title: First Mexican Republic

text: The uprisings against the nation were mostly pacified, but the opposition continued to clamor for Gómez Farías's overthrew, fueled by the ongoing anti-clerical campaign. Opponents of Gómez Farías had long sought help from vice-president Santa Anna in overthrowing the government, and after initially ignoring them, even participating in campaigns against the rebels, he eventually acquiesced in April, 1834. He proclaimed the Plan of Cuernavaca, condemning Gómez Farías's reforms. The president was overthrown and prominent liberal and federalist thinkers José María Luis Mora and Lorenzo de Zavala were exiled from the nation. Gómez Farías’s reforms would eventually be attempted again by the government in during the pivotal La Reforma period.


title: First Mexican Republic

text: As part of his revolution Santa Anna dissolved the national congress, state congresses, and replaced state governors and municipal governments with loyalists. He however also maintained that the Constitution of 1824 was still in effect and held elections for a new congress before the end of the year. Santa Anna at this point retired as he had during the Gomez Farias administration and he was replaced by Miguel Barragan.


title: First Mexican Republic

text: On October 23, 1835, the bicameral congress decreed to unite and turn itself into a constituent congress tasked with drafting a new constitution. The resulting centralist document came to be known as the Siete Leyes, and was formally promulgated in December, 1836. Now would begin a decade of conservative and centralist rule led by Santa Anna whom the congress expected to be the first president under the new constitution.


title: First Mexican Republic

text: Certain regions of the nation responded to the new constitution by attempting to secede. In 1836, after a decade of failing to gain provincial autonomy, Texas revolted, and the Texans were joined in their struggle by the exiled champion of federalism Lorenzo de Zavala who would go on to be the first vice-president of the nascent Texas republic. Yucatán would follow and succeed in 1839 after which it would establish relations with Texas. Other uprisings were successfully crushed by the centralist government.


title: First Mexican Republic

text: In Alta California during the late colonial era the Franciscans had established missions from San Diego in the south to the San Franciscan bay area in the north. In 1824, indigenous in four central coast missions revolted against ill-treatment by non-indigenous authorities. The Chumash revolt was suppressed, the mission indigenous pardoned and urged to return to the missions, but the revolt was serious and challenged the narrative of peaceful mission indigenous.


title: First Mexican Republic

text: The republic would largely adopt Spanish colonial policy with regard to the Apache, "establicimiento", or the system by which the Spanish sought to settle the Apache and make them sedentary by offering these "Apaches de Paz" (Peaceful Apaches) goods and land in exchange for peace and abandonment of nomadic lifestyle. The Mexican state followed the practice of its Spanish colonial predecessor, with inadequate military resources to suppress the northern indigenous groups that did not recognize outsiders sovereignty over their territory. Mexico faced an insufficient defense network against the Comanches and Apaches in the Northern States. Even going so far as to include a royal signature, pre-Republican Mexico reinstated Spanish Indian policies to the letter. While some peace treaties did exist between locals and "los indios", the peace did not last long, as Apaches would often simply take their violence elsewhere when villages proved to be too difficult to raid. With these ineffective policies in place, combined with an ever-evolving and adapting Comanche Empire, the Early Republic faced a formidable foe with an inadequate infrastructure. The lack of appropriate defense against raids might not have been so large of a problem for the Republic, if "establicimiento" had not all but been forgone by the 1830s, with post-independence 1820s economic instability causing many regions to drastically reduce rations to the "Apaches" "de Paz".


title: First Mexican Republic

text: The Apache were supplied with guns by US American merchants. Goods including guns and shoes were sold to the Apache, the latter being discovered by Mexican forces when they found traditional Apache trails with American shoe prints instead of moccasin prints. The cycle of heightened violence between Mexicans and Apaches further destabilized the Republic, with bloody and violent suppression of Apaches. Discontent among the northern Mexican states reached a peak in 1837, when the governor of the Sonora declared that "the United States has already as much as declared a state of war between our two nations" with regard to both the annexation of Texas and the illegal enterings/selling of weapons committed by United States' citizens.


title: James Young (American musician)

text: James Vincent Young (born November 14, 1949) is an American musician who is best known for playing guitar in the American rock band Styx, having served as the only continuous original member of the band. Young began playing keyboard and piano at the age of five. He attended Calumet High in Chicago and learned to play clarinet and guitar during those years. He was nicknamed by Styx members & long time fans as "J.Y." and is often referred to as "The Godfather of Styx".


title: James Young (American musician)

text: In 1970, Young joined the band TW4 while a student at Illinois Institute of Technology, from which he graduated with a bachelor's degree in mechanical and aerospace engineering. That band later became the first incarnation of Styx.


title: James Young (American musician)

text: After Styx's initial breakup in 1984, Young released the solo albums "City Slicker" (1985) with Jan Hammer, "Out on a Day Pass" (1988), and "Raised by Wolves" (1995 ) with James Young Group. Young tends to write the more hard rock pieces for Styx. He is best known for the Styx songs "Miss America" and "Snowblind". Young managed the Chicago, Illinois -based rock band 7th Heaven in 1998 along with Alec John Such of the band Bon Jovi.


The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) is an internationally agreed-upon standard managed by the United Nations that was set up to replace the assortment of hazardous material classification and labelling schemes previously used around the world. Core elements of the GHS include standardized hazard testing criteria, universal warning pictograms, and harmonized safety data sheets which provide users of dangerous goods with a host of information. The system acts as a complement to the UN Numbered system of regulated hazardous material transport. Implementation is managed through the UN Secretariat. Although adoption has taken time, as of 2017, the system has been enacted to significant extents in most major countries of the world. This includes the European Union, which has implemented the United Nations' GHS into EU law as the CLP Regulation, and United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards.


Before the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) was created and implemented, there were many different regulations on hazard classification in use in different countries, resulting in multiple standards, classifications and labels for the same hazard. Given the $1.7 trillion per year international trade in chemicals requiring hazard classification, the cost of compliance with multiple systems of classification and labeling is significant. Developing a worldwide standard accepted as an alternative to local and regional systems presented an opportunity to reduce cost and improve compliance.


title: Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals

text: The GHS development began at the 1992 Rio Conference on Environment and Development by the United Nations also called Earth Summit (1992) when the International Labour Organization (ILO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), various governments and other stakeholders agreed that "A globally harmonized hazard classification and compatible labelling system, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable symbols, should be available if feasible, by the year 2000".


text: The universal standard for all countries was to replace all the diverse classification systems; however, it is not a compulsory provision of any treaty. The GHS provides a common infrastructure for participating countries to use when implementing a hazard classification and Hazard Communication Standard.


text: The GHS classification system is a complex system with data obtained from tests, literature, and practical experience. The hazards of a substanse is defined in classes of hazards and categories of severity.


text: Substances or articles are assigned to 8 different hazard classes largely based on the United Nations Dangerous Goods System. Additions and changes have been necessary since the scope of the GHS includes all target audiences.


text: Sometimes companies are able to replace hazardous substances with substances featuring a reduced health risk. As an assistance to assess possible substitute substances, the Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA) has developed the Column Model. On the basis of just a small amount of information on a product, substitute substances can be evaluated with the support of this table. The current version from 2020 already includes the amendments of the 12th CLP Adaptation Regulation 2019/521.


text: The GHS approach to the classification of mixtures for health and environmental hazards is also complex. It uses a tiered approach and is dependent upon the amount of information available for the mixture itself and for its components. Principles that have been developed for the classification of mixtures, drawing on existing systems such as the European Union (EU) system for classification of preparations laid down in Directive 1999/45/EC. The process for the classification of mixtures is based on the following steps:


text: The GHS document does not include testing requirements for substances or mixtures. In fact, one of the main goals of the GHS is to reduce the need for animal testing. The GHS criteria for determining health and environmental hazards are test method neutral, allowing different approaches as long as they are scientifically sound and validated according to international procedures and criteria already referred to in existing systems. Test data already generated for the classification of chemicals under existing systems should be accepted when classifying these chemicals under the GHS, thereby avoiding duplicative testing and the unnecessary use of test animals. The GHS physical hazard criteria are linked to specific UN test methods. It is assumed that mixtures will be tested for physical hazards.


text: Comprehensibility is challenging for a single culture and language, so global harmonization is complex. The GHS Purple Book includes a comprehensibility-testing instrument in Annex 6. Factors that were considered in developing the GHS communication tools include:


text: The GHS includes directions for application of the hazard communication elements on the label. In particular, it specifies for each hazard, and for each class within the hazard, what signal word, pictogram, and hazard statement should be used. The GHS hazard pictograms, signal words and hazard statements should be located together on the label. The actual label format or layout is not specified in the GHS. National authorities may choose to specify where information should appear on the label or allow supplier discretion. There has been discussion about the size of GHS pictograms and that a GHS pictogram might be confused with a transport pictogram or "diamond". Transport pictograms are different in appearance than the GHS pictograms. Annex 7 of the Purple Book explains how the GHS pictograms are expected to be proportional to the size of the label text so that generally the GHS pictograms would be smaller than the transport pictograms.


