title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The problem may be solved using simple addition. With 64 squares on a chessboard, if the number of grains doubles on successive squares, then the sum of grains on all 64 squares is: and so forth for the 64 squares. The total number of grains can be shown to be 2−1 or 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (eighteen quintillion, four hundred forty-six quadrillion, seven hundred forty-four trillion, seventy-three billion, seven hundred nine million, five hundred fifty-one thousand, six hundred and fifteen, over 1.4 trillion metric tons), which is over 2,000 times the annual world production of wheat.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: This exercise can be used to demonstrate how quickly exponential sequences grow, as well as to introduce exponents, zero power, capital-sigma notation and geometric series. Updated for modern times using pennies and a hypothetical question such as "Would you rather have a million dollars or a penny on day one, doubled every day until day 30?", the formula has been used to explain compound interest. (Doubling would yield over one billion seventy three million pennies, or over 10 million dollars: 2−1=1,073,741,823).


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The problem appears in different stories about the invention of chess. One of them includes the geometric progression problem. The story is first known to have been recorded in 1256 by Ibn Khallikan. Another version has the inventor of chess (in some tellings Sessa, an ancient Indian Minister) request his ruler give him wheat according to the wheat and chessboard problem. The ruler laughs it off as a meager prize for a brilliant invention, only to have court treasurers report the unexpectedly huge number of wheat grains would outstrip the ruler's resources. Versions differ as to whether the inventor becomes a high-ranking advisor or is executed.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: where formula_10 is the first term of the series, formula_11 is the common ratio and formula_12 is the number of terms.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The exercise of working through this problem may be used to explain and demonstrate exponents and the quick growth of exponential and geometric sequences. It can also be used to illustrate sigma notation.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: + 2 + ... and so forth, up to 2. The base of each exponentiation, "2", expresses the doubling at each square, while the exponents represent the position of each square (0 for the first square, 1 for the second, and so on.).


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: In technology strategy, the "second half of the chessboard" is a phrase, coined by Ray Kurzweil, in reference to the point where an exponentially growing factor begins to have a significant economic impact on an organization's overall business strategy. While the number of grains on the first half of the chessboard is large, the amount on the second half is vastly (2 > 4 billion times) larger.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The number of grains of wheat on the first half of the chessboard is , for a total of 4,294,967,295 (2 − 1) grains, or about 279 tonnes of wheat (assuming 65 mg as the mass of one grain of wheat).


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The number of grains of wheat on the "second" half of the chessboard is , for a total of 2 − 2 grains. This is equal to the square of the number of grains on the first half of the board, plus itself. The first square of the second half alone contains one more grain than the entire first half. On the 64th square of the chessboard alone, there would be 2 = 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 grains, more than two billion times as many as on the first half of the chessboard.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: On the entire chessboard there would be 2 − 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 grains of wheat, weighing about 1,199,000,000,000 metric tons. This is about 1,645 times the global production of wheat (729,000,000 metric tons in 2014 and 780.8 million tonnes in 2019).


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: Carl Sagan titled the second chapter of his final book "The Persian Chessboard" and wrote that when referring to bacteria, "Exponentials can't go on forever, because they will gobble up everything." Similarly, "The Limits to Growth" uses the story to present suggested consequences of exponential growth: "Exponential growth never can go on very long in a finite space with finite resources."


title: Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell

text: Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell is an American live-action television series on Adult Swim, Cartoon Network's late night programming block. The series made its official debut on April 18, 2013, on Adult Swim. The show is a live-action workplace comedy about Gary, an associate demon, as he attempts to capture souls on earth in order to climb the corporate ladder of the underworld. Gary hopes to advance in Hell, but he may be too stupid, lazy and kind-hearted to realize his dreams of promotion.


title: Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell

text: The show was renewed for a fourth season, which began production on June 5, 2017. The fourth season premiered on May 3, 2019.


title: Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell

text: On July 13, 2020, co-creator Dave Willis announced that a one-off extended finale special was in the works, with the possibility of internet-exclusive shorts in the future. The extended finale was eventually scrapped, but the internet-exclusive shorts, known as Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell: The Cartoon (originally announced as "Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell: The Animated Series"), was released on October 21, 2022 on the Adult Swim YouTube channel.


