title: Kaminey

text: Sweety gives birth to Guddu's twins and Charlie opens a bookmaking counter at the racecourse. Charlie is engaged to Sophia, a woman earlier featured in his dream.


title: Kaminey

text: During a scriptwriting workshop held by Mira Nair in 2005, Cajetan Boy, a Kenyan writer from Nairobi, showed Vishal Bhardwaj a script about twin brothers from the city's slums and the events that occur in their lives during a 24-hour period. Bhardwaj liked Boy's approach to the script; Nair and Bhardwaj discussed it and thought it was a typical Bollywood masala film. Boy sent Bhardwaj another draft of his script. Three years later, Bhardwaj asked Boy to sell him the idea, and he later bought the script for US$4,000. Bhardwaj revisited the idea and added some Bollywood elements and a dark, serious side to the script. He worked on the original idea with writers Sabrina Dhawan, Abhishek Chaubey and Supratik Sen. He included Dhawan in writing the screenplay because as he thought she would give it a "solid structure". Bhardwaj said that during the writing of the screenplay, most of the original ideas were changed and the climax was "Indianized". His re-worked version now included one brother with a stammer and the other with a lisp. Bhardwaj said that despite the complicated structure, "Kaminey" is "anything but arty" and could not alienate audiences in any part of India, and that it is a simple story but with a complicated structure. Dhawan said that the film's script was complex and has multiple stories which required excessive writing and rewriting to make each character sound distinct.


title: Kaminey

text: The media showed concern over the film's title, deeming it "odd", and some people were shocked because of the title, which can be translated into English as "mean". However, the makers said that "kaminey" is not a negative term and is actually a term of endearment. According to Bhardwaj, the idea for the title came from a scene from Gulzar's "Ijaazat" (1987), in which the lead actor (Naseeruddin Shah) refers to the actress in a loving manner; it was the first time that he heard the word used that way. Bhardwaj told Rediff, "when the script of this film was written, it was like discovering your own mean side. The format of the film is of a caper and all the characters in this film, excluding one, has an agenda. So I thought it was an apt title for the film".


title: Kaminey

text: Shahid Kapoor was cast in the film's lead role. Several media outlets reported that Bhardwaj considered many actors before casting Kapoor in the role, which he refused. Bhardwaj refuted the claims, saying, "There is a huge difference between discussing and narrating and offering someone a film and I would like to clear up the rumour by saying that Kaminey was never offered to anyone else and so no one rejected it." Kapoor said that he accepted the role after reading the script. Priyanka Chopra was cast to play Sweety, the lead female role. She initially turned down the role, saying she felt it was a boys' film and her eight-scene part did not seem good enough. However, Bhardwaj persuaded her to accept the role.


title: Kaminey

text: The idea for casting the screenwriter Amole Gupte came from the casting director Honey Terhan. Gupte said that when he received a call from Terham, he thought it was a joke. He stated, "A man named Honey introduced himself as Vishal Bhardwaj's casting director and offered me a very important role. I banged the phone down not believing a word of what he said". However, after meeting Bhradwaj and hearing a script reading, he loved the story and accepted the offer. The actors Chandan Roy Sanyal, Shiv Subramnayam, Hrishikesh Joshi, Rajatava Dutta and Deb Mukherjee were cast in supporting roles. For the role of drug dealer Tashi, Bhardwaj chose his friend Tenzing Nimaa tour operator in Mussooriesaying he had the character and attitude he wanted, and a weird sense of humour.


title: Kaminey

text: Bhardwaj instructed the film's entire cast and crew to watch caper classics such as "Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels" (1998), "Snatch" (2000), "Pulp Fiction" (1994) and "True Romance" (1993) to study the nuances and become familiar with the genre. Shahid Kapoor played both Charlie and Guddu, twin brothers with speech impediments; Charlie has a lisp and Guddu stammers. The producers did not want them to look like caricatures, so Kapoor prepared for both roles by meeting and interacting with speech therapists and people with these impediments. According to Kapoor, the producers wanted to find out about the medical reasons for the impediments and their mental effects. They met specialists and thoroughly researched stammering and lisping. Kapoor said that each role had its own challenges. Charlie's physique was very different from Kapoor's and it took him nearly a year to change the look of his body. He found changing from one character to the other difficult.


title: Kaminey

text: Chopra described her character Sweety as "feisty and vivacious". She said, "Sweety is very busy, and does not have time to take care of her looks and apply make up. Her only aim in life is to bunk her lectures and visit her boyfriend's college or stay in his hotel, and eventually marry him." Chopra described both her character and herself as being "outspoken and fun-loving" as well as honest and unable to "hide something that is wrong". She said she had a different cultural background to Sweety, and found it challenging to convincingly portray a Maharashtrian Marathi girl. She had to adopt body language and a Maharashtrian accent to suit the character. She learnt the Marathi Language to make the character as authentic as possible, which she found difficult. Chopra said: "I am speaking a lot of Marathi in the film. It was difficult for me because it's a difficult language and I am not good at Marathi. But I think it's my luck that through Kaminey I got to learn one more language."


title: Kaminey

text: Gupte described his character as mercurial and found playing him a physical delight. Gupte said his character keeps the frame unpredictable and that it provided him with a foil to express rage and anguish. He worked a lot on his characterisation and tried to bring in his own references from European and Japanese cinema. Chandan Roy Sanyal described his character Mikhail as provocative, mad, wicked and humorous. Subramnayam and Joshi, who played Lobo and Lele respectively, described their characters as the most corrupt policemen in their department at the Anti-Narcotics Bureau. They said that to prepare for the roles they followed the script and Bhardwaj's instructions to get the characters right. Mukherjee prepared for his role as Mujeeb by reading the script and understanding the characters and discussing it with Bhardwaj. Dutta, who played Shumona Bengali criminal involved in fixing horse races and arms dealingsaid that he did not have much time to prepare for his role because he was given the script after he arrived in Mumbai, where Bhardwaj briefed him.


title: Kaminey

text: Principal photography commenced in mid-2008, and the film was mostly shot in Mumbai. During a late night shoot for a scene in Pune, Chopra received minor injuries. Chopra was supposed to ride a motorcycle with Kapoor seated on the pillion seat. Both fell off the motorcycle as it skidded on mud. Kapoor was unhurt but Chopra received scratch marks and bruises. It was reported that Kapoor suffered from several injuries while shooting. During filming, Chopra became hoarse because she had to scream her lines; an essential part of her role as an "extremely vocal Maharashtrian girl." Some important railway sequences were shot at Wadi Bunder Yard near Sandhurst Road. Kapoor found filming for both of his characters at nearly the same time very difficult; he would shoot them on alternate days.


title: Kaminey

text: According to the "Hindustan Times", "Kaminey" "is the first attempt to deal with reality in a mature, matter of fact manner." Unlike other Hindi films, in which the female lead is Sita, the protagonist is Rama and the antagonist is Ravana, the characters in "Kaminey" are nuanced humans in "layered and complex" situations. Namrata Joshi from "Outlook" wrote that "Kaminey" reflects Bhardwaj's "enduring fascination for underdogs, characters on the margins of society and the morally compromised". Bhardwaj told Rediff.com that the film deals with "themes that affect our lives directly", and "is a reminder that we all have a dark side, and often we are not fully aware of that side". Rakesh Bedi from "The Economic Times" wrote, "Bhardwaj presents the two warring brothers with speech defects. In today's world of logorrhea, communication is fraught with many dangers: misunderstandings, paranoias, recriminations, conflicts. Everyone speaks but no one understands. Bhardwaj gave the twins verbal impediments to show that the world has now been so hardwired to convoluted and calamitous communication that it needs silence or a speech defect to hash things out." He continued, "[w]ith some glitches, Bhardwaj has almost re-birthed the Hindi film". The film also explores sex and sexuality, which according to Bedi were explored in a "radically different and refreshing" way, and the director "daringly takes it a step further". When Sweety becomes pregnant, the couple "decide to carry the pregnancy to term after a bit of hesitation. So she literally pushes her man into marriage. (Had Bhardwaj abjured marriage, it would have been a complete break but the nuptials were essential to the drama of the film.)" The Daily Beast said that "for aficionados of the Hindi-language genre, Kaminey is a revolutionary manifesto. It takes classic Bollywood tropes—estranged brothers, a case of mistaken identity, high drama approaching slapstick comedy—and presents them with Hollywood-style realism instead of Bollywood's wink-nudge mix of melodrama and posturing.


title: Kaminey

text: Bhardwaj has been influenced by many directorsincluding Manmohan Desai, Subhash Ghai, Quentin Tarantino and Francis Ford Coppolaand combines these influences in his work. Rakesh Bedi wrote that "Bhardwaj keeps displaying his vision throughout the film". Reviewers have compared the film's multi-plot narrative to those of several films by Tarantino, Guy Ritchie and the Coen Brothers. Reviewers said that the film mostly belongs to the level of "Pulp Fiction"; Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" called it "Bollywood's first all-the-way-out-to-there pulp fiction". Bedi wrote, "there's Buñuel in the Bengali dons, there's Kurosawa ... in that surreal train car in which Charlie lives, there's Ray in money-floating dreams that Charlie has". Keshav Chaturvedi of the "Hindustan Times" compared the apocalyptical gang war in the climax to "Apocalypse Now" (1979). He said, "Bhardwaj just demolishes the cliches of Bollywood. In ripping apart the stereotype, he gives us a prototype: a Bollywood that deals with alienation, ... angst, ...  and atrocity." A review in "The Times of India" said that the film's climax reaches the level of "Reservoir Dogs", and described it as "absolutely riveting stuff, with the camera going on a hitherto unexplored journey in Indian cinema."


title: Kaminey

text: Vishal Bhardwaj composed the music soundtrack for " Kaminey" and Gulzar wrote the lyrics. The album contains five original songs, two remixes and one theme song; it was released on 6 July 2009. The song "Dhan Te Nan" is a rehashed version of a song originally composed by Vishal Bhardwaj for an episode of the Zee TV series "Gubbare". The soundtrack album was commercially successful after its release, especially "Dhan Te Nan", which topped the charts across various platforms.