text: The safety data sheet or SDS (The GHS dropped the word "material" from material safety data sheet in its final revisions) is specifically aimed at use in the workplace. It should provide comprehensive information about the chemical product that allows employers and workers to obtain concise, relevant and accurate information in perspective to the hazards, uses and risk management of the chemical product in the workplace. While there were some differences in existing industry recommendations and country specific requirements, there was agreement on a 16 section SDS to include the following headings in the order specified:


text: The primary difference between the GHS and the international industry recommendations is that sections 2 and 3 have been reversed in order. The GHS SDS headings, sequence and content are similar to the ISO, European Union and ANSI MSDS/SDS requirements. The SDS should provide a clear description of the data used to identify the hazards. A table comparing the content and format of a MSDS/SDS versus the GHS SDS is provided in Appendix A of the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) GHS guidance.


text: Current training procedures for Hazard Communication in the United States are more detailed than the GHS training recommendations. Educating employees on the updated chemical and product classifications and related pictograms, signal words, hazard statements and precautionary measures at the level of detail by the national authority represents the greatest training challenge. Training will be a key component of the overall GHS approach and should incorporate information as it is introduced into the workplace. Employees and emergency responders will need to be trained on all new program elements, from hazard statements to pictograms. Bear in mind, if the importation of products using only GHS labeling is permitted prior to its adoption in the United States and Canada, employers may need to begin employee training earlier than expected.


text: The United Nations goal was broad international adoption, and as of 2017, GHS has been adopted to varying degrees in nearly all major countries.


title: VoIP phone

text: A VoIP phone or IP phone uses voice over IP technologies for placing and transmitting telephone calls over an IP network, such as the Internet. This is in contrast to a standard phone which uses the traditional public switched telephone network (PSTN).


title: VoIP phone

text: Digital IP-based telephone service uses control protocols such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), Skinny Client Control Protocol (SCCP) or various other proprietary protocols.


title: VoIP phone

text: VoIP phones can be simple software-based softphones or purpose-built hardware devices that appear much like an ordinary telephone or a cordless phone. Traditional PSTN phones can be used as VoIP phones with analog telephone adapters (ATA).


title: VoIP phone

text: A VoIP phone or application may have many features an analog phone doesn't support, such as e-mail-like IDs for contacts that may be easier to remember than names or phone numbers, or easy sharing of contact lists among multiple accounts. Generally the features of VoIP phones follow those of Skype and other PC-based phone services, which have richer feature sets but may experience latency-related problems, because they rely on mainstream operating systems' IP and audio support.


title: VoIP phone

text: As mainstream operating systems became better at voice applications with appropriate quality of service (QoS) guarantees, and 5G handoff (IEEE 802.21 etc.) becomes available from wireless carriers, tablets and smartphones became the dominant interfaces. iPhone, Android and the QNX OS used in 2012-and-later BlackBerry phones are widely capable of VoIP performance. Besides wireless, they also typically support USB, but not Ethernet or Power over Ethernet interfaces. The smartphone became the dominant VoIP phone because it works both indoors and outdoors, and shifts base stations/protocols easily. It achieves this by accepting higher access costs and call clarity, and other factors personal to the user. The PoE/USB VoIP phone was thus relegated to the role of a transitional device, except in traditional business office, where it is still widely used as a desk phone.


title: VoIP phone

text: The software requires standard networking components such as a TCP/IP network stack, client implementation for DHCP, and the Domain Name System (DNS).


title: VoIP phone

text: In addition, a VoIP signalling protocol stack, such as for the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), H.323, Skinny Client Control Protocol (Cisco), and/or Skype, is needed.


title: VoIP phone

text: For media streams, the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is used in most VoIP systems. For voice and media encoding, a variety of codecs are available, such as for audio: G.711, GSM, iLBC, Speex, G.729, G.722, G.722.2 (AMR-WB), other audio codecs, and for video H.263, H.263+, H.264. User interface software controls the operation of the hardware components, and may respond to user actions with messages to a display screen.


title: VoIP phone

text: To enable the VoIP communications, the SIP/RTP packets should be utilised and STUN client would be the key component for VoIP communications with management of the SIP/RTP packets.


title: VoIP phone

text: A Session Traversal Utilities for NAT (STUN) client is used on some SIP-based VoIP phones as firewalls on network interface sometimes block SIP/RTP packets. Some special mechanism is required in this case to enable routing of SIP packets from one network to other. STUN is used in some of the sip phones to enable the SIP/RTP packets to cross boundaries of two different IP networks. A packet becomes unroutable between two sip elements if one of the networks uses private IP address range and other is in public IP address range. Stun is a mechanism to enable this border traversal. There are alternate mechanisms for traversal of NAT, STUN is just one of them. STUN or any other NAT traversal mechanism is not required when the two SIP phones connecting are routable from each other and no firewall exists in between.


title: VoIP phone

text: DHCP client software simplifies connection of a device to an IP network. The software automatically configures the network and VoIP service parameters.


title: VoIP phone

text: The overall hardware may look like a telephone or mobile phone. A VoIP phone has the following hardware components


title: VoIP phone

text: There are several Wi-Fi enabled mobile phones and PDAs that have pre-installed SIP client software, or are capable of running IP telephony clients, including most smartphones.


title: VoIP phone

text: Analog telephone adapters provide an interface for traditional analog telephones to a voice-over-IP network. They connect to the Internet or local area network using an Ethernet port and have jacks that provide a standard RJ11 interface that can accommodate a standard analog telephone.


title: VoIP phone

text: Another type of gateway device acts as a simple cellular base station. Regular mobile phones can connect to this device, and make VoIP calls. While a license is required to run a cellular base station in most countries, these can be useful on ships, or in remote areas where a low-powered gateway transmitting on unused frequencies is likely to go unnoticed.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Spy vs. Spy is a wordless comic strip published in "Mad" magazine. It features two agents involved in stereotypical and comical espionage activities. One is dressed in white, and the other in black, but they are otherwise identical, and are particularly known for their long, beaklike heads and their white pupils and black sclera. The pair are always at war with each other, using a variety of booby-traps to inflict harm on the other. The spies usually alternate between victory and defeat (sometimes both win and both lose) with each new strip. A parody of the political ideologies of the Cold War, the strip was created by Cuban expatriate cartoonist Antonio Prohías, and debuted in "Mad" #60, dated January 1961. "Spy vs. Spy" is currently written and drawn by Peter Kuper.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: The "Spy vs. Spy" characters have been featured in such media as video games and an animated television series, and in such merchandise as action figures and trading cards.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Prohías was a prolific cartoonist in Cuba known for political satire. He fled to the United States on May 1, 1960, three days before Fidel Castro's government nationalized the last of the Cuban free press. Prohías sought work in his profession and travelled to the offices of "Mad" magazine in New York City on July 12, 1960. After a successful showing of his work and a prototype cartoon for "Spy vs. Spy", Prohías was hired.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Prohías cryptically signed each strip on its first panel with a sequence of Morse code characters that spell "BY PROHIAS". In a 1983 interview with the "Miami Herald", Prohías reflected on the success of "Spy vs. Spy", stating, "The sweetest revenge has been to turn Fidel's accusation of me as a spy into a moneymaking venture." Prohías, however, was censored by "Mad" magazine publisher William Gaines on at least one occasion: the strip that eventually appeared in "Mad" magazine #84 (Jan. 1964) was altered to remove scenes where the spies drink and smoke (Gaines had a strong anti-smoking stance). Prohías evolved his drawing style over the years, making the Spies' heads proportionately larger by 1964. In 1965 he began to experiment with not drawing frames on the Spies' shades, and this became a consistent trait from late 1966 on. In the 1980s overhanging lips were common. Prohías completed a total of 241 "Spy vs. Spy" strips for "Mad" magazine, the last one appearing in #269 (March 1987). After that he drew gag strips for the titles (such as one involving radioactive waste in #287) and wrote several stories for Clarke or Manak to draw, with his last such contribution in #337 (July 1995).


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: The strips continued, with writer Duck Edwing and artist Bob Clarke creating the majority. Their strips are identifiable by Clarke's drawing style, but signed " 'C/e", or " 'C/p" in the Prohías-written cases.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Peter Kuper took over as writer and artist for the strip with "Mad" magazine #356 (April 1997). It was later drawn in full color when the magazine changed from a black and white to full color format.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Black Spy and White Spy (or "Man in Black" and "Man in White") – Wearing wide-brimmed hats and dressed in overcoats, both Spies have long pointed faces. They are identical except for one being entirely in white and one entirely in black. The Spies were modeled after El Hombre Siniestro ("The Sinister Man"), a character Prohías created in the Cuban magazine "Bohemia" in 1956. Like the Spies, he wore a wide-brimmed hat and overcoat and had a long pointed nose. Prohías described the character as someone who "thought nothing of chopping the tails off of dogs, or even the legs off of little girls" and stated he was "born out of the national psychosis of the Cuban people." 'El Hombre Siniestro bears strong resemblance to the Spies—although, instead of fighting against a set rival, he simply does horrible things to anyone he can find.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: The cover copy of "The All New Mad Secret File on Spy vs. Spy" provides early insight to the characters and Prohías' views on the Castro regime and the CIA:


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: A gag panel in "Mad" magazine #122 (Oct. 1968) established Black Spy as a member of the "East." He gets trapped by White Spy, who is guarding the border to the "West." There is otherwise no indication in the series that Black Spy is pro-communist or White Spy is pro-capitalist.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Grey Spy (or "Woman in Grey") – She debuted in "Mad" magazine #73 (Sept. 1962) (the strip was temporarily renamed "Spy vs. Spy vs. Spy"). Grey Spy's appearances were sporadic, but she always triumphed by using the infatuations of Black Spy and White Spy to her advantage. Prohías explained, "the lady Spy represented neutrality. She would decide for White Spy or Black Spy, and she also added some balance and variety to the basic 'Spy vs. Spy' formula." Grey Spy's last appearance under Prohías was "Mad Magazine" #99 (Dec. 1965); she did not appear again until Bob Clarke and Duck Edwing took over the strip.


title: Spy vs. Spy

text: Leaders – They are the barrel-chested, medal-decorated bosses of Black Spy and White Spy, who give them tasks and punish them for their failures. The Leaders were phased out when Peter Kuper took over writing and illustrating the strip.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Margaret "Peggy" Shippen (July 11, 1760 – August 24, 1804) was the highest-paid spy in the American Revolution, and was the second wife of General Benedict Arnold.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Shippen was born into a prominent Philadelphia family with Loyalist tendencies. She met Arnold during his tenure as military commander of the city following the British withdrawal in 1778. They were married in the Shippen townhouse on Fourth Street on April 8, 1779, and Arnold began conspiring with the British to change sides soon after. Peggy played a role in the conspiracy which was exposed after British Major John André was arrested in September 1780 carrying documents concerning the planned surrender of the critical Continental Army base at West Point.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Arnold escaped to New York City and Peggy followed. They traveled together to London at the end of 1781, where she established a home and Arnold rebuilt a trading business. In 1787, she joined him in Saint John, New Brunswick, where his difficulties with local businessmen forced them to return to London in December 1791. Arnold died in 1801, after which she had to settle his business affairs and pay off his debts. She died in 1804, having borne five children who survived infancy.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Margaret Shippen was born July 11, 1760 in Philadelphia, the fourth and youngest daughter of Edward Shippen IV and Margaret Francis, the daughter of Tench Francis, Sr.; she was nicknamed "Peggy". She was born into a prominent Philadelphia family, which included two Philadelphia mayors and the founder of Shippensburg, Pennsylvania. Edward Shippen was a judge and member of the Provincial Council of Pennsylvania; the Shippen family was politically divided, and the judge was considered either a "Neutralist" or a covert "Tory " with allegiance to the British crown. Two younger boys died in infancy, and Peggy grew up as the baby of the family and was the "family's darling".


title: Peggy Shippen

text: As a young woman, she enjoyed music, doing needlework, and drawing, and participated in the study of politics. She looked up to her father and, under his tutelage, learned about politics, finance, and the forces which led to the American Revolution.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: The British captured Philadelphia in September 1777, and the Shippen family held social gatherings at their home, in keeping with their political interests and stations. A frequent guest was John André, an officer in General William Howe's command, and he paid particular attention to Peggy. The British withdrew from the city in June 1778 following France's entry into the war; André left Philadelphia with his fellow troops, but the two of them remained in contact.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: In late summer of 1778, Shippen met Arnold, the Continental military commander of Philadelphia, and he began courting her despite the differences between himself and Judge Shippen. Shortly after, Arnold sent her father a letter asking for her hand, but Shippen was skeptical of Arnold due to Arnold's legal problems. In 1779, the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania had brought eight formal charges against Arnold for corruption and malfeasance with the money of the federal and state governments, and he was subsequently convicted on two relatively minor counts. Despite this, Edward Shippen eventually granted permission for Arnold and Peggy to marry, which took place on April 8, 1779.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Arnold purchased Mount Pleasant on March 22, 1779, a manor home built in 1762 for Captain John Macpherson, and he deeded the property to Peggy and any future children. The couple did not live at Mount Pleasant, however, but rented it out as an income property. The couple honeymooned at family homes in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, then returned to Philadelphia to take residence at Arnold's military headquarters in the Masters-Penn mansion.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: As a newlywed, Peggy may have had contact with her "dear friend" Major André, who had become General Clinton's spy chief. She and Arnold also had close friends who were either actively Loyalist or sympathetic to that cause. Some historians believe that Peggy Shippen instigated the correspondence between Arnold and André and sent military secrets to the British before her wedding. Other suspects in Arnold's subsequent espionage ring with André were Loyalists Rev. Jonathan Odell and Joseph Stansbury.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Arnold hired Joseph Stansbury to initiate communications in May 1779, offering his services to the British not long after he married. General Clinton gave Major André orders to pursue the possibility, and secret communications began between André and Arnold. The messages that they exchanged were sometimes transmitted through Peggy's actions; letters written in her hand also include coded communications written by Benedict Arnold in invisible ink.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Enraged by his treatment in Philadelphia, General Arnold resigned his command there in March 1779. Pursuant to the secret communications with the British, he sought and obtained the command of West Point, a critical American defense post in the highlands of the Hudson River. Peggy and their infant son Edward Shippen Arnold (born 19 Mar 1780) joined him there in a home on the Hudson two miles south of West Point. General Arnold systematically weakened the defenses of West Point with the intent of making it easier for the British to capture.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: On Thursday, September 21, 1780, General Arnold met with André on the shores of the Hudson River and gave him documents and maps about the fortifications at West Point in anticipation of the British capture of that site. On Saturday, September 23, André was arrested as he rode towards British territory, the documents were discovered, and the plot was exposed. On Monday, September 25, Arnold received a note announcing André's capture and possession of treasonous papers and maps. That same morning, General George Washington was planning to meet Arnold at his home, two miles south of West Point. Arnold first dashed upstairs to Peggy, then fled, eventually reaching HMS "Vulture" on the Hudson River.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Peggy Shippen Arnold was then dressing in anticipation of hosting a breakfast for Washington and his party. Possibly based on a brief discussion with her husband, she pretended hysteria in order to falsely convince General Washington and his staff that she had nothing to do with her husband's betrayal. The delay caused by her histrionics may have allowed Arnold time to escape, leaving Peggy with their infant son. Fearing for her safety, she traveled to Philadelphia to stay with her family. She also played the innocent when asked about her husband, even though she knew his whereabouts. Philadelphia authorities soon found a letter from André to Peggy written from British-occupied New York—the so-called "millinery letter"—and seized upon it as proof that Arnold's wife had been complicitous in the treason. That led the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania to banish her from Philadelphia. In November 1780, her father escorted Peggy and her infant son to the shores of the Hudson where she boarded a boat to New York City to join Arnold.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: After a military trial, Major André was condemned to death as a common spy and was hanged at Tappan, New York. He was later re-interred in London's Westminster Abbey.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Hostilities appeared to be winding down in North America after Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown in October 1781, and the Arnolds left for London on December 15, 1781—including their second child James Robertson (born in August)—arriving January 22, 1782.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Peggy was initially welcomed warmly in England, as was her husband; she was presented at court to the queen on February 10, 1782 by Lady Amherst. Queen Charlotte awarded her an annuity of 100 pound sterling for the maintenance of her children, including those not yet born. King George III also presented her with £350 "obtained for her services, which were meritorious". A girl (Margaret) and a boy (George), born in 1783 and 1784 respectively, died in infancy while the Arnolds lived in London.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Arnold left for a business opportunity in 1784 and sent to Connecticut for his three sons Benedict, Richard, and Henry (by his first wife) to join him in Saint John, New Brunswick. During Arnold's stay in New Brunswick, Peggy Shippen Arnold gave birth to their third surviving child Sophia Matilda Arnold, while her husband may have fathered an illegitimate child (John Sage) in New Brunswick. Peggy sailed to Saint John to join her husband in 1787, leaving her two older sons with a private family in London; in New Brunswick, Peggy gave birth to son George in 1787; their last child William Fitch was born in 1794 after their return to London.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: In 1789, she returned briefly to Philadelphia, accompanied by her infant son George and a maid, to visit with her parents and family. She was treated coldly by Philadelphians in spite of her father's considerable influence. Peggy sailed back to New Brunswick with young George in the spring of 1790, and from there returned to England with Arnold in late December 1791. Their departure was unhappy, with mobs gathering on their property to protest against them and calling them "traitors".


title: Peggy Shippen

text: After Arnold died in 1801, Peggy auctioned the contents of their home, the home itself, and many of her personal possessions to pay off his debts. She died in London in 1804, reportedly of cancer, and was buried with her husband at St. Mary's Church in Battersea on August 25, 1804.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Historians are unanimous in her complicity—and she accepted a reward for her services from the king. Her family in Philadelphia denied everything.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: James Parton, a biographer of Aaron Burr, published an account in the 19th century, after all of the principal actors had died, implying that Peggy Shippen Arnold had manipulated or persuaded Benedict to change sides. The basis for the claim was interviews that Burr conducted with Theodosia Prevost, the widow of Jacques Marcus Prevost who later married Burr, and notes later made by Burr. While en route to Philadelphia from West Point in 1780, Peggy Shippen Arnold visited with Prevost at Paramus, New Jersey. According to Parton, she unburdened herself to Prevost, claiming that she "was heartily tired of all the theatricals she was exhibiting", referring to her histrionics at West Point. According to Burr's notes, Shippen Arnold "was disgusted with the American cause" and "through unceasing perseverance, she had ultimately brought the general into an arrangement to surrender West Point".


title: Peggy Shippen

text: When these allegations were first published, the Shippen family countered with allegations of improper behavior on Burr's part. They claimed that Burr rode with Peggy Shippen Arnold in the carriage to Philadelphia after her stay with Mrs. Prevost, and that he fabricated the allegation because she refused advances that he made during the ride. Arnold biographer Willard Sterne Randall suggests that Burr's version has a more authentic ring to it: first, Burr waited until all were dead before it could be published; and second, Burr was not in the carriage on the ride to Philadelphia. Randall also notes that ample further evidence has since come to light showing that Peggy Shippen Arnold played an active role in the conspiracy. British documents from 1792 show that Mrs. Arnold was paid £350 for handling secret dispatches.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Peggy Shippen is portrayed by Erin McGathy and Winona Ryder in the "Drunk History" episode on Philadelphia. She is also portrayed in the TV miniseries "George Washington" by Megan Gallagher, in the TV movie "" by Flora Montgomery, and in the Revolutionary War drama "" by Ksenia Solo.


title: Peggy Shippen

text: Shippen is also the subject of at least four historical novels: "The Exquisite Siren" by E. Irvine Haines (1938), Peggy" by Lois Duncan (1970), "Finishing Becca" by Ann Rinaldi (1994), and "The Traitor's Wife" by Allison Pataki (2014).


