title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Zuboff compares demanding privacy from surveillance capitalists or lobbying for an end to commercial surveillance on the Internet to asking Henry Ford to make each Model T by hand and states that such demands are existential threats that violate the basic mechanisms of the entity's survival.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Zuboff warns that principles of self-determination might be forfeited due to "ignorance, learned helplessness, inattention, inconvenience, habituation, or drift" and states that "we tend to rely on mental models, vocabularies, and tools distilled from past catastrophes," referring to the twentieth century's totalitarian nightmares or the monopolistic predations of Gilded Age capitalism, with countermeasures that have been developed to fight those earlier threats not being sufficient or even appropriate to meet the novel challenges.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: She also poses the question: "will we be the masters of information, or will we be its slaves?" and states that "if the digital future is to be our home, then it is we who must make it so".


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: In her book, Zuboff discusses the differences between industrial capitalism and surveillance capitalism. Zuboff writes that as industrial capitalism exploited nature, surveillance capitalism exploits human nature.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: The term "surveillance capitalism" has also been used by political economists John Bellamy Foster and Robert W. McChesney, although with a different meaning. In an article published in "Monthly Review" in 2014, they apply it to describe the manifestation of the "insatiable need for data" of financialization, which they explain is "the long-term growth speculation on financial assets relative to GDP" introduced in the United States by industry and government in the 1980s that evolved out of the military-industrial complex and the advertising industry.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Numerous organizations have been struggling for free speech and privacy rights in the new surveillance capitalism and various national governments have enacted privacy laws. It is also conceivable that new capabilities and uses for mass-surveillance require structural changes towards a new system to prevent misuse. Government attention towards the dangers of surveillance capitalism especially increased after the exposure of the Facebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal that occurred in early 2018. In response to the misuse of mass-surveillance multiple states have taken preventive measures. The European Union, for example, has reacted to these events and restricted its rules and regulations on misusing big data. Surveillance-Capitalism has become a lot harder under these rules, known as the General Data Protection Regulations. However, implementing preventative measures against misuse of mass-surveillance is hard for many countries as it requires structural change of the system.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Bruce Sterling's 2014 lecture at Strelka Institute "The epic struggle of the internet of things" explained how consumer products could become surveillance objects that track people's everyday life. In his talk, Sterling highlights the alliances between multinational corporations who develop Internet of Things-based surveillance systems which feeds surveillance capitalism.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: In 2015, Tega Brain and Surya Mattu's satirical artwork "Unfit Bits" encourages users to subvert fitness data collected by Fitbits. They suggested ways to fake datasets by attaching the device, for example to a metronome or on a bicycle wheel. In 2018, Brain created a project with Sam Lavigne called "New Organs" which collect people's stories of being monitored online and offline.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: The 2019 documentary film "The Great Hack" tells the story of how a company named Cambridge Analytica used Facebook to manipulate the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Extensive profiling of users and news feeds that are ordered by black box algorithms were presented as the main source of the problem, which is also mentioned in Zuboff's book.


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Although there has been a large response since Zuboff's book, it will be difficult to end surveillance capitalism in the current digital and political sphere due to the power that large technology companies have politically and economically. Because of this, it is more likely that we will see governments adopting surveillance capitalism for their own benefit, creating deals with these large technology companies, in order to both monitor and gain advantage of its going on. As Fukuyama et al said, “No liberal democracy is content to entrust concentrated political power to individuals based on assumptions about their good intentions.”


title: Surveillance capitalism

text: Another way in which it could be demonstrated that surveillance capitalism has become almost inevitably ingrained within most if not all forms of government and society is through the lens of China. China has “largest population of mobile phone, internet and social media users” and yet Google and Meta have no hand in this. Despite their lack of influence, China's government is well known for tracking the digital footprint of its citizens. Even though this is due to them viewing the digital space as a "national resource" it does not change the fact that it is still an extremely high-functioning form of surveillance capitalism, which ultimately shows the power in which governments could have should they choose to adopt a similar level of interest in the digital footprints of their citizens.


title: Professional certification

text: Professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation, often called simply "certification" or "qualification", is a designation earned by a person to assure qualification to perform a job or task. Not all certifications that use post-nominal letters are an acknowledgement of educational achievement, or an agency appointed to safeguard the public interest.


title: Professional certification

text: A certification is a third-party attestation of an individual's level of knowledge or proficiency in a certain industry or profession. They are granted by authorities in the field, such as professional societies and universities, or by private certificate-granting agencies. Most certifications are time-limited; some expire after a period of time (e.g., the lifetime of a product that required certification for use), while others can be renewed indefinitely as long as certain requirements are met. Renewal usually requires ongoing education to remain up-to-date on advancements in the field, evidenced by earning the specified number of continuing education credits (CECs), or continuing education units (CEUs), from approved professional development courses.


title: Professional certification

text: Many certification programs are affiliated with professional associations, trade organizations, or private vendors interested in raising industry standards. Certificate programs are often created or endorsed by professional associations, but are typically completely independent from membership organizations. Certifications are very common in fields such as aviation, construction, technology, environment, and other industrial sectors, as well as healthcare, business, real estate, and finance.


title: Professional certification

text: According to "The Guide to National Professional Certification Programs" (1997) by Phillip Barnhart, "certifications are portable, since they do not depend on one company's definition of a certain job" and they provide potential employers with "an impartial, third-party endorsement of an individual's professional knowledge and experience".


title: Professional certification

text: Certification is different from professional licensure. In the United States, licenses are typically issued by state agencies, whereas certifications are usually awarded by professional societies or educational institutes. Obtaining a certificate is voluntary in some fields, but in others, certification from a government-accredited agency may be legally required to perform certain jobs or tasks. In other countries, licenses are typically granted by professional societies or universities and require a certificate after about three to five years and so on thereafter. The assessment process for certification may be more comprehensive than that of licensure, though sometimes the assessment process is very similar or even the same, despite differing in terms of legal status.


title: Professional certification

text: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) defines the standard for being a certifying agency as meeting the following two requirements:


title: Professional certification

text: The Institute for Credentialing Excellence (ICE) is a U.S.-based organization that sets standards for the accreditation of personnel certification and certificate programs based on the "Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing", a joint publication of the American Educational Research Association (AERA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME). Many members of the Association of Test Publishers (ATP) are also certification organizations.


title: Professional certification

text: There are three general types of certification. Listed in order of development level and portability, they are: corporate (internal), product-specific, and profession-wide.


title: Professional certification

text: Corporate, or "internal" certifications, are made by a corporation or low-stakes organization for internal purposes. For example, a corporation might require a one-day training course for all sales personnel, after which they receive a certificate. While this certificate has limited portability – to other corporations, for example – it is the most simple to develop.


title: Professional certification

text: Product-specific certifications are more involved, and are intended to be referenced to a product across all applications. This approach is very prevalent in the information technology (IT) industry, where personnel are certified on a version of software or hardware. This type of certification is portable across locations (for example, different corporations that use that software), but not across other products. Another example could be the certifications issued for shipping personnel, which are under international standards even for the recognition of the certification body, under the International Maritime Organization (IMO).


title: Professional certification

text: The most general type of certification is profession-wide. Certification in the medical profession is often offered by particular specialties. In order to apply professional standards, increase the level of practice, and protect the public, a professional organization might establish a certification. This is intended to be portable to all places a certified professional might work. Of course, this generalization increases the cost of such a program; the process to establish a legally defensible assessment of an entire profession is very extensive. An example of this is a Certified Public Accountant (CPA), which would not be certified for just one corporation or one piece of accountancy software but for general work in the profession.


title: Professional certification

text: Many tertiary education providers grant professional certificates as an award for the completion of an educational program. The curriculum of a professional certificate is most often in a focused subject matter. Many professional certificates have the same curriculum as master's degrees in the same subject. Many other professional certificates offer the same courses as master's degrees in the same subject, but require the student to take fewer total courses to complete the program. Some professional certificates have a curriculum that more closely resembles a baccalaureate major in the same field. The typical professional certificate program is between 200 and 300 class-hours in size. It is uncommon for a program to be larger or smaller than that. Most professional certificate programs are open enrollment, but some have admissions processes. A few universities put some of their professional certificates into a subclass they refer to as advanced professional certificates.


title: Professional certification

text: "Advanced professional certificates" are professional credentials designed to help professionals enhance their job performance and marketability in their respective fields. In many other countries, certificates are qualifications in higher education. In the United States, a certificate may be offered by an institute of higher education. These certificates usually signify that a student has reached a standard of knowledge of a certain vocational subject. Certificate programs can be completed more quickly than associate degrees and often do not have general education requirements.


title: Professional certification

text: An advanced professional certificate is a result of an educational process designed for individuals. Certificates are designed for both newcomers to the industry as well as seasoned professionals. Certificates are awarded by an educational program or academic institution. Completion of a certificate program indicates completion of a course or series of courses with a specific concentration that is different from an educational degree program. Course content for an advanced certificate is set forth through a variety of sources i.e. faculty, committee, instructors, and other subject matter experts in a related field. The end goal of an advanced professional certificate is so that professionals may demonstrate knowledge of course content at the end of a set period in time.