title: Kaminey

text: The soundtrack album received positive reviews from music critics. Rediff.com rated the album 4.5 out of 5, labelled it a "masterpiece" and wrote, "Bhardwaj has delivered a soundtrack that is lethally explosive. Not that we expected anything less. And trust Gulzar to artfully craft a really long fuse for the Kaminey bomb, making sure the tracks stay afire long before and after they actually go boom." Joginder Tuteja from Bollywood Hungama gave a rating 4 out 5 and wrote, "Kaminey is certainly not a run of the mill album and this is where its prime strength lies. The album boasts of at least three chartbuster tracks'Dhan Te Nan' (sure shot superhit), 'Thode Bheege' (must for the hearts in love) and 'Raat Ke Dhai Baje' (for some 'masti' and 'hungama'). Songs like 'Fatak' and 'Kaminey' are innovative and situational which showcase the range of Vishal Bhardwaj. Add to that the 'Go Charlie Go – Theme Music' and you know that Kaminey is yet another addition to some excellent albums that have hit the stands during last one month." Planet Bollywood rated the album 8.5 out of 10 and said it is the best soundtrack released that year, and that "[i]t has experimentations with both music and lyrics". Indo-Asian News Service praised the soundtrack and said that " ... "Kaminey" is easily among 2009's finest scores. Experimental in its sound, yet very mainstream in appeal. Vishal Bhardwaj has proved his mettle yet again."


title: Kaminey

text: The teaser poster of "Kaminey" was received positively by critics. The trailer, which introduces four characters; one lisping, one stuttering, a woman yelling about having raped a man and one jeering at the lisper, received positive reviews. Critics kept their expectations high due to Bhardwaj's previous films, and said the trailer was like a comic book which introduces the characters of Kapoor and Chopra differently. The theatrical trailers and the music generated interest for the film. The film's marketing also involved public appearances by Chopra and Kapoor.


title: Kaminey

text: The makers of the film were disappointed by the Censor Board for Film Certification's decision to grant the film an "A" certificatemeant for viewers 18 years or olderinstead of a "U/A" certificate that they had expected. Bhardwaj said, "It was an injustice to us. There is no abusive language used in the film and the violence is of 'comic book kind'." The Censor Board asked him to replace dialogue which mentioned the city of Pilibhitwhich they said was a sensitive constituencywith a fictitious city name. He replaced Pilibhit with Barabanki." The film was subject to some controversies. A First Information Report was filed by Jagannath Sena Sangathan at a police station in Puri against the film for allegedly denigrating Lord Jagannath. According to them, a scene in which the text "Apna Hath Jagannath" is seen in a toilet on a semi-clad model had hurt religious sentiments. The objectionable portion of the scene was removed from the prints released in the state of Orissa. A complaint supported by a caste group backed by a Samajwadi Party MP about the use of the name of a community "teli" in the song "Dhan Te Nan"which was considered derogatory to the Teli communitywas filed with the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. The Censor Board reacted to the complaint, insisting on the replacement of the word, which was later replaced with "Dilli".


title: Kaminey

text: "Kaminey" was scheduled to release on 5 June 2009. However, the release was postponed because of problems between the producers and multiplexes in India. The film was released on 14 August 2009 on 1,200 screens worldwide. Because of the 2009 flu pandemic, the film was not released in the Maharashtra regionincluding Mumbai and Punebecause the multiplexes in these cities were closed by the Maharashtra government for three days as part of precautionary measures against swine flu. Moser Baer Home Videos released "Kaminey" on DVD in October 2009 across all regions in a two-disc pack complying with the NTSC format. One disc contains the film and additional content including a "making of the film" documentary, the original beginning and deleted scenes, while the other contains a random free film. VCD and Blu-ray versions were released at the same time. Bollywood Hungama critic Joginder Tuteja rated the DVD 4 out of 5, praising the bonus features and the packaging. Airtel Digital TV premièred the film on its Pay Per View service on 12 September 2009. The satellite rights for "Kaminey" were syndicated between Star India & Viacom 18 before being internalized by the former in 2020, and a world television première of the film was broadcast on Colors on 28 February 2010. The film is also available on Netflix.


title: Kaminey

text: "Kaminey" received widespread critical acclaim from critics who praised many aspects of the film. Raja Sen of Rediff.com rated the film 4.5 out of 5 and wrote, ""Kaminey" is startlingly clever, an innovative film with genuine surprises. A kind of film whose success we ought all pray for because it'll prove smart cinema works." "The Indian Express" gave a rating of 4 out of 5, calling it "Bollywood's first all-the-way-out-to-there pulp fiction". Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN gave the film 4 stars out of 5, called it a "must watch" and wrote, "[i]t's an unpredictable crime drama that combines violence and dark humor in a manner that's reminiscent of the films of Quentin Tarantino, Guy Ritchie and the Coen Brothers. And yet Kaminey is so original and inventive in the manner in which it takes Bollywood's favorite formulatwin brothersand turns it on its head." He praised the writingwhich he said was the film's real strength, the non-linear screenplay and the dialogue, and wrote that the film has "the best performance you will see by an ensemble cast in a long time". Nikhat Kazmi from "The Times of India" rated the film 4 out of 5, and said it is "Bollywood's first film which is full of brains, brawn and belligerence besides being a bravura attempt to rewrite the tried and tested idiom of desi movielore. Kaminey is a smart and balsy film that brings Hollywood to Bollywood which catapult the viewer into the dark, violent world of crime and criminals, leaving you no time to blink or breathe easy ... Tarantino, take a bow. Brave new Bollywood is here."


title: Kaminey

text: Anupama Chopra gave a rating of 4 out of 5 and wrote "Kaminey is the best Bollywood film I've seen this year. It's an audacious, original rollercoaster ride. Written and directed by Vishal Bharadwaj, Kaminey requires patience and attention but the pay off is more than worth it." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama rated the film 4 out of 5 and wrote "Kaminey is bold, stark, funny and unpredictable and is a film with an attitude. Like it or leave it, but you'd never be able to ignore it. Word from the wise: Go for this hatke (different) experience!" Zee News also rated the film 4 out of 5 and said, "Bhardwaj has once again delivered a powerful film that completely bowls you over with its splendid script, riveting narrative and stellar performances by lead pairShahid and Priyanka [who] have a cracking on-screen chemistry that certainly reminds you of yesteryears on-screen couples." The review also said, ""Kaminey" is an engrossing flick that does not let you move from your seat!" Kaveree Bamzai of "India Today" rated the film 4 out of 5 and said it "is dark, melodramatic, poetic and ultimately operatic". He also said, "Its lyrics are the blow-up-your-brains-out kind ... and its music, composed by the multi-talented Bharadwaj is perfectly in sync with a narrative that doesn't pause for breath." Namrata Joshi from "Outlook" gave a rating of 4 out 5 and called "Kaminey" "a strikingly anarchic, unusually energetic, quirky and frenetic film". Sudhish Kamath of "The Hindu" gave the film 4 stars and wrote, "Kaminey takes the post-postmodern noir genre to a whole new level, to a sophistication the Indian audience isn't used to. Watch it at least twice to fully appreciate this masterpiece." Writing for "Variety", critic Joe Leydon described the film as a "tasty cinematic masala that is energetically entertaining, if not consistently coherent".


title: Kaminey

text: "Kaminey" was successful throughout India, with occupancy around 90% across multiplexes. The film was successful across most single screens, and collected in India during the opening weekend. In its first week of release, the film collected in India. Because of the delayed release in Maharashtra, it lost about . However, the film profited in Mumbai after its release in Maharashtra on Monday and during its run, and it had earned within four weeks. "Kaminey" earned worldwide; Box Office India declared it a hit and it became a commercial success.


title: Kaminey

text: Overseas, the film grossed around in North America, the UAE, the UK and Australia during the opening weekend. The film's most successful overseas market was North America. It collected around in 10 days from international markets and proved to be a commercial success outside India.


title: Kaminey

text: Film director Shekhar Kapur praised the film, saying, "Kaminey catapults Indian Cinema in modernity beyond Tarantino". He said that "Kaminey" would be able to compete with any film in the world in terms of its design, performances, inherent narratives, editing and pace. Filmmaker Karan Johar labelled it a cult film, describing it as "edgy ... cult and geniusely performed and executed! Go get a shot of new age cinema and cinematic bravery!" The film became the most widely debated and dissected Bollywood film after Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra's 2006 film "Rang De Basanti". Rajeev Masand, and Rediff.com rated it as the best film of the year. Raja Sen said the performances were among the best performances of 2009. Gupte, Roy Sanyal and Kapoor were placed at numbers six, three and one respectively as the best performances of 2009 by a Hindi actor by Rediff.


title: Kaminey

text: Rediff.com placed Chopra at number one as the best performance of 2009 by a Hindi actress. Chopra said, "[y]ou don't get to work in a fantastic movie like "Kaminey" and play someone like Sweety every day". Hindi Film News said "Kaminey" was the best Bollywood film of the decade. It ranked Shahid Kapoor's performance at number four for the finest performance by a Bollywood actor for the decade, and in a public poll the song "Dhan Te Nan" was voted the thirteenth-best Bollywood song of the decade. Rediff.com also included the film on its list of "Top 25 Hindi Action Films of all Time". Since its release, the film has gained a cult following and is regarded as a cult film of the 2000s decade of Bollywood.