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Ride with the Devil is a 1999 American Revisionist Western film directed by Ang Lee and starring Tobey Maguire, Skeet Ulrich, Jeffrey Wright, and Jewel in her feature film debut. Based on the novel "Woe to Live On", by Daniel Woodrell, the film, set during the American Civil War, follows a group of men who join the First Missouri Irregulars, also known as the Bushwhackers—guerrilla units loyal to pro-Confederacy units of the state—and their war against Northern Jayhawkers allied with the Union army. Simon Baker, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Jonathan Brandis, Jim Caviezel, Mark Ruffalo, and Celia Weston are featured in supporting performances.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The film was a co-production between Universal Studios and Good Machine. Principal photography began on March 25, 1998. Theatrically, it was commercially distributed by the USA Films division of Universal and premiered in only six theaters nationwide in the United States on November 26, 1999, and for only three days, grossing a total of $635,096. Taking into account its $38 million budget costs, the film was considered a major box office bomb.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: "Ride with the Devil" has been noted for its thematic exploration of politics, violence and war. In 2010, The Criterion Collection released a restored high-definition digital transfer for the home media market, featuring an extended 148-minute director's cut of the film.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Jake Roedel and Jack Bull Chiles are friends in Missouri when the Civil War breaks out. Roedel is the American-assimilated son of a German immigrant who suffers from sporadic anti-German suspicion from other Southerners (as the German population in the state was largely sympathetic to the Union) while Chiles is the son of planter Asa Chiles.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: One night, Jake watches as Asa is executed by a band of Jayhawkers. Jack manages to escape, and he and Jake join the First Missouri Irregulars under "Black" John Ambrose, an informal unit loyal to the Confederate government of Missouri. Also fighting with Ambrose are George Clyde and Daniel Holt, who most assume is Clyde's slave; Jake learns that Clyde bought Holt his freedom after Holt, whom Clyde had known since childhood, helped him kill the Union soldiers who shot his father and brothers. However, Holt was separated from his mother, who was sold to a new master in Texas.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The Irregulars use guerrilla warfare tactics against the Jayhawkers, supported by the pro-Confederate citizens of Missouri. During their travels, Jake is notified that his father was killed by Alf Bowden, a Unionist whose life Jake spared, in revenge for those slain by the Irregulars. With winter approaching, Ambrose sends Jake, Jack, Holt, and Clyde to hide on the property of the Evans family. A young widow in the household, Sue Lee Shelley, becomes romantically involved with Jack. With Clyde off to romance a female friend on a nearby farm and Chiles occupied with Sue Lee, a friendship begins between Jake and Holt.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Jack is severely wounded when the group goes after the Jayhawkers who killed the Evans patriarch. With Union soldiers in the area, a nervous Clyde abandons the group to rejoin the Irregulars. Jake, Holt, and Sue Lee try to amputate Jack's injured arm, but he dies from complications of gangrene. After burying him, Jake and Holt escort Shelley to the Brown family homestead and entrust her to them while they ride off to find Clyde. In the process, they learn that the Union army has managed to isolate and hunt down many of their former comrades.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The Irregulars join forces with the guerrillas led by William Quantrill, who plans to raid Lawrence, Kansas. The pro-South forces easily overcome the small garrison of troops guarding Lawrence, burn and loot shops and homes, and kill Union supporters and black freedmen. A disgusted Jake and Holt walk into a cafe to eat breakfast. Pitt Mackeson, a sadistic guerrilla who despises Jake for being Ambrose's favorite, enters the establishment and threatens the owners before Jake and Holt force him to leave at gunpoint.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: As the guerrillas make their escape, Union troops pursue them into the woods. Quantrill and Ambrose organize the men to feign retreat and form battle lines, enabling them to hold off the pursuit. Mackeson tries to shoot Jake from behind, and when Holt angrily tries to fire back, a bullet hits him in the side. Clyde rushes to his aid, only to get shot through the throat and die right in Holt's arms. Jake is able to pull Holt to safety, and the two men flee on horseback.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Returning to the Brown family, they spend some time recuperating. With both Jack and Clyde gone, Jake and Holt reflect on their futures; Jake admits that he doesn't want to return to the Irregulars as he feels that the war is turning against the Confederacy, while Holt confides that although he was not Clyde's slave, he feels "free" now that his friend is gone. Shelley gives birth to Jack's daughter, Grace. The Browns, who assume Jake is the child's father, pressure him to marry Shelley, which he is reluctant to do. However, after spending time with Shelley and her child, Jake begins to have feelings for both of them.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: News arrives that Quantrill has fled to Kentucky and Mackeson and the surviving Irregulars are now outlaws who pillage both Unionists and defenseless Southerners for anything of value. Jake is warned that Mackeson intends to settle the business between them soon. Mr. Brown secretly invites a reverend into his home to marry Jake and Shelley, and they spend the night together. Jake shaves and cuts his hair, something he swore he would never do until the war was over and prepares a wagon to take him and his new family to California.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: While making camp, he and Holt run into Mackeson, who is on the run and increasingly suicidal after learning of both Quantrill and Ambrose's deaths. Mackeson declares that he will ride into the nearest Union-occupied town for drinks even though doing so would mean certain death; his unhinged manners lead Jake and Holt to draw their guns in self-defense. However, after drinking a cup of brewed chicory offered to him by Jake, Mackeson simply rides off.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: With his service now complete, Holt tells Jake that he is heading to Texas in the hopes of finally freeing his mother from slavery. After the two friends shake hands and exchange farewells, Holt tips his hat to Jake and rides away.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Film scholar Stephen Teo notes that the film approaches themes of "domesticity, the role of women, homosociality, and violence...  with great sensitivity."


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Many critics have noted that the film does little to orient or guide its audience through the historical landscape in which it is set, and instead presents events in a manner that is "unremarkable," "undemonstrative," and "somewhat ghostly." Writer Andrew Patrick Nelson considers "Ride with the Devil" as being part of the revisionist Western tradition, though he concedes that it "has little of the self-consciousness that generally marks the form." Nelson asserts that director Ang Lee often forgoes excessive attention to historical details, and instead attempts to immerse the audience in an experience that "is responsive to the daily realities and rhythms that surround the characters." It is because of this that Nelson claims the film has more in common with "metaphysical" works of filmmakers such as Terrence Malick."


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The leading actors were required to go through three weeks of boot camp to prepare them for their roles. During shooting, Maguire hesitated under the grueling heat and 16-hour workdays, but pressed on to complete the filming. The actors first trained shooting blank loads, and then live ammunition for action conflict scenes. More than 250 Civil War black-powder pistols were used during the production phase. Over 140 extras played Lawrence residents, and more than 200 Civil War re-enactors were brought in to relay their style of living to the filming sequences.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Principal photography began on March 25, 1998. Filming took place primarily on location in Sibley, Missouri, Kansas City, Kansas, and Kansas City, Missouri. Pattonsburg, Missouri also stood in as a primary filming set locale. The set design production team removed telephone poles and utilized truckloads of dirt to cover existing asphalt and concrete. Production designer Mark Friedberg created numerous indoor and outdoor sets of the time period to ensure and maintain historical accuracy.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The original motion picture music for "Ride with the Devil", was released by the Atlantic Records music label on November 23, 1999. The score for the film was orchestrated by Mychael Danna and Nicholas Dodd. Musical artist Jewel contributed vocals to the score with her song "What's Simple Is True", from her 1998 album "Spirit".