title: Professional certification

text: There are many professional bodies for accountants and auditors throughout the world; some of them are legally recognized in their jurisdictions.


title: Professional certification

text: Public accountants are the accountancy and control experts that are legally certified in different jurisdictions to work in public practices, certifying accounts as statutory auditors, eventually selling advice and services to other individuals and businesses. Today, however, many work within private corporations, financial industry, and government bodies.


title: Professional certification

text: Aviators are certified through theoretical and in-flight examinations. Requirements for certifications are quite equal in most countries and are regulated by each National Aviation Authority. The existing certificates or pilot licenses are:


title: Professional certification

text: Licensing in these categories require not only examinations but also a minimum number of flight hours. All categories are available for Fixed-Wing Aircraft (airplanes) and Rotatory-Wing Aircraft (helicopters). Within each category, aviators may also obtain certifications in:


title: Professional certification

text: Usually, aviators must be certified also in their log books for the type and model of aircraft they are allowed to fly. Currency checks as well as regular medical check-ups with a frequency of 6 months, 12 months, or 36 months, depending on the type of flying permitted, are obligatory. An aviator can fly only if holding:


title: Professional certification

text: In Europe, the ANSP, ATCO & ANSP technicians are certified according to EUROCONTROL Safety Regulatory Requirement (ESARRs) (according to EU regulation 2096/2005 "Common Requirements").


title: Professional certification

text: In the United States, several communications certifications are conferred by the Electronics Technicians Association.


title: Professional certification

text: • CPCM (Certified Professional Contract Manager) conferred by the National Contract Management Association.


title: Professional certification

text: • CPSM (Certified Professional in Supply Management) conferred by Institute for Supply Management (ISM)


title: Professional certification

text: Conferred by the International Dance Council CID at UNESCO, the International Certification of Dance Studies is awarded to students who have completed 150 hours of classes in a specific form of dance for Level 1. Another 150 hours are required for Level 2 and so on till Level 10. This is the only international certification for dance since the International Dance Council CID is the official body for all forms of dance; it is usually given in addition to local or national certificates, that is why it is colloquially called "the dancer's passport". Students cannot apply for this certification directly – they have to ask their school to apply on their behalf. This certification is awarded free of charge, there is no cost other than membership fees.


title: Professional certification

text: International Dance Council CID at UNESCO administers the International Certification of Dance Studies.


title: Professional certification

text: In the United States, several electronics certifications are provided by the Electronics Technicians Association.


title: Professional certification

text: The Federal Emergency Management Agency's EMI offers credentials and training opportunities for United States citizens. Students do not have to be employed by FEMA or be federal employees for some of the programs.


title: Professional certification

text: Professional engineering is any act of planning, designing, composing, measuring, evaluating, inspecting, advising, reporting, directing or supervising, or managing any of the foregoing, that requires the application of engineering principles and that concerns the safeguarding of life, health, property, economic interests, the public interest or the environment.


title: Professional certification

text: Event planning includes budgeting, scheduling, site selection, acquiring necessary permits, coordinating transportation and parking, arranging for speakers or entertainers, arranging decor, event security, catering, coordinating with third-party vendors, and emergency plans.


title: Professional certification

text: Facility management can be defined as an aspect of engineering management science that deals with the planning, designing, coordination of space and maintenance of a built environment to enhance quality service management system. Service Quality System includes activities like security, maintenance, catering, and external as well as internal cleaning. In general, it is also the coordination and harmonization of various specialist disciplines to create the best possible working environment for staff.


title: Professional certification

text: Facility management is an interdisciplinary field devoted to the coordination of space, infrastructure, people and organization, often associated with the administration of office blocks, arenas, schools, convention centers, shopping complexes, hospitals, hotels, etc. However, FM facilitates on a wider range of activities than just business services and these are referred to as non-core functions.


title: Professional certification

text: A warehouse management system (WMS) is a part of the supply chain and primarily aims to control the movement and storage of materials within a warehouse and process the associated transactions, including shipping, receiving, putaway and picking. The systems also direct and optimize stock putaway based on real-time information about the status of bin utilization. A WMS monitors the progress of products through the warehouse. It involves the physical warehouse infrastructure, tracking systems, and communication between product stations.


title: Professional certification

text: More precisely, warehouse management involves the receipt, storage and movement of goods, (normally finished goods), to intermediate storage locations or to a final customer. In the multi-echelon model for distribution, there may be multiple levels of warehouses. This includes a central warehouse, a regional warehouses (serviced by the central warehouse) and potentially retail warehouses (serviced by the regional warehouses).


title: Professional certification

text: IECEx covers the specialized field of explosion protection associated with the use of equipment in areas where flammable gases, liquids and combustible dusts may be present. This system provides the assurance that equipment is manufactured to meet safety standards, and that services such as installation, repair and overhaul also comply with IEC International Standards on 60079 series. The UNECE (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe), cited IECEx as one example of a practice model for the verification of conformity to IEC Standards, for European smaller countries with no certification schemes for such equipment. It published a "Common Regulatory Framework" as a suggestion for those countries implementing a certification program for the explosive atmospheres' segment.


title: Professional certification

text: In the United States, insurance professionals are licensed separately by each state. Many individuals seek one or more certifications to distinguish themselves from their peers.


title: Professional certification

text: TESOL is a large field of employment with widely varying degrees of regulation. Most provision worldwide is through the state school system of each individual country, and as such, the instructors tend to be trained primary- or secondary school teachers who are native speakers of the language of their pupils, and not of English. Though native speakers of English have been working in non-English speaking countries in this capacity for years, it was not until the last twenty-five years or so that there was any widespread focus on training particularly for this field. Previously, workers in this sort of job were people engaging in backpacker tourism hoping to earn some extra travel money or well-educated professionals in other fields volunteering, or retired people. These sort of people are certainly still to be found, but there are many who consider TESOL their main profession.


title: Professional certification

text: One of the problems facing these full-time teachers is the absence of an international governing body for the certification or licensure of English language teachers. However, Cambridge University and its subsidiary body UCLES are pioneers in trying to get some degree of accountability and quality control to consumers of English courses, through their CELTA and DELTA programs. Trinity College London has equivalent programs, the CertTESOL and the LTCL DipTESOL. They offer initial certificates in teaching, in which candidates are trained in language awareness and classroom techniques, and given a chance to practice teaching, after which feedback is reported. Both institutions have as a follow-up a professional diploma, usually taken after a year or two in the field. Although the initial certificate is available to anyone with a high school education, the diploma is meant to be a post-graduate qualification and can in fact be incorporated into a master's degree program.


title: Professional certification

text: An increasing number of attorneys are choosing to be recognized as having special expertise in certain fields of law. According to the American Bar Association, a lawyer who is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition is meaningful and reliable. Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states.


title: Professional certification

text: Legal administrators vary in their day-to-day responsibilities and job requirements. The Association of Legal Administrators (ALA) is the credentialing body of the Certified Legal Manager (CLM) certification program. CLMs are recognized as administrators who have passed a comprehensive examination and have met other eligibility requirements.:


title: Professional certification

text: In Australia, ALIA (Australian Library and Information Association) certifies librarians and library technicians. Distinguished librarians who have completed a high level of professional learning are awarded the Distinguished Certified Professional Award. Prior to 2013, this award was known as Associate Fellows.


title: Professional certification

text: In New Zealand, the accrediting body is LIANZA (Library and Information Association of New Zealand Aotearoa Te Rau Herenga O Aotearoa). LIANZA accredit prominent librarians at three levels, Fellows, Life Members and Associates.


title: Professional certification

text: Logistician is the profession in the logistics and transport sectors, including sea, air, land and rail modes. Professional qualification for logisticians usually carries post-nominal letters.


title: Professional certification

text: Certification granting bodies include, but are not limited to, Institute for Supply Management (ISM), Association for Operations Management (APICS), Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport (CILT), International Society of Logistics (SOLE), Canadian Institute of Traffic and Transportation (CITT), and Allied Council for Commerce and Logistics (ACCL).


title: Professional certification

text: Management consulting is the practice of providing consulting services to organizations to improve their performance or in any way to assist in achieving any sort of organizational objectives.


title: Professional certification

text: Certification granting bodies are the approximately 50 Institutes of Management Consulting belonging to the International Council of Management Consulting Institutes (ICMCI).


title: Professional certification

text: Churches have their own process of who may use various religious titles. Protestant churches typically require a Masters of Divinity, accreditation by the denomination and ordination by the local church in order for a minister to become a "Reverend". Those qualifications may or may not also give government authorization to solemnize marriages.


title: Professional certification

text: Board certification is the process by which a physician in the United States documents by written, practical or computer based testing, illustrating a mastery of knowledge and skills that define a particular area of medical specialization. The American Board of Medical Specialties, a not-for-profit organization, assists 24 approved medical specialty boards in the development and use of standards in the ongoing evaluation and certification of physicians.