title: Your Pretty Face Is Going to Hell

text: With season three, the character "Claude" was written out of the series as actor Craig Rowin left the series. Dana Snyder, who played Gary's best friend Lucas in seasons 1–2, was made series regular to replace Rowin. However, rather than continuing in the role of Lucas, Snyder was cast in a new role as "Troy", a new demon coworker for Gary.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Robert David "Dave" Grusin (born June 26, 1934) is an American composer, arranger, producer, jazz pianist, and band leader. He has composed many scores for feature films and television, and has won numerous awards for his soundtrack and record work, including an Academy Award and 10 Grammy Awards. In 1978, Grusin founded GRP Records with Larry Rosen, and was an early pioneer of digital recording.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin was born in Littleton, Colorado, to Henri and Rosabelle (née de Poyster) Grusin. His mother was a pianist and his father was a violinist from Riga, Latvia. Grusin has one Jewish parent.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin studied music at the University of Colorado at Boulder and received his degree in 1956. Grusin's teachers included Cecil Effinger and Wayne Scott, pianist, arranger and professor of jazz.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin produced his first single in 1962, "Subways Are for Sleeping", and his first film score, for "Divorce American Style", in 1967. Other scores followed, including "The Graduate" (1967), "Winning" (1969), "The Friends of Eddie Coyle" (1973), "The Midnight Man" (1974), and "Three Days of the Condor" (1975).


title: Dave Grusin

text: In 1978, Grusin founded GRP Records with his business partner, Larry Rosen, and began to produce some of the first commercial digital recordings. Grusin was the composer for "On Golden Pond" (1981), "Tootsie" (1982), and "The Goonies" (1985). In 1988, he won the Oscar for best original score, for "The Milagro Beanfield War". Grusin composed the musical signatures for the 1984 TriStar Pictures logo and the 1993 Columbia Pictures Television logo.


title: Dave Grusin

text: In 1998, Grusin ranked No. 5 and No. 8 on "Billboard"s Top 10 Jazz Artists, at mid-year and at year's end, respectively, based on sales of his album, "Dave Grusin Presents West Side Story."


title: Dave Grusin

text: From 2000-11, Grusin concentrated on composing classical and jazz compositions, touring and recording with collaborators, including jazz singer and lyricist Lorraine Feather and guitarist Lee Ritenour. Their album "Harlequin" won a Grammy Award in 1985. Their classical crossover albums, "Two Worlds" and "Amparo", were nominated for Grammys.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin has a filmography of about 100 titles. His many awards include an Oscar for best original score for "The Milagro Beanfield War", as well as Oscar nominations for "The Champ", "The Fabulous Baker Boys", "The Firm", "Havana", "Heaven Can Wait", and "On Golden Pond". He received a Best Original Song nomination for "It Might Be You" from the film "Tootsie". Six of the fourteen cuts on the soundtrack from "The Graduate" are his. Other film scores Grusin has composed include "Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?", "Three Days of the Condor", "The Goonies", "Tequila Sunrise", "Hope Floats", "Random Hearts", "The Heart Is a Lonely Hunter", "Mulholland Falls" and "The Firm". He composed the original opening fanfare for film studio TriStar Pictures.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin composed theme music for the TV programs "Good Morning World (American TV series)" (1967), "It Takes a Thief" (1968), "The Name of the Game" (1968), "Dan August" (1970), "The Sandy Duncan Show" (1971–72), "Maude" (1972), "Good Times" (1974), "Baretta" (1975), "Alice" (1976), "St. Elsewhere" (1982), and, for Televisa in Mexico, "Tres Generaciones" (1987). He composed music for individual episodes of each of those shows. Grusin's other TV credits include "The Wild Wild West" (1966), "The Girl from U.N.C.L.E." (1966), and "Columbo: Prescription: Murder" (1968). He composed and performed the theme song for "One Life to Live" (1968) during the 1984/1985 seasons. Grusin wrote the music for the "This Is America, Charlie Brown" episode "The Smithsonian and the Presidency", and two of the cues from the episode "History Lesson" and "Breadline Blues" (the latter covered by Kenny G) appear on the tribute album "Happy Anniversary, Charlie Brown".


title: Dave Grusin

text: In 1994, GRP was in charge of MCA's jazz operations. Founders Grusin and Rosen left in 1995 and were replaced by Tommy LiPuma. In 1997, Grusin and Rosen founded N2K Encoded Music, which was renamed N-Coded Music.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Grusin received honorary doctorates from Berklee College of Music in 1988 and University of Colorado, College of Music in 1989. Grusin was initiated into the Beta Chi Chapter of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia at the University of Colorado in 1991.


title: Dave Grusin

text: Dave Grusin has been married to Nan Newton for many years and has three adult children, Scott Grusin, Michael Grusin, and Stuart Grusin. He is also the stepfather of Nan's adult daughter, Annie Vought. Grusin is the subject of a 2018 feature-length documentary entitled “Dave Grusin: Not Enough Time.”