title: Kaminey

text: "Kaminey" has received several awards and nominations in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself, to its cinematography, direction, screenplay, music and cast performances. At the 55th Filmfare Awards, the film received ten nominationsmore than any other filmfor awards including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Supporting Actor. However, it won only the award for Best Special Effects. The film also won two National Film Awards; Best Audiography for Subash Sahoo and Special Jury Award for Film Editing at the 57th National Film Awards for A. Sreekar Prasad. It received eleven nominations at the 5th Apsara Film & Television Producers Guild Award and won two, one of which was Best Actress for Chopra.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: The Airbus Helicopters H225 (previously Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma) is a long-range passenger transport helicopter developed by Eurocopter as the next generation of the civilian Super Puma family. It is a twin-engined aircraft and can carry up to 24 passengers along with two crew and a cabin attendant, dependent on customer configuration. The helicopter is marketed for offshore support and VIP passenger transport duties, as well as public service missions.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: The civil-orientated EC225 has a military counterpart, which was originally designated as the Eurocopter EC725; it was rebranded in 2015 as the H225M. In 2015, the EC225 was formally renamed to the H225, in line with Eurocopter's corporate rebranding as Airbus Helicopters.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In the aftermath of the 1973 oil crisis, oil and gas companies began exploration and extraction activities farther offshore, thus creating a long-term need for more capable rotary aircraft. The development of the EC225, an enlarged variant of the AS332 Super Puma, was announced by Eurocopter in June 1998. The principal differences of the EC225 from the preceding AS332 are the adoption of Spheriflex rotor technology and new Turbomeca Makila 2A turboshaft engines, along with a redesigned main gearbox to accommodate the rotor and engine changes, and the addition of an integrated flight display system; these changes resulted in higher speeds and passenger comfort, as well as greater flight safety and reduced operating costs.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: On 27 November 2000, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. In July 2004, the type received its airworthiness certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency. In December 2015, the H225, a new designation used for the EC225, received certification from the Interstate Aviation Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent States; this made the H225 the first foreign heavy-lift helicopter to become certified in Russia.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In February 2014, Airbus Helicopters announced at Heli-Expo 2014 the development of an improved variant, the EC225e. The EC225e features numerous changes including new avionics systems, such as the TCAS II collision avoidance system, an automatic identification system, and a specialized rig-approach system; it was also intended to feature an improved Turbomeca Makila 2B engine to increase the EC225e's maximum takeoff weight by 550 kg, and an additional fuel tank in the rear baggage compartment to extend its range to 300 nautical miles with up to ten passengers on board. Some, but not all, modifications can be retrofitted onto existing EC225s. In the same announcement, in February 2014, Lease Corporation International said that they had placed a $645 million order for 15 EC225e (along with 6 Airbus Helicopters EC175) helicopters as the launch customer. In February 2016, the Makila 2B engine was dropped from the EC225e as a cost reduction measure, development of the other structural and avionics aspects is proceeding.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In 2015, Airbus Helicopters announced at the Paris Air Show that it had begun development of a clean-sheet successor to the EC225, initially designated Airbus Helicopters X6, but development was stopped in early 2018. The EC225's production line is projected to continue manufacturing activity until at least 2030.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: The EC225 is based on the Eurocopter AS332L2 Super Puma, improving upon the design with a five-blade main rotor incorporating a new airfoil shape to reduce vibration and noise levels. The blades of the rotors feature a composite spar and parabolic blade tips; they can also be equipped with an anti-icing system to enable the aircraft to operate within very cold climates. The helicopter is powered by two Turbomeca Makila 2A1 turboshaft engines mounted over the cabin; these engines are capable of providing 14 per cent more engine power and feature a redundant dual-channel full authority digital engine control (FADEC) system for high reliability, a further backup system is present in the event of both FADEC systems failing. The FADEC system ensures that engine power is always kept within the limits of the gearbox. Many of the mechanical components, particularly of the engines, were designed to be modular to ease maintenance, and composite materials were used where possible to reduce the aircraft's weight.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: A key safety feature of the aircraft's main gear box (MGB) is an emergency oil spraying sub-system present in the lubrication system; this is designed to exceed the JAR 29 Standard's requirements of a 30-minute running time in the event of the loss of MGB oil pressure, and has demonstrated up to 50-minute running time. The engine also incorporates a "blade shedding" system to ensure engine integrity during an overspeed instance. Energy absorbent self-sealing fuel tanks are contained in the aircraft's sponsons, along with other equipment such as downward-facing illumination and navigation lighting fixtures. The transmission can accommodate more power than the maximum output of the engines; however two aircraft were lost in 2012 due to the cracking of the bevel gear shaft, a gearbox component. In response, the design of the transmission was modified in 2013, and the onboard health and usage monitoring system (HUMS) was upgraded to provide real-time monitoring of the bevel gear shaft against the threat of crack formation.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In terms of cockpit equipment and avionics, the EC225 is equipped with a full glass cockpit with active-matrix liquid crystal displays; these include four 6-inch by 8-inch multi-functional displays as the predominant instrumentation for key flight information, two 4-inch by 5-inch monitors for displaying aircraft parameters, and a 3-inch screen for backup. The advanced helicopter cockpit and avionics system is described as serving to reduce pilot and crew workload, being used to display flight management and sub-systems information and is complete with a four-axis digital autopilot. During a typical flight, the pilot programs the route into the aircraft and then monitors it, as opposed to direct continuous control of the flight; the need for paper charts has been eliminated by these systems. Under autopilot, the automatic flight control system acts to prevent pilot actions from exceeding the established flight envelope; the EC225 remains flyable with all automatic systems disabled. From initiating the startup sequence to being ready to takeoff only takes three minutes, however if the authorised Airbus checklist is used it take approximately 7 minutes.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: There are currently a total of four principal configurations designed by Airbus Helicopters for the EC225. The passenger transport version has a crash-worthy seating arrangement for up to 19 passengers with a high-density seating arrangement accommodating up to 28 passengers available to be fitted. The VIP transport version has a large lounge with seating for up to 12 passengers and a cabin attendant. The emergency medical services (EMS) configuration has medical units for six stretchers and four seats for medical workers. The search and rescue (SAR) configuration allows space for search and rescue equipment with an operator seat, hoistman seat and up to eight rescue seats and three stretchers. While a single pilot is capable of controlling the aircraft under visual meteorical conditions, two pilots are used in a typical crew complement and, dependent on role, a cabin attendant or flight engineer may also be present.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In January 2005, Algeria became the first country to use the EC225 when the Algerian Ministerial Air Liaisons Group (GLAM) took delivery of a single helicopter for VIP transport duties.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In 2009, the AirKnight consortium offered the EC225 in competition against the Sikorsky S-92 offered by the Soteria Search and Rescue consortium for the United Kingdom's Search and Rescue – Helicopter (SAR-H) program to replace the RAF Search and Rescue Force's Westland Sea King fleet. In 2010, Soteria was awarded the contract; however, in 2011 the contract was halted as Soteria had access to confidential information. In 2013, the Department for Transport awarded Bristow Group the SAR-H contract, operating a mix of Sikorsky S-92 and AgustaWestland AW189 instead.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: By 2011, CHC Helicopter had the largest operational fleet of EC225s, the type comprising a fifth of the firm's total rotorcraft by 2015. CHC principally use the type for serving the offshore oil and gas industries, as well as search and rescue missions.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: Another milestone was reached in 2011 when Eurocopter delivered the 100th production EC225 to Bristow Group. In March 2013, leasing company Milestone Aviation Group placed a record order for 30 EC225s.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: Due to its popularity in offshore passenger transport, the EC225 is also commonly used as an offshore Search and Rescue aircraft, with operators based in Norway, the UK and Australia. In this role, aircraft are typically equipped with a Dual Rescue Hoist, FLIR camera, high-powered searchlights and an advanced autopilot with autohover capability. The EC225 has also been used as an aerial firefighting platform, it can be equipped with a Simplex Aerospace-developed water cannon for dealing with fires in built-up urban areas, both Japan and South Korea operate several aircraft adapted in this manner.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: Following the 22 October 2012 crash, the major North Sea Super Puma operators, CHC Helicopter, Bond Offshore Helicopters and Bristow Helicopters decided to ground all AS332 and EC225 Super Puma helicopters. On 25 October 2012 it was announced that the problem was suspected to relate to the main gearbox vertical shaft; the AS 332 L1 and L2 versions of the Super Puma could be refitted with an older design, allowing them to resume flying. On 8 November 2012 some Super Pumas of Bond Offshore Helicopters returned to flight. The EC225 grounding continued into 2013, following the validation of new safety measures by the EASA, the type was progressively returned to service following modifications. By mid-2015, all 49 EC225s operating in the North Sea fleets in the UK had been retrofitted with a redesigned bevel wheel vertical shaft to avoid any recurrence.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: In March 2015, the Japan Coast Guard accepted delivery of its fifth and final EC225; outfitted for performing search and rescue missions, they shall also be used for security enforcement, territorial sea enforcement/monitoring and disaster relief operations.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: The EC225 was a candidate for the Norwegian All Weather Search and Rescue Helicopter (NAWSARH) to replace the Westland Sea King Mk.43B of the Royal Norwegian Air Force in 2015; other candidates were the AgustaWestland AW101, Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, NHIndustries NH90 and Sikorsky S-92. By 9 July 2013, only the AW101 and the EC225 remained as contenders; in December 2013, the AW101 was selected instead.