title: Professional certification

text: Medical specialty certification in the United States is a voluntary process. While medical licensure sets the minimum competency requirements to diagnose and treat patients, it is not specialty specific. Board certification demonstrates a physician's exceptional expertise in a particular specialty or sub-specialty of medical practice.


title: Professional certification

text: Patients, physicians, health care providers, insurers and quality organizations regard certification as an important measure of a physician's knowledge, experience and skills to provide quality health care within a given specialty.


title: Professional certification

text: Other professional certifications include certifications such as medical licenses, Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, nursing board certification, diplomas in social work. The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists that are knowledgeable about principles of geriatric pharmacotherapy and the provision of pharmaceutical care to the elderly. Additional certifying bodies relating to the medical field include:


title: Professional certification

text: NCPRP stands for "National Certified Peer Recovery Professional", and the NCPRP credential and exam were developed in collaboration with the International Certification Board of Recovery Professionals (ICBRP) and is currently being administered by PARfessionals.


title: Professional certification

text: PARfessionals is a professional organization and all of the available courses are professional development and pre-certification courses.


title: Professional certification

text: The NCPRP credential and exam focus primarily on the concept of peer recovery through mental health and addiction recovery. It has the main purpose of training student-candidates on how to become peer recovery professionals who can provide guidance, knowledge or assistance for individuals who have had similar experiences.


title: Professional certification

text: Each student-candidate must complete several key steps which include initial registration; the pre-certification review course; and all applicable sections of the official application in order to become eligible to complete the final step, which is the NCPRP certification exam.


title: Professional certification

text: The NCPRP credential is obtained once a participant successfully passes the NCPRP certification exam by the second attempt and is valid for five years.


title: Professional certification

text: In the US, the Universal Accreditation Board, an organization composed of the Public Relations Society of America, the Agricultural Relations Council, the National School Public Relations Association, the Religious Communicators Council and other public relations professional societies, administers the Accreditation in Public Relations (APR), a voluntary certification program for public relations practitioners.


title: Professional certification

text: The Certified Public Participation Professional (CP3) and Master Certified Public Participation Professional (MCP3) are awarded by two regions of the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) : IAP2 Canada and IAP2 USA. As of 2019, only 25 individuals had achieved either of these distinctions. The CP3 designation is awarded upon successfully completing a three-step process that includes a written application documenting the individual's experience in the profession, a written response to a case study, and an in-person oral assessment.


title: Professional certification

text: Individuals seeking certification are assessed against 5 Core Competencies, which are the essential capabilities for a professional in this field to effectively design, implement, and evaluate public participation programs. The competencies emerged from qualitative analysis of a comprehensive list of knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, skills, behaviors, and capabilities identified in June 2014 by more than 100 P2 professionals from around the world. The descriptions and quality standards for each competency were developed, tested, and refined through an iterative process involving IAP2 members. Each competency is further divided into individual criteria. An individual must meet or exceed every criterion to achieve the CP3 designation. IAP2 USA's program includes 29 criteria. IAP2 Canada's program includes 31 criteria; the two additional criteria in Canada address federal requirements for indigenous engagement. The MCP3 designation recognizes additional specialization and expertise and is assessed through a written application available only to individuals who have already achieved the CP3 designation.


title: Professional certification

text: To maintain professional certification, individuals must maintain active membership in IAP2, provide a minimum of 20 hours (annually) of volunteer (unpaid) service to IAP2, and participate in a minimum of 12 hours (annually) of continued professional development.


title: Professional certification

text: The Building Owners and Managers Association and the International Facility Management Association offer professional certifications for the operation and management of commercial properties.


title: Professional certification

text: Conferred by the National Speakers Association, the Certified Speaking Professional (CSP) is the speaking profession's international measure of professional platform competence. This certification is awarded by the National Speakers Association. Only about 10% of the speakers who belong to the Global Speakers Federation (GSF) hold this designation. Those who have earned their certification have done so by demonstrating a track record of experience and expertise.


title: Professional certification

text: Political commentators have criticized professional or occupational licensing, especially medical and legal licensing, for restricting the supply of services and therefore making them more expensive, often putting them out of reach of the poor.


title: Professional certification

text: The proliferation of IT certifications (both offered and attained) has led some technologists to question their value. Proprietary content that has been distributed on the Internet allows some to gain credentials without the implied depth or breadth of expertise.


title: Fort Drum

text: Fort Drum is a U.S. Army military reservation and a census-designated place (CDP) in Jefferson County, on the northern border of New York, United States. The population of the CDP portion of the base was 12,955 at the 2010 census. It is home to the 10th Mountain Division.


title: Fort Drum

text: Fort Drum consists of . In this region, winter temperatures can reach as low as . Its mission includes command of active component units assigned to the installation, providing administrative and logistical support to tenant units, support to active and reserve units from all services in training at Fort Drum, and planning and support for the mobilization and training of almost 80,000 troops annually.


title: Fort Drum

text: "This section of the article incorporates text taken from a public-domain document prepared by the United States military.


title: Fort Drum

text: A portion of the present Fort Drum was first used as a military training site in 1908 when it was named Pine Camp; the following year land was purchased to develop the camp as an installation. The army had an earlier presence in the North Country from the early 19th century, prior to the War of 1812.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 1809 the United States stationed a company of infantry soldiers at what was then called Sackett's Harbor to enforce the Embargo Act and control smuggling between northern New York and Canada, particularly Kingston, Ontario. Following the outbreak of the War of 1812, Sacketts Harbor became the center of United States naval and military activity for the Upper St. Lawrence River valley and Lake Ontario. A major shipyard was developed there and twelve warships were completed. The town was rapidly flooded with troops and some 3,000 skilled workers for the navy shipyard, most of whom came from New York City.


title: Fort Drum

text: During the 1830s and 1840s, the Lower Canada Rebellion in Canada prompted a new round of military preparations. The United States purchased land in Sackets Harbor (as it is now spelled), where it developed Madison Barracks, a base for artillery units.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 1908, Major General Frederick Dent Grant was sent to the Pine Camp region to train with 2,000 regulars and 8,000 militia. Grant, the son of Ulysses S. Grant, former United States president and Civil War general, found Pine Plains to be ideal for military exercises. In 1909 the military allocated funds to purchase land to form Pine Camp, and summer training continued here through the years.


title: Fort Drum

text: The camp came into the national spotlight in 1935, when the largest peacetime maneuvers ever were held on Pine Plains and surrounding farm lands. Approximately 36,500 soldiers came from throughout the Northeast to take part in the exercise. Some soldiers traveled by trains, which arrived in town every 15 minutes, coming from as far away as Buffalo, New York and New York City. For 36 hours, young men from offices, factories, and farms marched, attacked and defended in tactical exercises on the the army had leased for its war games. The maneuvers were judged to be most successful and the War Department purchased an additional of land.


title: Fort Drum

text: The LeRay Mansion, built in the early 19th century, was named after James LeRay de Chaumont. Throughout the years the mansion served as a post commander's quarters, visiting dignitaries' quarters and a location for formal military receptions. Today the mansion is used to house high ranking visitors, which has encouraged the continued upkeep of the mansion. The LeRay Mansion is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Fort Drum

text: With the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Pine Camp was selected by the Army for a major expansion. An additional of land was purchased, displacing 525 local families. Five entire villages were eliminated, while others were reduced from one-third to one-half their size. Three thousand buildings, including 24 schools, six churches and a post office, were abandoned.


title: Fort Drum

text: By Labor Day 1941, 100 tracts of land were taken over. Contractors went to work, and in a period of 10 months at a cost of $20 million, an entire city was built to house the divisions scheduled to train at Pine Camp.


title: Fort Drum

text: Eight hundred buildings were constructed, including 240 barracks, 84 mess halls, 86 storehouses, 58 warehouses, 27 officers' quarters, 22 headquarters buildings, and 99 recreational buildings, as well as guardhouses and a hospital. Construction workers suffered during this period, as the winter of 1941-42 was one of the coldest in North Country history.


title: Fort Drum

text: The three divisions to train at Pine Camp included the 4th Armored Division (Gen. Creighton Abrams was a battalion commander there at the time), the 45th Infantry Division (United States), and the 5th Armored Division.


title: Fort Drum

text: During the war, the post also served as a prisoner of war camp for captured Italian and German troops. Some were allowed to work on area farms during their internment. Of prisoners who died here, one Italian and six Germans are buried in the Sheepfold Cemetery near Remington Pond.