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The basis for the film, Daniel Woodrell's novel "Woe to Live On" (originally published in 1987) was released as a movie tie-in edition, re-titled "Ride With the Devil", by Pocket Books on November 1, 1999. The book dramatizes the events of the American Civil War during the 1860s, as depicted in the film. It expands on the inner-fighting between rebel Bushwhackers and Union Jayhawkers, with civilians caught in the crossfire. The story relates a coming-of-age experience for Roedel as he emotionally comprehends the losses of his best friend, father and comrades. On a separate front, Roedel expresses love for his best friend's widow, and learns about tolerance from his contact with a reserved black Irregular.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: "Ride with the Devil" received its world premiere at the 25th Deauville American Film Festival in France on September 9, 1999. The following day it had its North American premiere at the Toronto Film Festival in Canada. The film's UK premiere was at the opening night gala of the London Film Festival on November 3, 1999.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: "Ride with the Devil" had an initial screening on November 24, 1999, in New York City, Kansas City, Missouri and Los Angeles. For most of its limited release, the film fluctuated between 11 and 60 theater screening counts. At its most competitive showing, the filmed ranked in 37th place for the December 17–19 weekend in 1999.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The film premiered in cinemas on November 26, 1999, in limited release throughout the United States. During that weekend, the film opened in 50th place grossing $64,159 in business showing at 11 locations. The film "Toy Story 2" opened in 1st place during that weekend with $57,388,839 in revenue. The film's revenue dropped by almost 20% in its second week of release, earning $51,600. For that particular weekend, the film fell to 53rd place although with an increased theater count showing at 15 theaters. "Toy Story 2" remained unchallenged in 1st place with $18,249,880 in box office business. During its final week in release, "Ride with the Devil" opened in 57th place grossing $39,806. For that weekend period, "Stuart Little" starring Geena Davis opened in 1st place with $11,214,503 in revenue. "Ride with the Devil" went on to top out domestically at $635,096 in total ticket sales through a 6-week theatrical run. For 1999 as a whole, the film would cumulatively rank at a box office performance position of 219.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Among mainstream critics in the U.S., the film received generally positive reviews. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 63% of 65 sampled critics gave the film a positive review, with an average score of 6.2 out of 10. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average out of 100 to critics' reviews, "Ride with the Devil" received a score of 69 based on 29 reviews. The film failed to garner any award nominations for its acting or production merits from accredited film organizations.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Peter Stack, writing in the "San Francisco Chronicle", said in outward positive sentiment, "Lee's approach mixes an unsettling grittiness with an appealing, often luminous elegance (thanks to Frederick Elmes' cinematography) in picturing a patch of America at war with itself." Left impressed, Stephen Hunter in "The Washington Post", wrote that the film was "terrific" and that it contained the "most terrifying kind of close-in gunplay, with big, pulsing holes blown into human beings for a variety of reasons ranging from the political to the nonsensical." In a mixed to positive review, Stephen Holden of "The New York Times", described the film's production aspects as being of "meditative quality and its attention to detail and the rough-hewn textures of 19th-century life are also what keep the story at a distance and make ""Ride with the Devil"" dramatically skimpy, even though the movie stirs together themes of love, sex, death and war." Wesley Morris of "The San Francisco Examiner", commented that "Ride with the Devil" was "downright hot-blooded in the nameless violence going on west of marquee Civil War battles. Never has this war been filmed with such ragged glory. The boys grasping their rifles look like trigger-happy rock stars of the prairies, so much so that they threaten to transform the film into a great hair movie." In a slightly upbeat conviction, Andrew O'Hehir of "Salon.com" asserted that "for all its clumsy dialogue and loose plotting, this is historical filmmaking of a high order, both visually and thematically ambitious." Todd McCarthy of "Variety", added to the exuberant tone by declaring, "Impressing once again with the diversity of his choices of subject matter and milieu, director Ang Lee has made a brutal but sensitively observed film about the fringes of the Civil War".


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The film was not without its detractors. Writing for the "Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert bluntly noted that the motion picture "does not have conventional rewards or payoffs, does not simplify a complex situation, doesn't punch up the action or the romance simply to entertain. But it is, sad to say, not a very entertaining movie; it's a long slog unless you're fascinated by the undercurrents." In a primarily negative review, Lisa Schwarzbaum writing for "Entertainment Weekly", called the film "an oddly unengaging one, not because of any weak performances (even crooning poetess Jewel acquits herself pleasantly in her film debut), but because the waxy yellow buildup of earnest tastefulness (the curse of the Burns school of history) seals off every character from our access." Describing a favorable opinion, Russell Smith of "The Austin Chronicle" professed the film as exhibiting "unostentatious originality, psychological insight, and stark beauty". While following up, he stressed "There's an odd blend of stylization and extreme realism to this film. The dialogue is stilted, full of archaic $20-words and dime-novel flamboyance — all the more jarring when delivered by these teenaged bumpkin characters."


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: James Berardinelli of "ReelViews" proclaimed "Ride with the Devil" "takes us away from the big battles of the East and to a place where things are less cleanly defined." He also stated that "As was true almost everywhere else, idealogical gulfs often divided families. This is the terrain into which Lee has ventured, and the resulting motion picture offers yet another effective and affecting portrait of the United States' most important and difficult conflict." David Sterritt writing for "The Christian Science Monitor" reasoned, "The movie is longer and slower than necessary, but it explores interesting questions of wartime violence, personal integrity, and what it means to come of age in a society ripping apart at the seams." Film critic Steve Simels of "TV Guide" was consumed with the nature of the subject matter exclaiming, "A nicely ambiguous ending and terrific acting by the mostly young cast mostly makes up for the longeurs, however, and for the record, Jewel acquits herself well in a not particularly demanding role."


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: In 2013, the film was the subject of an essay in a collection of scholarly essays on Ang Lee's films, "The Philosophy of Ang Lee."


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: Following its cinematic release in theaters, the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on July 18, 2000. Special features for the DVD include; Jewel music video: "What's Simple Is True", the Theatrical Trailer, Production notes, Cast and filmmakers extra, and a Universal web link.


title: Ride with the Devil (film)

text: The Criterion Collection released a restored special edition on DVD and Blu-ray on April 27, 2010. It includes a 148-minute extended cut of the film. Special features include; Two audio commentaries one featuring Lee and producer-screenwriter James Schamus and one featuring Elmes, sound designer Drew Kunin, and production designer Mark Friedberg; a new video interview with star Jeffrey Wright, and a booklet featuring essays by critic Godfrey Cheshire and Edward E. Leslie, author of "The Devil Knows How to Ride: The True Story of William Clarke Quantrill and his Confederate Raiders".


title: Mathematical finance

text: Mathematical finance, also known as quantitative finance and financial mathematics, is a field of applied mathematics, concerned with mathematical modeling of financial markets.


title: Mathematical finance

text: In general, there exist two separate branches of finance that require advanced quantitative techniques: derivatives pricing on the one hand, and risk and portfolio management on the other.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Mathematical finance overlaps heavily with the fields of computational finance and financial engineering. The latter focuses on applications and modeling, often by help of stochastic asset models, while the former focuses, in addition to analysis, on building tools of implementation for the models.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Also related is quantitative investing, which relies on statistical and numerical models (and lately machine learning) as opposed to traditional fundamental analysis when managing portfolios.


title: Mathematical finance

text: French mathematician Louis Bachelier's doctoral thesis, defended in 1900, is considered the first scholarly work on mathematical finance. But mathematical finance emerged as a discipline in the 1970s, following the work of Fischer Black, Myron Scholes and Robert Merton on option pricing theory. Mathematical investing originated from the research of mathematician Edward Thorp who used statistical methods to first invent card counting in blackjack and then applied its principles to modern systematic investing.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The subject has a close relationship with the discipline of financial economics, which is concerned with much of the underlying theory that is involved in financial mathematics. While trained economists use complex economic models that are built on observed empirical relationships, in contrast, mathematical finance analysis will derive and extend the mathematical or numerical models without necessarily establishing a link to financial theory, taking observed market prices as input.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The fundamental theorem of arbitrage-free pricing is one of the key theorems in mathematical finance, while the Black–Scholes equation and formula are amongst the key results.


title: Mathematical finance

text: There are two separate branches of finance that require advanced quantitative techniques: derivatives pricing, and risk and portfolio management. One of the main differences is that they use different probabilities such as the risk-neutral probability (or arbitrage-pricing probability), denoted by "Q", and the actual (or actuarial) probability, denoted by "P".


title: Mathematical finance

text: The goal of derivatives pricing is to determine the fair price of a given security in terms of more liquid securities whose price is determined by the law of supply and demand. The meaning of "fair" depends, of course, on whether one considers buying or selling the security. Examples of securities being priced are plain vanilla and exotic options, convertible bonds, etc.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Once a fair price has been determined, the sell-side trader can make a market on the security. Therefore, derivatives pricing is a complex "extrapolation" exercise to define the current market value of a security, which is then used by the sell-side community.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Quantitative derivatives pricing was initiated by Louis Bachelier in "The Theory of Speculation" ("Théorie de la spéculation", published 1900), with the introduction of the most basic and most influential of processes, Brownian motion, and its applications to the pricing of options. Brownian motion is derived using the Langevin equation and the discrete random walk. Bachelier modeled the time series of changes in the logarithm of stock prices as a random walk in which the short-term changes had a finite variance. This causes longer-term changes to follow a Gaussian distribution.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The theory remained dormant until Fischer Black and Myron Scholes, along with fundamental contributions by Robert C. Merton, applied the second most influential process, the geometric Brownian motion, to option pricing. For this M. Scholes and R. Merton were awarded the 1997 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Black was ineligible for the prize because of his death in 1995.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The next important step was the fundamental theorem of asset pricing by Harrison and Pliska (1981), according to which the suitably normalized current price "P" of a security is arbitrage-free, and thus truly fair only if there exists a stochastic process "P" with constant expected value which describes its future evolution:


title: Mathematical finance

text: A process satisfying () is called a "martingale". A martingale does not reward risk. Thus the probability of the normalized security price process is called "risk-neutral" and is typically denoted by the blackboard font letter "formula_1".