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: On 2 June 2016, following the crash of an H225 in Norway which revealed a potential safety issue with the main rotor assembly, the EASA issued an emergency airworthiness directive that grounded the H225 fleet; by July 2016, 80 per cent of the worldwide fleet had been grounded as a result, while some operators such as the French military continued to operate its fleet. In October 2016, the grounding order by the EASA was lifted; some countries, including the United Kingdom and Norway, chose to maintain operational restrictions for the type. Norwegian operator Statoil, who had contracted the CHC H225 which crashed, maintained it will not return to using the helicopter even if restrictions are lifted. The company has instead relied on the Sikorsky S-92 to meet its needs since the crash. By December 2016, three separate lawsuits were filed by separate H225 operators, claiming that the type had been sold in a defective state due to the flaw being "inherent".


title: Eurocopter EC225 Super Puma

text: The EC225 Super Puma is used for offshore drilling, corporate companies, law enforcement and governments.


title: James Rickards

text: James G. Rickards is an American lawyer, economist, investment banker, speaker, media commentator, and author on matters of finance and precious metals. He is the author of "Currency Wars: The Making of the Next Global Crisis" (2011) and six other books. He lives in Connecticut.


title: James Rickards

text: Rickards graduated from Lower Cape May Regional High School in Cape May, New Jersey, in 1969. He graduated from Johns Hopkins University in 1973 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with honors, and in 1974, from the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies in Washington, D.C., with an M.A. in international economics. He received his Juris Doctor from the University of Pennsylvania Law School and an Master of Laws in taxation from New York University School of Law.


title: James Rickards

text: He has held senior positions at Citibank, Long-Term Capital Management, and Caxton Associates. As general counsel for the hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), he successfully negotiated the $3.6 billion rescue of the firm via the U.S. Federal Reserve in 1998. Rickards worked on Wall Street for 35 years. Later, Rickards became the senior managing director at Tangent Capital Partners LLC, a merchant bank based in New York City, and also the senior managing director for market intelligence at Omnis, Inc., a technical, professional and scientific consulting firm in McLean, Va. On March 24, 2009, Rickards presented his view at a symposium at Johns Hopkins University, that the U.S. dollar was facing imminent hyperinflation and was vulnerable to attack from foreign governments through the accumulation of gold and the establishment of a new global currency.


title: James Rickards

text: On September 10, 2009, Rickards testified before the U.S. House Science Subcommittee on Oversight about the risks of financial modeling, value at risk, and the 2008 financial crisis.


title: James Rickards

text: He has also claimed he advised the U.S. Department of Defense, the U.S. intelligence community, and major hedge funds on global financial issues, and has served as a facilitator of the first ever financial war games conducted by The Pentagon. He also guest-lectures at The Kellogg School at Northwestern University and the School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University. He states he was on the Advisory Board of the Center on Sanctions and Illicit Finance, a former organization within the right-wing think tank and lobbying organization, the Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD) in Washington, D.C.


title: James Rickards

text: Rickards's first book, "Currency Wars: The Making of the Next Global Crisis", was published in 2011. In it, he argued that currency wars are not just an economic or monetary concern but a national security concern. He maintained that the United States faced serious threats to its national security, from clandestine gold purchases by China to the hidden agendas of sovereign wealth funds, and that greater than any single threat was the very real danger of the collapse of the dollar itself. Rickards charged that the Federal Reserve was involved in what he called "the greatest gamble in the history of finance." The Fed's easing of financial conditions through lowering long-term interest rates was, he wrote, "essentially a program of printing money to spur growth."


title: James Rickards

text: Rickard's second book "The Death of Money" was released on April 8, 2014 and was a New York Times Best Seller. His third book "The New Case for Gold" was released on April 5, 2016. His fourth book "The Road to Ruin: The Global Elites' Secret Plan for the Next Financial Crisis" was released on November 15, 2016.


title: James Rickards

text: In "The Road to Ruin", Rickards propagates the idea which was first articulated by the Indian economist Arvind Kumar in the Indian newspaper "Daily News and Analysis" and which rang the alarm bells that the combination of negative interest rates and cashless currency was a design to destroy the savings of people. The book also promulgates a theory that "global elites" are using the "hobby horse" of climate change to advance a "new world order" that includes a global currency.


title: James Rickards

text: He is an Op-Ed contributor to "The Financial Times", "Evening Standard", "The New York Times", and "Washington Post". He is the Editor of Strategic Intelligence, a financial newsletter, and Director of The James Rickards Project, an inquiry into the complex dynamics of geopolitics and global capital.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Mathematical physics refers to the development of mathematical methods for application to problems in physics. The "Journal of Mathematical Physics" defines the field as "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories". An alternative definition would also include those mathematics that are inspired by physics (also known as physical mathematics).


title: Mathematical physics

text: There are several distinct branches of mathematical physics, and these roughly correspond to particular historical periods.


title: Mathematical physics

text: The rigorous, abstract and advanced reformulation of Newtonian mechanics adopting the Lagrangian mechanics and the Hamiltonian mechanics even in the presence of constraints. Both formulations are embodied in analytical mechanics and lead to understanding the deep interplay of the notions of symmetry and conserved quantities during the dynamical evolution, as embodied within the most elementary formulation of Noether's theorem. These approaches and ideas have been extended to other areas of physics as statistical mechanics, continuum mechanics, classical field theory and quantum field theory. Moreover, they have provided several examples and ideas in differential geometry (e.g. several notions in symplectic geometry and vector bundle).


title: Mathematical physics

text: Following mathematics: the theory of partial differential equation, variational calculus, Fourier analysis, potential theory, and vector analysis are perhaps most closely associated with mathematical physics. These were developed intensively from the second half of the 18th century (by, for example, D'Alembert, Euler, and Lagrange) until the 1930s. Physical applications of these developments include hydrodynamics, celestial mechanics, continuum mechanics, elasticity theory, acoustics, thermodynamics, electricity, magnetism, and aerodynamics.


title: Mathematical physics

text: The theory of atomic spectra (and, later, quantum mechanics) developed almost concurrently with some parts of the mathematical fields of linear algebra, the spectral theory of operators, operator algebras and more broadly, functional analysis. Nonrelativistic quantum mechanics includes Schrödinger operators, and it has connections to atomic and molecular physics. Quantum information theory is another subspecialty.


title: Mathematical physics

text: The special and general theories of relativity require a rather different type of mathematics. This was group theory, which played an important role in both quantum field theory and differential geometry. This was, however, gradually supplemented by topology and functional analysis in the mathematical description of cosmological as well as quantum field theory phenomena. In the mathematical description of these physical areas, some concepts in homological algebra and category theory are also important.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Statistical mechanics forms a separate field, which includes the theory of phase transitions. It relies upon the Hamiltonian mechanics (or its quantum version) and it is closely related with the more mathematical ergodic theory and some parts of probability theory. There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, in particular statistical physics.


title: Mathematical physics

text: The usage of the term "mathematical physics" is sometimes idiosyncratic. Certain parts of mathematics that initially arose from the development of physics are not, in fact, considered parts of mathematical physics, while other closely related fields are. For example, ordinary differential equations and symplectic geometry are generally viewed as purely mathematical disciplines, whereas dynamical systems and Hamiltonian mechanics belong to mathematical physics. John Herapath used the term for the title of his 1847 text on "mathematical principles of natural philosophy"; the scope at that time being


title: Mathematical physics

text: The term "mathematical physics" is sometimes used to denote research aimed at studying and solving problems in physics or thought experiments within a mathematically rigorous framework. In this sense, mathematical physics covers a very broad academic realm distinguished only by the blending of some mathematical aspect and physics theoretical aspect. Although related to theoretical physics, mathematical physics in this sense emphasizes the mathematical rigour of the similar type as found in mathematics.


title: Mathematical physics

text: On the other hand, theoretical physics emphasizes the links to observations and experimental physics, which often requires theoretical physicists (and mathematical physicists in the more general sense) to use heuristic, intuitive, and approximate arguments. Such arguments are not considered rigorous by mathematicians.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Such mathematical physicists primarily expand and elucidate physical theories. Because of the required level of mathematical rigour, these researchers often deal with questions that theoretical physicists have considered to be already solved. However, they can sometimes show that the previous solution was incomplete, incorrect, or simply too naïve. Issues about attempts to infer the second law of thermodynamics from statistical mechanics are examples. Other examples concern the subtleties involved with synchronisation procedures in special and general relativity (Sagnac effect and Einstein synchronisation).


title: Mathematical physics

text: The effort to put physical theories on a mathematically rigorous footing not only developed physics but also has influenced developments of some mathematical areas. For example, the development of quantum mechanics and some aspects of functional analysis parallel each other in many ways. The mathematical study of quantum mechanics, quantum field theory, and quantum statistical mechanics has motivated results in operator algebras. The attempt to construct a rigorous mathematical formulation of quantum field theory has also brought about some progress in fields such as representation theory.


title: Mathematical physics

text: There is a tradition of mathematical analysis of nature that goes back to the ancient Greeks; examples include Euclid ("Optics"), Archimedes ("On the Equilibrium of Planes", "On Floating Bodies"), and Ptolemy ("Optics", "Harmonics"). Later, Islamic and Byzantine scholars built on these works, and these ultimately were reintroduced or became available to the West in the 12th century and during the Renaissance.


title: Mathematical physics

text: In the first decade of the 16th century, amateur astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed heliocentrism, and published a treatise on it in 1543. He retained the Ptolemaic idea of epicycles, and merely sought to simplify astronomy by constructing simpler sets of epicyclic orbits. Epicycles consist of circles upon circles. According to Aristotelian physics, the circle was the perfect form of motion, and was the intrinsic motion of Aristotle's fifth element—the quintessence or universal essence known in Greek as "aether" for the English "pure air"—that was the pure substance beyond the sublunary sphere, and thus was celestial entities' pure composition. The German Johannes Kepler [1571–1630], Tycho Brahe's assistant, modified Copernican orbits to "ellipses", formalized in the equations of Kepler's laws of planetary motion.


title: Mathematical physics

text: An enthusiastic atomist, Galileo Galilei in his 1623 book "The Assayer" asserted that the "book of nature is written in mathematics". His 1632 book, about his telescopic observations, supported heliocentrism. Having introduced experimentation, Galileo then refuted geocentric cosmology by refuting Aristotelian physics itself. Galileo's 1638 book "Discourse on Two New Sciences" established the law of equal free fall as well as the principles of inertial motion, founding the central concepts of what would become today's classical mechanics. By the Galilean law of inertia as well as the principle of Galilean invariance, also called Galilean relativity, for any object experiencing inertia, there is empirical justification for knowing only that it is at "relative" rest or "relative" motion—rest or motion with respect to another object.


title: Mathematical physics

text: René Descartes famously developed a complete system of heliocentric cosmology anchored on the principle of vortex motion, Cartesian physics, whose widespread acceptance brought the demise of Aristotelian physics. Descartes sought to formalize mathematical reasoning in science, and developed Cartesian coordinates for geometrically plotting locations in 3D space and marking their progressions along the flow of time.