title: Fort Drum

text: Pine Camp was renamed as Camp Drum in 1951, named after Lieutenant General Hugh A. Drum, who was chief of staff of the First United States Army during World War I and First Army commander at the start of World War II. During and after the Korean War, a number of units were stationed and trained here to take advantage of the terrain and climate.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 1959, testing of Agent Orange began on more than of Camp Drum. Several communities at or near Agent Orange manufacturing or storage sites continue to report dioxin levels above recommended safety standards, including Fort Drum. The material was used extensively during the Vietnam War for defoliation.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 1974, a permanent garrison was assigned and Camp Drum was renamed Fort Drum. In April 1980, B Company, 76th Engineer Battalion (Combat Heavy) was reassigned from Fort Meade, Maryland. Three years later the rest of the battalion was transferred here, with the exception of D Company.


title: Fort Drum

text: On September 11, 1984, the announcement was made that Fort Drum would be the new home of the 10th Light Infantry Division. Its mission is to be manned and trained to deploy rapidly by air, sea, and land anywhere in the world, prepared to fight upon arrival and win. The first of the division's troops arrived at Fort Drum on December 3, 1984, and the unit was officially activated on February 13, 1985. The name was changed to the 10th Mountain Division (Light Infantry) at that time. The division reached full strength in 1989.


title: Fort Drum

text: Between 1986 and 1992, 130 new buildings, of roads, and 4,272 sets of family quarters were built at a cost of $1.3 billion.


title: Fort Drum

text: On June 4, 1985, the identity of a roundout brigade was announced that would be composed of Army National Guard battalions. Units from the New York Army National Guard from central and northern New York under the 27th Infantry Brigade made the roundout brigade.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 2013 Fort Drum was being considered for the location of a proposed Eastern United States missile defense site.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 2014, a 60-megawatt biofuel power plant was established to provide energy for the base, part of the U.S. military's push for renewable energy and self-sufficiency.


title: Fort Drum

text: In 2015, Diana M. Holland was promoted to become the first woman general at Fort Drum, and the first woman to serve as a deputy commanding general in one of the Army's light infantry divisions (specifically, the 10th Mountain Division.)


title: Fort Drum

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP portion of Fort Drum has a total area of , of which are land and , or 0.65%, are water.


title: Fort Drum

text: The military reservation occupies a large tract in the eastern part of Jefferson County, including parts of the towns of Antwerp, Leray, Philadelphia, and Wilna. The reservation also extends east into the town of Diana in Lewis County. Several villages in Jefferson County are on the border of Fort Drum: Antwerp, Black River, Carthage, Evans Mills, Natural Bridge, and Philadelphia. The nearest city is Watertown, to the southwest, which is the service and shopping destination for the fort's personnel.


title: Fort Drum

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 12,123 people, 2,253 households, and 2,203 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 479.8 per square mile (185.2/km). There were 2,280 housing units at an average density of 90.2/sq mi (34.8/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 64.2% White, 19.8% African American, 0.8% Native American, 2.4% Asian, 0.7% Pacific Islander, 7.6% from other races, and 4.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.3% of the population.


title: Fort Drum

text: There were 2,253 households, of which 75.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 91.9% were married couples living together, 4.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.2% were non-families. Of all households, 2.0% were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.33 and the average family size was 3.36.


title: Fort Drum

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 24.9% under the age of 18, 37.5% from 18 to 24, 36.0% from 25 to 44, 1.5% from 45 to 64, and 0.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 186.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 235.4 males.


title: Fort Drum

text: The median income for a household in the CDP was $31,699, and the median income for a family was $31,202. Males had a median income of $19,779 versus $19,401 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $13,395. About 6.3% of families and 6.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.8% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.


title: Fort Drum

text: Fort Drum is made up of . There are both on-post and off-post jobs and housing associated with the installation. Civilian job opportunities include day care providers, school teachers, nurses, and custodial workers. There is also a Teen-In-Hire program that helps teens in school obtain jobs.


title: Fort Drum

text: While housing can be difficult to obtain on-post due to the number of families moving to the area, families are able to stay temporarily at the Fort Drum Inn, cottages, guest house, cabins, or the LeRay Mansion, which all are under the care of Fort Drum Lodging. Soldiers and/or their dependents may also stay at one of many hotels surrounding Fort Drum.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The first impeachment trial of Donald Trump, the 45th president of the United States, began in the U.S. Senate on January 16, 2020, and concluded with his acquittal on February 5. After an inquiry between September to November 2019, President Trump was impeached by the U.S. House of Representatives on December 18, 2019; the articles of impeachment charged him with abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. It was the third impeachment trial of a U.S. president, preceded by those of Andrew Johnson and of Bill Clinton.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The Republican majority voted on January 21 to reject 11 amendments proposed by Democrats which requested subpoena authority to introduce testimony from current and former White House officials, as well as Trump administration documents which were not provided to House investigators.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The prosecution made its opening arguments on January 22–24, and the defense made its arguments on January 25–28. This was followed by a period of questions, answers, and debate on January 29–31. On January 31, a majority of 51 senators (all Republicans) voted against allowing subpoenas to call witnesses or documents.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On February 5, the Senate acquitted Trump on both impeachment articles, as neither article obtained the support of a two-thirds supermajority of senators. Fifty-two Republican senators voted against the charge of abuse of power, and all fifty-three voted against the charge of obstruction of Congress. Mitt Romney became the first U.S. senator in history to cast a vote to convict and remove a president of his own political party from office.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 13, 2021, the House of Representatives voted to start a second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, following the January 6 United States Capitol attack. The Senate acquitted Trump a second time on February 13, 2021.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Under the U.S. Constitution, the House has the sole power of impeachment (), and after that action has been taken, the Senate has the sole power to hold the trial for all impeachments (). Trump is the third U.S. president to face a Senate impeachment trial, after Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: After the emergence of Trump's phone call with Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy, House leadership came to the conclusion that impeachment might be advisable, and began an inquiry.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: As this was happening, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell was quietly planning a possible trial. On October 8, 2019, he led a meeting on the subject, advising the Republican Senators to craft their responses according to their own political needs. McConnell proposed two potential avenues: state opposition to the House process, or refuse to comment due to being potential jurors.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: As the articles of impeachment moved to a vote before the full House and referral to the Senate for trial, Mitch McConnell met with White House Counsel Pat Cipollone and congressional liaison Eric Ueland, later stating, "Everything I do during this I'm coordinating with the White House counsel. There will be no difference between the president's position and our position as to how to handle this... I'm going to take my cues from the president's lawyers." As part of the "total coordination", McConnell said the president's lawyers could decide if witnesses would be called for the trial. McConnell also said there was "no chance" the Senate would convict Trump and remove him from office, while declaring his wish that all Senate Republicans would acquit Trump of both charges. On December 14, Judiciary Committee chairman Lindsey Graham said, "I am trying to give a pretty clear signal I have made up my mind. I'm not trying to pretend to be a fair juror here... I will do everything I can to make [the impeachment trial] die quickly." Three days later, McConnell said, "I'm not an impartial juror. This is a political process. There is not anything judicial about it. Impeachment is a political decision." The Constitution mandates senators to take an impeachment oath, in which by Senate rules is stated, "I will do impartial justice according to the Constitution and laws, so help me God."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On December 15, Senate minority leader Chuck Schumer, in a letter to McConnell, called for Mick Mulvaney, Robert Blair, John Bolton and Michael Duffey to testify in the expected Senate trial, and suggested that pre-trial proceedings take place on January 6, 2020. Two days later, McConnell rejected the call for witnesses to testify, saying the Senate's job is only to judge, not to investigate. Schumer quickly replied, citing bipartisan public support for the testimony of witnesses who could fill in gaps caused by Trump preventing his staff from testifying in the House investigation.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On December 17, McConnell opened the Senate session with a half-hour long speech denouncing the impeachment, calling it "the most rushed, least thorough, and most unfair in modern history", and "fundamentally unlike any articles that any prior House of Representatives has ever passed". Schumer replied that he "did not hear a single sentence, a single argument as to why the witnesses I suggested should not give testimony" in the potential Senate trial.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Citing a need to "[s]ee what the process is on the Senate side", on December 18, the day of the impeachment, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi declined to commit to when, or even if, the impeachment resolution would be transmitted to the Senate, saying that "[s]o far we haven't seen anything that looks fair to us."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The entire legislative branch adjourned for winter break later that day without taking action to schedule the Senate trial. The following day, McConnell and Schumer briefly met to discuss the trial.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Lindsey Graham proposed that he and McConnell "change the rules of the Senate so we could start the trial without [Pelosi], if necessary". On January 7, McConnell announced that he had the caucus backing to pass a blueprint for the trial, which discusses witnesses and evidence after the opening arguments. Pelosi called for the resolution to be published before she could proceed with the next steps, but McConnell asserted the House had no leverage and that there would be no negotiating over the trial. This prompted several Democratic senators to voice their readiness to have the trial begin. On January 9, Pelosi said she would deliver the articles soon, but continued to cite a need for Republican transparency in the Senate; the same day, McConnell informed members of his caucus that he expected the trial to begin the next week, and Senator Josh Hawley announced that McConnell had signed on as a co-sponsor to his resolution to dismiss articles of impeachment not sent to the Senate within 25 days. On January 10, Pelosi announced that she and Jerry Nadler were prepared to bring a resolution to appoint managers and transmit the articles of impeachment to the House floor in the next week.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 6, John Bolton, the former national security advisor in the White House, said he was "prepared to testify" if subpoenaed by the Senate for the impeachment trial. On January 23, as Bolton was preparing for possible Senate testimony about the assertions in the manuscript for his yet-to-be-published book, the National Security Council told him it contained classified information which "may not be published or otherwise disclosed". Bolton's attorney said he did not believe the manuscript contained sensitive information. The dispute set the stage for a prolonged review, with Bolton's attorney asking that access to the manuscript be limited to "those career government officials and employees regularly charged with responsibility for such reviews". On January 26, "The New York Times" reported that Bolton had written in his book that in August 2019, Trump told Bolton he would continue withholding $391 million in security aid to Ukraine until it assisted with investigations into Democrats, including Joe and Hunter Biden. The Associated Press independently confirmed the report a day later, while Trump labeled Bolton's claims as false (despite admitting he had not read the manuscript). On January 31, "The New York Times" reported that Bolton's book also described a May 2019 meeting where Trump, in the presence of Pat Cipollone, Mick Mulvaney and Rudy Giuliani, asked Bolton to call Zelenskyy to set up a meeting between him and Giuliani.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 31, the lawyer for Lev Parnas sent a letter to McConnell stating that Parnas was ready to testify before the Senate with information "directly relevant to the President's impeachment inquiry", including physical evidence of documents and messages. Parnas would be able to testify on the efforts to "remove Ambassador Marie Yovanovitch and gather 'dirt' on Joe and Hunter Biden", as well as his own actions "at the direction of Mr. Giuliani, on behalf of" President Trump, which included Parnas' trips to Ukraine and meetings with aides of the Ukrainian president to convey a "quid pro quo". Parnas would be able to testify on his own direct conversations with Trump, as well as conversations between Trump and Giuliani that Parnas overheard. According to the letter, Parnas knew of "the pressure [Trump] was placing upon Ambassador Bolton to assist in resolving the apparent unwillingness of [Ukrainian] President Zelenskiy to abide by [Trump's] wishes."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The Chief Justice is cited in Article I, Section 3, Clause6 of the United States Constitution as the presiding officer in an impeachment trial of the President. As such, Chief Justice John Roberts assumed that role and was sworn in by Senate President pro tempore Chuck Grassley on January 16, 2020. He immediately administered the oath, as required by Rule XXV, to 99 of the senators in attendance.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: As in all parliamentary proceedings in the Senate, Justice Roberts is advised on procedural matters by Elizabeth MacDonough, Parliamentarian of the United States Senate.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The House managers, who conducted the prosecution, were named by Speaker Nancy Pelosi on January 15, and formally appointed by the House of Representatives later that same day by a vote of 228–193.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The seven congressmembers were chosen for their legal and national security experience and for geographic, racial, and gender diversity. Schiff had helped lead the impeachment inquiry as chairman of the House Intelligence Committee, while Nadler oversaw the drafting of the articles of impeachment in the House Judiciary Committee. Lofgren had been a staffer on the Judiciary Committee during Nixon's impeachment inquiry. Jeffries is the chairman of the House Democratic Caucus, the fifth-ranking member of the Democratic leadership. Demings is the former chief of police in Orlando, and is one of two Democrats on both the Intelligence and Judiciary committees. Crow was one of the "national security" freshman Democrats who co-authored an op-ed in "The Washington Post" calling for an impeachment inquiry. Garcia was a municipal judge in Houston.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The White House formally announced its Senate trial counsel as being led by White House Counsel Pat Cipollone and Jay Sekulow, alongside Ken Starr, Alan Dershowitz, Pam Bondi, Jane Raskin, Eric Herschmann, and Robert Ray on January 17. Additionally, Michael Purpura and Patrick Philbin participated in the trial.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 20, the White House named eight House Republicans to serve on Trump's defense team: Doug Collins, Mike Johnson, Jim Jordan, Debbie Lesko, Mark Meadows, John Ratcliffe, Elise Stefanik, and Lee Zeldin.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 of the U.S. Constitution states that "The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments." Per the Senate's impeachment rules adopted in 1986, the submission of the articles to the Senate initiated the trial.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Speaker Pelosi signed the articles of impeachment on January 15 and gave them to the sergeant-at-arms, who along with House Clerk Cheryl Johnson, and the managers, delivered them to the Senate where Johnson entered the chamber and announced to Grassley and the Senate leadership that President Trump had indeed been impeached and must stand trial.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Once this happened, Grassley told the managers and their entourage to leave and return at noon the following day. They left and at the appointed hour repeated a version of the ceremony. Some Republicans criticized Pelosi for giving congressmen the pens used to sign the articles of impeachment, which have her name printed on them. McConnell commented, "It was a transparently partisan performance from beginning to end."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: For this trial, the Senate President pro tempore swears in the chamber's presiding officer, the Chief Justice of the United States, who then swore in all senators who will act as jurors. Each is required to take the following oath (or affirmation):