title: Dave Grusin

text: Over a 15-year period from 1979 to 1994, Grusin won one Academy Award, and received a further 7 nominations. In total, he has been nominated for 38 Grammy Awards, and won on 10 occasions.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The Lincoln–Douglas debates were a series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln, the Republican Party candidate for the United States Senate from Illinois, and incumbent Senator Stephen Douglas, the Democratic Party candidate. Until the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which provides that senators shall be elected by the people of their states, was ratified in 1913, senators were elected by their respective state legislatures, so Lincoln and Douglas were trying to win the votes of the Illinois General Assembly for their respective parties.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The debates were designed to generate publicity—some of the first examples of what later would be called media events. For Lincoln, they were an opportunity to raise both his national profile and the burgeoning Republican Party, while Douglas sought to defend his record—especially his leading role in the doctrine of popular sovereignty and its incarnation in the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. The candidates spoke in each of Illinois's nine congressional districts. Both candidates had already spoken in Springfield and Chicago within a day of each other, so they decided that their joint appearances would be held in the remaining seven districts. Each debate lasted about three hours; one candidate spoke for 60 minutes, followed by a 90-minute response and a final 30-minute rejoinder by the first candidate. The candidates alternated speaking first. As the incumbent, Douglas spoke first in four of the debates. They were held outdoors, weather permitting, from about 2 to 5 p.m. There were fields full of listeners.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The debates focused on slavery, specifically whether it would be allowed in the new states to be formed from the territory acquired through the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican Cession. Douglas, as the Democratic candidate, held that the decision should be made by the residents of the new states themselves rather than by the federal government (popular sovereignty). Lincoln argued against the expansion of slavery, yet stressed that he was not advocating its abolition where it already existed.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Never in American history had there been newspaper coverage of such intensity. Both candidates felt they were talking to the whole nation. New technology was readily available: railroads, the telegraph, and Pitman shorthand, at the time called phonography. The state's largest newspapers, from Chicago, sent phonographers (stenographers) to report complete texts of each debate; thanks to the new railroads, the debates were not hard to reach from Chicago. Halfway through each debate, runners were handed the stenographers' notes. They raced for the next train to Chicago, handing them to riding stenographers who during the journey converted the shorthand back into words, producing a transcript ready for the Chicago typesetter and for the telegrapher, who sent it to the rest of the country (east of the Rockies) as soon as it arrived. The next train brought the conclusion. The papers published the speeches in full, sometimes within hours of their delivery. Some newspapers helped their own candidate with minor corrections, reports on the audience's positive reaction, or tendentious headlines ("New and Powerful Argument by Mr. Lincoln—Douglas Tells the Same Old Story"). The newswire of the Associated Press sent messages simultaneously to multiple points, so newspapers all across the country (east of the Rocky Mountains) printed them, and the debates quickly became national events. They were republished as pamphlets.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The debates took place between August and October 1858. Newspapers reported 12,000 in attendance at Ottawa, 16,000 to 18,000 in Galesburg, 15,000 in Freeport,


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: 12,000 in Quincy, and at the last one, in Alton, 5,000 to 10,000. The debates near Illinois's borders (Freeport, Quincy, and Alton) drew large numbers of people from neighboring states. A number travelled within Illinois to follow the debates.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Douglas was re-elected by the Illinois General Assembly, 54–46. But the publicity made Lincoln a national figure and laid the groundwork for his 1860 presidential campaign.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: As part of that endeavor, Lincoln edited the texts of all the debates and had them published in a book. It sold well and helped him receive the Republican Party's nomination for president at the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Douglas had first been elected to the United States Senate in 1846, and he was seeking re-election for a third term in 1858. The issue of slavery was raised several times during his tenure in the Senate, particularly with respect to the Compromise of 1850. As chairman of the committee on U.S. territories, he argued for an approach to slavery called popular sovereignty: electorates in the territories would vote whether to adopt or reject slavery. Decisions previously had been made at the federal level concerning slavery in the territories. Douglas was successful with passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act in 1854. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History's "Mr. Lincoln and Friends Society" notes that prominent Bloomington, Illinois resident Jesse W. Fell, a local real estate developer who founded the "Bloomington Pantagraph" and who befriended Lincoln in 1834, had suggested the debates in 1854.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln had also been elected to Congress in 1846, and he served a two-year term in the House of Representatives. During his time in the House, he disagreed with Douglas and supported the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in any new territory. He returned to politics in the 1850s to oppose the Kansas–Nebraska Act and to help develop the new Republican Party.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Before the debates, Lincoln charged that Douglas was encouraging fears of amalgamation of the races, with enough success to drive thousands of people away from the Republican Party. Douglas replied that Lincoln was an abolitionist for saying that the American Declaration of Independence applied to blacks as well as whites.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln argued in his House Divided Speech that Douglas was part of a conspiracy to nationalize slavery. Lincoln said that ending the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery in Kansas and Nebraska was the first step in this nationalizing and that the Dred Scott decision was another step in the direction of spreading slavery into Northern territories. He expressed the fear that any similar Supreme Court decision would turn Illinois into a slave state.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Much has been written of Lincoln's rhetorical style but, going into the debates, Douglas's reputation was a daunting one. As James G. Blaine later wrote:


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: When Lincoln made the debates into a book, in 1860, he included the following material as preliminaries:


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Slavery was the main theme of the Lincoln–Douglas debates, particularly the issue of slavery's expansion into the territories. Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise's ban on slavery in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska and replaced it with the doctrine of popular sovereignty, which meant that the people of a territory would vote as to whether to allow slavery. During the debates, both Lincoln and Douglas appealed to the "Fathers" (Founding Fathers) to bolster their cases.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln said in the first debate, in Ottawa, that popular sovereignty would nationalize and perpetuate slavery. Douglas replied that both Whigs and Democrats believed in popular sovereignty and that the Compromise of 1850 was an example of this. Lincoln said that the national policy was to limit the spread of slavery, and he mentioned the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 as an example of this policy, which banned slavery from a large part of the Midwest.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The Compromise of 1850 allowed the territories of Utah and New Mexico to decide for or against slavery, but it also allowed the admission of California as a free state, reduced the size of the slave state of Texas by adjusting the boundary, and ended the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in the District of Columbia. In return, the South got a stronger Fugitive Slave Law than the version mentioned in the Constitution. Douglas said that the Compromise of 1850 replaced the Missouri Compromise's ban on slavery in the Louisiana Purchase territory north and west of the state of Missouri, while Lincoln said—a topic he went back to in the Jonesboro debate—that Douglas was mistaken in seeing "Popular Sovereignty" and the "Dred Scott" decision as being in harmony with the Compromise of 1850. To the contrary, "Popular Sovereignty" would nationalize slavery.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: There were partisan remarks, such as Douglas's accusations that members of the "Black Republican" party were abolitionists, including Lincoln, and he cited as proof Lincoln's House Divided Speech, in which he said, "I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free." Douglas also charged Lincoln with opposing the "Dred Scott" decision because "it deprives the negro of the rights and privileges of citizenship." Lincoln responded that "the next Dred Scott decision" could allow slavery to spread into free states. Douglas accused Lincoln of wanting to overthrow state laws that excluded Blacks from states such as Illinois, which were popular with the northern Democrats. Lincoln did not argue for complete social equality, but he did say that Douglas ignored the basic humanity of Blacks and that slaves did have an equal right to liberty, stating "I agree with Judge Douglas he is not my equal in many respects—certainly not in color, perhaps not in moral or intellectual endowment. But in the right to eat the bread, without the leave of anybody else, which his own hand earns, he is my equal and the equal of Judge Douglas, and the equal of every living man."


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln said that he did not know how emancipation should happen. He believed in colonization in Africa by emancipated slaves, but admitted that it was impractical. He said that it would be wrong for emancipated slaves to be treated as "underlings", but that there was a large opposition to social and political equality and that "a universal feeling, whether well or ill-founded, cannot be safely disregarded." He said that Douglas's public indifference would result in the expansion of slavery because it would mold public sentiment to accept it. As Lincoln said, "public sentiment is everything. With public sentiment, nothing can fail; without it, nothing can succeed. Consequently he who molds public sentiment goes deeper than he who enacts statutes or pronounces decisions. He makes statutes and decisions possible or impossible to be executed." He said that Douglas "cares not whether slavery is voted down or voted up," and that he would "blow out the moral lights around us" and eradicate the love of liberty.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: At the debate at Freeport, Lincoln forced Douglas to choose between two options, either of which would damage Douglas's popularity and chances of getting reelected. He asked Douglas to reconcile popular sovereignty with the Supreme Court's "Dred Scott" decision. Douglas responded that the people of a territory could keep slavery out even though the Supreme Court said that the federal government had no authority to exclude slavery, simply by refusing to pass a slave code and other legislation needed to protect slavery. Douglas alienated Southerners with this Freeport Doctrine, which damaged his chances of winning the Presidency in 1860. As a result, Southern politicians used their demand for a slave code to drive a wedge between the Northern and Southern wings of the Democratic Party, splitting the majority political party in 1858.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Douglas failed to gain support in all sections of the country through popular sovereignty. By allowing slavery where the majority wanted it, he lost the support of Republicans led by Lincoln, who thought that Douglas was unprincipled. He lost the support of the South by rejecting the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution and advocating a Freeport Doctrine to stop slavery in Kansas, where the majority were anti-slavery.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: In his address in Jonesboro, Lincoln said that the expansion of slavery would endanger the Union, and mentioned the controversies over slavery in Missouri in 1820, in the territories conquered from Mexico that led to the Compromise of 1850, and again with the Bleeding Kansas controversy. He said that the crisis would be reached and passed when slavery was put "in the course of ultimate extinction."