title: Mathematical physics

text: An older contemporary of Newton, Christiaan Huygens, was the first to idealize a physical problem by a set of parameters and the first to fully mathematize a mechanistic explanation of unobservable physical phenomena, and for these reasons Huygens is considered the first theoretical physicist and one of the founders of modern mathematical physics.


title: Mathematical physics

text: In this era, important concepts in calculus such as the fundamental theorem of calculus (proved in 1668 by Scottish mathematician James Gregory) and finding extrema and minima of functions via differentiation using Fermat's theorem (by French mathematician Pierre de Fermat) were already known before Leibniz and Newton. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) developed some concepts in calculus (although Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed similar concepts outside the context of physics) and Newton's method to solve problems in physics. He was extremely successful in his application of calculus to the theory of motion. Newton's theory of motion, shown in his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, published in 1687, modeled three Galilean laws of motion along with Newton's law of universal gravitation on a framework of absolute space—hypothesized by Newton as a physically real entity of Euclidean geometric structure extending infinitely in all directions—while presuming absolute time, supposedly justifying knowledge of absolute motion, the object's motion with respect to absolute space. The principle of Galilean invariance/relativity was merely implicit in Newton's theory of motion. Having ostensibly reduced the Keplerian celestial laws of motion as well as Galilean terrestrial laws of motion to a unifying force, Newton achieved great mathematical rigor, but with theoretical laxity.


title: Mathematical physics

text: In the 18th century, the Swiss Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) made contributions to fluid dynamics, and vibrating strings. The Swiss Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) did special work in variational calculus, dynamics, fluid dynamics, and other areas. Also notable was the Italian-born Frenchman, Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813) for work in analytical mechanics: he formulated Lagrangian mechanics) and variational methods. A major contribution to the formulation of Analytical Dynamics called Hamiltonian dynamics was also made by the Irish physicist, astronomer and mathematician, William Rowan Hamilton (1805-1865). Hamiltonian dynamics had played an important role in the formulation of modern theories in physics, including field theory and quantum mechanics. The French mathematical physicist Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830) introduced the notion of Fourier series to solve the heat equation, giving rise to a new approach to solving partial differential equations by means of integral transforms.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Into the early 19th century, following mathematicians in France, Germany and England had contributed to mathematical physics. The French Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) made paramount contributions to mathematical astronomy, potential theory. Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) worked in analytical mechanics and potential theory. In Germany, Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) made key contributions to the theoretical foundations of electricity, magnetism, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. In England, George Green (1793-1841) published "An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" in 1828, which in addition to its significant contributions to mathematics made early progress towards laying down the mathematical foundations of electricity and magnetism.


title: Mathematical physics

text: A couple of decades ahead of Newton's publication of a particle theory of light, the Dutch Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) developed the wave theory of light, published in 1690. By 1804, Thomas Young's double-slit experiment revealed an interference pattern, as though light were a wave, and thus Huygens's wave theory of light, as well as Huygens's inference that light waves were vibrations of the luminiferous aether, was accepted. Jean-Augustin Fresnel modeled hypothetical behavior of the aether. The English physicist Michael Faraday introduced the theoretical concept of a field—not action at a distance. Mid-19th century, the Scottish James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) reduced electricity and magnetism to Maxwell's electromagnetic field theory, whittled down by others to the four Maxwell's equations. Initially, optics was found consequent of Maxwell's field. Later, radiation and then today's known electromagnetic spectrum were found also consequent of this electromagnetic field.


title: Mathematical physics

text: The English physicist Lord Rayleigh [1842–1919] worked on sound. The Irishmen William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865), George Gabriel Stokes (1819–1903) and Lord Kelvin (1824–1907) produced several major works: Stokes was a leader in optics and fluid dynamics; Kelvin made substantial discoveries in thermodynamics; Hamilton did notable work on analytical mechanics, discovering a new and powerful approach nowadays known as Hamiltonian mechanics. Very relevant contributions to this approach are due to his German colleague mathematician Carl Gustav Jacobi (1804–1851) in particular referring to canonical transformations. The German Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) made substantial contributions in the fields of electromagnetism, waves, fluids, and sound. In the United States, the pioneering work of Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903) became the basis for statistical mechanics. Fundamental theoretical results in this area were achieved by the German Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906). Together, these individuals laid the foundations of electromagnetic theory, fluid dynamics, and statistical mechanics.


title: Mathematical physics

text: By the 1880s, there was a prominent paradox that an observer within Maxwell's electromagnetic field measured it at approximately constant speed, regardless of the observer's speed relative to other objects within the electromagnetic field. Thus, although the observer's speed was continually lost relative to the electromagnetic field, it was preserved relative to other objects "in" the electromagnetic field. And yet no violation of Galilean invariance within physical interactions among objects was detected. As Maxwell's electromagnetic field was modeled as oscillations of the aether, physicists inferred that motion within the aether resulted in aether drift, shifting the electromagnetic field, explaining the observer's missing speed relative to it. The Galilean transformation had been the mathematical process used to translate the positions in one reference frame to predictions of positions in another reference frame, all plotted on Cartesian coordinates, but this process was replaced by Lorentz transformation, modeled by the Dutch Hendrik Lorentz [1853–1928].


title: Mathematical physics

text: In 1887, experimentalists Michelson and Morley failed to detect aether drift, however. It was hypothesized that motion "into" the aether prompted aether's shortening, too, as modeled in the Lorentz contraction. It was hypothesized that the aether thus kept Maxwell's electromagnetic field aligned with the principle of Galilean invariance across all inertial frames of reference, while Newton's theory of motion was spared.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Austrian theoretical physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach criticized Newton's postulated absolute space. Mathematician Jules-Henri Poincaré (1854–1912) questioned even absolute time. In 1905, Pierre Duhem published a devastating criticism of the foundation of Newton's theory of motion. Also in 1905, Albert Einstein (1879–1955) published his special theory of relativity, newly explaining both the electromagnetic field's invariance and Galilean invariance by discarding all hypotheses concerning aether, including the existence of aether itself. Refuting the framework of Newton's theory—absolute space and absolute time—special relativity refers to "relative space" and "relative time", whereby "length" contracts and "time" dilates along the travel pathway of an object.


title: Mathematical physics

text: In 1908, Einstein's former mathematics professor Hermann Minkowski modeled 3D space together with the 1D axis of time by treating the temporal axis like a fourth spatial dimension—altogether 4D spacetime—and declared the imminent demise of the separation of space and time. Einstein initially called this "superfluous learnedness", but later used Minkowski spacetime with great elegance in his general theory of relativity, extending invariance to all reference frames—whether perceived as inertial or as accelerated—and credited this to Minkowski, by then deceased. General relativity replaces Cartesian coordinates with Gaussian coordinates, and replaces Newton's claimed empty yet Euclidean space traversed instantly by Newton's vector of hypothetical gravitational force—an instant action at a distance—with a gravitational "field". The gravitational field is Minkowski spacetime itself, the 4D topology of Einstein aether modeled on a Lorentzian manifold that "curves" geometrically, according to the Riemann curvature tensor. The concept of Newton's gravity: "two masses attract each other" replaced by the geometrical argument: "mass transform curvatures of spacetime and free falling particles with mass move along a geodesic curve in the spacetime" (Riemannian geometry already existed before the 1850s, by mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Bernhard Riemann in search for intrinsic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry.), in the vicinity of either mass or energy. (Under special relativity—a special case of general relativity—even massless energy exerts gravitational effect by its mass equivalence locally "curving" the geometry of the four, unified dimensions of space and time.)


title: Mathematical physics

text: Another revolutionary development of the 20th century was quantum theory, which emerged from the seminal contributions of Max Planck (1856–1947) (on black-body radiation) and Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect. In 1912, a mathematician Henri Poincare published "Sur la théorie des quanta". He introduced the first non-naïve definition of quantization in this paper. The development of early quantum physics followed by a heuristic framework devised by Arnold Sommerfeld (1868–1951) and Niels Bohr (1885–1962), but this was soon replaced by the quantum mechanics developed by Max Born (1882–1970), Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), Paul Dirac (1902–1984), Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961), Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974), and Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958). This revolutionary theoretical framework is based on a probabilistic interpretation of states, and evolution and measurements in terms of self-adjoint operators on an infinite-dimensional vector space. That is called Hilbert space (introduced by mathematicians David Hilbert (1862–1943), Erhard Schmidt(1876-1959) and Frigyes Riesz (1880-1956) in search of generalization of Euclidean space and study of integral equations), and rigorously defined within the axiomatic modern version by John von Neumann in his celebrated book "Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics", where he built up a relevant part of modern functional analysis on Hilbert spaces, the spectral theory (introduced by David Hilbert who investigated quadratic forms with infinitely many variables. Many years later, it had been revealed that his spectral theory is associated with the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. He was surprised by this application.) in particular. Paul Dirac used algebraic constructions to produce a relativistic model for the electron, predicting its magnetic moment and the existence of its antiparticle, the positron.