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: I solemnly swear (or affirm, as the case may be) that in all things appertaining to the trial of the impeachment of Donald John Trump, President of the United States, now pending, I will do impartial justice according to the Constitution and laws: So help me God.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The Senate sergeant-at-arms, Michael Stenger, then read aloud the following proclamation to mark the beginning of the proceedings:


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: With the ceremonial beginning over, the Senate adjourned for the Martin Luther King Jr. Day recess beginning the following day. In the meantime, the Senate chamber was modified to resemble a courtroom. The House impeachment managers began their opening presentation at 1:00p.m. EST on January 22.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 18, 2020, the House trial managers released a 111-page trial memorandum, which included new evidence from after Trump was impeached, such as the Government Accountability Office's conclusion that it was illegal for the Trump administration to have withheld military aid to Ukraine without informing Congress—a violation of the Impoundment Control Act of 1974. Trump attorneys released a six-page response to the articles of impeachment, criticizing what they described as a "lawless process", while not directly addressing the allegations that Trump withheld military aid and a White House meeting from Ukraine in an attempt to have Ukraine announce investigations of Joe Biden and Hunter Biden. On January 20, House trial managers released a 9-page rebuttal to the original Trump response, rejecting the claim that Trump cannot be removed from office "even if the House proves every claim in the Articles of impeachment", as they argued that the Constitution "allows the Senate to remove Presidents who, like President Trump, abuse their power to cheat in elections, betray our national security, and ignore checks and balances".


