title: Albert Salmi

text: Despite his numerous appearances in the medium, Salmi shared the opinion of many Actors Studio alumni that roles in film and television were "inferior" to stage work. One of his first television appearances was in the live, televised adaptation of the novel "Bang the Drum Slowly" (1956), featured on the anthology series "The United States Steel Hour" opposite Paul Newman and George Peppard. He also had several memorable roles on CBS's "The Twilight Zone", including "Of Late I Think of Cliffordville", "A Quality of Mercy", and "Execution". In 1963, he portrayed John Day and Rivers in the episode "Incident of the Pale Rider" on the CBS series "Rawhide". In 1964–65, he appeared with Fess Parker as Yadkin in the first season of the "Daniel Boone" TV series. He later appeared twice as the incorrigible pirate Alonzo P. Tucker on "Lost in Space". He appeared in a 1967 episode of "Gunsmoke" as a killer who comes to an ironic end. For that performance, Salmi was awarded a Western Heritage Award.


title: Albert Salmi

text: A high point of Salmi's career came in 1968, when he was cast in the Arthur Miller play "The Price". He played the lead on Broadway and in London.. From 1974 to 1976, Salmi co-starred in the NBC legal drama "Petrocelli" as local investigator Pete Ritter.


title: Albert Salmi

text: Salmi's film career included roles in "The Unforgiven" (1960), "The Outrage" (1964), "Lawman" (1971), "Escape from the Planet of the Apes" (1971), "Viva Knievel!" (1977), "Empire of the Ants" (1977), "Love and Bullets" (1979), "Caddyshack" (1980), and the Robert Redford prison film "Brubaker" (1980). He played Greil in "Dragonslayer" (1981), Geraldine Page's husband in "I'm Dancing as Fast as I Can" (1982), and the hard-drinking but loving father of character Diana Lawson in "Hard to Hold" (1984). His final role in a theatrical film was in "Breaking In" (1989), starring Burt Reynolds.


title: Albert Salmi

text: Salmi met actress Peggy Ann Garner while the two were performing in the National Company touring production of "Bus Stop" in 1955. They were married on May 18, 1956, in New York City. Their only child, Catherine Ann "Cas" Salmi, was born on March 30, 1957; Catherine died in 1995 of heart disease at the age of 38.


title: Albert Salmi

text: Salmi married Roberta Pollock Taper in 1964. The couple had two daughters, Elizabeth and Jennifer. In 1983, the family moved from Los Angeles to Spokane, Washington, where Salmi went into semi-retirement, taking occasional acting roles. Salmi later taught acting and appeared in community and regional theater.


title: Albert Salmi

text: In February 1990, Albert and Roberta Salmi separated. He moved into their Idaho condominium, while Roberta remained in the family home in Spokane. She filed for divorce on February 6. According to court documents, Roberta Salmi claimed that her husband was an alcoholic who physically abused her when he drank. She also claimed that Salmi threatened her on several occasions, and she was in fear for her life. Roberta later took out a restraining order against her husband. In response to her claims in the court documents, Salmi denied physically abusing Roberta and blamed their estrangement on her emotional issues.


title: Albert Salmi

text: On April 23, 1990, Albert Salmi and his estranged wife Roberta were found dead in their Spokane home by a friend who stopped by to check on her. According to newspaper accounts, Salmi fatally shot Roberta in the kitchen of her home, before shooting himself in an upstairs room.


title: Albert Salmi

text: On April 26, Salmi's funeral was held at the Hennessey-Smith Funeral Home, after which he was cremated and placed in a niche at Greenwood Memorial Terrace cemetery in Spokane.


title: Albert Salmi

text: Grabman, Sandra (2004). "Spotlights & Shadows: The Albert Salmi Story". Published by Bear Manor Media 2004, second edition 2010. .