title: Mathematical finance

text: The relationship () must hold for all times t: therefore the processes used for derivatives pricing are naturally set in continuous time.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The quants who operate in the Q world of derivatives pricing are specialists with deep knowledge of the specific products they model.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Securities are priced individually, and thus the problems in the Q world are low-dimensional in nature. Calibration is one of the main challenges of the Q world: once a continuous-time parametric process has been calibrated to a set of traded securities through a relationship such as (), a similar relationship is used to define the price of new derivatives.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The main quantitative tools necessary to handle continuous-time Q-processes are Itô's stochastic calculus, simulation and partial differential equations (PDEs).


title: Mathematical finance

text: Risk and portfolio management aims at modeling the statistically derived probability distribution of the market prices of all the securities at a given future investment horizon.


title: Mathematical finance

text: This "real" probability distribution of the market prices is typically denoted by the blackboard font letter "formula_2", as opposed to the "risk-neutral" probability "formula_1" used in derivatives pricing. Based on the P distribution, the buy-side community takes decisions on which securities to purchase in order to improve the prospective profit-and-loss profile of their positions considered as a portfolio. Increasingly, elements of this process are automated; see for a listing of relevant articles.


title: Mathematical finance

text: For their pioneering work, Markowitz and Sharpe, along with Merton Miller, shared the 1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, for the first time ever awarded for a work in finance.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The portfolio-selection work of Markowitz and Sharpe introduced mathematics to investment management. With time, the mathematics has become more sophisticated. Thanks to Robert Merton and Paul Samuelson, one-period models were replaced by continuous time, Brownian-motion models, and the quadratic utility function implicit in mean–variance optimization was replaced by more general increasing, concave utility functions. Furthermore, in recent years the focus shifted toward estimation risk, i.e., the dangers of incorrectly assuming that advanced time series analysis alone can provide completely accurate estimates of the market parameters.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Charles Dow, one of the founders of Dow Jones & Company and The Wall Street Journal, enunciated a set of ideas on the subject which are now called Dow Theory. This is the basis of the so-called technical analysis method of attempting to predict future changes. One of the tenets of "technical analysis" is that market trends give an indication of the future, at least in the short term. The claims of the technical analysts are disputed by many academics.


title: Mathematical finance

text: The aftermath of the financial crisis of 2009 as well as the multiple Flash Crashes of the early 2010s resulted in social uproars in the general population and ethical malaises in the scientific community which triggered noticeable changes in Quantitative Finance (QF).


title: Mathematical finance

text: More specifically, mathematical finance was instructed to change and become more realistic as opposed to more convenient. The concurrent rise of Big data and Data Science contributed to facilitating these changes. More specifically, in terms of defining new models, we saw a significant increase in the use of Machine Learning overtaking traditional Mathematical Finance models.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Over the years, increasingly sophisticated mathematical models and derivative pricing strategies have been developed, but their credibility was damaged by the financial crisis of 2007–2010.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Contemporary practice of mathematical finance has been subjected to criticism from figures within the field notably by Paul Wilmott, and by Nassim Nicholas Taleb, in his book "The Black Swan". Taleb claims that the prices of financial assets cannot be characterized by the simple models currently in use, rendering much of current practice at best irrelevant, and, at worst, dangerously misleading. Wilmott and Emanuel Derman published the "Financial Modelers' Manifesto" in January 2009 which addresses some of the most serious concerns.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Bodies such as the Institute for New Economic Thinking are now attempting to develop new theories and methods.


title: Mathematical finance

text: In general, modeling the changes by distributions with finite variance is, increasingly, said to be inappropriate. In the 1960s it was discovered by Benoit Mandelbrot that changes in prices do not follow a Gaussian distribution, but are rather modeled better by Lévy alpha-stable distributions. The scale of change, or volatility, depends on the length of the time interval to a power a bit more than 1/2. Large changes up or down are more likely than what one would calculate using a Gaussian distribution with an estimated standard deviation. But the problem is that it does not solve the problem as it makes parametrization much harder and risk control less reliable.


title: Mathematical finance

text: Perhaps more fundamental: though mathematical finance models may generate a profit in the short-run, this type of modeling is often in conflict with a central tenet of modern macroeconomics, the Lucas critique - or rational expectations - which states that observed relationships may not be structural in nature and thus may not be possible to exploit for public policy or for profit unless we have identified relationships using causal analysis and econometrics. Mathematical finance models do not, therefore, incorporate complex elements of human psychology that are critical to modeling modern macroeconomic movements such as the self-fulfilling panic that motivates bank runs.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The University of New Hampshire (UNH) is a public land-grant research university with its main campus in Durham, New Hampshire. It was founded and incorporated in 1866 as a land grant college in Hanover in connection with Dartmouth College, moved to Durham in 1893, and adopted its current name in 1923.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university's Durham campus comprises six colleges. A seventh college, the University of New Hampshire at Manchester, occupies the university's campus in Manchester. The University of New Hampshire School of Law is in Concord, the state's capital. The university is part of the University System of New Hampshire and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".


title: University of New Hampshire

text: , its combined campuses made UNH the largest state university system in the state of New Hampshire, with over 15,000 students. It was also the most expensive state-sponsored school in the United States for in-state students.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Morrill Act of 1862 granted federal lands to New Hampshire for the establishment of an agricultural-mechanical college. In 1866, the university was first incorporated as the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts in Hanover, New Hampshire, in association with Dartmouth College. The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth College and was directed by Dartmouth's president. Durham resident Benjamin Thompson left his farm and assets to the state for the establishment of an agricultural college. On January 30, 1890, Benjamin Thompson died and his will became public. On March 5, 1891, Governor Hiram A. Tuttle signed an act accepting the conditions of Thompson's will. On April 10, 1891, Governor Tuttle signed a bill authorizing the college's move to Durham, New Hampshire.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In 1892, the Board of Trustees hired Charles Eliot to draw a site plan for the first five campus buildings: Thompson, Conant, Nesmith, and Hewitt Shops (now called Halls) and the Dairy Barn. Eliot visited Durham and worked for three months to create a plan prior to the move to Durham. The Class of 1892, excited about the pending move to Durham, held commencement exercises in an unfinished barn on the Durham campus. On April 18, 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to "authorize the faculty to make all the arrangements for the packing and removal of college property at Hanover to Durham." The Class of 1893, followed the previous class and held commencement exercises in unfinished Thompson Hall, the Romanesque Revival campus centerpiece designed by the prominent Concord architectural firm of Dow & Randlett.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In fall 1893, classes officially began in Durham with 51 freshmen and 13 upperclassmen, which was three times the projected enrollment. Graduate study was also established in fall 1893 for the first time. The number of students and the lack of state funds for dormitories caused a housing crunch and forced students to find housing in town. The lack of housing caused difficulty for attracting women to the university. In 1908, construction on Smith Hall, the first women's dorm, was completed using private and state funds. Prior to the construction of Fairchild Hall in 1915 for male students, 50 freshmen lived in the basement of DeMerritt Hall. With the continuing housing shortage for men, the administration encouraged the growth of the UNH Greek system. From the late 1910s through the 1930s, the fraternity system expanded and provided room and board for male students.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In 1923, Governor Fred H. Brown signed a bill changing the name of the college to University of New Hampshire. The university was incorporated on July 1, 1923.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In the spring of 2015, the university was given $4 million from the estate of Robert Morin, who had been a librarian at the university for almost 50 years. Having lived a frugal and secluded life, he allowed for his life's savings to be given to the university without restraint. In 2016, the news that the university was spending $1 million on a new video screen for the football stadium provoked criticism, both on and off campus. Critics thought that the difference between that amount and the $100,000 the university transferred to the library was inappropriate.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The University of New Hampshire is the flagship of the University System of New Hampshire. UNH is composed of eleven colleges and graduate schools, offering 2,000 courses in over 100 majors. The eight colleges of UNH are:


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university is a member of the New England Board of Higher Education's New England Regional Student Program (NERSP) where New England public universities and colleges offer a number of undergraduate curricula with special considerations to students from other New England states. If an out-of-state student's home state school does not offer a certain degree program offered by UNH, that student can receive the in-state tuition rate, plus 75 percent if enrolled in the program.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Thompson School of Applied Science (TSAS), first established in 1895 and now a division of COLSA, confers an associate degree in applied science in seven different programs: Applied Animal Science, Forest Technology, and Veterinary technology. Four other degree programs were discontinued in spring of 2018.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The coastal proximity of the university affords excellent programs in marine biology and oceanography. Facilities include the Jackson Estuarine Laboratory at Adams Point in Durham, and the Shoals Marine Laboratory jointly operated with Cornell University on Appledore Island in the Isles of Shoals.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The University of New Hampshire Observatory is operated by the Department of Physics for educational purposes.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: There are three main university-wide undergraduate research programs: Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP), Undergraduate Research Fellowship (SURF), and International Research Opportunities Program (IROP).