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Also on January 20, Trump attorneys released a 110-page trial memorandum. The memorandum asserted the impeachment was illegitimate and the president should be immediately acquitted because he was not accused of violating any specific law and that abuse of power is not in itself an impeachable offense. This reasoning had been previously rejected by legal scholars, and contradicts a 2018 statement by Trump's attorney general Bill Barr, who before taking office wrote a memo to Trump's Justice Department and legal team advising that abuse of power is an impeachable offense. As a Trump legal team member, prominent constitutional scholar Alan Dershowitz also argued that proof of a crime is required to impeach a president, though during the 1998 impeachment of President Clinton he asserted, "It certainly doesn't have to be a crime if you have somebody who completely corrupts the office of president and who abuses trust and who poses great danger to our liberty. You don't need a technical crime," adding, "We look at their acts of state. We look at how they conduct the foreign policy. We look at whether they try to subvert the Constitution." After the video of his statements resurfaced in light of the Trump trial, Dershowitz retracted his earlier position. On January 21, House trial managers released a 34-page response to the Trump attorneys trial memo, where they stated that the Trump attorneys trial memo was "heavy on rhetoric and procedural grievances" but did not feature a "legitimate defense" of the president. The House trial managers also argued that "any imagined defect" in the House's procedures could be addressed with the Senate admitting and receiving evidence of its own, to give Trump the fair trial he requested.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 20, McConnell presented a resolution providing procedures for the trial, subject to approval by a simple majority vote. The resolution provided the White House counsel and House impeachment managers 24 hours each over two days to make opening statements, beginning at 1:00 p.m. each day. The next day, the resolution was amended to extend opening statements to three days. Opening statements were to be followed by 16 hours of questions and answers, followed by four hours of debate and a vote on whether to consider witnesses or new information. Minority leader Schumer criticized the resolution as a "national disgrace" because it did not automatically include evidence from the House inquiry and rushed the trial, while the White House was pleased with the proposal. The next day, McConnell amended his resolution to automatically include the House inquiry evidence unless a simple majority vote prohibited it. The White House and its Senate allies were confident they could garner the simple majority needed to prevent calling witnesses, though they worked on a fallback plan if Bolton was compelled to testify by asserting national security concerns to move his testimony to a closed-door session. Some conservatives floated a proposal to permit Bolton's testimony in exchange for requiring Hunter Biden to testify, which Democrats rejected. Biden had been the subject of baseless conspiracy theories related to his business activities in Ukraine.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 21, Schumer and the House managers introduced 11 amendments to McConnell's resolution, which sought to subpoena testimony from current and former White House officials (Mick Mulvaney, John Bolton, Robert Blair, and Michael Duffey) and also subpoena White House, State Department, and Office of Management and Budget documents. The White House and the State Department previously refused to pass such documents to House investigators. All 11 amendments were tabled (rejected). With the exception of a single amendment to extend the amount of time permitted to file motions, which was supported by Republican senator Susan Collins, the amendments were defeated along party lines with a vote of 53 to 47.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Also on January 21, Sekulow drew a parallel between Trump withholding aid to Ukraine and President Obama withholding aid to Egypt in 2013. In the latter case, Egypt had just experienced a military coup d'etat, which under U.S. law required aid to be withheld.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 22, Trump gave public comments on his impeachment trial: "I thought our team did a very good job. But honestly, we have all the material. They don't have the material." The White House denied Trump was referring to documents that had been withheld from House impeachment investigators and sought by the Democratic trial managers. The following day, Sekulow told reporters, "the White House will use, and we will use, appropriate documents that will be admissible to what this record is."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: During statements in the Senate chamber regarding trial procedures, Trump attorneys Cipollone and Sekulow made significant false statements which had previously been asserted by Trump supporters but debunked. Cipollone asserted that Republican House members were not allowed to participate in closed-door hearings, when in fact all Republicans who were members of the three investigating committees were entitled to attend the hearings, and many did and questioned witnesses. Cipollone also accused Adam Schiff of manufacturing a fake transcript of Trump's comments during the Trump–Zelenskyy phone call, but Schiff had said in advance that he was paraphrasing Trump's words. Cipollone also misrepresented the genesis of the president's impeachment, falsely asserting that Schiff proceeded with his investigation despite knowing his allegations were false. Sekulow asserted that Trump was denied the right to cross-examine witnesses, examine the evidence, or have an attorney present during Judiciary Committee proceedings, though the White House was invited to exercise those rights, but declined, as the president had refused to cooperate in any way with the inquiry. Sekulow also falsely asserted that the Mueller Report had concluded that Trump did not engage in obstruction of justice.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 22, the first day of opening arguments, Democrats presented evidence from House impeachment inquiry testimony, the Trump–Zelenskyy phone call and Trump's statements. Schiff started by asserting that Trump needs to be removed from office because he has shown he is ready and willing to cheat in the 2020 elections. Schiff told the Senate, "The president's misconduct cannot be decided at the ballot box because we cannot be assured the vote will be fairly won." Schumer called the previous evening a "dark night for the Senate", when the White House, in response to a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit, released new evidence including a string of heavily redacted emails revealing details about how the Office of Management and Budget froze aid to Ukraine. Jerry Nadler and Sylvia Garcia discussed Trump's lawyer Rudy Giuliani's smear campaign against Ambassador Marie Yovanovitch. Jason Crow and Hakeem Jeffries discussed the significance of the Trump–Zelenskyy phone call, and Schiff and Zoe Lofgren detailed how the scheme was exposed to the public. Lofgren mentioned that Pentagon officials wrote to the Office of Management and Budget warning that freezing aid to Ukraine might be illegal. Schiff concluded by pointing to the courage of administration officials who risked their careers in testifying and called upon senators to show equal courage.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: During his statements, Schiff referenced a "quid pro quo" in Trump's actions. Outside the Senate chamber, Sekulow told reporters the articles of impeachment do not mention any "quid pro quo", though Article I states that Trump had "conditioned two official acts on the public announcements that he had requested" without using the expression "quid pro quo". After the session, Justice Roberts allowed a page of supplementary testimony from an aide of Vice President Mike Pence to be admitted into the record.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On day two, House managers presented arguments to assert the evidence warranted Trump's removal from office. Jerry Nadler argued that abuse, betrayal, and corruption, or the "ABCs" of impeachment make a strong case for removal. He played videos from the impeachment trial of Bill Clinton showing statements by Senator Lindsey Graham (Republican, South Carolina) and lawyer Alan Dershowitz arguing that impeachment does not necessitate the breaking of a law; Graham absented himself during the showing of the video. They also played videos of Fiona Hill and FBI director Chris Wray to debunk the notion that Ukraine, rather than Russia, interfered in the 2016 United States presidential election. Sylvia Garcia and Adam Schiff argued several points to highlight why Trump's activities were inappropriate, including that he was not looking for an actual investigation but only an announcement of one, that the investigations were not official foreign policy and were carried out through unofficial channels, and that the White House first tried to bury the call. They pointed out that Trump himself told us he was looking for an investigation into the Bidens. They also pointed out that Vice President Biden pushed out Ukrainian prosecutor Viktor Shokin because he was not fighting corruption in Ukraine, and his ouster was backed by international organizations. Schiff concluded by arguing that Trump cannot be counted on to stand up to the Russians if they interfere in the 2020 presidential election.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Despite strict rules of silence during the trial, Senator Graham chuckled through the presentation about Biden and he whispered to Senators John Barrasso (Republican, Wyoming) and John Cornyn (Republican, Texas). At the end of the day, Susan Collins sent a note to Chief Justice Roberts complaining about Nadler's remarks that senators would be complicit in a coverup if they did not allow testimony from additional witness. Senators Richard Burr (Republican, North Carolina), Tom Cotton (Republican, Arkansas), and Pat Toomey (Republican, Pennsylvania) played with toys while Marsha Blackburn (Republican, Tennessee) read a book during the session.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On their third and final day, the Democrats discussed how they expected the Trump defense might respond and asked the Senate to call witnesses. Jerry Nadler called Trump a dictator and said, "The president has declared himself above the law. He has done so because he is guilty." He contrasted Trump's complete stonewalling of any witness or documents with the cooperation other presidents have offered during investigations, including Ronald Reagan during the Iran–Contra affair. Schiff rebuffed Republican arguments that House Democrats should have subpoenaed witness by pointing out that the process would probably have dragged out in the courts for months. Schiff concluded, "Give America a fair trial. She's worth it."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Some Republicans remarked that the Democrats' presentations were repetitive, though Democratic senator Tim Kaine indicated this was intentional as many senators and the public had not closely followed the impeachment inquiry. Republican senator John Kennedy acknowledged, "Senators didn't know the case. They really didn't. We didn't stay glued to the television. We haven't read the transcripts." Senator James Inhofe (Republican, Oklahoma) said, "I have to say this: Schiff is very, very effective." In his closing remarks, Schiff said of the Trump defense team, "If they couldn't get Ukraine to smear the Bidens, they want to use this trial to do it instead."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: As Trump's defense team prepared to begin their statements the next day, Sekulow told reporters that during their statements Democrats had "kicked the door down" on Burisma and the Bidens, and that his team planned to respond. "The Washington Post" reported that the Trump team planned a scorched-earth defense by targeting the Bidens in an effort to both sway senators in the trial and undercut Trump's political opponent. Lindsey Graham stated his opposition to subpoenaing either Biden even if other witnesses were called, because he did not want the trial to interfere with the 2020 presidential election, but stated his support of a separate investigation.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The Trump defense team began its statements on January 25. The primary arguments were a lack of direct evidence of wrongdoing, and that Democrats were attempting to use the impeachment to steal the 2020 election. Sekulow cited the conspiracy theory that Ukraine had interfered in the 2016 election, suggesting this gave Trump a basis to investigate corruption in Ukraine. Deputy White House counsel Michael Purpura presented video from the impeachment inquiry of three envoys to Ukraine testifying that the first time they had become aware Ukraine had expressed concern about the aid being withheld was in August 2019, suggesting Ukraine was unaware of the hold at the time of the Trump–Zelenskyy phone call. Despite White House resistance to witness testimony during the impeachment inquiry and trial, deputy White House counsel Patrick Philbin said, "cross-examination in our legal system is regarded as the greatest legal engine ever invented for the discovery of truth."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 26, "The New York Times" reported that Bolton had written in a draft of his forthcoming book that the president told him in August 2019 he wanted to continue freezing $391 million in aid to Ukraine until officials there pursued investigations into Democrats, including the Bidens. Trump denied Bolton's claim. The House impeachment managers subsequently called for the Senate to call Bolton as a witness. McConnell evidently had no knowledge of the book contents prior to the "Times" story, though White House aides have reportedly had the manuscript since late December. After the "Times" story was published, Trump asserted that House impeachment investigators had never called Bolton to testify. The "Times" later reported the Bolton book described a May 2019 Oval Office meeting during which Trump directed Bolton to call Zelenskyy to ask him to meet with Giuliani about getting damaging information on the Bidens. Bolton reportedly wrote that Giuliani, Mulvaney and Cipollone attended the meeting. Trump denied telling Bolton this, and Giuliani denied Mulvaney or Cipollone attended meetings related to Ukraine. Cipollone previously said he never attended Ukraine-related meetings, and Mulvaney said he avoided Trump–Giuliani meetings so as to not jeopardize their attorney-client privilege.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The following day, Pam Bondi dedicated most of her time discussing the motive behind Trump's actions, citing the conspiracy theory involving the Bidens and Burisma, saying, "We would prefer not to be talking about this. But the House managers have placed this squarely at issue, so we must address it." She repeated allegations that Joe Biden had sought the removal of Ukrainian prosecutor general Viktor Shokin, who was ostensibly investigating the firm that employed Hunter Biden, though this action was in agreement with the foreign policy of the United States and other Western governments towards Ukraine at the time. Bondi also falsely asserted that "The New York Times" reported in 2015 that Shokin was investigating Burisma and its owner.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Trump attorney Jane Raskin followed Bondi and told senators, "In this trial... Mr. Giuliani is just a minor player, that shiny object designed to distract you." Trump counsel Eric Herschmann asked why Hunter Biden was hired and paid so much by Burisma despite having no experience in the energy sector or Ukraine, then played a video of him explaining that he was employed to head the corporate governance and transparency committee on the Burisma board. Trump's team asserted that President Obama had abused his power with Russia, with Herschmann characterizing a 2012 "hot mic" incident between Obama and Russian president Dmitry Medvedev as a "quid pro quo". He also played a video from a 2012 presidential debate in which Obama mocked his opponent Mitt Romney for having said Russia was America's top geopolitical opponent.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 28, the final day of the Trump team's opening statements, Pat Philbin argued that no one could get into the president's mind and decide what is or is not an "illicit motive". He went on to say the president is not beholden to what his subordinates say or think. Senators James Lankford (Republican, Oklahoma) and Lindsey Graham proposed that Bolton's book should be reviewed in a classified setting; some argue that this would be illegal. Schumer immediately shot the idea down. Sekulow said the trial was "not a game of leaks and unsourced manuscripts", characterizing the reported assertion in Bolton's book as inadmissible. Schiff later remarked, "I don't think quite frankly that we could have made as effective a case for John Bolton's testimony as the president's own lawyers." Sekulow also falsely asserted that Crossfire Hurricane — the FBI investigation opened in July 2016 that investigated links between Russians and Trump campaign associates — had also investigated Trump personally; Trump did not come under personal scrutiny until his May 2017 firing of FBI director James Comey raised suspicions of obstruction of justice.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Sixteen hours of questions and answers began on January 29. Senators had to write questions on a sheet of paper addressing the defense, the prosecution or both, which Chief Justice Roberts read out loud for the relevant team to answer. The first day contained questions of both procedural and evidentiary topics, as well as questions Roberts declined to allow, such as one speculating about the identity of the whistleblower. Senator Rand Paul was seen and heard expressing his frustration at the ruling during a break.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Most of the questions fell along party lines; Democrats questioned the House managers, and Republicans questioned Trump's lawyers. Tim Scott (Republican, South Carolina) said that was because "You don't want to see someone just drone on." The first question was from Senators Susan Collins (Republican, Maine), Mitt Romney (Republican, Utah), and Lisa Murkowski (Republican, Alaska) who asked whether Trump's conduct toward Ukraine would be impeachable if he was acting out of both public and personal motives. Patrick Philbin replied that mixed motives would make the case for impeachment fail. Asked for his view on the same question by Chuck Schumer (Democrat, New York), Schiff argued that "[I]f any part of the president's motive was a corrupt motive, that is enough to convict." Ted Cruz (Republican, Texas) asked if "quid pro quo" arrangements were common in foreign policy; Alan Dershowitz suggested there would be nothing wrong if the president asked a foreign country for help in his reelection because the president might think it was central to the best interests of the country. Schiff retorted that would give "carte blanche" to more interference in the future. Five Republicans asked how the Founding Fathers would feel about an impeachment that was supported by only one political party; Dershowitz opined that "The president is the executive branch. He is irreplaceable." Schiff and Philbin disagreed over calling witnesses. Schiff said Bolton could clear up doubts about Trump's motives, while Philbin threatened that any attempt to get Bolton to testify would tie up the proceedings for months. Schiff said Chief Justice Roberts could rule on the question.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Dershowitz stirred controversy on January 29 by saying, "If a president does something which he believes will help him get elected in the public interest, that cannot be the kind of quid pro quo that results in impeachment." The statement elicited concerns among many that Dershowitz was asserting a president is above the law, with Schiff telling senators it was reminiscent of former president Nixon's assertion that "when the president does it, that means it is not illegal." Dershowitz insisted his comment was mischaracterized, later stating, "a president seeking re-election cannot do anything he wants. He is not above the law. He cannot commit crimes."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The question and answer session continued on January 30. One of the first questions was how the Senate could find out when the $400 million hold was first ordered. Democratic House manager Jason Crow said that information was unknown but could be easily obtained with subpoenas for documents and witnesses, including Bolton. Senator Lisa Murkowski cited Ambassador Gordon Sondland and Senator Johnson in asking why Bolton should not be called to testify. Murkowski later joined Lamar Alexander in asking defense lawyers if withholding aid to Ukraine was impeachable; the lawyers said it is not. Senators Jack Reed (Democrat, Rhode Island), Tammy Duckworth (Democrat, Illinois), and Kamala Harris (Democrat, California) asked both sides who was paying Rudy Giuliani. Schiff reported that he did not know, and Sekulow called the question unimportant.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Senator John Thune (Republican, South Dakota) conceded that Trump did what he was charged with, but that witnesses were not necessary and the actions were not impeachable. Kevin Cramer (Republican, North Dakota) said, "I think [Bolton] sounds like a lot of the other witnesses, frankly. I don't know that he's got a lot new to add to it." Other Republicans made similar statements.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Schiff pointed out that during a January 30 federal court hearing about the White House's refusal to honor congressional subpoenas, Judge Randolph Moss asked Justice Department attorney James Burnham what remedies Congress might have in such a case. Burnham suggested impeachment, though Trump's attorneys argue that obstruction of Congress is not an impeachable offense. Burnham said, "They are hypocrites. We are hypocrites, I guess," in reference to the Trump administration's stance against both impeachment and court cases, as well as the House's wanting to impeach the president for obstruction of Congress while asking the courts to enforce its subpoenas for executive-branch information. Moss said, "It seems... remarkable to suggest that Congress as an institution can't enforce its subpoenas," noting that if that were so, subpoenas would be little more than requests.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 31, after a planned debate session, the Senate voted against allowing subpoenas to call witnesses or documents with a 51–49 vote. Fifty-one Republican senators voted against calling witnesses, while 45 Democratic senators, two independents (Bernie Sanders and Angus King) who typically vote Democratic, and two Republicans (Mitt Romney and Susan Collins) voted for witnesses. Further attempts to add witnesses, Bolton in particular, via amendments were tabled with similar vote tallies but with Romney and Collins joining their fellow Republicans except for votes specifically calling for Bolton as a witness.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The night after the vote, the Justice Department and a lawyer for the Office of Management and Budget acknowledged, in a court filing in a FOIA lawsuit brought against the administration by the Center for Public Integrity, the existence of two dozen emails revealing Trump's thinking about the "scope, duration, and purpose" of the freeze on military aid to Ukraine. The Trump administration withheld the documents, asserting that they are subject to "presidential privilege".