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Kidderminster Harriers Football Club is a professional association football club based in Kidderminster, Worcestershire, England. The team compete in the National League North, at the sixth tier of the English football league system. Formed in 1886, Kidderminster have spent their entire history at Aggborough Stadium. They have won the Worcestershire Senior Cup a record 27 times and are the only club from the county ever to have played in the English Football League.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Founder members of the Birmingham & District League in 1889, they merged with Kidderminster Olympic the next year and entered the Midland League as Kidderminster F.C., though folded due to financial difficulties in March 1891. Kidderminster Harriers reverted to amateur status and rejoined the Birmingham & District League, though it would take until 1937–38 for them to claim their first league title, which they retained the following year. They joined the Southern League in 1948, though reverted to the Birmingham & District League in 1960. They won four further league titles: 1964–65, 1968–69, 1969–70 and 1970–71. Harriers switched to the Southern League Division One North in 1972 and were promoted to the Alliance Premier League at the end of the 1982–83 season.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Kidderminster Harriers won the FA Trophy in 1987 and were crowned Conference champions in 1993–94, though Graham Allner's team were denied a place in the Football League due to the state of Aggborough. The club improved the stadium and were admitted after winning the title again under Jan Mølby's stewardship in 1999–2000. They remained in the Football League for five seasons, finishing as high as tenth in the Third Division in 2002, before being relegated out of League Two three years later. They finished second in the Conference in 2012–13, but were beaten in the play-off semi-finals, and were relegated from the National League in 2016. They qualified for the National League North play-offs in 2017, 2018, and 2022.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Kidderminster Harriers were formed in 1886 from a highly successful athletics and rugby union club that had existed since 1877. In July 1880 the Athletics club amalgamated with the local Clarence rugby club to become 'Kidderminster Harriers and Football Club'. Matches were played at White Wickets on the Franche Road in Kidderminster. 1885-6 was the last season played as a rugby club and the Harriers switched to Association rules for the next season.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Playing games at Chester Road (the current cricket ground) Harriers' first game was 18 September 1886, away to Wilden, winning 2–1. The town saw a rival team start up as Kidderminster Olympic in 1887, rapidly becoming one of the best sides in the area. In 1887–88 the club started playing its matches at Aggborough.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Both Olympic and Harriers were founder members of the Birmingham and District League in 1889, Olympic won the league in 1890, with Harriers runners-up. Both sides regularly attracted crowds of 2–4,000, with the local derbies seeing over 7,000 attending. Owing to their success soon after both Olympic and Harriers were subject to allegations of 'professionalism' and illegal payments to players, although the League Committee let off both clubs with a warning about future conduct.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 1890 the two clubs amalgamated as Kidderminster F.C. on a full professional basis, the new club being admitted to the Midland League which had been formed in 1889. The club became the first from the town to enter the FA Cup and after winning 4 qualifying round games, reached the First Round Proper (last 32). They lost 3–1 away to Darwen but protested the result because of the poor state of the pitch. Their protest was upheld and the tie was replayed a week later, again at Darwen, where Darwen won 13–0. However the club found things difficult financially as a fully professional club, resigned from the league and were wound up in March 1891.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The club reverted to amateur status in the Birmingham and District League the following season as Kidderminster Harriers. The club again reached the 1st Round of the F.A Cup in 1906–07, losing to Oldham Athletic away 5–0. In 1910 the then current England international full-back Jesse Pennington signed for Harriers after a dispute with his then club West Bromwich Albion. He played one game before the dispute was resolved and he returned to Albion.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The twenties were hard going for the club as poor form on the pitch and financial problems off it took their toll. Harriers did manage a League runners-up place in 1924–25. In this season Harriers made national headlines by signing Stanley Fazackerley, who had been the first £5,000 transfer in English football and scorer of the FA Cup Final winning goal for Sheffield United in 1915. After a pay dispute, he had been given 14 days notice by his then club Wolverhampton Wanderers and had returned to the public house he managed in the city, where a Harriers fan drinking there overheard the news and quickly contacted the Harriers Secretary. The then Wolves captain George Getgood, also in contractual dispute at the time, also signed for Harriers in a double swoop.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The 1927–28 season saw another accusation of bribery, this time against secretary Pat Davis by Cradley Heath. During an investigation Davis admitted he had offered Burton Town players a ten shillings bonus if they managed to beat Worcester City in the last match of the season. The match was drawn so the bonus was never paid. The case made the national newspapers and Pat Davis was temporarily suspended from all duties.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Harriers proved a rich source of young quality players picked up by professional football clubs at this time, those moving to bigger clubs including full back Billy Blake (Crystal Palace), winger Fred Leedham (transferred to West Bromwich Albion for £300), Dennis Jennings (to Huddersfield Town for £600) and forward Norman Brookes (to Walsall for £70). In 1935–36 a new scoring record for the club was set, with Billy Boswell scoring 64 goals in a single season.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Harriers did not win the West Midlands League until 1938, finishing the season undefeated. They moved to the Southern League the following year, but played just two games because of the onset of World War II.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: They rejoined the Southern League in 1948. Their first game was a 1–1 draw with Chingford Town in front of 3,889. Future Football Association General Secretary Ted Croker was a Harriers player during the early 1950s, as was future England international striker Gerry Hitchens(1953–55). Harriers became the first team to host a floodlit FA Cup match, when on 14 September 1955 they played Brierley Hill Alliance in a preliminary round replay, which Harriers won 4–2. By 1956–57 the club was again in financial difficulties and after several seasons of struggle in 1960 the club voluntarily dropped back down to the Birmingham League.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: During the 1964–72 era Harriers won the West Midland League four times (including three years running 1968–70), and the various County Senior Cups eight times. Brendan Wassall arrived at Aggborough and debuted on 17 October 1962 against Banbury Spencer. He went on to make 686 appearances up until 1975, and scored 269 goals. His son, Darren, played for Nottingham Forest, Birmingham City and Derby County.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 1963 Peter Wassall joined the Harriers on the advice of his brother Brendan after spells with Wolves, Aston Villa and Atherstone Utd.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: After a season in midfield he switched to play up front and went on to score a total of 448 goals in 621 games for the Harriers.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: They were back to the Southern League by 1972–73 as part of Division One North, one level under the Southern League Premier.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Under player-manager Jon Chambers (ex Aston Villa) in 1983, Harriers were promoted to the Alliance Premier League (now the Conference) after finishing second to AP Leamington, who were refused entry on ground facility issues.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: After a poor start to the first season in the Alliance, AP Leamington manager Graham Allner was appointed manager, marking the start of a 16-year association with the club. Despite not playing in Wales, they were invited to play in the Welsh Cup through the 1970s and 1980s, reaching the final in 1986 and again in 1989.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In July 1985, Allner signed striker Kim Casey from Gloucester City for £2,500. He previously played for Sutton Coldfield and AP Leamington. In his first season for the Harriers, Casey scored 73 goals in 69 games, a club record, and netted 47 the following season. He was transferred to Cheltenham Town in August 1990 for £25,000 before re-joining Harriers briefly in July 1995. For much of the eighties and nineties Casey partnered Paul Davies up front, Davies eventually logging 307 career goals in 656 games over 13 years for the club, while Casey hit nearly 200 goals in six seasons.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 1989, Kidderminster Harriers launched their first Youth training scheme (YTS) – a first, because the club were still playing non-league football in the Conference. The first crop of players included Ian Clarke, Ryan Rankin, Willie Bache, Alan Knott, Richard Congrave, Russel Dodd, Craig Gillett and Justin Taylor.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 1994, Harriers were Conference champions, but were controversially refused promotion due to the Football League's tightened fire safety regulations for stadiums after the Bradford City stadium fire. Aggborough's main stand was of wooden construction and, despite assurances a new cantilever stand would be ready for the new season (which was completed on time), and considerable West Midlands media support, the Football League rejected Harriers' promotion. Ironically, the ground hosted an 8,000 crowd without any problems for the visit of West Ham United in that year's 5th round FA Cup.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Kidderminster finished second to Macclesfield Town in 1997, but then finished in the bottom half in each of the next two seasons.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Harriers received the biggest sell-on fee for a former non-league club, picking up £700,000 when Lee Hughes joined Coventry City in August 2001. Kidderminster had sold Hughes to West Bromwich Albion in 1998 and under the sell-on clause negotiated by manager Allner at the time received 15% of any further transfer fee. This was activated when Hughes moved to Coventry City for a reported £5 million.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Backed by retired retail millionaire Chairman Lionel Newton, former Liverpool star Jan Mølby was appointed as manager for the 1999–2000 season. He signed Mike Marsh in November 1999 as a midfield general. He then led the club to the Conference title at the first attempt, beating Rushden & Diamonds by nine points. Thereafter, low attendances (the town is close to several large Championship and Premier League sides) and lack of revenue following the ITV Digital collapse meant the club struggled to make a mark in the Football League, and after five seasons they were relegated back to the Conference National division.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: A close-season boardroom takeover battle disrupted preparations for their first season back in the Conference; consequently the club struggled to maintain efforts towards a quick return to the Football League, ending up with a 15th-place finish in the Conference National. Ex-Harriers captain and former Doncaster Rovers, Cheltenham Town player and Burnley assistant coach Mark Yates took over as Manager from the sacked Stuart Watkiss during the season. He steered the club away from minor danger of relegation in the 2005–06 season and during his first full campaign, took the side to the FA Trophy final at Wembley Stadium for the first time in 12 years. They however lost 3–2 to Stevenage Borough in front of 53,262. Their league form however was less impressive, resulting in mid-table finishes for three consecutive seasons.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In December 2009 Mark Yates and his number two coach Neil Howarth left the club to take over as coaches at Cheltenham Town.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: After a month of speculation and a number of names such as Jim Harvey and Jeff Kenna being mentioned as possible replacements for Mark Yates, Stalybridge Celtic Manager Steve Burr took over on an initial two and a half year contract, which was extended to 2014 in March 2011. The club finished sixth in Burr's first season in charge. Burr's second season in charge was largely similar to his first. Harriers again finished sixth, just one place outside the play off places. Harriers were given a 5-point deduction for submitting misleading financial information.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The 2012–13 season started badly for Harriers as they lost the first five games, drew the next five games. However, Harriers went on a run that saw them win 22 out of their last 23 games, including a run of 12 wins, putting them in contention for the title and promotion. In January, Harriers received a club record fee of £300,000 from Fleetwood Town for striker Jamille Matt. Following the departure of Matt, Harriers signed eventual top scorer Michael Gash from Cambridge United on loan till the end of the season with a clause that Harriers could make the deal permanent at the end of the season. The title race with Mansfield Town went down to the last day with Mansfield 2 points ahead. Harriers in front of a sold out 6,453 Aggborough beat Stockport County 4–0 which confirmed their relegation. Mansfield beat a weakened Wrexham side who were already guaranteed the play-offs 1–0. Harriers finished 2nd and played 5th place Wrexham in the play off semi final. Harriers lost the first leg at the Racecourse Ground 2–1, Michael Gash scoring Harriers goal from the penalty spot. Harriers also lost the second leg, again in front of a sell out crowd 3–1, confirming a 5–2 aggregate loss and Conference football for another season.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: After such a fantastic season, Harriers had 3 players in the Conference Team of the Year for the 2012–13 season, they were Anthony Malbon, Josh Gowling and Lee Vaughan.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Strong early form in the 2013–14 season found them in 2nd place which could not be sustained. In November 2013, Steve Burr walked out on Harriers to speak to Forest Green Rovers. The talks broke down and Burr returned to Harriers where the league form dipped rapidly. Harriers enjoyed a fine cup run beating League Two side Newport County in the second round and holding League One side Peterborough United 0–0 at Aggborough in the third round. However, Burr did not get chance to see the replay as a heavy 6–0 defeat away to Luton Town saw him sacked as Harriers manager on 7 January 2014. On 8 January, Andy Thorn was appointed manager, winning his first game in charge 3–0 at home to Salisbury, Joe Lolley's first hat trick for the club and last league game as a move to Huddersfield Town was looming. Having agreed to let Lolley stay for the FA Cup replay, Lolley then netted the winning goal in a famous 3–2 win away to Peterborough United. The next day, Lolley moved to Huddersfield Town for a fee in the region of £250,000 having only been at the club for 6 months. Harriers league form dipped after the departure of Lolley and strain of the FA Cup run as Thorn was sacked after 54 days in charge following a run of only 3 wins in 10 games which also included the 1–0 FA Cup Fourth Round loss to Premier League Sunderland. On 5 March, Burr's former number two Gary Whild was appointed Harriers manager for the final 13 games until the end of the season. Under Whild, Harriers lost only 1 of the last 13 games, but 6 draws meant that Harriers fell just short of the play-offs finishing the season in 7th.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In April 2014, it was announced Gary Whild would stay on as Harriers manager after signing a one-year rolling contract. The 2014/15 season started strongly for the Harriers, as they remained unbeaten in their first 7 games which propelled them into the play-offs. From September till December, Harriers went on a 15 games run where no result was the same back to back. Harriers inconsistent form left them outside the play-offs approaching the Christmas period. In November it was announced that Kidderminster were having money troubles and that the wage budget would have to be decreased. This led to key players Chey Dunkley and Nathan Blissett being loaned to Oxford United and Bristol Rovers respectively, both moves being made permanent in January. One other key influence on Harriers' declining league form was the state of the deteriorating pitch. The signs of two teams playing on the pitch was showing and grass was turning to mud. This showed through December and January, Harriers winning all 4 away matches but losing all 4 at home. Reducing the budget further in January, several players were released including key striker Michael Gash and instrumental midfielder Kyle Storer after just reaching 150 appearances for the club. However, this created the chance for former West Brom goal machine Lee Hughes to rejoin Kidderminster Harriers some 18 years after leaving the club, now 38, Hughes' contract at Forest Green Rovers was cancelled by mutual consent, allowing him to sign again at Aggborough. He began his career at Aggborough in 1994 and scored 70 goals in 139 games for Harriers before moving to West Brom in 1997. Hughes went on to score on his second debut for the Harriers in a 1–1 home draw against Woking. Harriers were sitting 6th after boxing day, with a game in hand to go into the playoffs. However, Harriers only won three of the last twenty games, losing twelve of those as they finished 16th in a tale of two halves season. At the end of the season, it was announced that Harriers only had five players contracted for next season and that the wage budget would be significantly reduced.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The Harriers began the 2014–2015 in the same poor form they had finished on the last. Harriers were winless after 11 games, and in September 2015 it was announced Head Coach Gary Whild would be leaving the club. First team coaches Mark Creighton and Tim Flowers also left the club. The club was relegated from the National League at the end of the season.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: On 21 April 2016, former Watford and Derby County midfielder John Eustace was announced as the club's new manager. Eustace guided Kidderminster to a second place finished in their first season in the National League North, before they were beaten by Chorley in the play-off semi-finals. After the culmination of the 2017-18 National League North season, where Harriers again lost in the first round of the play-offs, this time to Bradford Park Avenue, manager John Eustace left the club to join Queen's Park Rangers, and was replaced by Neil MacFarlane. MacFarlane was replaced by former manager Mark Yates in January 2019, as Harriers struggled to a mid-table finish. John Pemberton was installed as manager ahead of the 2019-20 season, although he too was replaced part-way through the season. After an early curtailing of the season, owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, Russ Penn and Jimmy O'Connor were appointed manager and joint-manager, respectively. In the 2021-22 season, their first full season in charge, the pair led Harriers to a fourth placed league finish, as well as the fourth round of the FA Cup, where they lost to Premier League side West Ham United. In the play-offs, Kidderminster exited at the first round, as they suffered a 2-1 defeat to Boston United.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Harriers reached the Welsh Cup final in 1986, losing to Wrexham (2–1) in the replay after drawing the first game (1–1) and again reaching the final 1989, losing to Swansea City (5–0).