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Before the debate at Charleston, Democrats held up a banner that read "Negro equality" with a picture of a white man, a negro woman, and a mulatto child.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln began his address by clarifying that his concerns about slavery did not equate to support for racial equality. He stated:


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: In his subsequent response, Stephen Douglas said that Lincoln had an ally in Frederick Douglass in preaching "abolition doctrines." He said that Frederick Douglass told "all the friends of negro equality and negro citizenship to rally as one man around Abraham Lincoln." He also charged Lincoln with a lack of consistency when speaking on the issue of racial equality (in the Charleston debate) and cited Lincoln's previous statements that the declaration that all men are created equal applies to blacks as well as whites.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: In response to Douglas's questioning of Lincoln's support of negro citizenship, if not full equality, Lincoln further clarified in his rejoinder: "I tell him very frankly that I am not in favor of negro citizenship."


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: At Galesburg, using quotes from Lincoln's Chicago address, Douglas sought again to prove that Lincoln was an abolitionist because of his insistence upon the principle that "all men are equal".


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: At Alton, Lincoln tried to reconcile his statements on equality. He said that the authors of the Declaration of Independence "intended to include all men, but they did not mean to declare all men equal in all respects." As Lincoln said, "They meant to set up a standard maxim for the free society which should be familiar to all,—constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even, though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people, of all colors, everywhere." He contrasted his support for the Declaration with opposing statements made by John C. Calhoun and Senator John Pettit of Indiana, who called the Declaration "a self-evident lie". Lincoln said that Chief Justice Roger Taney and Stephen Douglas were opposing Thomas Jefferson's self-evident truth, dehumanizing blacks and preparing the public mind to think of them as only property. Lincoln thought that slavery had to be treated as a wrong and kept from growing.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Lincoln used a number of colorful phrases in the debates. He said that one argument by Douglas made a horse chestnut into a chestnut horse, and he compared an evasion by Douglas to the sepia cloud from a cuttlefish. In Quincy, Lincoln said that Douglas's Freeport Doctrine was do-nothing sovereignty that was "as thin as the homeopathic soup that was made by boiling the shadow of a pigeon that had starved to death."


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Recent improvements in technology were fundamental to the debates' success and popularity. New railroads connected major cities at high speeds—a message that on a horse would have taken a week arrived in hours. A forgotten "soft" technology, Pitman shorthand, allowed writing to keep up with speech, far closer to a recording than had been possible before. Finally, messages could now be sent via the electrical telegraph, anywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. "The combination of shorthand, the telegraph and the railroad changed everything," wrote Allen C. Guelzo, author of "Lincoln and Douglas: The Debates That Defined America". "It was unprecedented. Lincoln and Douglas knew they were speaking to the whole nation. It was like JFK in 1960 coming to grips with the presence of the vast new television audience."


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The October surprise of the election was former Whig John J. Crittenden's endorsement of Douglas. Non-Republican former Whigs comprised the biggest block of swing voters, and Crittenden's endorsement of Douglas rather than Lincoln reduced Lincoln's chances of winning.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: The districts were drawn to favor Douglas's party, and the Democrats won 40 seats in the state House of Representatives while the Republicans won 35. In the State Senate, Republicans held 11 seats and Democrats held 14. Douglas was re-elected by the legislature 54–46, even though Republican candidates for the state legislature together received 24,094 more votes than candidates supporting Douglas. However, the widespread media coverage of the debates greatly raised Lincoln's national profile, making him a viable candidate for nomination as the Republican candidate in the upcoming 1860 presidential election.


title: Lincoln–Douglas debates

text: Ohio Republican committee chairman George Parsons put Lincoln in touch with Ohio's main political publisher, Follett and Foster, of Columbus. It published copies of the text in "Political Debates Between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas in the Celebrated Campaign of 1858, in Illinois." Four printings were made, and the fourth sold 16,000 copies.


title: Michael Burnham

text: Michael Burnham is the fictional protagonist on "" portrayed by American actress Sonequa Martin-Green. She originally appears as the First Officer of USS "Shenzhou" under Philippa Georgiou (Michelle Yeoh) until she commits mutiny, for which she is stripped of rank and sent to prison for life. Burnham is later recruited by Gabriel Lorca (Jason Isaacs) on as a science specialist after serving only six months of her sentence, with Lorca viewing Burnham as an asset in the war against the Klingons. She serves as the series lead. The character is introduced as a xeno-anthropologist helping the Earth-based Starfleet understand and engage with new cultures in outer space.