title: Mathematical physics

text: Prominent contributors to the 20th century's mathematical physics include, (ordered by birth date) William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) [1824–1907], Oliver Heaviside [1850–1925], Jules Henri Poincaré [1854–1912] , David Hilbert [1862–1943], Arnold Sommerfeld [1868–1951], Constantin Carathéodory [1873–1950], Albert Einstein [1879–1955], Max Born [1882–1970], George David Birkhoff [1884-1944], Hermann Weyl [1885–1955], Satyendra Nath Bose [1894-1974], Norbert Wiener [1894–1964], John Lighton Synge [1897–1995], Wolfgang Pauli [1900–1958], Paul Dirac [1902–1984], Eugene Wigner [1902–1995], Andrey Kolmogorov [1903-1987], Lars Onsager [1903-1976], John von Neumann [1903–1957], Sin-Itiro Tomonaga [1906–1979], Hideki Yukawa [1907–1981], Nikolay Nikolayevich Bogolyubov [1909–1992], Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar [1910-1995], Mark Kac [1914–1984], Julian Schwinger [1918–1994], Richard Phillips Feynman [1918–1988], Irving Ezra Segal [1918–1998], Ryogo Kubo [1920–1995], Arthur Strong Wightman [1922–2013], Chen-Ning Yang [1922– ], Rudolf Haag [1922–2016], Freeman John Dyson [1923–2020], Martin Gutzwiller [1925–2014], Abdus Salam [1926–1996], Jürgen Moser [1928–1999], Michael Francis Atiyah [1929–2019], Joel Louis Lebowitz [1930– ], Roger Penrose [1931– ], Elliott Hershel Lieb [1932– ], Yakir Aharonov [1932– ], Sheldon Glashow [1932– ], Steven Weinberg [1933–2021], Ludvig Dmitrievich Faddeev [1934–2017], David Ruelle [1935– ], Yakov Grigorevich Sinai [1935– ], Vladimir Igorevich Arnold [1937–2010], Arthur Michael Jaffe [1937–], Roman Wladimir Jackiw [1939– ], Leonard Susskind [1940– ], Rodney James Baxter [1940– ], Michael Victor Berry [1941- ], Giovanni Gallavotti [1941- ], Stephen William Hawking [1942–2018],


title: Mathematical physics

text: John Michael Kosterlitz [1943-], Jerrold Eldon Marsden [1942–2010], Michael C. Reed [1942– ], Israel Michael Sigal [1945– ], Alexander Markovich Polyakov [1945– ], Barry Simon [1946– ], Herbert Spohn [1946– ], John Lawrence Cardy [1947– ], Giorgio Parisi [1948– ], Edward Witten [1951– ],


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Craig Edward Mabbitt (born April 9, 1987) is an American singer-songwriter and recording artist. He is the lead vocalist for American rock band Escape the Fate. He was formerly the lead vocalist for the bands Blessthefall and The Word Alive. He is also the current lead vocalist of his side-project band, The Dead Rabbitts.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: In his early childhood, Mabbitt required the frequent and scheduled use of a nebulizer as a result of severe asthma. He also had to attend a special class due to a speech disorder, but nevertheless he overcame these setbacks, and in his adolescent years, realized his "dream of becoming a singer in a rock band."


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: While with Blessthefall, Mabbitt released two self-released EPs and one full-length album. Their first full album, "His Last Walk", was released on April 10, 2007 on Science Records/Ferret Music. It produced four singles; the last of which, "Rise Up", was released after he left the band, and he does not appear in the video.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: In the middle of their 2007 European Tour with Silverstein and The Vincent Black Shadow, Mabbitt left the band for personal reasons, and was replaced by Beau Bokan, the former lead vocalist for Take the Crown.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Both Craig Mabbitt and Jonny Craig filled in for A Skylit Drive on clean and unclean positions after leaving their bands, during their tour in late 2007.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Mabbitt founded the Arizona-based metalcore band The Word Alive in 2008 as a side-project while also performing in Escape the Fate. He and the group recorded songs for an EP that was never officially released, and November 2008 the band dropped Mabbitt, claiming complications due to his involvement with Escape the Fate. Mabbitt was replaced by Tyler Smith, formerly the bassist of Greeley Estates and singer/keyboardist of In Fear and Faith; since then, The Word Alive has released an EP and five albums.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: After singer Ronnie Radke was sentenced to five years' probation for battery charges (and then two years' imprisonment for failure to report to his probation officer) Escape the Fate turned to Mabbitt, who had played with Escape the Fate on the Black on Black Tour while with Blessthefall. After several trial shows he became the official new singer and they entered the studio to record their second full-length album "This War Is Ours", which was released on October 21, 2008. It was the first Escape the Fate album with Mabbitt as singer; the album was a commercial success, entering at No. 35 on the "Billboard" 200 and selling 13,000 copies in the first week.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: The third studio album from the band and second to feature Mabbitt was "Escape the Fate" which was released on November 2, 2010 and is the band's most successful album to date charting No. 25 on the "Billboard" 200, No. 1 at Hard Rock Albums, No. 14 in a Rock Albums, No. 13 in Alternative and Independent charts and No. 118 in Digital Albums Chart.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: On May 14, 2013 the band released their fourth studio album and third with Mabbitt "Ungrateful". On October 30, 2015 the band released their fifth studio album and fourth with Mabbitt "Hate Me". The band released their sixth studio album, "I Am Human" on March 30, 2018. On April 16, 2021 the band released their seventh studio album and sixth with Mabbitt "Chemical Warfare".


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: In late December 2011, Mabbitt announced an upcoming side project, along with a new Escape the Fate album. He revealed that a single would be released in February 2012, and the album will be produced by Caleb Shomo of Beartooth and will be a reminiscent of his music from Blessthefall and The Word Alive. Mabbitt was set to release his debut solo album April 9, stating "what better day to release your album than on your birthday?"


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: On Facebook, Mabbitt announced that if his official Facebook page got to 50,000 likes, he would release a new song. On his Twitter, he revealed that he was working on a song titled "Are You Still On Drugs", which may be related to a song titled "Are You on drugs" that he wrote back when he was in The Word Alive.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: When the page got to about 49,500 likes, he revealed the title and lyrics for the upcoming song, titled "Edge of Reality". "Edge of Reality" was released the moment the page reached 50,000 likes.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Mabbitt posted a status update on his Facebook page informing that if the page got up to 75,000 likes, he would release another new song for his fans from his upcoming solo album. He also revealed a part of the lyrics of the upcoming song. Along with this announcement, he revealed an upcoming video for "Edge of Reality". On March 30, he announced the name of the upcoming EP titled "Edge of Reality" under the band name The Dead Rabbitts.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: On April 9, the EP or full length wasn't released on Mabbitt's birthday as expected, so instead, he released a new song on YouTube, titled "World of Disaster", along with the final version of "Edge of Reality" on YouTube, and the "Edge of Reality – Single" on iTunes as well.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Mabbitt also announced that he plans on releasing the "Edge of Reality EP" once 100% is met on the scale for the pledge, so fans can pledge now, which means pre-ordering the EP, for just digital download or also with the physical copy as well.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Mabbitt has announced that he plans on releasing the "Edge of Reality EP" on October 19, 2012. He has streamed a new track only for the people who pledged, it's entitled "Nuthin But a Reject". Another new track was released online by Mabbitt entitled "Make Me Believe It" featuring Caleb Shomo of Attack Attack!


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: On October 3, the goal was met for the pledge and for this Mabbitt released another track entitled "Sleep The Night Away" online.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: In late 2013, Mabbitt and the band announced the release of their full-length debut album sometime in 2014. In December, they began recording songs with Andrew Wade, On May 16. the band released their first single "My Only Regret" from their debut album "Shapeshifter", which was released on July 1, 2014. The album debuted at No. 127 on the "Billboard" 200. The band released their second studio album, "This Emptiness" on April 17, 2017.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: On October 25, 2019, the band released "Dead By Daylight", a single written by Mabbitt with his son, Mizo, as a guest vocalist It is based on the horror-survival video game, "Dead by Daylight". On December 6, 2019, the band's second EP, "Break the Static", was released.


title: Craig Mabbitt

text: Mabbitt released his first solo song "Never Be" through SoundCloud on April 9, 2020. The song was released to celebrate his 33rd birthday.


title: Dozen

text: The dozen may be one of the earliest primitive integer groupings, perhaps because there are approximately a dozen cycles of the Moon, or months, in a cycle of the Sun, or year. Twelve is convenient because it has a maximal number of divisors among the numbers up to its double, a property only true of 1, 2, 6, 12, 60, 360, and 2520.


title: Dozen

text: The use of twelve as a base number, known as the duodecimal system (also as "dozenal"), originated in Mesopotamia (see also sexagesimal). Counting in base-12 can easily be accomplished on one's hands by counting each finger bone with one's thumb. Using this method, one hand can count to twelve, and two hands (with the second hand as a placeholder for representing units of twelve) can count to 144. Twelve dozen (12 = 144) are known as a gross; and twelve gross (12 = 1,728, the duodecimal 1,000) are called a great gross, a term most often used when shipping or buying items in bulk. A great hundred, also known as a small gross, is 120 or ten dozen.


title: Dozen

text: Dozen may also be used to express a large quantity as in "several dozen" (e.g., dozens of people came to the party).


title: Dozen

text: Varying by country, some products are packaged or sold by the dozen, often foodstuff (a dozen eggs). According to one source, sales by the dozen may derive from English units, a system under which “one egg could be sold for a penny or 12 for a shilling, which was equal to 12 pennies.”


title: Dozen

text: The English word "dozen" comes from the old form "douzaine", a French word meaning "a group of twelve" (""Assemblage de choses de même nature au nombre de douze"" (translation: "A group of twelve things of the same nature"), as defined in the eighth edition of the "Dictionnaire de l'Académie française"). This French word is a derivation from the cardinal number "douze" ("twelve", from Latin "duodĕcim") and the collective suffix "-aine" (from Latin "-ēna"), a suffix also used to form other words with similar meanings such as "quinzaine" (a group of fifteen), "vingtaine" (a group of twenty), "centaine" (a group of one hundred), etc. These French words have synonymous cognates in Spanish: "docena", "quincena", "veintena", "centena", etc. English "dozen", French "douzaine", Catalan "dotzena", Portuguese "dúzia", Persian dowjin "دوجین", Arabic durzen "درزن", Turkish "düzine", German "Dutzend", Dutch "dozijn", Italian "dozzina" and Polish "tuzin", are also used as indefinite quantifiers to mean "about twelve" or "many" (as in "a dozen times", "dozens of people").


title: Dozen

text: A confusion may arise with the Anglo-Norman "dizeyne" (French "dixaine" or "dizaine") a tithing, or group of ten households — dating from the earlier English system of grouping households into tens and hundreds for the purposes of law, order and mutual surety (see Tithing). In some texts this 'dizeyne' may be rendered as 'dozen'.