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 1987 Harriers went to Wembley Stadium for the FA Trophy final against Burton Albion. The game was a 0–0 draw after extra time, but Kidderminster won 2–1 in the replay at The Hawthorns. They have reached the final on three occasions since, losing 2–1 to Wycombe Wanderers in 1991 in front of a crowd of 34,842 at the old Wembley and that remained the record attendance for a Trophy match until 2007 again when Kidderminster played Stevenage in another final. Kidderminster also lost 2–1 to Woking in 1995 final.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 2007, Kidderminster again reached the final, losing 2–3 to Stevenage Borough, despite being 2–0 up at half time through two James Constable goals. Stevenage came back and scored the winner in the 88th minute in front of the new record trophy attendance of 53,262, which was also the very first competitive match to be held at the New Wembley.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Kidderminster have also had some success in the FA Cup. Brighton & Hove Albion were entertained in the late 1960s as were Blackburn Rovers & Millwall (first round) in successive seasons 1981 & 1982. They reached the fifth round in 1994 (a feat not again equalled by a non-league team until Crawley Town F.C. achieved it in 2011, although Crawley were fully professional), shooting to national fame after defeating Birmingham City 2–1 away and Preston North End 1–0 at home in the previous two rounds. They then lost narrowly (0–1) at home in front of nearly 8,000 to West Ham United.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 2004 Kidderminster again reached the third round to face Premier League team and local rivals Wolverhampton Wanderers, Harriers were one minute away from causing a massive shock before an 89th-minute equaliser forced a replay, the game finishing 1–1 at Aggborough Harriers lost the replay 2–0 although video footage clearly showed that the second goal did not cross the line. In the 2008–09 season Harriers again reached the third round, losing away to Coventry City 2–0.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In the 2013–14 FA Cup Kidderminster beat League Two side Newport County 4–2 in the Second Round In the third round, Harriers beat Peterborough United from League One 3–2 at London Road in the 3rd round replay in front of 3,483 of which 660 were travelling Harriers fans, after drawing 0–0 at Aggborough. In the fourth round they lost away to Premier League Sunderland 1–0 in front of 25,081, of which 4,000 were travelling Kidderminster fans, to end their run.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: In 2022, Harriers reached the fourth round of the FA Cup, whilst in the sixth-tier National League North, where they were drawn against Premier League opponents West Ham United. Harriers had beaten National League opposition in Grimsby Town and FC Halifax Town in the first and second round, respectively, before coming from behind to beat Championship side Reading in the third round. Harriers suffered a 2-1 defeat after extra time, however, courtesy of last-minute goals from Declan Rice and Jarrod Bowen.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: Harriers fans consider local teams Stourbridge, Hereford (continued from the rivalry with the now defunct Hereford United), Bromsgrove Sporting and Worcester City to be the club's main rivals. They also share a less significant rivalry with near neighbours AFC Telford United. There was also a healthy rivalry with the now defunct Rushden & Diamonds, which stemmed from the 1999/2000 Conference title-winning campaign. During the club's stint in the Football League, they developed a rivalry with Cheltenham Town.


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: The following are the fifteen most recent Kidderminster Harriers seasons, for a full history see "List of Kidderminster Harriers F.C. seasons"


title: Kidderminster Harriers F.C.

text: "Information correct as of 12 February 2020. Only competitive matches are counted. Wins, losses and draws are results at the final whistle; the results of penalty shoot-outs are not counted."


title: Cupressaceae

text: Cupressaceae is a conifer family, the cypress family, with worldwide distribution. The family includes 27–30 genera (17 monotypic), which include the junipers and redwoods, with about 130–140 species in total. They are monoecious, subdioecious or (rarely) dioecious trees and shrubs up to tall. The bark of mature trees is commonly orange- to red- brown and of stringy texture, often flaking or peeling in vertical strips, but smooth, scaly or hard and square-cracked in some species.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The leaves are arranged either spirally, in decussate pairs (opposite pairs, each pair at 90° to the previous pair) or in decussate whorls of three or four, depending on the genus. On young plants, the leaves are needle-like, becoming small and scale-like on mature plants of many genera; some genera and species retain needle-like leaves throughout their lives. Old leaves are mostly not shed individually, but in small sprays of foliage (cladoptosis); exceptions are leaves on the shoots that develop into branches. These leaves eventually fall off individually when the bark starts to flake. Most are evergreen with the leaves persisting 2–10 years, but three genera ("Glyptostrobus", "Metasequoia" and "Taxodium") are deciduous or include deciduous species.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The seed cones are either woody, leathery, or (in "Juniperus") berry-like and fleshy, with one to several ovules per scale. The bract scale and ovuliferous scale are fused together except at the apex, where the bract scale is often visible as a short spine (often called an umbo) on the ovuliferous scale. As with the foliage, the cone scales are arranged spirally, decussate (opposite) or whorled, depending on the genus. The seeds are mostly small and somewhat flattened, with two narrow wings, one down each side of the seed; rarely (e.g. "Actinostrobus") triangular in section with three wings; in some genera (e.g. "Glyptostrobus" and "Libocedrus"), one of the wings is significantly larger than the other, and in some others (e.g. "Juniperus", "Microbiota", "Platycladus", and "Taxodium") the seed is larger and wingless. The seedlings usually have two cotyledons, but in some species up to six. The pollen cones are more uniform in structure across the family, 1–20 mm long, with the scales again arranged spirally, decussate (opposite) or whorled, depending on the genus; they may be borne singly at the apex of a shoot (most genera), in the leaf axils ("Cryptomeria"), in dense clusters ("Cunninghamia" and "Juniperus drupacea"), or on discrete long pendulous panicle-like shoots ("Metasequoia" and "Taxodium").


title: Cupressaceae

text: Cupressaceae is a widely distributed conifer family, with a near-global range in all continents except for Antarctica, stretching from 70°N in arctic Norway ("Juniperus communis") to 55°S in southernmost Chile ("Pilgerodendron uviferum"), further south than any other conifer species. "Juniperus indica" reaches 4930 m altitude in Tibet. Most habitats on land are occupied, with the exceptions of polar tundra and tropical lowland rainforest (though several species are important components of temperate rainforests and tropical highland cloud forests); they are also rare in deserts, with only a few species able to tolerate severe drought, notably "Cupressus dupreziana" in the central Sahara. Despite the wide overall distribution, many genera and species show very restricted relictual distributions, and many are endangered species.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The world's largest ("Sequoiadendron giganteum") and tallest ("Sequoia sempervirens") trees belong to the Cupressaceae, as do six of the ten longest-lived tree species.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Molecular and morphological studies have expanded Cupressaceae to include the genera of Taxodiaceae, previously treated as a distinct family, but now shown not to differ from the Cupressaceae in any consistent characteristics. The member genera have been placed into five distinct subfamilies of Cupressaceae, Athrotaxidoideae, Cunninghamioideae, Sequoioideae, Taiwanioideae, and Taxodioideae. The former Taxodiaceae genus, "Sciadopitys", has been moved to a separate monotypic family Sciadopityaceae due to being genetically distinct from the rest of the Cupressaceae. In some classifications Cupressaceae is raised to an order, Cupressales. Molecular evidence supports Cupressaceae being the sister group to the yews (family Taxaceae), from which it diverged during the early-mid Triassic. The clade comprising both is sister to Sciadopityaceae, which diverged from them during the early-mid Permian.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The family is divided into seven subfamilies, based on genetic and morphological analysis as follows:


title: Cupressaceae

text: A 2010 study of "Actinostrobus" and "Callitris" places the three species of "Actinostrobus" within an expanded "Callitris" based on analysis of 42 morphological and anatomical characters.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Phylogeny based on 2000 study of morphological and molecular data. Several further papers have suggested the segregation "Cupressus" species into four total genera.


title: Cupressaceae

text: A 2021 molecular study supported a very similar phylogeny but with some slight differences, along with the splitting of "Cupressus" (found to be paraphyletic):


title: Cupressaceae

text: Many of the species are important timber sources, especially in the genera "Calocedrus", "Chamaecyparis", "Cryptomeria", "Cunninghamia", "Cupressus", "Sequoia", "Taxodium", and "Thuja". "Calocedrus decurrens" is the main wood used to make wooden pencils, and is also used chests, paneling, and flooring. In China, cypress wood known as "baimu" or "bomu", was carved into furniture, using notably "Cupressus funebris", and particularly in tropical areas, Fujian cypress and the aromatic wood of "Glyptostrobus pensilis". "Juniperus virginiana" has used by Native Americans for waymarking. Its heartwood is fragrant and used in clothes chests, drawers and closets to repel moths. It is a source of juniper oil used in perfumes and medicines. The wood is also used as long lasting fenceposts and for bows.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Several genera are important in horticulture. Junipers are planted as evergreen trees, shrubs, and groundcovers. Hundreds of cultivars have been developed, including plants with blue, grey, or yellow foliage. "Chamaecyparis" and "Thuja" also provide hundreds of dwarf cultivars as well as trees, including Lawson's cypress. Dawn redwood is widely planted as an ornamental tree because of its excellent horticultural qualities, rapid growth and status as a living fossil. Giant sequoia is a popular ornamental tree and is occasionally grown for timber. Giant sequoia, Leyland cypress, and Arizona cypress are grown to a small extent as Christmas trees.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Some species have significant cultural importance. The ahuehuete ("Taxodium mucronatum") is the national tree of Mexico. Coast redwood and giant sequoia were jointly designated the state tree of California, and are major tourist attractions where they grow naturally. Parks such as Redwood National and State Parks and Giant Sequoia National Monument protect almost half the remaining stands of Coast Redwoods and Giant sequoias. Bald cypress is the state tree of Louisiana. Bald cypress, often festooned with Spanish moss, of southern swamps are another tourist attraction. They can be seen at Big Cypress National Preserve in Florida. Bald cypress "knees" are often sold as souveniers, made into lamps, or carved to make folk art. Monterey cypresses are often visited by tourists and photographers, particularly an old tree known as the Lone Cypress.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Native Americans and early European explorers used "Thuja" leaves as a cure for scurvy. Distillation of "Fokienia" roots produces an essential oil called pemou oil used in medicine and cosmetics.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Recent progress on Endophyte Biology in Cupressaceae, by the groups of Jalal Soltani (Bu-Ali Sina University) and Elizabeth Arnold (Arizona University) have revealed prevalent symbioses of endophytes and endofungal bacteria with family Cupressaceae. Furthermore, current and potential uses of Cupressaceous tree's endophytes in agroforestry and medicine is shown by both groups.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The Cupressaceae trees contain a wide range of extractives, especially terpenes and terpenoids, which both have strong and often pleasant odors.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The heartwood, bark and leaves are the tree parts richest in terpenes. Some of these compounds are widely distributed in other trees as well, and some are typical for Cupressaceae family. The most known terpenoids found in conifers are sesquiterpenoids, diterpenes and tropolones. Diterpens are commonly found in different types of conifers and are not typical for this family. Some sesquiterpenoids (e.g. bisabolanes, cubenanes, guaianes, ylanganes, himachalanes, longifolanes, longibornanes, longipinanes, cedranes, thujopsanes) also present in Pinaceae, Podocarpaceae and Taxodiaceae. Meanwhile, chamigranes, cuparanes, widdranes and acoranes are more distinctive for Cupressaceae. Tropolone derivatives, such as nootkatin, chanootin and hinokitiol are particularly characteristic for Cupressaceae.