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university offers many opportunities for students to study abroad through managed programs, exchange programs and approved programs. The university runs/manages 22 study abroad programs in locations which include Cambridge, England; London, England; Edinburgh, Scotland; Brest, France; Dijon, France; Grenoble, France; Budapest, Hungary; Osaka, Japan; Utrecht, Netherlands; Maastricht, Netherlands; Ascoli Piceno, Italy; New Zealand; India; South Africa; Kenya; and Granada, Spain. The university also accepts credit from over 300 approved programs that are run through other institutions. The university organizes an annual summer abroad program at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge University. There are also over 100 National Exchange Program opportunities.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In 2010, the Franklin Pierce Law Center in Concord was incorporated into the University of New Hampshire System and renamed the University of New Hampshire School of Law. It is the only law school in the state of New Hampshire. The School of Law offers Juris Doctor degrees in addition to graduate studies in Intellectual Property and Commerce & Technology. The University of New Hampshire Law School is renowned for its intellectual property law programs, consistently ranking in the top ten of U.S. News & World Report rankings. In 2012, it was ranked 4th behind the University of California at Berkeley, Stanford University and George Washington University.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Peter T. Paul College of Business and Economics building was opened for occupancy in January 2013. Formerly the Whittemore School of Business and Economics (WSBE), the Paul School offers degrees in Business Administration (featuring focuses in Accounting, Entrepreneurial Venture Creation, Finance, Information Systems Management, International Business and Economics, Management, and Marketing), Hospitality, and Economics (either in B.A. or B.S).


title: University of New Hampshire

text: As of the 2015 fall semester, the university had 12,840 undergraduate students and 2,500 graduate students enrolled in more than 200 majors. The student body comprises 47% in-state students, 49% out-of-state students, and 4% international students; and is 54% female and 46% male.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: UNH received 18,040 applications for admission to the Fall 2019 incoming freshman class; 15,159 were admitted (an acceptance rate of 84.0%), and 2,731 enrolled. The middle 50% range of enrolled freshmen SAT scores was 1080-1260 for the composite, 540-640 for evidence-based reading and writing, and 530-630 for math, while the ACT composite middle 50% range was 22-28.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: "U.S. News & World Report" ranks New Hampshire tied for 143rd among 389 "national universities" and tied for 65th out of 209 "top public schools" in 2021. The University of New Hampshire is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In 2012, the Department of Education ranked the University of New Hampshire as having the sixth most expensive in-state tuition for a public four-year college. The University of New Hampshire ranks lowest in the country for the amount of subsidy it receives from the state.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: "Money" magazine ranked the University of New Hampshire 117th out of 744 in its "Best Colleges For Your Money 2019" report.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". According to the National Science Foundation, UNH spent $146 million on research and development in 2018, ranking it 137th in the nation.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The University Library consists of the main Dimond Library and three science libraries specializing in chemistry, physics, and computer science, mathematics, and engineering. One enters The Dimond Library on the third floor. It has three quiet study reading rooms, seating for 1,200, Zeke’s Café, and the Dimond Academic Commons (DAC), in which is offered computer workstations, IT help, the Connors Writing Center, Geospatial Information Services Center, and research help. Other areas of the library provide access to media equipment, collaborative work spaces, and laptop ports.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Parker Media Lab (PML) is an interdisciplinary audio and visual self-service recording space located in the Dimond Library. The PML was designed to support the creation of professional, academically-focused content and is available for use by any University of New Hampshire (UNH) student, staff, or faculty member. The space includes:


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Parker Media Lab (PML) is located on the second floor of the Dimond Library, room 237. It is available for self-service use during all Dimond Library operating hours.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Chemistry Library (Parsons Hall), the Engineering/Mathematics/Computer Science Library (Kingsbury Hall), and the Physics Library (DeMeritt Hall) offer customized service for the UNH scientific and engineering communities. Each science library offers specialized reference assistance, reserve materials, reference and circulating collections, periodicals, and electronic resources specific to their fields. All science libraries provide WiFi and laptop ports, laptops and computer workstations, as well as other equipment. Parsons, DeMeritt and Kingsbury Libraries have group meeting rooms that students may reserve; all have collaborative as well as quiet areas.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In addition to more than 2 million volumes and 50,000 periodical subscriptions, the library has an extensive government documents collection, maps, sound recordings, CDs, videos, DVDs, and a Special Collections and Archives section with rare books, manuscripts, and University publications and papers. The Library offers extensive electronic resources including e-books, digital collections, indexes in many subject areas, statistical data sets and databases supplying full-text periodical and newspaper articles.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Students and staff, mainly belonging to majors of Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering, and Computer Science students work at the UNH InterOperability Laboratory, which tests networking and data communication devices and products. The UNH-IOL interviews and accepts applications from students of all majors and varying backgrounds of job experience and expertise.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: More than 100 graduate and undergraduate student employees work with full-time UNH-IOL staff, gaining hands-on experience with developing technologies and products. The companies and organizations that work with the UNH-IOL benefit from cost-effective testing services, as well as the opportunity to recruit future engineers from the UNH-IOL workforce.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Carsey School of Public Policy at the University of New Hampshire conducts policy research on vulnerable children, youth, and families and on sustainable community development. They give policy makers and practitioners the timely, independent resources they need to effect change in their communities.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university has about 250 student organizations grouped by academics and careers, community service, political and world affairs, arts and entertainment, culture and language, fraternities and sororities, hall councils, honor societies, leisure and recreation, media and publications, religious, special interest, and student activism. Recreation at the University of New Hampshire also includes club and intramural sports. Student activities are largely funded by a Student Activity Fee, set in 2017 at $89 per year for full-time undergraduate students.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The use and control of the Student Activity Fee are given by the University System of New Hampshire Board of Trustees to the Student Senate, and one of its subcommittees, the Student Activity Fee Committee (SAFC). SAFC provides support to 200+ organizations, but directly funds 11 organizations as follows: Campus Activities Board, Diversity Support Coalition, Mask and Dagger Dramatic Society, Meeple Tabletop Gaming Syndicate, New Hampshire Outing Club, Organic Gardening Club, Student Commitee on Popular Entertainment (SCOPE), The New Hampshire, Slow Food, 91.3 fm WUNH, and the Student Senate. Each organization has a Business Manager position that attends SAFC Meetings.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Campus Activities Board, collaborates with other student organizations to provide programming for students by students. They plan various recreational activities for the student body.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Diversity Support Coalition's mission is to support multiculturalism, diversity, and equality at UNH. It hosts 6 member groups, Alliance, the Black Student Union, Hillel, Mosaico, the Native American Cultural Association, and the United Asian Coalition.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Mask and Dagger Dramatic Society is UNH's student run traditional theatre organization. They produce full length musicals and plays.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Meeple's goal is to support friendly social interaction through the playing of board, card, and role-playing games including Magic: The Gathering and Dungeons and Dragons.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The New Hampshire Outing Club or NHOC, is the oldest and largest club on campus, offering outdoor focused trips on most weekends. They offer unique leadership and certification opportunities, training a minimum of 40 trip leaders per year.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Organic Gardening Club grows produce on campus with the goal of creating a community and maintaining a certified organic farm while promoting sustainable living and growing.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: SCOPE works to bring live, nationally recognized talent to the University including concerts, comedy shows, and virtual meet and greets offered at a decreased rate for students.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: "The New Hampshire" (commonly referred to as TNH) is a weekly student-run newspaper headquartered at the University of New Hampshire. Since 1911, it has been published weekly on Thursdays during the academic year, with a printed circulation of 3,000 copies per issue. TNH is distributed for free in the Memorial Union Building, university housing and academic buildings, Durham businesses, and other locations around the southern New Hampshire seacoast area; the newspaper also publishes an online edition of the week's print edition. TNH is the oldest UNH publication still in operation; "The Granite" student yearbook, the oldest university publication on record, ran from 1908 to 2017.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Slow Food aims to promote the opposite of fast food, building a community around the idea of "Good, Clean, and Fair". educating students about sustainable, seasonal diets and fair food production.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: WUNH, also known as the Freewaves or the Seacoast Sound Alternative, is a fully functional non-commercial radio station focused on alternative broadcasting. 91.3 fm on your dial is FCC certified and can be streamed via wunh.org. They provide students and community members an opportunity to participate in all aspects of radio operation and production. They have a wide range of specify programming, sports, and news shows. All DJs run a program including 60% new music (dropped in the last three months) in each show.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Student Senate is a student governance organization of which SAFC is a subcommittee. They aim to serve as advocates for the UNH undergraduate student body.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Student Senate of the University of New Hampshire is the on-campus, undergraduate student government. The Student Senate controls the use of its own student activity fee, and directly governs student organizations that receive a regular, annual budget from it. The Student Senate also formulates student stances on University policy, and attempts to lobby its position to administrators and the local and state government. According to its Constitution, the Student Senate "[serves] as an advocate for all undergraduate students, deriving its power from the consent of the governed and developed on the principle that all undergraduate students of the University of New Hampshire have the right to participate in its governance. Such participation encourages the development of student expertise in University affairs and places significant responsibility on students for their involvement with the policies, rules, and regulations which affect the quality of education and the experience of students at the University of New Hampshire." The Student Senate at UNH is noted for being one of the few remaining student governments in the United States that are free of a faculty or staff advisor.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Graduate Student Senate (GSS) represents all graduate students at UNH, with senators elected from all colleges (College of Engineering & Physical Sciences, College of Liberal Arts, College of Life Sciences & Agriculture, College of Health & Human Sciences, Paul College of Business & Economics) as well as from the Graduate School and graduate housing. The executive committee, composed of 6-7 members, includes a President, Vice President, Communications Officer, Financial Affairs Officer, External Affairs Officer, and Community Coordinator, with the most recent Past President serving at the discretion of the current President. Senators and executive committee members serve on both internal and external committees, maintaining ties with other student organizations, as well as with the faculty and administration, in order to gather information and act on behalf of graduate student interests. GSS representation, elections, and other functions are governed by the UNH Graduate Student Senate Constitution & Bylaws.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Approximately 15% of undergraduate students are affiliated with fraternities and sororities recognized by the university. The Office of Student Involvement and Leadership, the Inter-fraternity Council (IFC) and Panhellenic Council (Panhel) oversee the 13 recognized social fraternities and eight recognized social sororities. Many of the fraternities and sororities have houses on Madbury Road and Strafford Avenue in Durham. These houses are not owned by or on university property. In addition, several unrecognized fraternities continue their operations despite derecognition from the university.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The school's first fraternity was Zeta Epsilon Zeta, which was established in 1894. In March 1917, it became a chapter of Sigma Alpha Epsilon.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The first African-American graduate of the University of New Hampshire was Elizabeth Virgil, who graduated in 1926 with a bachelor's degree in Home Economics. She was from the nearby town of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and attended college at the urging of her mother, Alberta Curry Virgil, a housekeeper. Virgil later founded a scholarship in her mother's memory.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: According to College Factual's 2021 Diversity Report 9,849 undergraduates were white, 419 Hispanic, 339 Asian, 255 multi-ethnic, 125 Black or African-American, and 1 pacific Islander. The race of an additional 542 was unknown and 417 international students were not counted in the survey. Among graduate students, 1,031 were white, 35 Hispanic, 26 Black or African American, 24 Asian, 15 multi-ethnic, and 1 pacific islander. The races of 41 graduate students were unknown and an additional 277 were international and not counted in the survey.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The student-led Diversity Support Coalition (DSC) aims to offer resources to groups "affected by institutionalized oppression based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, sex, gender identity and expression, age, ability, native language, national origin, and/or religion at UNH."