title: Dozen

text: The idiom “six of one, half a dozen of the other” means two options are of equal worth so choosing one is the same as choosing the other.


title: Dozen

text: A baker's dozen, devil's dozen, long dozen, or long measure is 13, one more than a standard dozen. The broadest use of baker's dozen today is simply a group of thirteen objects (often baked goods). The term has meant different things over the last few centuries.


title: Dozen

text: In the United Kingdom when selling certain goods, bakers were obliged to sell goods by the dozen at a specific weight or quality (or a specific average weight). During this time, bakers who sold a dozen units that failed to meet this requirement could be penalized with a fine. Therefore, to avoid risking this penalty, some bakers included an extra unit to be sure the minimum weight was met, bringing the total to 13 units or what is now commonly known as a baker's dozen.


title: Dozen

text: According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term "baker's dozen" originated in the late 16th century and is "apparently so called after the former practice among bakers of including a thirteenth loaf when selling a dozen to a retailer, the extra loaf representing the retailer's profit."


title: Dozen

text: According to the 1811 "Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue", by Francis Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Thirteen; that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen". However, contrary to most sources, according to the anonymous 1785 version of that dictionary, which was probably also by Grose, "a Baker's Dozen is Fourteen, that number of rolls being allowed to the purchaser of a dozen".


title: Dozen

text: A lesser-used regionalism is the Texas dozen, which generally consists of 15. This is typically used only in Texas and surrounding areas for such goods as flowers or baked goods, although can be applied to anything that is counted, such as photographs.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Lexington"-class aircraft carriers were a pair of aircraft carriers built for the United States Navy (USN) during the 1920s, the and . The ships were built on hulls originally laid down as battlecruisers after World War I, but under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, all U.S. battleship and battlecruiser construction was cancelled. The Treaty, however, allowed two of the unfinished ships to be converted to carriers. They were the first operational aircraft carriers in the USN and were used to develop carrier aviation tactics and procedures before World War II in a series of annual exercises.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: They proved extremely successful as carriers and experience with the "Lexington" class convinced the Navy of the value of large carriers. They were the largest aircraft carriers in the USN until the s were completed beginning in 1945. The ships served in World War II, seeing action in many battles. Although "Lexington" was sunk in the first carrier battle in history (the Battle of the Coral Sea) in 1942, "Saratoga" served throughout the war, despite being torpedoed twice, notably participating in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in mid-1942 where her aircraft sank the Japanese light carrier . She supported Allied operations in the Indian Ocean and South West Pacific Areas until she became a training ship at the end of 1944. "Saratoga" returned to combat to protect American forces during the Battle of Iwo Jima in early 1945, but was badly damaged by kamikazes. The continued growth in the size and weight of carrier aircraft made her obsolete by the end of the war. In mid-1946, the ship was purposefully sunk during nuclear weapon tests in Operation Crossroads.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Lexington"-class ships were originally designed to be battlecruisers, with heavy guns, high speed, and moderate armor protection. The Navy laid down six ships of the class in 1919–20. When the battlecruisers were cancelled under the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922, two of the unfinished ships were designated for completion as carriers. "Lexington" and "Saratoga" were selected since they were the most advanced of the six ships in construction.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Conversion became a series of compromises and mixed blessings which would not have arisen had they been "specifically designed carriers" from the outset. On the plus side, the ships would have better anti-torpedo protection, larger magazines for aircraft bombs and, with the aft elevator higher than otherwise, more room for aircraft landings. On the minus side, a converted battlecruiser would be slower than a specifically designed carrier, have 16 percent less hangar space, less emergency fuel and, with "narrower lines" aft, not as wide a runway for which to aim. Costs were similar. A brand-new aircraft carrier was estimated at $27.1 million. Conversion of a "Lexington" class was $22.4 million, not counting the $6.7 million already sunk into them. Added together, the figure rose to $28.1 million.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The bottom line, with the signing of the treaty, was that any capital ships under construction by the five signatories (the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan) had to be canceled and scrapped. For battlecruisers, this encompassed the United States "Lexington" class, Japan's , and Great Britain's G3 battlecruisers. For the U.S. Navy, the choice seemed clear. If it scrapped all six "Lexington"s in accordance with the treaty, it would throw away $13.4 million that could otherwise go toward aircraft carriers. The Navy opted for the latter course.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The next challenge the Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair faced was the tonnage cap set by the treaty. Carriers were to be no more than 27,000 tons. An exception, spearheaded by Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Jr. and added to the treaty, allowed capital ships under conversion to go up to 33,000 tons, an increase of 6000 tons. This would almost not be enough for a conversion without removing half the power plant, something the Navy General Board did not consider an option. Creative interpreting of a clause in the treaty allowed a potential way out of this situation. The clause (Chapter II, Part III, Section I, (d)) read:


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Without this clause, conversion might not have been feasible. Estimates made in 1928 for the two ships put "Lexington" at an actual tonnage of 35,689 tons and "Saratoga" at 35,544. On official lists, the number given was 33,000 tons, with the footnote, "[this number] does not include weight allowance under Ch. 2, pt. 3, Sec. 1, art. (d) of Washington Treaty for providing means against air and submarine attack". This tonnage was used by these ships for their entire careers.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The ships had an overall length of , a beam of , and a draft of at deep load. "Saratoga" had a standard displacement of , and at deep load.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: One of their innovative features was a relatively new kind of bow called the bulbous bow or Taylor bow, named after its inventor, Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, who served as Chief Constructor for the U.S. Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair in World War I. The result of a series of towing tests begun in 1910, this bow reduced water resistance by an average of six percent at high speeds, supported the forecastle and reduced bending stress on the hull. A disadvantage was the formation of a thick layer of water, part of the bow wave, which would creep up along the forward side of the hull at higher speeds, although this could be reduced to some degree by careful design of this area.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: These ships were given a teak flight deck. Their hangar had a clear height of and encompassed . It was the largest enclosed space afloat, civilian or military, when built. The hangar was long and its width varied from , constrained by the bulky funnel uptakes and boat compartments. The height of the hangar was not exceeded on an American aircraft carrier until the ships appeared in the mid-1950s. Aircraft repair shops, long, were aft of the hangar and below them was a storage space for disassembled aircraft, long. The hangar was divided by a single fire curtain just forward of the aft aircraft elevator.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The carriers were fitted with two hydraulically powered elevators on their centerline. The forward elevator was and had a capacity of . A section of the flight deck adjoining the rear edge of the elevator could split down the centerline to lift aircraft otherwise too long. Carrying , it moved at a speed of . The aft elevator measured and could only lift . Munitions were delivered from the magazines by two hydraulically powered bomb lifts and one torpedo lift. A folding crane with a capacity of was positioned on the flight deck forward of the gun turrets. Aviation gasoline was stored in eight compartments of the torpedo protection system and their capacity has been quoted as either or . A flywheel-powered aircraft catapult, long, was fitted at the bow; it could launch a aircraft at a speed of . It was removed in 1934 as unnecessary.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Lexington"-class ships were designed to carry 78 aircraft of various types, including 36 bombers, but these numbers increased once the Navy adopted the practice of tying up spare aircraft in the unused spaces at the top of the hangar. In 1936, her air group consisted of 18 Grumman F2F-1 and 18 Boeing F4B-4 fighters, plus an additional nine F2Fs in reserve. Offensive punch was provided by 20 Vought SBU Corsair dive bombers with 10 spare aircraft and 18 Great Lakes BG torpedo bombers with nine spares. Miscellaneous aircraft included two Grumman JF Duck amphibians, plus one in reserve, and three active and one spare Vought O2U Corsair observation aircraft. This amounted to 79 aircraft, plus 30 spares.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: In early December 1941, "Lexington" was ferrying 18 U.S. Marine Corps Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers to Midway Atoll and at that time she embarked 65 of her own aircraft, including 17 Brewster F2A Buffalo fighters. During the Wake Island relief expedition later that month, "Saratoga"s air group consisted of 13 Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters, 42 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers, and 11 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers. The ship also carried 14 Marine Corps Buffalos for delivery at Wake. Before the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in mid-1942, "Saratoga"s air group consisted of 90 aircraft, comprising 37 Wildcats, 37 Dauntlesses and 16 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers. In early 1945, the ship carried 53 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters and 17 Avengers.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Turbo-electric propulsion had been chosen for the battlecruisers because American companies struggled to produce the very large geared turbines necessary for such big ships and was retained when they were converted into aircraft carriers. One advantage of turbo-electric drive was that the substitution of flexible electric cables for bulky steam-lines allowed the motors to be mounted farther aft; this reduced vibration and weight by shortening the propeller shafts. Another was the ability to go astern at full power without needing a separate reverse turbine to do so, simply by reversing the electrical polarity of the motors. Other benefits were the ability to operate all four propellers if one of the turbo generators failed, and the possibility of operating only some of the generators at low speed with suitably higher loading and greater efficiency. "[Turbo-electric drive] was efficient, rugged and always reliable. But it was also heavy, intricate, and not easy to maintain and keep tuned up." The machinery also required special ventilation measures to dissipate heat and to keep out any salt air. Even with this and elaborate insulation measures, protection from moisture or from flooding due to battle damage or other causes remained problematic and it posed the danger of high voltage to the crew if damaged.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Each propeller was in diameter and each of the four propeller shafts was powered by two electric motors acting in tandem. These motors were about five times the size of any earlier electric motor. Four General Electric turbo generators powered each propeller shaft and each was rated at , 5000 volts and 4620 amps of direct current (DC). Each of the four AC alternators produced 40,000 kVA. Sixteen water-tube boilers, each in their own individual compartment, provided steam for the generators at a working pressure of and a temperature of . The turbo-electric machinery of the "Lexington"-class ships was designed to produce a total of and propel the ships at , but each ship reached over and in sea trials in 1928. Six DC turbo generators were installed in the upper levels of the two main turbine compartments.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The ships carried a maximum of of fuel oil, but only of that was usable as the rest had to be retained as ballast in the port fuel tanks to offset the weight of the island and main guns. They demonstrated a range of at a speed of with of oil.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The Bureau of Construction and Repair was not then convinced that aircraft could be an effective and sufficient armament for a warship. Thus the design as carriers included a substantial gun battery of eight 8"/55 caliber guns in four twin gun turrets, two pairs of superfiring turrets fore and aft of the island. These turrets were mounted above the flight deck on the starboard side, two before the bridge, and two behind the funnel. The guns in theory could fire to both sides, but it is probable that if they were fired to port (across the deck) the blast would have damaged the flight deck. The guns could be depressed to −5° and elevated to +41°; they were loaded at an angle of +9°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this gave a maximum range of .