title: Michael Burnham

text: Bryan Fuller conceived the character based on the cultural impact of Nichelle Nichols' portrayal of Uhura, as well as that of Mae Jemison and Ruby Bridges. She is also revealed as the adoptive sister to Spock (Ethan Peck). Burnham is an orphan after her parents are killed by Klingons, until she is taken in by Sarek (James Frain). Controversy arose among fans from the decision to connect her history to Spock's family, with fans debating whether this is consistent with established continuity. Development of the character was largely praised by critics leading up to the debut for having a black woman lead for the first time in "Star Trek" history and reviews of Martin-Green's performance have been positive.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In December 2016, it was announced that Martin-Green would serve as the series lead of "Star Trek: Discovery", with the character initially named "Rainsford". In previous iterations of "Star Trek", Spock had never mentioned a sister. Executive producer Alex Kurtzman has explained that the specifics of Burnham's backstory would be revealed in a way that would not break the existing canon continuity. Unlike previous "Star Trek" leads, Burnham was not made a starship captain, "to see a character from a different perspective on the starship—one who has different dynamic relationships with a captain, with subordinates, it gave us richer context".


title: Michael Burnham

text: The character was originally to be referred to only by the name Number One, to honor the character of that name portrayed by Majel Barrett in the original "Star Trek" pilot "." With changes in the pre-production storyline, the character is found guilty of mutiny and no longer a First Officer by the end of the pilot episode. Thus, the Michael Burnham name was revealed during the first episode, quickly making "Number One" her informal name, the same as First Officer William Riker's informal name on the series "".


title: Michael Burnham

text: Series creator Bryan Fuller deliberately gave Martin-Green's character a traditionally male name, which he had done with the female leads (George, Jaye and Chuck) in three of his previous series. Martin-Green decided that the character was named after her father. Executive producer Aaron Harberts spoke to "TV Guide" and explained the reason for calling the character a traditionally male name, explaining, "We've worked on many shows with Bryan and it's a motif. It's his signature move to name his lead women with names that would typically be associated as male." He felt the name was "cool and different" and pitched it himself explaining, "[I was] thinking of female columnist Michael Sneed, who writes for the "Chicago Sun-Times", and The Bangles' bassist Michael Steele." He added, "And, of course, an archangel is named Michael as well, and it just had a lot of potency for us." Sonequa Martin-Green expressed enthusiasm about the name, liking the symbolism and anticipating a more gender-fluid and equal opportunity future. Of the name, she said, "I appreciated the statement it makes all on its own to have this woman with this male name, just speaking of the amelioration of how we see men and women in the future."


title: Michael Burnham

text: Bryan Fuller had numerous inspirations for conceiving the character of Michael Burnham. He cited the cultural impact of Nichelle Nichols' portrayal of Uhura saying, "I couldn't stop thinking about how many black people were inspired by seeing Nichelle Nichols on the bridge of a ship [as Lt. Uhura in The Original Series]". Another inspiration came from the legacy of Ruby Bridges, the first black child to attend an all-white elementary school in Louisiana, as well as Mae Jemison, the first woman of color to travel in space.


title: Michael Burnham

text: Martin-Green referred to her character as being "the only human to have not just attended the Vulcan Science Academy but excelled as well, [which] speaks to Burnham's intellect and just sheer level of intelligence". She referred to her character as "highly disciplined, highly principled, and the Vulcan-Human dichotomy that lives within her is emblematic of her personality. It is the two realities living within me at all times."


title: Michael Burnham

text: The casting process was difficult for producers. They searched long and hard to find an actor to pull off Burnham's divided nature between Vulcan and human. Harberts said, "We read a lot of people and they either went way too robotic and chilly or way too emotional. What's beautiful about Sonequa's performance is she's capable of playing two, three, four things at once. She's got such a great command of her craft, she's able to be aloof but warm; logical but able to surrender her emotional side to the audience." Alex Kurtzman felt the character's portrayal needed to have "remarkable duality inside her" between being "highly emotional" while also being "contained". "Unlike Spock, who is half-human, half-Vulcan, she is all human, but she's been trained with the kind of Vulcan emotional-suppression ideology, and that is very challenging for her... you can see that wrestling match going on in every moment. That was the single most important thing to define the character, and I think we just had a sense that [Sonequa] intuitively understood it." He went further to express the challenges in casting an actor for the part saying, "It's a tough thing to learn with actors. You either have the ability to roll that off your tongue, or you don't. And if you don't, everything kind of trips over itself... And when [Sonequa] read, we all breathed a massive sigh of relief, because she brought an instant authenticity to it. It was very clear that the language was not going to be difficult for her."


title: Michael Burnham

text: Sonequa Martin-Green first met with "Discovery" co-creator Bryan Fuller at New York Comic-Con in October 2016. Fuller talked to her about Burnham, a human orphan raised on planet Vulcan alongside Spock (Leonard Nimoy) from the original series, leading to a conflict with her two cultural identities. Knowing that her character Sasha would be killed off "The Walking Dead", she shot a video audition. However, AMC refused to release her from her contract, leading CBS to look elsewhere. Fuller revealed that he had long set his sights on Martin-Green to star in "Discovery", but CBS pushed back because AMC would not release her from her contract until Sasha's death was shown on-screen. CBS' second premiere date delay from May to September was due to the restrictions of Martin-Green's contract, though the first delay opened the door for her to land the role. She auditioned in person in December, and then began shooting in January. On getting the part, she expressed nervousness and excitement saying, "When I first got started, I had my freak-out phase. I had my almost catatonic moment where I thought, 'What is happening?' And I knew very quickly that I couldn't live there and that I couldn't create there. I owed it to the story and I owed it to the legacy to get it together. And I had to focus myself in gratitude. I had to focus myself on the passion for the vision for the story that we're doing."


