenegger, Johnny Knoxville, Forest Whitaker, Daniel Henney, and more.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In 2013, Kim premiered his short, "The X", in the Gala Presentation category at the Busan International Film Festival.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: On August 3, 2015, it was announced that Warner Bros. would finance and distribute its first ever Korean-language 1930s set drama "Secret Agent," and the $8.62 million budgeted film would also be produced by Grimm Pictures. The project and script was developed by Lee Jin-sook, which Kim Jee-woon would direct and the cast would be Song Kang-ho and Gong Yoo. A trailer was released on July 14, 2016, revealing the new title as "The Age of Shadows.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In May 2019, YG Entertainment's drama production subsidiary YG STUDIOPLEX announced that Kim will direct the company's adaptation of the Daum webtoon "Dr. Brain", created by Mister Hong.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In October 2020, several Korean news outlets reported that the adaptation was picked up by Apple TV+, becoming the latter's first Korean language original series. Titled "Dr. Brain", it will have six episodes aimed for broadcast in 2021.


title: Kim Jee-woon

text: In October 2013, it was announced that Kim is set to direct the movie adaptation of Ed Brubaker's pulp crime comic "Coward".


title: Captain (naval)

text: Captain is the name most often given in English-speaking navies to the rank corresponding to command of the largest ships. The rank is equal to the army rank of colonel and air force rank of group captain.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Equivalent ranks worldwide include ship-of-the-line captain (e.g. France, Argentina, Spain), captain of sea and war (e.g. Brazil, Portugal), captain at sea (e.g. Germany, Netherlands) and "captain of the first rank" (Russia).


title: Captain (naval)

text: The NATO rank code is OF-5, although the United States of America uses the code O-6 for the equivalent rank (as it does for all OF-5 ranks). Four of the uniformed services of the United States — the United States Navy, United States Coast Guard, United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps — use the rank.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Any naval officer who commands a ship is addressed by naval custom as "captain" while aboard in command, regardless of their actual rank, even though technically an officer of below the rank of captain is more correctly titled the commanding officer, or C.O. Officers with the rank of captain travelling aboard a vessel they do not command should be addressed by their rank and name (e.g., "Captain Smith"), but they should not be referred to as "the captain" to avoid confusion with the vessel's captain. The naval rank should not be confused with the army, air force, or marine ranks of captain, which all have the NATO code of OF-2.


title: Captain (naval)

text: On large US ships (e.g., aircraft carriers), the executive officer (XO) may hold the rank of captain; in this case, it is proper to address the XO by rank. Often the XO prefers to be called "XO" to avoid confusion with the CO, who is also a captain in rank and the captain of the ship. The same applies to senior commanders on board US aircraft carriers, where the commander and deputy commander of the embarked carrier air wing both hold the rank of captain but are addressed by the titles of "CAG" and "DCAG", respectively.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Captains with sea commands generally command ships of cruiser size or larger; the more senior the officer, the larger the ship, but ship commanders do not normally hold a higher rank than captain. In the Royal Navy, a captain might command an aircraft carrier, an amphibious assault ship, or the Ice Patrol Ship, while naval aviator and naval flight officer captains in the U.S. Navy command aircraft carriers, large-deck amphibious assault ships, carrier air wings, maritime patrol air wings, and functional and specialized air wings and air groups.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Maritime battlestaff commanders of one-star rank (commodores or rear admirals lower half) will normally embark on large capital ships such as aircraft carriers, which will function as the flagship for their strike group or battle group, but a captain will retain command of the actual ship, and assume the title of "flag captain". Even when a senior officer who is in the ship's captain's chain of command is present, all orders are given through the captain.


title: Captain (naval)

text: In the Belgian Navy the rank of or is the third grade of superior officer, equivalent to colonel in the land forces. Its insignia is made up of four bands. He or she commands a capital ship (cruiser, battleship or aircraft carrier) or a shore establishment. Smaller vessels such as destroyers and frigates are commanded by a .


title: Captain (naval)

text: In the Royal Canadian Navy, Captain(N) [abbreviated Capt(N); , abbreviated capv] is a senior officer rank, equal to an army or air force colonel. A captain(N) is senior to a commander, and junior to a commodore.


title: Captain (naval)

text: The rank insignia for a captain(N) is four stripes, worn on the cuffs of the service dress jacket, and on slip-ons on other uniforms. On the visor of the service cap is one row of gold oak leaves along the edge. Captains(N) wear the officers' pattern branch cap badge.


title: Captain (naval)

text: The "(N)" is a part of the rank descriptor, and is used in official publications and documents to distinguish a captain(N) from a captain in the army or air force. It is also important to distinguish between the rank of captain(N) and the appointment of captain, meaning the commanding officer of a ship, regardless of his or her rank.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Captains(N) are addressed initially as "Captain" followed by their surname (example: "Captain Bloggins"), thereafter by superiors and peers as "Captain" and by subordinates as "Sir" or "Ma'am". The "(N)" is not part of the spoken address.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Prior to the unification of the Canadian Forces in 1968, rank structure and insignia followed the British pattern.