title: Cupressaceae

text: Several genera are an alternate host of "Gymnosporangium" rust, which damages apples and other related trees in the subfamily Maloideae.


title: Cupressaceae

text: The pollen of many genera of Cupressaceae is allergenic, causing major hay fever problems in areas where they are abundant, most notably by "Cryptomeria japonica" ("sugi") pollen in Japan. Highly allergenic species of cypress with an OPALS allergy scale rating of 8 out of 10 or higher include: "Taxodium", "Cupressus", "Callitris", "Chamaecyparis", and the males and monoicous variants of "Austrocedrus" and "Widdringtonia". However, the females of some species have a very low potential for causing allergies (an OPALS allergy scale rating of 2 or lower) including "Austrocedrus" females and "Widdringtonia" females.


title: History of purgatory

text: The idea of purgatory has roots that date back into antiquity. A sort of proto-purgatory called the "celestial Hades" appears in the writings of Plato and Heraclides Ponticus and in many other pagan writers. This concept is distinguished from the Hades of the underworld described in the works of Homer and Hesiod. In contrast, the celestial Hades was understood as an intermediary place where souls spent an undetermined time after death before either moving on to a higher level of existence or being reincarnated back on earth. Its exact location varied from author to author. Heraclides of Pontus thought it was in the Milky Way; the Academicians, the Stoics, Cicero, Virgil, Plutarch, the Hermetical writings situated it between the Moon and the Earth or around the Moon; while Numenius and the Latin Neoplatonists thought it was located between the sphere of the fixed stars and the Earth.


title: History of purgatory

text: Perhaps under the influence of Hellenistic thought, the intermediate state entered Jewish religious thought in the last centuries B.C.E.. In Maccabees we find the practice of prayer for the dead with a view to their after life purification a practice accepted by some Christians. The same practice appears in other traditions, such as the medieval Chinese Buddhist practice of making offerings on behalf of the dead, who are said to suffer numerous trials. Among other reasons, Catholic teaching of purgatory is based on the pre-Christian (Judaic) practice of prayers for the dead.


title: History of purgatory

text: Descriptions and doctrine regarding purgatory developed over the centuries. Roman Catholic Christians who believe in purgatory interpret passages such as , , , , and as support for prayer for purgatorial souls who are believed to be within an active interim state for the dead undergoing purifying flames (which could be interpreted as an analogy or allegory) after death until purification allows admittance into heaven. The first Christians did not develop consistent and universal beliefs about the interim state. Some modern speculation also includes as support for the concept of purgatory, but through the ages the Church has taught that the rich man has received his final judgment, and the text itself refers to a chasm which may not be crossed. Gradually, Christians, especially in the West, took an interest in circumstances of the interim state between one's death and the future resurrection. Christians both East and West prayed for the dead in this interim state, although theologians in the East refrained from defining it as a physical location with a distinct name. Augustine of Hippo distinguished between the purifying fire that saves and eternal consuming fire for the unrepentant. Gregory the Great established a connection between earthly penance and purification after death. All Soul's Day, established in the 10th century, turned popular attention to the condition of departed souls.


title: History of purgatory

text: The idea of Purgatory as a physical place (like heaven and hell) became a formal Roman Catholic teaching in the late 11th century. Medieval theologians concluded that the purgatorial punishments consisted of material fire. The Western formulation of purgatory proved to be a sticking point in the Great Schism between East and West. The Roman Catholic Church believes that the living can help those whose purification from their sins is not yet completed not only by praying for them but also by gaining indulgences for them as an act of intercession. The later Middle Ages saw the growth of considerable abuses, such as the unrestricted sale of indulgences by professional "pardoners" sent to collect contributions to projects such as the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. These abuses were one of the factors that led to the Protestant Reformation. Most Protestant religions rejected the idea of purgatory as it conflicted with Protestant theology of "Salvation by grace alone" (). Luther's canon of the Bible excluded the Deuterocanonical books. Modern Catholic theologians have softened the punitive aspects of purgatory and stress instead the willingness of the dead to undergo purification as preparation for the happiness of heaven


title: History of purgatory

text: The English Anglican scholar John Henry Newman argued, in a book that he wrote before becoming Catholic, that the "essence" of the doctrine on purgatory is locatable in ancient tradition, and that the core consistency of such beliefs are evidence that Christianity was "originally given to us from heaven".


title: History of purgatory

text: Prayers for the dead were known to ancient Jewish practice, and it has been speculated that Christianity may have taken its similar practice from its Jewish heritage. In Christianity, prayer for the dead is attested since at least the 2nd century, evidenced in part by the tomb inscription of Abercius, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (d. "c". 200). Celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested to since at least the 3rd century.


title: History of purgatory

text: Specific examples of belief in purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the Church Fathers. Irenaeus ("c". 130-202) mentioned an abode where the souls of the dead remained until the universal judgment, a process that has been described as one which "contains the concept of... purgatory." Both St. Clement of Alexandria ("c". 150-215) and his pupil, Origen of Alexandria ("c". 185-254), developed a view of purification after death; this view drew upon the notion that fire is a divine instrument from the Old Testament, and understood this in the context of New Testament teachings such as baptism by fire, from the Gospels, and a purificatory trial after death, from St. Paul. Origen, in arguing against soul sleep, stated that the souls of the elect immediately entered paradise unless not yet purified, in which case they passed into a state of punishment, a penal fire, which is to be conceived as a place of purification. For both Clement and Origen, the fire was neither a material thing nor a metaphor, but a "spiritual fire". An early Latin author, Tertullian ("c". 160-225), also articulated a view of purification after death. In Tertullian's understanding of the afterlife, the souls of martyrs entered directly into eternal blessedness, whereas the rest entered a generic realm of the dead. There the wicked suffered a foretaste of their eternal punishments, whilst the good experienced various stages and places of bliss wherein "the idea of a kind of purgatory… is quite plainly found," an idea that is representative of a view widely dispersed in antiquity. Later examples, wherein further elaborations are articulated, include St. Cyprian (d. 258), St. John Chrysostom ("c". 347-407), and St. Augustine (354-430), among others.


title: History of purgatory

text: The Christian notion of an interim state of souls after death developed only gradually. This may be in part because it was of little interest as long as Christians looked for an imminent end of the world, as many scholars believe they did. The Eastern Church came to admit the existence of an intermediate state, but refrained from defining it, while at the same time maintaining the belief in prayer for the dead that was a constant feature of both Eastern and Western liturgies, and which is unintelligible without belief in an interim state in which the dead may be benefited. Christians in the West demonstrated much more curiosity about this interim state than those in the East: "The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity" and occasional remarks by Saint Augustine give expression to their belief that sins can be purged by suffering in an afterlife and that the process can be accelerated by prayer.


title: History of purgatory

text: In the early 5th century, Augustine spoke of the pain that purgatorial fire causes as more severe than anything a man can suffer in this life. And Gregory the Great said that those who after this life "will expiate their faults by purgatorial flames," and he adds "that the pain be more intolerable than any one can suffer in this life."


title: History of purgatory

text: During the Early Middle Ages, the doctrine of final purification developed distinctive features in the Latin-speaking West – these differed from developments in the Greek-speaking East.


title: History of purgatory

text: Pope Gregory the Great's "Dialogues", written in the late 6th century, evidence a development in the understanding of the afterlife distinctive of the direction that Latin Christendom would take:


title: History of purgatory

text: As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in the age to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.


title: History of purgatory

text: Visions of purgatory abounded; Bede (died 735) mentioned a vision of a beautiful heaven and a lurid hell with adjacent temporary abodes, as did Saint Boniface (died 754). In the 7th century, the Irish abbot St. Fursa described his foretaste of the afterlife, where, though protected by angels, he was pursued by demons who said: "It is not fitting that he should enjoy the blessed life unscathed..., for every transgression that is not purged on earth must be avenged in heaven", and on his return he was engulfed in a billowing fire that threatened to burn him, "for it stretches out each one according to their merits... For just as the body burns through unlawful desire, so the soul will burn, as the lawful, due penalty for every sin."


title: History of purgatory

text: Others who expounded upon purgatory include Haymo (died 853), Rabanus Maurus ( 780 – 856), and Walafrid Strabo ( 808 – 849).


title: History of purgatory

text: In 1054, the Bishop of Rome and the four Greek-speaking patriarchs of the East excommunicated each other, triggering the East-West Schism. The schism split the church basically into the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. In the West, the understanding of purification through fire in the intermediate state continued to develop.


title: History of purgatory

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates several All Souls' Days in the year, but in the West only one such annual commemoration is celebrated. The establishment, at the end of the 10th century, of this remembrance helped focus popular imagination on the fate of the departed, and fostered a sense of solidarity between the living and the dead. Then, in the 12th century, the elaboration of the theology of penance helped create a notion of purgatory as a place to complete penances unfinished in this life.


title: History of purgatory

text: By the 12th century, the process of purification had acquired the Latin name, ""purgatorium"", from the verb "purgare": to purge.