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The DSC promotes, educates, and supports multiculturalism, diversity, and equality at UNH through programming efforts and support of the six student organizations within the DSC. The six member groups are Alliance, the Black Student Union, Hillel, Mosaico, the Native American Cultural Association, and the United Asian Coalition. Participation in the DSC is open to all UNH students. The DSC encourages student organizations with similar needs to be recognized under the Diversity Support Coalition by submitting a petition within the guidelines for the DSC constitution. The total membership of the DSC is 200 individuals.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In addition to the six organizations within the DSC, UNH students run over a dozen groups for the purpose of multiculturalism and peer reference groups. Groups include women in professional fields, country or geographic specific cultural clubs, and international student clubs.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Multiple organizations on campus are focused on providing women in professional fields access to relational and ideational resources promoting success. Women-focused groups on campus include Her Campus, UNH Data Driven Women, Women in Business, the Society of Woman Engineers, and Women in Science.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Culturally focused groups on campus include the Desi Student Association, Japanese Cultural Club, Indonesian Student Association, International Student Organization, Middle Eastern Cultural Association, Russian Cultural Club and Vietnamese Student Association. These groups often host events to educate the student body on their cultures and to welcome experts of ancestral crafts. Conversely, the Committee on Rights and Justice (CORAJ) partners UNH students with local immigrant families, helping them with the naturalization process.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university instituted the Navitas program in 2011 to expand the amount of international students at the school. This expanded over the years into the Global Student Success Program (GSSP). The GSSP, in cooperation with the Office of International Students and Scholars (OISS), gives students the support to "help discover opportunities at UNH to immerse in American culture and share your own traditions with others from the U.S. and from around the globe." The programs guide students through the application process and the extent of their career.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: During fall 2015, UNH enrolled 298 students from 34 countries. The most common countries of origin at that time were the People's Republic of China, Canada, and Vietnam.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The school offers intensive English language education for students through the ESL Institute. As well as advancing students' knowledge of English as a second language, one of the goals of the ESL Institute is "to provide students with the cultural knowledge and awareness needed to function satisfactorily, both academically and socially, in the United States."


title: University of New Hampshire

text: Begun in 1994, UNH Connect is a program where first-generation college students and multicultural students are given a jump-start to the experiences of college life with a summer pre-orientation program aimed at social connection and comfortability with college life. Each student is assigned a peer mentor who helps with the transition to their freshman year. The program, with 100 students in 2014, also gives first-generation students an opportunity to meet people in similar situations prior to the beginning of college.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Center for Academic Resources (CFAR) offers a program called TRIO that is partially funded by the US Department of Education. TRIO is intended for students who are first-generation, have a disability, or are in extreme financial need. Through the TRIO program students can receive services to help understand options for future careers as well as advice with financial aspects of college that they would most likely not have home support with. These include academic tutoring, assistance with student loans, scholarship advice, individual counseling, and career planning. In the 2017-18 school year the UNH TRIO program was funded for 200 students.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The University of New Hampshire offers two undergraduate degree programs: the Bachelor of Arts in music and the Bachelor of Music; and two graduate degree programs: the Master of Arts in music (concentrations in composition, conducting, and musicology), and the Master of Arts in teaching.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The Department of Music offers several performing ensembles, some by audition and others with open enrollment. All UNH students are eligible for membership in all of the ensembles. There is one Symphony Orchestra, three concert bands (Wind Symphony, Symphonic Band, and Concert Band), a large Concert Choir, an auditioned choir (Chamber Singers), two jazz bands, Vocal Arts Project, Wildcat Marching Band, Beast of the East Pep Band, and numerous chamber ensembles and jazz combos. Between the various ensembles, Faculty Concert Series, Traditional Jazz Series, student recitals, and guest artists, the Department of Music puts on a great many performances every year that are open to the public. Additionally, many outreach programs and events are offered, including the Summer Youth Music School (SYMS), UNH Youth Symphony Orchestra, New Hampshire Youth Band, Piano Extension Program, Clark Terry UNH Jazz Festival, UNH Choral Gala, Double Reed Day, UNH Band Extravaganza, and more.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The school's athletic teams are the Wildcats, and they compete in the NCAA Division I. New Hampshire is a member of the America East Conference for basketball, cross country, track and field, soccer, swimming & diving and tennis; and women's lacrosse, crew, field hockey, and volleyball. The women's gymnastics program competes in the Eastern Atlantic Gymnastics League at the Division I level. They also compete in Hockey East in men's and women's ice hockey, Eastern Collegiate Ski Association for skiing, as well as the Colonial Athletic Association for football at the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS, formerly known as Division I-AA) level.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The university's colors are white and blue, and its mascots are two wildcats known popularly around campus as Wild E. Cat and Gnarlz. The introduction of a wildcat as a mascot came in 1926; it has had a plethora of different names and even forms throughout the campus' history. In 2000 Wild E. Cat was introduced, followed by Gnarlz in 2008.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In the 2006 academic year the university cut women's crew, men's swimming & diving, and men's and women's tennis at the varsity level, and trimmed the size of the men's ski team from 27 to 12. In 2013, the men's alpine team placed second at the NCAA championships. The reason given was that the athletic department would save $500,000 towards a $1 million budget shortfall and be in compliance with Title IX for the first time. In 1997, the university cut baseball, softball, men's and women's golf, and men's lacrosse.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: In addition to varsity athletics, the university offers many club sports through the Department of Campus Recreation, including aikido, archery, baseball, crew, cycling, dance, fencing, figure skating, golf, men's lacrosse, Nordic skiing, rugby, sailing, softball, tennis, taekwondo, men and women's ultimate Frisbee, wrestling, and the Woodsmen Club. Many of these clubs compete either on an intercollegiate basis with New England teams, or sponsor university tournaments and frequently participate in national championships. UNH also offers horseback riding as a recreation. Many students can take horseback riding lessons with instructors, on their horse or the schools. UNH holds many events each year, for they have a large cross country course. UNH also has a dressage team and a hunt seat team that competes yearly.


title: University of New Hampshire

text: The recognized fight song of UNH is "On to Victory", the most current version of which was arranged by Tom Keck, Director of Athletic Bands from 1998–2003. In 2003, "UNH Cheer" (originally titled "Cheer Boys") was resurrected from the university archives by Erika Svanoe, Director of Athletic Bands from 2003-2006. Based on the school song "Old New Hampshire", not to be confused with the New Hampshire state song of the same name, "UNH Cheer" currently serves as a secondary fight song and is often performed immediately following "On to Victory".


title: University of New Hampshire

text: On October 7, 2006, Wildcats wide receiver David Ball tallied the 51st receiving touchdown of his career to displace Jerry Rice of Mississippi Valley State University, who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame a month earlier, atop the ranking of NCAA Division I and I-AA players by career receiving touchdowns. He later signed as a rookie free agent with the Chicago Bears and played with well-known college football players Chris Leak and Darius Walker.