title: Captain (naval)

text: In the United States, the O-6 rank of captain exists in four of the uniformed services of the United States: the United States Navy, United States Coast Guard, United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Commissioned Officer Corps.


title: Captain (naval)

text: In the Royal Netherlands Navy, the rank of is the third grade of superior officer, equivalent to colonel in the land-forces. His insignia is made up of four bands and he commands a capital ship or a shore establishment (until recently, a commanded the and , the Netherlands Navy's submarine and mine-laying training establishments).


title: Captain (naval)

text: Smaller vessels such as destroyers and frigates are commanded by a . Until recently flagships such as s were also commanded by a . Currently, s are commanded by a .


title: Captain (naval)

text: Captain of sea and war (Portuguese: ) is a rank in a small number of Portuguese-speaking navies, notably those of Portugal and Brazil.


title: Captain (naval)

text: The term captain of sea and war, like the modern rank of ship-of-the-line captain in the navies of France, Italy, and Spain, has deep historic roots. Although the rank was first formally established in the 17th century, the expression had been sometimes been used in the Portuguese and Spanish (as ) armadas of the 16th century. But generally, in the 16th and early 17th centuries, the captain of a Portuguese man-of-war was simply called a , while the commander of a fleet was termed , literally "captain-major".


title: Captain (naval)

text: During the 16th century, the term was used in Portugal to designate the second in command of a fleet. Only during the 18th century would it come to designate the fleet commander - an admiral in the more modern sense. But during the latter half of the 17th century, the term "captain of sea and war" came to designate the commander of a larger man-of-war - the ship of the line that began evolving at that time. When that happened, the Portuguese Navy, as other navies, came to use the term and , literally "frigate captain" and "captain-lieutenant", to designate the commanders of smaller warships. When Brazil gained her independence from Portugal in 1822, its navy adopted the Portuguese rank denominations, which both countries still use.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Captain of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd class are ranks used by the Russian Navy and a number of former communist states. Within NATO forces, the ranks are rated as OF-5, 4 and 3, respectively.


title: Captain (naval)

text: Ship-of-the-line-captain (; ; ; ; ) is a rank that appears in several navies. The name of the rank derives from the fact the rank corresponded to command of a warship of the largest class, the ship-of-the-line, as opposed to smaller types (corvettes and frigates). It is normally above the rank of frigate captain.


title: Captain (naval)

text: is a rank in the French Navy, corresponding to that of colonel in the French Army. They usually command the navy's most important ships.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: The Holy Prepuce, or Holy Foreskin (Latin or ), is one of several relics attributed to Jesus, a product of the circumcision of Jesus. At various points in history, a number of churches in Europe have claimed to possess Jesus's foreskin, sometimes at the same time. Various miraculous powers have been ascribed to it.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: All Jewish boys are required by Jewish law to be circumcised on the eighth day following their birth; the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ, still celebrated by many churches around the world, accordingly falls on January 1. Luke 2:21 (King James Version), reads: "And when eight days were accomplished for the circumcising of the child, his name was called JESUS, which was so named of the angel before he was conceived in the womb." The first reference to the survival of Christ's severed foreskin comes in the second chapter of the apocryphal Arabic Infancy Gospel which contains the following story:


title: Holy Prepuce

text: Foreskin relics began appearing in Europe during the Middle Ages. The earliest recorded sighting came on December 25, 800, when Charlemagne gave it to Pope Leo III when being crowned Emperor. Charlemagne claimed that it had been brought to him by an angel while he prayed at the Holy Sepulchre, although a more prosaic report says it was a wedding gift from the Byzantine Empress Irene. Its authenticity was later considered to be confirmed by a vision of Saint Bridget of Sweden, who confirmed that it was somewhere in Rome. The "Descriptio laternansis Ecclesia", written shortly before 1100 indicated that a cypress chest commissioned by Leo III and placed under the altar in the Chapel of St. Lawrence held three caskets. One of the caskets contained a gold jeweled cross. The document stated that in this cross was the foreskin and umbilicus of Jesus.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: David Farley recounts how the foreskin was then looted during the Sack of Rome in 1527. The German soldier who stole it was captured in the village of Calcata, 47 km north of Rome, later the same year. Housed in Calcata, it was venerated from that time onwards, with the Church approving the authenticity by offering a ten-year indulgence to pilgrims. Pilgrims, nuns and monks flocked to the church, and "Calcata [became] a must-see destination on the pilgrimage map." The foreskin was reported stolen by a local priest in 1983.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: However, in 1905, Pope Pius X authorized an inventory compiled by Professor Hartmann Grisar, of the University of Innsbruck. Grisar's report corresponds to the earlier "Descriptio laternansis Ecclesia". The gold cross was dated to between the sixth and eighth centuries. Grisar's study stated that, like Pope Paschal's enameled silver reliquary cross, the gold jeweled cross was clearly initially designed to hold a relic of the True Cross. This is further supported by the statement in the "Descriptio" relating it to a procession on the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross. The "Vita" of Pope Sergius I (687-01) mentions both the Feast of the Exaltation, the jeweled cross, and veneration of the relic contained therein. Grisar attributed the reference to the foreskin and umbilicus as derived from later Medieval traditions. The gold cross was lost in 1945.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: Mary Dzon says that for many people during the Medieval period, devotion to the Holy Prepuce reflected a focus on the humanity of Jesus.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: According to Farley, "Depending on what you read, there were eight, twelve, fourteen, or even 18 different holy foreskins in various European towns during the Middle Ages." In addition to the Holy Foreskin of Rome (later Calcata), other claimants included the Cathedral of Le Puy-en-Velay, Santiago de Compostela, the city of Antwerp, Coulombs in the diocese of Chartres, as well as Chartres itself, and churches in Besançon, Metz, Hildesheim, Charroux. Conques, Langres, Fécamp, and two in Auvergne.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: One of the most famous prepuces arrived in Antwerp in Brabant in 1100 as a gift from King Baldwin I of Jerusalem, who purchased it in the Holy Land during the First Crusade. This prepuce became famous when the bishop of Cambray, during the celebration of the Mass, saw three drops of blood blotting the linens of the altar. A special chapel was constructed and processions organised in honour of the miraculous relic, which became the goal of pilgrimages. In 1426, a brotherhood was founded in the cathedral ; ("Brotherhood of our beloved Lord Jesus Christ in our beloved Lady's Church of Antwerp"). its 24 members were all abbots and prominent laymen. The relic disappeared in 1566, but the chapel still exists, decorated by two stained glass windows donated by king Henry VII of England and his wife Elizabeth of York in 1503.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: The abbey of Charroux claimed the Holy Foreskin was presented to the monks by Charlemagne. In the early 12th century, it was taken in procession to Rome where it was presented before Pope Innocent III, who was asked to rule on its authenticity. The Pope declined the opportunity. At some point, however, the relic went missing, and remained lost until 1856 when a workman repairing the abbey claimed to have found a reliquary hidden inside a wall, containing the missing foreskin.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: According to Farley, the Second Vatican Council later removed the Day of the Holy Circumcision from the Latin church calendar, although Eastern Catholics and Traditional Roman Catholics still celebrate the Feast of the Circumcision of Our Lord on January 1. In reality, it was more than two years before 11 October 1962, the date when the Second Vatican Council began, that a 25 July 1960 decree of Pope John XXIII enacted a wide-ranging revision of the General Roman Calendar, which included changing the name of the 1 January feast from "Circumcision of the Lord and Octave of the Nativity" to "Octave of the Nativity", with no change of the Gospel reading about the circumcision of the child Jesus.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: In the Italian village of Calcata, a reliquary containing the supposed Holy Foreskin was paraded through the streets as recently as 1983 on the Feast of the Circumcision, which was formerly marked by the Roman Catholic Church around the world on January 1 each year. The practice ended, however, when thieves stole the jewel-encrusted case, contents and all. Following this theft, it is unclear whether any of the purported Holy Prepuces still exist. In a 1997 television documentary for Channel 4, British journalist Miles Kington travelled to Italy in search of the Holy Foreskin, but was unable to find any remaining example. On December 22, 2013 National Geographic Channel broadcast a documentary starring Farley called "The Quest for the Holy Foreskin".


title: Holy Prepuce

text: According to an unconfirmed 19th-century source, in the late 17th century the Vatican librarian Leo Allatius wrote an unpublished treatise entitled "De Praeputio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi Diatriba" ("A Discussion of the Foreskin of Our Lord Jesus Christ"), claiming that the Holy Prepuce ascended, like Jesus himself, and was transformed into the rings of Saturn.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: Voltaire, in "A Treatise of Toleration" (1763), referred to veneration of the Holy Foreskin as being one of a number of superstitions that were "much more reasonable... than to detest and persecute your brother".


title: Holy Prepuce

text: Umberto Eco, in his book "Baudolino", has the young Baudolino invent a story about seeing the holy foreskin and navel in Rome to the company of Frederick Barbarossa.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: In 2009, Farley's "An Irreverent Curiosity: In Search of the Church's Strangest Relic in Italy's Oddest Town" was published.


title: Holy Prepuce

text: In Chuck Palahniuk's book "Choke", the main character is told that he was cloned from Jesus' foreskin.