title: History of purgatory

text: Medievalist Jacques Le Goff defines the "birth of purgatory", i.e. the conception of purgatory as a physical place, rather than merely as a state, as occurring between 1170 and 1200. Le Goff acknowledged that the notion of purification after death, without the medieval notion of a physical place, existed in antiquity, arguing specifically that Clement of Alexandria, and his pupil Origen of Alexandria, derived their view from a combination of biblical teachings, though he considered vague concepts of purifying and punishing fire to predate Christianity. Le Goff also considered Peter the Lombard (d. 1160), in expounding on the teachings of St. Augustine and Gregory the Great, to have contributed significantly to the birth of purgatory in the sense of a physical place.


title: History of purgatory

text: While the idea of purgatory as a process of cleansing thus dated back to early Christianity, the 12th century was the heyday of medieval otherworld-journey narratives such as the Irish Visio Tnugdali, and of pilgrims' tales about St. Patrick's Purgatory, a cavelike entrance to purgatory on a remote island in Ireland. The legend of St Patrick's Purgatory ("Tractatus de Purgatorio Sancti Patricii") written in that century by Hugh of Saltry, also known as Henry of Sawtry, was "part of a huge, repetitive contemporary genre of literature of which the most familiar today is Dante's"; another is the Visio Tnugdali. Other legends localized the entrance to Purgatory in places such as a cave on the volcanic Mount Etna in Sicily. Thus the idea of purgatory as a physical place became widespread on a popular level, and was defended also by some theologians.


title: History of purgatory

text: What has been called the classic formulation of the doctrine of purgatory, namely the means by which any unforgiven guilt of venial sins is expiated and punishment for any kind of sins is borne, is attributed to Thomas Aquinas although he ceased work on his "Summa Theologica" before reaching the part in which he would have dealt with Purgatory, which is treated in the "Supplement" added after his death. According to Aquinas and the other scholastics, the dead in purgatory are at peace because they are sure of salvation, and may be helped by the prayers of the faithful and especially the offering of the Eucharist, because they are still part of the Communion of Saints, from which only those in hell or limbo are excluded.


title: History of purgatory

text: At the Second Council of Lyon in 1274, the Catholic Church defined, for the first time, its teaching on purgatory, in two points:


title: History of purgatory

text: Through theology, literature, and indulgences, purgatory became central to late medieval religion and became associated with indulgences and other penitential practices, such as fasting. This was another step in the development of this doctrine.


title: History of purgatory

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that "there is a state beyond death where believers continue to be perfected and led to full divinization". But in the 15th century, at the Council of Florence, authorities of the Eastern Orthodox Church identified some aspects of the Latin idea of purgatory as a point on which there were principal differences between Greek and Latin doctrine. The Eastern Christians objected especially to the legalistic distinction between guilt and punishment and to the fire of purgatory being material fire. The decrees of the Council, which contained no reference to fire and, without using the word "purgatory" ("purgatorium"), spoke only of "pains of cleansing" ("poenis purgatoriis"), were rejected at the time by the Eastern churches but formed the basis on which certain Eastern communities were later received into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church. At the Council itself, the Greek Metropolitan Bessarion argued against the existence of real purgatorial fire. In effecting full communion between the Roman Catholic Church and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church by the Union of Brest (1595), the two agreed, "We shall not debate about purgatory, but we entrust ourselves to the teaching of the Holy Church." Furthermore, the Council of Trent, in its discussion of purgatory, instructed the bishops not to preach on such "difficult and subtle questions".


title: History of purgatory

text: During the Protestant Reformation, certain Protestant theologians developed a view of salvation (soteriology) that excluded purgatory. This was in part a result from a doctrinal change concerning justification and sanctification on the part of the reformers. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of divine grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works; however, in Martin Luther's doctrine, justification rather meant "the declaring of one to be righteous", where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit. In this process, good works done in faith (i.e. through penance) are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness; hence, in Protestant theology, "becoming perfect" came to be understood as an instantaneous act of God and "not" a process or journey of purification that continues in the afterlife.


title: History of purgatory

text: Thus, Protestant soteriology developed the view that each one of the elect (saved) experienced instantaneous glorification upon death. As such, there was little reason to pray for the dead. Luther wrote in Question No. 211 in his expanded "Small Catechism": "We should pray for ourselves and for all other people, even for our enemies, but not for the souls of the dead." Luther, after he stopped believing in purgatory around 1530, openly affirmed the doctrine of soul sleep. Purgatory came to be seen as one of the "unbiblical corruptions" that had entered Church teachings sometime subsequent to the apostolic age. Hence, the "Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England" produced during the English Reformation stated: "The Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory...is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture; but rather repugnant to the word of God" (article 22). Likewise, John Calvin, central theologian of Reformed Protestantism, considered purgatory a superstition, writing in his "Institutes" (5.10): "The doctrine of purgatory ancient, but refuted by a more ancient Apostle. Not supported by ancient writers, by Scripture, or solid argument. Introduced by custom and a zeal not duly regulated by the word of God… we must hold by the word of God, which rejects this fiction." In general, this position remains indicative of Protestant belief today, with the notable exception of certain Anglo-Catholics, such as the Guild of All Souls, which describe themselves as Reformed and Catholic (and specifically not Protestant) and believe in purgatory.


title: History of purgatory

text: In response to Protestant Reformation critics, the Council of Trent reaffirmed purgatory as already taught by the Second Council of Lyon, confining itself to the concepts of purification after death and the efficacy of prayers for the dead. It simply affirmed the existence of purgatory and the great value of praying for the deceased, but sternly instructed preachers not to push beyond that and distract, confuse, and mislead the faithful with unnecessary speculations concerning the nature and duration of purgatorial punishments. It thus forbade presentation as Church teaching of the elaborate medieval speculation that had grown up around the concept of purgatory.


title: History of purgatory

text: Anglican apologist C. S. Lewis gave as an example of this speculation, which he interpreted as what the Church of England's Thirty-Nine Articles, XXII meant by "the Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory", the depiction of the state of purgatory as just a temporary hell with horrible devils tormenting souls. The etymology of the word "purgatory", he remarked, indicates cleansing, not simply retributive punishment. Lewis declared his personal belief in purgatory, a process of after-death purification.


title: History of purgatory

text: Later speculations include the idea advocated by Saints Robert Bellarmine and Alphonsus Liguori of asking for the prayers of the souls in purgatory, a notion not accepted by all theologians. Saint Francis de Sales argued that, in the mention in of every knee bowing at the name of Jesus "in heaven, on earth, and under the earth", "under the earth" was a reference to those in purgatory, since it could not apply to those in hell. Frederick William Faber said that there have been private revelations of souls who "abide their purification in the air, or by their graves, or near altars where the Blessed Sacrament is, or in the rooms of those who pray for them, or amid the scenes of their former vanity and frivolity".


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: In organic chemistry, Markovnikov's rule or Markownikoff's rule describes the outcome of some addition reactions. The rule was formulated by Russian chemist Vladimir Markovnikov in 1870.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: The rule states that with the addition of a protic acid HX or other polar reagent to an asymmetric alkene, the acid hydrogen (H) or electropositive part gets attached to the carbon with more hydrogen substituents, and the halide (X) group or electronegative part gets attached to the carbon with more alkyl substituents. This is in contrast to Markovnikov's original definition, in which the rule is stated that the X component is added to the carbon with the fewest hydrogen atoms while the hydrogen atom is added to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogen atoms.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: The same is true when an alkene reacts with water in an addition reaction to form an alcohol which involve formation of carbocations. The hydroxyl group (OH) bonds to the carbon that has the greater number of carbon–carbon bonds, while the hydrogen bonds to the carbon on the other end of the double bond, that has more carbon–hydrogen bonds.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: The chemical basis for Markovnikov's Rule is the formation of the most stable carbocation during the addition process. The addition of the hydrogen ion to one carbon atom in the alkene creates a positive charge on the other carbon, forming a carbocation intermediate. The more substituted the carbocation, the more stable it is, due to induction and hyperconjugation. The major product of the addition reaction will be the one formed from the more stable intermediate. Therefore, the major product of the addition of HX (where X is some atom more electronegative than H) to an alkene has the hydrogen atom in the less substituted position and X in the more substituted position. But the other less substituted, less stable carbocation will still be formed at some concentration, and will proceed to be the minor product with the opposite, conjugate attachment of X.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: Also called Kharasch effect (named after Morris S. Kharasch), these reactions that do not involve a carbocation intermediate may react through other mechanisms that have regioselectivities not dictated by Markovnikov's rule, such as free radical addition. Such reactions are said to be anti-Markovnikov, since the halogen adds to the less substituted carbon, the opposite of a Markovnikov reaction.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: The anti-Markovnikov rule can be illustrated using the addition of hydrogen bromide to isobutylene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide. The reaction of HBr with substituted alkenes was prototypical in the study of free-radical additions. Early chemists discovered that the reason for the variability in the ratio of Markovnikov to anti-Markovnikov reaction products was due to the unexpected presence of free radical ionizing substances such as peroxides. The explanation is that the O-O bond in peroxides is relatively weak. With the aid of light, heat, or sometimes even just acting on its own, the O-O bond can split to form 2 radicals. The radical groups can then interact with HBr to produce a Br radical, which then reacts with the double bond. Since the bromine atom is relatively large, it is more likely to encounter and react with the least substituted carbon since this interaction produces less static interactions between the carbon and the bromine radical. Furthermore, similar to a positive charged species, the radical species is most stable when the unpaired electron is in the more substituted position. The radical intermediate is stabilized by hyperconjugation. In the more substituted position, more carbon-hydrogen bonds are aligned with the radical's electron deficient molecular orbital. This means that there are greater hyperconjugation effects, so that position is more favorable. In this case, the terminal carbon is a reactant that produces a primary addition product instead of a secondary addition product.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: A new method of anti-Markovnikov addition has been described by Hamilton and Nicewicz, who utilize aromatic molecules and light energy from a low-energy diode to turn the alkene into a cation radical.