title: Michael Burnham

text: The casting for Michael Burnham, under the pseudonym "Commander Rainsford" leaked in December 2016, with many speculating Martin-Green's previous role as Sasha on "The Walking Dead" would come to an end. Following the announcement, Nichelle Nichols tweeted "All my love @SonequaMG, I've been smiling since I heard. You're gonna knock em dead." Charlie Jane Anders for "Wired" felt Martin-Green's casting fulfilled Gene Roddenberry's ultimate vision saying, "It's all too easy to see Star Trek's humanism as merely a matter of embracing science and rejecting barbarism—but that's missing what makes Trek's version of humanism so powerful. Diversity was always a key part of Star Trek's vision of a better future for humanity. In the ideal world of the 24th century, every human being has the opportunity to reach his or her full potential, either in the sciences or elsewhere; anything less doesn't represent real progress." Showrunner of "The Walking Dead" admitted it was unfortunate that the casting leak happened, spoiling events to come, but that "The folks over at Star Trek got lucky with the timing".


title: Michael Burnham

text: On the importance and impact of the role, Martin-Green said, "My casting says that the sky is the limit for all of us. I think what we're seeing now in our media is this push to diminish and to devalue and to make people feel that the sky is not the limit for them, that they are meant for the ground. So having me as the first black female lead of a Star Trek just blasts that into a million pieces. I am eternally grateful that the diverse casting of our show means that we are now a part of the conversation and hopefully a part of making the world a better place, as cliché as this sounds. Because I really believe it and think its vital for us all right now". Nichols and Martin-Green both posed together on the red carpet at the "Star Trek: Discovery" premiere. Martin-Green shared on Instagram that Nichols whispered, "Enjoy this time. It's yours now." Sonequa Martin-Green praised Nichols thereafter saying, "What a blessing, what a woman. I stand on your shoulders Nichelle Nichols".


title: Michael Burnham

text: Burnham was born to human parents, who were killed when she was a child during a Klingon raid on a Human-Vulcan research facility on Doctari Alpha, where the family lived. She was then adopted by the Vulcan ambassador Sarek (James Frain) and his human wife Amanda (Mia Kirshner), who are also the biological parents of Starfleet officer Spock, and moved to the Vulcan homeworld. She was the first human to attend both the Vulcan Learning Center and Vulcan Science Academy, training as a xenoanthropologist. After completing the academy she was brought by Sarek, who shared his Katra with Burnham, to the USS "Shenzhou" to rejoin her people.


title: Michael Burnham

text: The decision to make Burnham related to the history of original series character Spock was controversial. Beth Elderkin for "io9" decided that it "breaks canon" and that "It seems unlike Spock to completely ignore someone who seemed to be a major part of his life—especially one who came into his life after such tragedy." In contrast, Laurie Ulster of "TrekMovie.com" felt the decision was "not that big of a deal", clashing with Elderkin's point about Spock, citing the fact that Spock never mentioned his half-brother Sybok until he showed up, or revealed his parents were Sarek and Amanda, as well as the numerous "secret siblings" placed in "Star Trek".


title: Michael Burnham

text: In the series premiere of "Discovery", she has already served under Captain Georgiou on the USS "Shenzhou" for seven years. The series opens with "Shenzhou" encountering the Klingons, with Burnham committing an act of mutiny, breaking Starfleet regulations to give the order to fire first, in an attempt to save her captain and ship against the Klingons. Her plan is unsuccessful and she is detained. In "Battle at the Binary Stars", Burnham escapes the brig and convinces Georgiou to take T'Kuvma hostage. However, T'Kuvma kills Georgiou. In a moment of emotional weakness, Burnham kills T'Kuvma, making him a martyr. She is convicted of mutiny, stripped of rank, and sentenced to life in prison.


title: Michael Burnham

text: This mutiny is the cornerstone of the entire setup for the series; however, it also became one of the first of many complaints about the show's apparent disregard for Star Trek canon and continuity. In the Star Trek episode "The Tholian Web", while investigating the loss of the USS "Defiant", Captain Kirk and crew find that the entire crew of the "Defiant" was dead. The entire crew went wild and killed each other. In that episode Chekhov asks Spock specifically if there has ever been a mutiny on a starship before, to which Spock answers, "absolutely no record of such an occurrence", which is not possible, since some 10 years earlier Spock's own adopted sister became the first and most infamous mutineer in Starfleet history. At the end of Discovery season 2 they tried to rectify some of the canon issues by having Starfleet order Spock and the others never to reveal what happened to the USS Discovery, or even its existence, but the mutiny happened on the USS "Shenzhou", and was well known to Starfleet personnel, as seen in "Battle at the Binary Stars".