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Lexington" class' anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of a dozen 5"/25 caliber guns, six on each side of the ship on single mounts. They had a maximum elevation of +85°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of . Their maximum range against surface targets was at +30° elevation.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: As built, the ships were not fitted with any light AA guns, but a few water-cooled M2 Browning anti-aircraft machine guns were fitted shortly after commissioning and the numbers gradually increased over the 1930s. "Lexington" had 24 of these guns aboard when she was sunk in early 1942. Their projectiles had a muzzle velocity of , but an effective range of only . They had a rate of fire of 550–700 rounds per minute and were exceedingly reliable, however, their projectiles were too light and too short ranged so they were replaced by license-built Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon beginning in 1942. The Oerlikon fired , high-explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of . Its maximum range was although the effective range was under . The cyclic rate of fire was 450 rounds per minute, but the practical rate was between 250 and 320 rounds per minute owing to the need to reload magazines. "Saratoga" mounted 52 of these guns in late 1942.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The Navy had been developing a quadruple 1.1-inch light AA gun since the early 1930s, but it was delayed with teething problems, so five single 3"/50 caliber Mk 10 AA guns were installed in 1940 as temporary replacements. They fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . At +85° elevation they had an anti-aircraft ceiling of .


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The Navy made plans to remove the gun turrets in 1940 and replace them with four twin 5"/38 caliber dual-purpose gun turrets (the standard mounting on U.S. battleships and cruisers). At the same time, the 25-caliber guns were to be replaced with more 5"/38 guns on a two for three basis to compensate for their greater weight. The guns fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of at a rate of fire up to 20 rounds per minute. Against surface targets they had a range of .


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Five quadruple 1.1-inch gun mounts were finally fitted aboard the "Lexington"-class ships in late 1941 and early 1942. The projectiles had a muzzle velocity of and an effective range of . The maximum rate of fire was 150 rounds per minute although the frequent need to reload the eight-round magazines reduced that. The gun was not successful in service and it was replaced by the license-built Bofors 40 mm gun beginning in late 1942. The , high-explosive shell was fired at a muzzle velocity of . Its maximum range was although the effective range was around . The cyclic rate of fire was 160 rounds per minute. The guns were fitted in quadruple and twin gun mounts in increasing numbers over the war. "Saratoga" had 23 quadruple and two twin mounts in early 1944.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: "Lexington"s eight-inch gun turrets were removed in early 1942, but they were replaced by seven additional quadruple 1.1-inch gun mounts as a temporary measure. The ship was sunk before her five-inch guns could be replaced and the turrets installed. "Saratoga"s armament was upgraded in early 1942 while she was under repair after she had been torpedoed. The eight-inch guns and turrets of both ships were reused as coast defense weapons on Oahu.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The two superfiring eight-inch turrets had a Mk 30 rangefinder at the rear of the turret for local control, but the guns were normally controlled by two Mk 18 fire-control directors, one each on the fore and aft spotting tops. A rangefinder was fitted on top of the pilothouse to provide range information for the directors. Each group of three 5-inch guns was controlled by a Mk 19 director, two of which were mounted on each side of the spotting tops. Plans were made before the war to replace the obsolete Mk 19 directors with two heavier Mk 33 directors, one each on the fore and aft five-inch spotting tops, but these plans were cancelled when the dual-purpose guns replaced the main armament in early 1942.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: "Saratoga" received a RCA CXAM-1 early warning radar in February 1941 during a refit in Bremerton. The antenna was mounted on the forward lip of the funnel with its control room directly below the aerial, replacing the secondary conning station formerly mounted there. She also received two FC (Mk 3) surface fire-control radars in late 1941, although these were both removed along with her main armament in January 1942. The new dual-purpose guns were controlled by two Mk 37 directors, each mounting an FD (Mk 4) anti-aircraft gunnery radar. When the 1.1-inch guns were replaced by 40 mm guns in 1942, the directors for the smaller guns were replaced by five Mk 51 directors. Additional radars were added during 1942 and the ship's electronics were modernized during her refit in January 1944.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The waterline belt of the "Lexington"-class ships tapered in thickness from top to bottom and angled 11° outwards at the top. This angle increased the armor's relative thickness to horizontal, close-range fire, albeit at the cost of reducing its relative height which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it. It covered the middle of the ships. Forward, the belt ended in a bulkhead that also tapered from seven to five inches in thickness. Aft, it terminated at a seven-inch bulkhead. This belt had a height of . The third deck over the ships' machinery and magazine was armored with two layers of special treatment steel (STS) totaling in thickness. The steering gear, however, was protected by two layers of STS that totaled on the flat and on the slope.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: The gun turrets were protected only against splinters with of armor. The conning tower was of STS, and it had a communications tube with two-inch sides ran from the conning tower down to the lower conning position on the third deck. The torpedo defense system of the "Lexington"-class ships consisted of three to six medium steel protective bulkheads that ranged from in thickness. The spaces between them could be left empty or used as fuel tanks to absorb the detonation of a torpedo's warhead.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: "Lexington" and "Saratoga" were used to develop and refine carrier tactics in a series of annual exercises before World War II. On more than one occasion these included successfully staged surprise attacks on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. "Lexington"s turbo-electric propulsion system allowed her to supplement the electrical supply of Tacoma, Washington, in a drought from late 1929 to early 1930. She also delivered medical personnel and relief supplies to Managua, Nicaragua, after an earthquake in 1931.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Both ships were assigned to the Pacific Fleet and were based at Pearl Harbor in December 1941, although, at the time of the Japanese attack, neither of them were in port. "Lexington" was at sea ferrying fighter aircraft to Midway Island. Her mission was cancelled and she returned to Pearl Harbor a week later. "Saratoga" had completed a major refit at Bremerton, and, following work up, had arrived in San Diego to embark her air group. "Saratoga" immediately sailed for Hawaii as the flagship of Carrier Division One, arriving on December 15.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: A few days after "Lexington" returned to Pearl Harbor from her aboarted mission to Midway, she was sent to create a diversion from the force en route to relieve the besieged Wake Island garrison by attacking Japanese installations in the Marshall Islands. The island was forced to surrender before the relief force got close enough, and the mission was cancelled. A planned attack on Wake Island in January 1942 had to be cancelled when a submarine sank the oiler required to supply the fuel for the return trip. "Lexington" was sent to the Coral Sea the following month to block any Japanese advances into the area. The ship was spotted by Japanese search aircraft while approaching Rabaul, New Britain, and her aircraft shot down most of the Japanese bombers that attacked her. Together with the carrier , she successfully attacked Japanese shipping off the east coast of New Guinea in early March.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: "Lexington" was briefly refitted in Pearl Harbor at the end of the month and rendezvoused with "Yorktown" in the Coral Sea in early May. A few days later the Japanese began Operation MO, the invasion of Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, and the two American carriers attempted to stop the invasion forces. They sank the light aircraft carrier on 7 May in the Battle of the Coral Sea, but did not encounter the main Japanese force of the carriers and until the next day. Aircraft from "Lexington" and "Yorktown" succeeded in badly damaging "Shōkaku", but the Japanese aircraft crippled "Lexington". Vapors from leaking aviation gasoline tanks sparked a series of explosions and fires that could not be controlled, and the carrier had to be scuttled by an American destroyer on the evening of 8 May to prevent her capture.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: Shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, "Saratoga" was the centerpiece of the unsuccessful American effort to relieve Wake Island and was torpedoed by a Japanese submarine a few weeks later. After lengthy repairs, the ship supported forces participating in the Guadalcanal Campaign and her aircraft sank the light carrier in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August 1942. She was again torpedoed the following month and returned to the Solomon Islands area after repairs were completed.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: In 1943, "Saratoga" supported Allied forces involved in the New Georgia Campaign and invasion of Bougainville in the northern Solomon Islands and her aircraft twice attacked the Japanese base at Rabaul in November. Early in 1944, her aircraft provided air support in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands Campaign before she was transferred to the Indian Ocean for several months to support the Royal Navy's Eastern Fleet as it attacked targets in Java and Sumatra. After a brief refit in mid-1944, the ship became a training ship for the rest of the year.


title: Lexington-class aircraft carrier

text: In early 1945, "Saratoga" participated in the Battle of Iwo Jima as a dedicated night fighter carrier. Several days into the battle, she was badly damaged by kamikaze hits and was forced to return to the United States for repairs. While under repair, the ship, now increasingly obsolete, was permanently modified as a training carrier with some of her hangar deck converted into classrooms. "Saratoga" remained in this role for the rest of the war and was used to ferry troops back to the United States after the Japanese surrender in August. In July 1946, she was used as a target for atomic bomb tests in Operation Crossroads, and sank at Bikini Atoll. Her wreck is easily accessible to scuba divers and organized dive tours are available.


title: Niagara Escarpment

text: The Niagara Escarpment is a long escarpment, or cuesta, in Canada and the United States that runs predominantly east–west from New York through Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, and into Illinois. The escarpment is most famous as the cliff over which the Niagara River plunges at Niagara Falls, for which it is named.


title: Niagara Escarpment

text: The escarpment is a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve. The reserve has the oldest forest ecosystem and trees in eastern North America.