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: Anti-Markovnikov behaviour extends to more chemical reactions than additions to alkenes. Anti-Markovnikov behaviour is observed in the hydration of phenylacetylene by auric catalysis, which gives acetophenone; although with a special ruthenium catalyst it provides the other regioisomer 2-phenylacetaldehyde:


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: Anti-Markovnikov behavior can also manifest itself in certain rearrangement reactions. In a titanium(IV) chloride-catalyzed formal nucleophilic substitution at enantiopure 1 in the scheme below, two products are formed – 2a and 2b Due to the two chiral centers in the target molecule, the carbon carrying chlorine and the carbon carrying the methyl and acetoxyethyl group, four different compounds are to be formed: 1R,2R- (drawn as 2b) 1R,2S- 1S,2R- (drawn as 2a) and 1S,2S- . Therefore, both of the depicted structures will exist in a D- and an L-form. :


title: Markovnikov's rule

text: This product distribution can be rationalized by assuming that loss of the hydroxy group in 1 gives the tertiary carbocation A, which rearranges to the seemingly less stable secondary carbocation B. Chlorine can approach this center from two faces leading to the observed mixture of isomers.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: Jagadguru Shri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Mahaswamigal (born Swaminathan Sharma; 20 May 1894 – 8 January 1994) also known as the Sage of Kanchi or Mahaperiyavar (meaning, "The great elder") was the 68th Jagadguru Shankaracharya of the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham. Mahaperiyavar's discourses have been recorded in a Tamil book titled "Deivathin Kural" ("Voice of God").


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: Jagadguru Shri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Mahaswamigal (born Swaminathan Sharma) was born on 20 May 1894. He was brought up in the central part of the southern state of Tamil Nadu, Villupuram, South Arcot District. His father was Subrahmanya Sastri, who was from a Kannada speaking Smarta Brahmin family that had migrated to Tamil Nadu generations earlier. Subrahmanya Sastri worked as a teacher having entered the educational service. His mother Mahalakshmi was also from a Kannada Brahmin family from the village of Eachangudi near Tiruvaiyaru. Swaminathan was the second child of his parents.His younger brother was the great yogi Sivan SirSwaminathan's upanayanam was performed in Tindivanam in 1905 and it was during his upbringing that he became well versed in the Vedas and started performing pujas. In 1906 the 66th Acharya of Kamakoti Pitha, Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati VI, was camping in Perumukkal, a small village near Tindivanam in observance of the Chaturmasya vrata. The 66th Acharya attained siddhi and passed away in Kalavai and Swaminathan's maternal cousin was installed as the 67th Acharya. The 67th Acharya had a fever and due to the unexpected turn of events, Swaminathan was installed as the next Acharya. Swaminathan ascended the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham on Paraabhava Tamil Year Maasi Tamil Month Moolam Star in the year 1907 as the 68th Acharya with the Sannyasa name "Chandrasekharendra Saraswati".


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: As per the usual training given to the seers, he was well trained with the Vedas, puranas, various Hindu texts and ancient Indian literature. The Acharya was fifteen years old in 1909. For two years he studied under the pandits of the Matha at Kumbakonam. From 1911 to 1914 he studied in Mahendramangalam, a tiny village on the Northern bank of Akhanda Kaveri. The Acharya showed interest in subjects such as photography, mathematics and astronomy. He returned to Kumbakonam in 1914. The Matha (or mutt) was managed by the Court of Wards from 1911–1915 until he turned twenty-one in May 1915.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: "I had a bath at the Kumara Koshta Thirtha. A carriage of the Mutt had come there from Kalavai with the people to buy articles for the Maha Puja on the tenth day of the passing of the previous 66th Acharya. One of them, a hereditary maistry (mason) of the Mutt, asked me to accompany him. A separate cart was engaged for the rest of the family to follow me. During the journey the maistry hinted to me that I might not return home and that the rest of my life might be spent in the Mutt itself. At first I thought that my elder cousin having become the Head of the Mutt, it was his wish that I should live with him. But the maistry gradually clarified matters as the cart rolled on. The Acharya had fever which developed into delirium and that was why I was being separated from the family to be taken to Kalavai. I was stunned by this unexpected turn of events. I lay in a kneeling posture in the cart, shocked as I was, repeating “Rama… Rama,” the only prayer I knew. My mother and other children came some time later only to find that instead of her mission of consoling her sister, she herself was placed in the state of having to be consoled".


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: Mahaperiyava started spreading his knowledge in spiritual journeys across the Indian hinterland. These included devotional practices and daily rituals such as performing various Poojas and recitations of the Vedas. Iyengars (who were not part of the mutt), various sub castes and Abrahamic followers became his devotees. He carried the responsibility effortlessly and made simple practices for devotees to increase devotion, like chanting and writing the holy name of Rama"." Devotees soon realized he was not a normal person and labelled him a Jagadguru (lit. the guru of the universe) for his help in rectifying their issues. Mahaperiyava dedicated his life to the deity Kamakshi in the premises where he was the spiritual guru, Kamakshi Amman temple. The temple is where the goddess herself came personally for devotion to Shiva.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: Throughout his life, Mahaperiyava breathed and practised the Advaita philosophy of his guru, Adi Shankaracharya, the great Hindu philosopher and reformist. Mahaperiyava renovated multiple temples across India and increased the recitals of sacred texts like the "Vishnu Sahasranāma" (which was not allowed by women at the time). Mahaperiyava helped Vedic priests on their pronunciation of the holy Sanskrit texts and implemented rigorous Agama Sastra teachings describing cosmology, epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and other topics. He made radical social changes by allowing devotees inside the temple premises. The day India became independent, he gave a speech on the significance of the flag and the Dharma chakra in it.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: He died without celebrating his centenary on 8 January 1994. His attainment of Videhamukti invited devotees to go beyond numerology and believe only the name of god in their lifespan.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: As a religious head of the Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham obliged to spiritual duties, Mahaperiyava travelled across the country on a palanquin and started giving discourses. On several occasions he addressed the common masses on diverse aspects of dharma, ancient culture, and a variety of subjects. He delivered the discourses on simple verandahs, river beds and sabhas (smaller halls) unlike in the 21st century. The discourses "Deivathin Kural" (The Voice of God) were compiled by his disciple R.Ganapathi and published in English and Tamil as. It has been also translated to other Indian languages. Discourses were related to various subjects across different topics, which are well researched and well advised. His discourses were important for his devotees and others across India suffering from lack of devotion. He brought back the ancient practice of sanatana dharma, travelling throughout the country offering guidance, founding schools and providing for the people.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: Mahaperiyava reconverted Indian National Congress leader F. G. Natesa Iyer from Christianity to Hinduism. Iyer, as a boy of ten, took shelter with Englishmen who brought him up and converted him to Christianity. Twenty years later, dissatisfied with the ability of the priests to clarify his doubts, he met the Kanchi Sankaracharya and, getting satisfactory answers from him, reconverted to Hinduism.


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: The Indian National Congress, in the decade of the 1920s, started organising the Non-Cooperation Movement, which involved getting many people to protest on the streets. F.G.Natesa Iyer, the leading Congress activist of Tiruchirappalli then, as also the elected Mayor, took this opportunity to convert the movement to also show support for the Mahaperiyava. He described the occasion, thus:


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: "I was nominated by the public as the chairman of the Reception Committee for arranging a reception for the Acharya of Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam. As the municipal chairman, it was my duty to provide a proper welcome and respect to Swamigal who was visiting after a long time. The opportunity to welcome His Holiness in a manner that was exponentially greater than receptions given to kings and viceroys, was accorded to me, along with my supporters: Sri M.Kandaswamy Servai, Sri. R.Srinivasa Iyengar, the lawyer and the larger public. The procession that was seven miles long, was preceded by seven groups of nadaswaram players, three band groups, four elephants, many horses and camels, instrumental players, Bhajan singers, Seva Samitis. I had the blessing to hold the front side of the ivory palanquin where our guru for the whole world, Sri Sankaracharya Swamigal was seated. He gave darshan to numerous people lined on both sides of the roads, in every floor, irrespective of their religion, caste or creed. There was no count of arathis, Poorna kumbams, garlands, asthika goshams. The procession that started at 6 pm ended at 10 pm in front of the mutt at Thiruvanaikkaval. I was enthralled in my service to Swamigal as service to Lord Shiva himself".


title: Chandrashekarendra Saraswati

text: As a Jagadguru, he was popular with dignitaries including the King and Queen of Nepal, the Queen Mother of Greece, the Dalai Lama, Mahatma Gandhi, M. G. Ramachandran, Kannadasan, C. Rajagopalachari, M. S. Subbulakshmi, Indira Gandhi, R. Venkataraman, Subramanian Swamy, Shankar Dayal Sharma,Kalki Krishnamurthy, Sivaji Ganesan, Ilaiyaraaja, R. M. Veerappan, Prannoy Roy, Amitabh Bachchan, R. P. Goenka, Dhirubhai Ambani, Birla Family, JRD Tata and Atal Bihari Vajpayee.


title: Hans Oster

text: Hans Paul Oster (9 August 1887 – 9 April 1945) was a general in the "Wehrmacht" and a leading figure of the anti-Nazi German resistance from 1938 to 1943. As deputy head of the counter-espionage bureau in the "Abwehr" (German military intelligence), Oster was in a good position to conduct resistance operations under the guise of intelligence work.


title: Hans Oster

text: He was involved in the Oster Conspiracy of September 1938 and was arrested in 1943 on suspicion of helping "Abwehr" officers caught helping Jews to escape Germany. After the failed 1944 July Plot on Hitler's life, during interrogation, he named Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, the head of "Abwehr", as the "spiritual founder of the Resistance Movement". The Gestapo arrested Canaris and eventually found his diaries, in which Oster's anti-Nazi activities were revealed. In April 1945, he was hanged with Canaris and Dietrich Bonhoeffer at Flossenbürg concentration camp.


title: Hans Oster

text: Oster was born in Dresden, Saxony in 1887, the son of an Alsatian pastor of the French Protestant Church. He entered the artillery in 1907 and in World War I, he served on the Western Front until 1916, when he was appointed as captain to the German General Staff. After the war, he was thought of well enough to be kept in the reduced "Reichswehr", whose officer corps was limited to 4,000 by the Treaty of Versailles. He had to resign from the army in 1932, when he got into trouble over an indiscretion during the carnival in the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland, where "Reichswehr" officers were prohibited.