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Closing arguments were given by the prosecution and defense teams on February 3. That day, Democratic senator Joe Manchin, who was undecided on the trial vote, proposed the Senate censure the president to prevent his behavior to go "unchecked by the Senate", though there appeared to be little support for it. Senator Rand Paul (Republican, Kentucky) gave a speech reiterating the question which Chief Justice Roberts declined to read. On February 5, the Senate voted on whether to convict the president on the charges and evidence as they were presented and debated upon. The senators voted 52 to 48 to find Trump not guilty on the charge of abuse of power; all 45 Democrats, Independent senators Bernie Sanders and Angus King, and Republican senator Mitt Romney voted guilty. Romney's vote marked the first time in American history a senator voted to convict a president of his own party. On the second charge, the Senate voted 53 to 47, in a party-line vote, to find him not guilty on the charge of obstruction of Congress.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: With 48% of senators voting to convict on the first article of impeachment, and 47% of senators voting to convict on the second article of impeachment, out of the four presidential impeachment trials in United States history, this trial has the lowest percentage of senators that voted to convict on at least one article. In the impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson, 64.82% of senators voted to convict on each of the three articles of impeachment which saw votes cast. In the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump, 57% of senators voted to convict on the sole article of impeachment. In the impeachment trial of Bill Clinton, 45% of senators voted to convict on the first article of impeachment, and 50% of senators voted to impeach on the second article of impeachment.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Americans were sharply divided on whether Trump should be removed from office, with Democrats largely supporting removal, Republicans largely opposing, and independents divided. A poll of 1,156 respondents conducted by Social Science Research Solutions in January 2020 found that 51% of people (89% of Democrats, 8% of Republicans, and 48% of independents) supported Trump's removal from office, compared to 45% who opposed the idea. The poll also found that 69% of respondents support calling new witnesses during the trial. Of the respondents, 32% of those sampled were Democrats, 26% were Republicans, and 42% described themselves as independents or members of another party. A January 17–22 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that about 72% of Americans believed the trial "should allow witnesses with firsthand knowledge of the impeachment charges to testify", including 69% of Republicans.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: A Quinnipiac University poll released on January 28 showed that 75% of those polled support calling witnesses; 49% of Republicans, 95% of Democrats, and 75% of independents. On the issue of removing Trump from office, 48% said no and 47% said yes. 89% of the respondents said they are firm in their opinions. A Pew Research Center poll showed that 51% of Americans believed Trump should be removed from office and 70% believed he had done unethical things.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: During the trial on January 24, Senator Marsha Blackburn (Republican, Tennessee) tweeted her disdain for the Director for European Affairs for the United States National Security Council, Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Vindman, questioning his patriotism for testifying against the president.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On January 27, former vice president Joe Biden pushed for witnesses but said he would not testify because he had nothing to defend. The following day, Senator Joni Ernst (Republican, Iowa) said she believed the trial would hurt Biden in the Iowa caucuses on February 3. A Biden spokesperson replied, "Senator Ernst just said the quiet part out loud: Republicans are terrified that Joe Biden will be the Democratic nominee, defeat Donald Trump, and help progressives gain seats in the House and take the Senate."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Steve Benen, who writes for "The Rachel Maddow Show", reported on January 28 that former Trump White House chief of staff General John F. Kelly responded to Trump's downplaying of Bolton's book by saying, "If John Bolton says that in the book, I believe John Bolton." Benen notes that Kelly attributes Bolton with honesty, integrity, and character, but fails to apply the same terms to the president. Benen also quoted Senator Roy Blunt (Republican, Missouri) as rejecting witnesses, saying he did not want to "stretch this out with no change in outcome".