title: Hans Oster

text: He soon found a job in a new organisation which Hermann Göring set up under the Prussian police. He transferred to the "Abwehr" in October 1933. It was in this connection that he met Hans Bernd Gisevius and Arthur Nebe, who were working in the "Gestapo" and became conspirators. Oster also became a confidant of Admiral Canaris.


title: Hans Oster

text: Like many other army officers, Oster welcomed the Nazi regime. However, his opinion changed after the 1934 "Night of the Long Knives" in which the "Schutzstaffel" (SS) murdered many of the leaders of the rival "Sturmabteilung" (SA) and their political opponents, including General Kurt von Schleicher, the second-to-last Chancellor of the Weimar Republic and "Generalmajor" (Major General) Ferdinand von Bredow, former head of the "Abwehr". In 1935, Oster was allowed to re-join the army but never on the General Staff. By 1938, the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair and "Kristallnacht" (the Nazi-led pogram against Jews in Germany), turned his antipathy into a hatred of Nazism and a willingness to help save Jews. During the Fritsch crisis, Oster met "Generaloberst" (Colonel General) Ludwig Beck, Chief of the General Staff, for the first time, making the connections for the Oster Conspiracy of September 1938.


title: Hans Oster

text: Oster's position in the "Abwehr" was invaluable to the conspirators; "Abwehr" could provide false papers and restricted materials, disguise conspiratorial activities as intelligence work, link disparate resistance cells, and supply intelligence to the conspirators. He also played a central role in the first military conspiracy to overthrow Hitler, which was rooted in Hitler's intention to invade Czechoslovakia. In August 1938, Beck spoke openly at a meeting of army generals in Berlin about his opposition to a war with the Western powers over Czechoslovakia. When Hitler was informed of that, he demanded and received Beck's resignation. Beck was highly respected in the army and his removal shocked the officer corps. His successor as Chief of Staff, Franz Halder, remained in touch with him and also with Oster. Privately, he said that he considered Hitler "the incarnation of evil".


title: Hans Oster

text: Oster, Gisevius and Hjalmar Schacht urged Halder and Beck to stage a coup against Hitler. However, the army generals argued that they could mobilise support among the officer corps only if Hitler made overt moves towards war. Halder asked Oster to draw up plans for a coup, and it was eventually agreed that Halder would instigate the coup when Hitler committed an overt step towards war. Emissaries of the conspirators travelled to Britain, with the assistance of Oster and the "Abwehr", to urge the British to stand firm against Hitler over the Sudeten crisis. On 28 September, the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain agreed to a meeting in Munich, where he accepted the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. Hitler's diplomatic triumph undermined and demoralised the conspirators. Halder would no longer support a coup. That was the nearest approach to a successful conspiracy against Hitler before the 20 July plot of 1944.


title: Hans Oster

text: As war again grew more likely in mid-1939, the efforts for a coup were revived. Oster was still in contact with Halder and Witzleben. However, many officers, particularly those from the Prussian Junker background, were strongly anti-Polish and saw a war to regain Danzig and other lost eastern territories as justified. After the outbreak of World War II, resistance in the army became harder to contemplate since it could lead to the defeat of Germany. When Hitler decided to attack France soon after the Polish campaign in 1939, Halder along with other senior generals, thought it to be hopelessly unrealistic and again entertained the idea of a coup, urged by Oster and Canaris. When Hitler vowed to destroy the "spirit of Zossen" (the headquarters of the Army High Command), meaning defeatism, Halder feared that the conspiracy was about to be discovered and destroyed all incriminating documents.


title: Hans Oster

text: Oster informed his friend Bert Sas, the Netherlands' military attaché in Berlin, more than twenty times the date of the postponed invasion of the Netherlands. Sas passed the information to his government but was not believed. Oster calculated that his treason could cost the lives of 40,000 German soldiers and wrestled with his decision. However, he then concluded that it was necessary to prevent millions of deaths that would occur in the protracted war after Germany was denied an early victory.


title: Hans Oster

text: The period between 1940 and 1942 was the nadir of German resistance. Some officers were pleased to be wrong to have feared military disaster. Others still opposed Hitler and the Nazi regime but felt that his enormous popularity with the people made any action impossible. Tireless, Oster rebuilt a resistance network. In 1941, when the systematic extermination of European Jews began after the invasion of the Soviet Union, his "Abwehr" group established contact with the resistance group of Henning von Tresckow in Army Group Centre. In 1942, his most important recruit was General Friedrich Olbricht, head of the General Army Office, at the "Bendlerblock" in central Berlin, who controlled an independent system of communications to reserve units all over Germany. The Oster group supplied British-made bombs to Tresckow's group for their attempts to assassinate Hitler in 1943.


title: Hans Oster

text: In 1943, the "Abwehr" group's rescue efforts for Jews were exposed by the "Gestapo" and Oster was dismissed from his post. Hans von Dohnanyi, who joined the "Abwehr" shortly before the war and Dietrich Bonhoeffer, the Lutheran theologian and Dohnanyi's brother-in-law, helped 14 Jews to flee to Switzerland disguised as "Abwehr" agents in Operation ("Unternehmen") U-7. Dohnanyi and Bonhoeffer were arrested on charges of alleged breach of monetary exchange laws, amongst others, with the leading German insurance brokers Jauch & Hübener, Captain Walter Jauch of the Jauch family, a first cousin-in-law of Oster, and Otto Hübener later being hanged. Oster was placed under house arrest; their involvement in the German resistance was discovered after the failure of the 20 July plot.


title: Hans Oster

text: Oster was arrested the day after the failed 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler. On 4 April 1945, the diaries of Admiral Canaris were discovered and in a rage upon reading them, Hitler ordered that all current and past conspirators—Oster among them—be executed.


title: Hans Oster

text: On 8 April 1945, Oster, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Wilhelm Canaris, and other anti-Nazis were convicted and sentenced to death by an SS drumhead court-martial presided over by Otto Thorbeck. At dawn the next day, Oster, Bonhoeffer and Canaris were hanged in the Flossenbürg concentration camp. They were forced to strip naked before being taken to the gallows. The camp was liberated two weeks later by American forces.


title: Hans Oster

text: Fabian von Schlabrendorff, one of the few senior anti-Nazis to survive the war, described Oster as "a man such as God meant men to be, lucid and serene in mind, imperturbable in danger".


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: Weatherford ( ) is a city and the county seat of Parker County, Texas, United States. In 2020, its population was 30,854. Weatherford is named after Thomas J. Weatherford, a State senator and advocate for Texas’ secession to the Confederate States.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: In 1854, Methodist Reverend Pleasant Tackett led 15 pioneer families into a land they called "Goshen," which would later become part of Parker County, itself to be created the following year by the efforts of State Representative Isaac Parker and State Senator Thomas Jefferson Weatherford in the Texas State Legislature. Evidence of a prior, failed attempt to colonize the region can be found in the abandoned cabin from 1852-53 located south of modern Weatherford on the J.H. Voorhies farm. In 1856


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The railroad arrived in June 1880. The Santa Fe Depot (which houses the Weatherford Chamber of Commerce) was built in 1908 under Jim Crow laws, with waiting rooms segregated and separated by the ticket office.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of of which of it is land and of it (7.86%) is water.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The climate in this area is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate System describes the weather as humid subtropical, and uses the abbreviation "Cfa".


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 30,854 people, 11,528 households, and 7,643 families residing in the city.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The 2008 census for the population of the City of Weatherford, Texas is 26,686 with a population density of 1,175.59 people per square mile. The population grew by 40.5% from 2000 to 2008. The racial makeup of the city in 2008 is 85.50% White, 10.20% Hispanic, 2.10% Black, 1.30% American Indian, 0.70% Asian, 4.10% other. Weatherford's average household size is 2.5.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The average income per household was $50,924, in the year 2007. The estimated 2007 city capita was $26,380.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: According to the 1999 census, 25.0% of the population is under the age of 18, 10.6% is 18 to 24, 26.3% is 25 to 44, 21.8% is 45 to 64, and 16.4% is 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The Weatherford area is a large peach producer, and was named "Peach Capital of Texas" by the Texas Legislature. The peach is celebrated each year at the Parker County Peach Festival, which is Weatherford's largest event and one of the best-attended festivals in Texas.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: Several homes of the Queen Anne and Victorian styles were built at the turn of the 20th century; some are open for tours, arranged by the Parker County Heritage Society. The Parker County Courthouse is of the Second Empire style.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: Weatherford College is a 150-year-old community college, with more than 35 study areas and 19 professional/technical programs. The college was originally built by Masons and was one of the first in Texas.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: The "Weatherford Democrat" has been publishing since 1895. "The Weatherford Telegram" began publishing as a weekly newspaper in 2006.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: Cattle drover Oliver Loving is buried in Weatherford's Greenwood Cemetery. After being attacked by Indians in New Mexico in 1867, Loving's dying wish to his friend, Charles Goodnight, was to be buried at his home, Parker County. Goodnight brought the body back six hundred miles by wagon for burial. The story is the inspiration behind Texas author Larry McMurtry's novel, "Lonesome Dove".


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: A year earlier, Goodnight had invented the first chuckwagon which catered to cowboys on a cattle drive that would later become known as the Goodnight-Loving Trail.


title: Weatherford, Texas

text: Bose Ikard, who served with Goodnight and for whom the McMurtry character "Deets" was modeled, was also laid to rest in the Greenwood Cemetery.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The Chevrolet Monza is a subcompact automobile produced by Chevrolet for the 1975 through 1980 model years. The Monza is based on the Chevrolet Vega, sharing its wheelbase, width, and standard inline-four engine. The car was designed to accommodate the GM-Wankel rotary engine, but due to mediocre fuel economy and emissions-compliance issues the engine was cancelled, and a V8 engine option was substituted. The Monza name has also been used for several other cars.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: Introduced for the 1975 model year, the Monza 2+2 and Monza Towne Coupe competed with the Ford Mustang II and other sporty coupes. General Motors' H-body variants, the Buick Skyhawk and Oldsmobile Starfire, were produced using the Monza 2+2's body with grille and trim variations and Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine. The Pontiac Sunbird variant was introduced for the 1976 model year, initially offered only in the Monza Towne Coupe body with the 2+2 hatchback added for the 1977 model year. The Monza nameplate originated in mid-1960 for the sport version of the Chevrolet Corvair.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The Monza 2+2 debuted as a single-model 2+2 hatchback. The Monza is longer and weighs more than the Vega from which it is derived. General Motors' John DeLorean nicknamed it the "Italian Vega", citing styling with a strong resemblance to the Ferrari 365 GTC/4.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: GM had planned to introduce the GM Wankel rotary engine (licensed from NSU Motorenwerke AG) in the Monza's 1975 model. Rotary issues included mediocre fuel economy compounded at a time of comparatively high fuel prices following the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973, and GM canceled the engine (this was the same rotary engine that AMC had planned to source from GM for the 1975 Pacer). Thus, the 1975 Chevrolet Monza was launched carrying a conventional piston engine instead.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1975 Monza 2+2 houses then-newly approved rectangular headlights and a slot-style grille in a slanted nose made of resilient polyurethane. The side window louvers are functional, part of the flow-through ventilation system. The Monza 2+2's two-door hatchback body style is shared with the Pontiac Sunbird, Oldsmobile Starfire and Buick Skyhawk. The standard engine was the Vega's aluminum-block inline-four engine with a single barrel carburetor generating at 4,200 rpm. Optional was the two-barrel carburetor version that generated at 4,400 rpm. Chevrolet's new V8 engine was optional. The smallest V8 ever offered by Chevrolet, it featured a Rochester two-barrel carburetor and generated at 3,600 rpm. For 1975 only, Monzas sold in California and high altitude areas met the stricter emissions requirement by substituting a version of the V8 engine with a two-barrel carburetor tuned to just . The Monza 2+2 and its Buick and Oldsmobile variants feature GM's first use of a torque arm rear suspension, also adopted for the 1975 Cosworth Vega introduced mid-1975, and later, all 1976–1977 Vegas and Pontiac Astres. The basic design was also incorporated into GM's third and fourth generation F-bodies, the Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: In April 1975, the Monza Towne Coupe was introduced — a notchback body-style with a conventional trunk featuring different sheetmetal than the 2+2 hatchback, but sharing its windshield and front fenders. It features single round headlamps, instead of the dual rectangular headlamps on the 2+2. The Towne Coupe was offered in response to the sales success of the Ford Mustang II notchback coupe and its luxury version, the Mustang II Ghia. The Towne Coupe is shorter and lighter than the 2+2 and has slightly more rear head room.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: A lower priced "S" version of the 2+2 hatchback was introduced mid-year. It featured as standard the Vega one-barrel engine with a three-speed manual transmission. The sport suspension, full console, sport steering wheel, day/night rear-view mirror and wheel opening moldings were deleted on the "S". The Chevrolet Monza 2+2 won "Motor Trend" magazine's Car of the Year award for 1975.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1976 four-cylinder engine, as used in the Vega, got some refinements. Named "Dura-built 140", it features quieter hydraulic lifters eliminating valve adjustments. The basic four developed 70 horsepower, but two-barrel carburetion increased the rating to 84. The 1976 model was the introduction of Chevrolet's new 5.0 liter (305 CID) V8 engine with a two-barrel carburetor generating at 3,800 rpm, but only for California and high-altitude Monza customers, and replaced the 350 V8. The 262 was again the optional engine in 49 states. A redesigned dashboard replaced the Vega-derived one. A mid-year option for 1976 was a "Sport" front end available for the Towne Coupe, which featured the 2+2's polyurethane front end and quad headlamps. The Monza Spyder equipment package was introduced in 1976 for both the 2+2 hatchback and Towne Coupe. It featured a two-barrel carburetor version of the four-cylinder engine as standard, a floor console, sport steering wheel, F41 suspension with larger front and rear stabilizer bars, and special shock absorbers. This equipment had been standard on the original 1975 2+2 (excluding the mid-year "S" model).


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1977 Monza was highlighted by two new Spyder option packages available only for the 2+2 hatchback, one being a $274 Z01 performance equipment package and the other an additional $199 Z02 appearance package. An four-cylinder engine was standard, but Monzas could be ordered with a V8 instead. The Monza dashboard contained round gauges in a brushed-aluminum instrument panel. The Towne Coupe Cabriolet was deleted, but a half-vinyl roof and opera windows could still be ordered.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The Monza “Mirage” was a one-year only (1977) sporty body modification package produced by Michigan Auto Techniques (MAT), an aftermarket company contracted by GM; the Mirage was painted white, with red and blue racing stripes along the length of the car. It also featured flared body panels and a special airdam and spoiler. The vehicles were built in GM's St. Therese plant, and sent to MAT for modification, after which MAT would ship completed cars to the dealer. There were approximately 4,097 1977 Mirages made by MAT, but there were also Mirages created by Chevrolet dealerships, as the body add-ons and stripes were available through the dealer parts department. The 5.0 liter (305 CID) engine was the only V8 option for the 1977 model year. The standard Vega 2.3 aluminum-block engine was discontinued at the end of the model year, replaced with the Pontiac 2.5 "Iron Duke".


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1978 Monza line expanded to include rebadged holdovers from the Vega line, which ended production after the 1977 model year. Chevy grafted a new Monza front end onto the previous Vega hatchback and wagon body-styles. The Monza "S", marketed as the Monza price leader, used the Vega hatchback body. With production of only 2,000 units, it was speculated that this was simply an effort to use up a stock of leftover 1977 Vega bodies. The Monza wagon was also offered in an estate wood-trimmed version, using the Vega wagon body. The 1978 Monza line gained a new base coupe and 2+2 hatchback with round headlights in an upright front end with a crossbar grille and new tri-colored taillamps. The base 2+2 hatchback also used a new blunt rear taillamp panel incorporating the license plate mount and a conventional rear bumper; its enlarged taillights with square amber turn signals were also used on notchback coupes. The new Monza Sport series was offered in both 2+2 hatchback and notchback body styles, using a modified version of the previous quad rectangular headlamps, now above a full-width open-slot grill. The 2.5 liter (151 CID) inline-four "Iron Duke" was standard for 1978, replacing the Vega's inline-four engine. Engine options were a Buick-designed 3.2 liter (196 CID) V6 engine with a two-barrel carburetor that produced at 3,600 rpm. Replacing the 3.2 liter V6 in California and high-altitude areas was Buick's 3.8 liter (231 CID) V6 engine. Four-cylinder engines and the 3.2 liter V6 were not available in high-altitude areas. The 305 cubic-inch V8 remained optional in all but the "S" hatchback and wagon models. Discontinued at the end of the 1978 model year were the S hatchback, Towne Coupe sport option and the estate version of the wagon.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1979 Chevrolet Monza lineup was trimmed to four models. Added standard equipment for 1979 included an AM radio, tinted glass, bodyside moldings, and sport steering wheel. Only the 2+2 sport hatchback kept the sloped Euro-look front end; others had a freshened grille. A more-potent standard four-cylinder with a redesigned cross-flow cylinder head and two-barrel carburetor developed 90-horsepower — five more than in 1978. Three optional engines were available: the V6, 231 V6, and 305 V8. The Spyder performance package cost $164 and the Spyder appearance package added $231. All Monzas had a color-keyed instrument panel, and all except the base coupe had a center console, and corrosion protection was improved. Discontinued at the end of the 1979 model year were the Monza wagon, the V6 and the V8.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The 1980 model year lineup consisted of a base 2+2 hatchback, notchback, and 2+2 sport hatchback; the 151-cubic-inch (2.5-liter) four-cylinder engine remained standard and the only engine option was the 3.8 liter (231 CID) Buick V6. The wagon was discontinued as the Citation hatchbacks offered equal cubic cargo capacity with the rear seats down along with better rear-passenger accommodation. Chevrolet decided to discontinue the Monza at the end of the 1980 model year although production of 1980 models continued to the end of calendar 1980 with its "1982" Cavalier replacement debuting in early calendar 1981.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: The "Spyder" nameplate had been used to designate the 1962–1964 Corvair turbocharged model. The "Spyder" name was introduced for the Chevrolet Monza in 1976. This package included performance equipment and some small appearance items. The Monza Spyder equipment package was available on all 2+2 hatchbacks and Monza Towne Coupes (with the "sport equipment" package) with five-speed manual and Turbo Hydra-matic automatic transmissions. The Spyder equipment package included a two-barrel, Dura-Built 2.3 litre engine, floor console unit, large front and rear stabilizer bars, special shock absorbers, steel-belted radial ply blackwall tires, wheel opening mouldings (chrome), day-night inside mirror, a sport steering wheel (two-spoke), a special instrumentation and "stitched" instrument panel pad with added wood-grain vinyl accents (standard on 2+2), distinctive "Spyder" identification (script fender emblems, steering wheel horn button insert) and Spyder front facia and rear-lock cover.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: Chevrolet made extensive changes to the Spyder package including separate equipment and appearance packages with separate RPO codes found on the build sheet. The Spyder equipment package was a regular production option (RPO) Z01, while the Spyder appearance package was RPO Z02. The Spyder packages were available on Monza 2+2 sport hatchbacks. Spyder decal colors were determined by the body color of the Monza ordered. There were four color combinations for 1977. For 1979, there were six combinations, which included a green and a blue color scheme.


title: Chevrolet Monza

text: In November 1970, GM paid $50 million for initial licenses to produce the Wankel rotary engine, and GM president Ed Cole projected its release in three years. The GM Wankel was initially targeted for an October 1973 introduction as a 1974 Vega option. The General Motors Rotary Combustion Engine (GMRCE) had two rotors displacing , twin distributors and coils, and aluminum housing,