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The White House on January 23 issued a formal threat to stop Bolton from publishing his book, "The Room Where It Happened", citing national security concerns, according to CNN. Neither Bolton nor publisher Simon & Schuster responded to a request for comment.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: House Speaker Pelosi said on January 30 that Trump's lawyers had trampled on the Constitution with their arguments that the president could not be impeached for using his office for political gain, and she suggested they should be disbarred. Two days after Trump's acquittal, she wrote a partisan opinion piece criticizing Republican senators as "accomplices to the president's wrongdoing" who were "normalizing lawlessness and rejecting the checks and balances of our Constitution".


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Former Illinois Congressman Joe Walsh said on January 31 that the vote not to call witnesses was "Absolutely cowardly", going on to state "I'm a Republican running for president... these Senate Republicans... deserve to pay a big price."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: While they voted against witnesses, Senator Rob Portman (Republican, Ohio) called Trump's actions "wrong and inappropriate", and Senator Lamar Alexander (Republican, Tennessee) said they were inappropriate, but not bad enough to convict the president. Alexander said the House of Representatives proved the case that Trump withheld military aid to Ukraine to encourage its government to investigate the Bidens, but concluded that the consequences of the president's actions should be decided in the next election. Senator Susan Collins (Republican, Maine) said she believes Trump has learned his lesson from the Ukraine scandal and his impeachment, but she later said that "hopes" was a better word for it after Trump maintained that he did nothing wrong in response to Collins' comments.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: With his vote to convict Trump, Republican senator Mitt Romney became the first senator to vote to convict a president of his own political party. Romney said Trump was "guilty of an appalling abuse of public trust", saying, "Corrupting an election to keep oneself in office is perhaps the most abusive and destructive violation of one's oath of office that I can imagine."


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: After being apparently smeared by Rudy Giuliani and Lev Parnas, former ambassador to Ukraine Marie Yovanovitch announced her retirement from the State Department on January 31, 2020.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On February 6, the day after the trial ended, Trump gave a speech to a large group of supporters to "discuss our country's victory on the impeachment hoax". He held up a copy of "The Washington Post" with the headline "Trump Acquitted", saying "It's the only good headline I've ever had in "The Washington Post"." He said, "We've been going through this now for over three years. It was evil, it was corrupt, it was dirty cops, it was leakers and liars. And this should never, ever happen to another president, ever." He railed against perceived enemies including Mitt Romney, James Comey, and Robert Mueller, and said of Pelosi and Schumer, "In my opinion, it's almost like they want to destroy our country." The next day he told reporters that his impeachment should be "expunged" because it was a "total political hoax".


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On February 7, Lt. Col. Alexander Vindman and his brother Lt. Col. Yevgeny Vindman were escorted from the White House and reassigned to the Defense Department and the U.S. Army's Office of General Counsel, respectively, in apparent retaliation for their testimony. At that time, Alexander Vindman was planning to leave the National Security Council in July; in July, he announced he would retire from the U.S. Army, claiming that Trump allies continued to retaliate against him by limiting his chances at promotion.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Also on February 7, former ambassador to the European Union Gordon Sondland who had also testified in the House inquiry, was recalled from his post. Following the sackings, Pelosi, Schiff, and Schumer accused Trump of acting in retaliation for Vindman testifying in response to a subpoena from the House impeachment inquiry.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: Days after his acquittal, Trump acknowledged that he had directed Giuliani to go to Ukraine, after denying he had prior to his impeachment.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: In early February 2020, Lindsey Graham publicly said Senate Intelligence Committee chairman Richard Burr would subpoena the whistleblower to look at "whether or not the whistleblower had a bias". Later that month, Burr said, "I'm prepared to do whatever we have to to interview the whistleblower." Republican Senator John Cornyn has argued that there are "unresolved questions", including the whistleblower's "contact with [the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and its staff] and... if that was a result of a collaborative process between Mr. Schiff's staff and the whistleblower." Both Schiff and the whistleblower's lawyers have denied that Schiff played any role in creating the complaint.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On February 21, director of the Office of Presidential Personnel John McEntee held a meeting to liaise for coordination among agencies which reportedly included him asking Cabinet liaisons to identify political appointees and career officials working against the President's agenda.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: On April 3, late on a Friday evening, Trump notified the Congressional intelligence committees that he intended to fire Michael Atkinson, the Inspector General of the Intelligence Community. Trump's letter did not specify a reason for firing Atkinson. However he has criticized Atkinson for helping to start his impeachment when he told Congress about the existence of a whistleblower complaint, as the law required. In defending the firing, Trump stated that Atkinson is "not a big Trump fan". Trump was heavily criticized for the firing, which many members of Congress described as another abuse of power. Adam Schiff described the firing as "yet another blatant attempt by the president to gut the independence of the intelligence community and retaliate against those who dare to expose presidential wrongdoing". Michael Horowitz, the chair of the Council of the Inspectors General on Integrity and Efficiency, also released a statement rebuking Trump and defending Atkinson's professionalism and standards. One of the only public officials who openly supported Trump's firing of Atkinson was Attorney General William Barr. Barr originally had tried and failed to prevent Atkinson from informing Congress about the existence of a whistleblower complaint. Under Barr, the Justice Department also determined that no crimes needed to be investigated with regard to the extortion of Ukraine's government. In justifying Atkinson's firing, some of Barr's statements about the actions of Atkinson and the DOJ, and the relevant laws and policies, were false.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: After the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol the House of Representatives voted to approve the second impeachment of Donald Trump on January 13, 2021, leading to the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump the following month.


title: First impeachment trial of Donald Trump

text: The trial was televised on all the major U.S. broadcast and cable television networks. Facebook and Twitter streamed the address online.


title: Unani medicine

text: Unani or Yunani medicine (Urdu: "tibb yūnānī") is Perso-Arabic traditional medicine as practiced in Muslim culture in South Asia and modern day Central Asia. Unani medicine is pseudoscientific. The Indian Medical Association describes Unani practitioners who claim to practice medicine as quacks.


title: Unani medicine

text: The term "Yūnānī" means "Greek", as the Perso-Arabic system of medicine was based on the teachings of the Greek physicians Hippocrates and Galen.


title: Unani medicine

text: The Hellenistic origin of Unani medicine is still visible in its being based on the classical four humours: phlegm (), blood ("dam"), yellow bile ("ṣafrā") and black bile ("saudā"'), but it has also been influenced by Indian and Chinese traditional systems.


title: Unani medicine

text: Arab and Persian elaborations upon the Greek system of medicine by figures like Ibn Sina and al-Razi influenced the early development of Unani.


title: Unani medicine

text: Unani medicine interacted with Indian Buddhist medicine at the time of Alaxander's invasion of India. There was a great exchange of knowledge at that time which is visible from the similarity of the basic conceptual frames of the two systems. The medical tradition of medieval Islam was introduced to India by the 12th century with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and it took its own course of development during the Mughal Empire, influenced by Indian medical teachings of Sushruta and Charaka. Alauddin Khalji (d. 1316) had several eminent physicians (Hakims) at his royal courts. This royal patronage led to the development of Unani in India, and also the creation of Unani literature.