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "Context Is for Kings", USS "Discovery"s Captain Gabriel Lorca brings Burnham back to duty with a temporary war-time assignment as a scientist on his crew, praising her risk-taking behaviour as valuable in the war. She is met with hostility among the "Discovery" crew, being viewed as responsible for starting the war with the Klingons. Burnham eventually befriends her roommate, Sylvia Tilly (Mary Wiseman). In "", Lorca orders Burnham and Landry (Rekha Sharma) to find a way to weaponize Ripper, a violent macroscopic Tardigrade found on the USS "Glenn". Burnham hypothesizes that Ripper's behavior on the "Glenn" was defensive in nature and that he was not inherently dangerous, since biological analysis showed him to be herbivorous. But with the Klingons attacking Corvan II, Landry was desperate for results and fired a phaser at him, causing him to maul her to death. She also overcomes her fear of opening the last will of Georgiou through Tilly's coercion. She learns Georgiou left her with a telescope, a prized possession handed down through her family for hundreds of years, noting Burnham as a curious explorer and believing she has her own command at this point. In "", Burnham voices her concerns about the spore drive jumps used on Ripper as Saru is acting captain upon Lorca's abduction by Klingons. Saru is outraged at Burnham for turning the spore-drive offline without his knowledge, and searching for compatible DNA sequences to replace Ripper. Burnham suggests a human host replacement would be possible, but Saru disregards her point, calling her a predator. Later, Burnham asks if he is afraid of her, but he tells her he is jealous because he wanted to learn everything from Georgiou and she did instead, and rather than she become captain and teach him, her actions led him to be unprepared as acting captain for today. Burnham gives Saru the telescope Georgiou gave her, feeling she doesn't deserve it. Saru lets Burnham free Ripper back into space, and Stamets becomes the host replacement needed, injecting himself with tardigrade DNA.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", Sarek is almost killed and Burnham is forced to save him. She discovers he chose his biological son Spock over her, as Sarek was only given the option of sending one child to the Vulcan Expeditionary Group, with the Vulcans considering both children "experiments" (half-human and full human indoctrinated in Vulcan culture). The decision is ultimately pointless as Spock chose Starfleet, after Burnham was forced to go. After retrieving Sarek, Burnham attempts to get Sarek to open up to her about their encounter. Sarek pretends to be unaware, but Burnham can tell he is lying, saying he can do better. She says they will have the conversation one day, and leaves calling him "father" to spite him after he said they were technically not family because they are not related. She also develops a friendship with Ash Tyler (Shazad Latif), who helps her through Sarek attempting to push her away.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", Harry Mudd (Rainn Wilson) takes over "Discovery" and keeps the ship in a time loop so he can complete his mission to sell the ship to the Klingons. Burnham appears uncomfortable as, during this time, a party is occurring and she struggles with her romantic feelings for Tyler. Stamets (Anthony Rapp), the only one aware of the time loop, warns Burnham while also helping her with her feelings for Tyler. Burnham and Tyler dance and kiss, before Mudd kills him. Burnham manipulates Mudd into turning back time again to save him, revealing who she is and how high a prize she is for the Klingons. She kills herself to convince Mudd to do so, although the next time around, Burnham successfully tricks Mudd and he is sent away. Burnham and Tyler are left to imagine their first kiss, which they only know of because Stamets has told them about it happening. In "", Burnham and Tyler go with Saru to the planet Pahvo as part of a plan to overcome the Klingons' cloaking technology, where they kiss again and renew their romance. In "", Burnham convinces Lorca to let her enter the Klingon Sarcophagus ship, where Burnham gets into a fight with Kol (Kenneth Mitchell), ultimately escaping and retrieving Philippa's badge. An attack is made on Kol's ship, blowing it up. Burnham notices Tyler's PTSD attack caused by seeing L'Rell (Mary Chieffo) and later learns that Tyler allowed her to sexually abuse him in order to stay alive.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", the USS "Discovery" transports to the mirror universe. Burnham learns she earned the rank of captain on the ISS "Shenzhou". During her career, she won medals for Valor, for being a Master of Poisons, and for 100 kills. While in command of the ISS "Shenzhou", she was ordered to hunt down Gabriel Lorca, who was attempting a coup against the emperor. Her shuttlecraft was destroyed during this operation and she is presumed dead. Burnham is forced to disguise as her Terran counterpart on the ISS "Shenzhou" in order to retrieve the data files on the "Constitution"-class USS "Defiant", to uncover how it crossed into the mirror universe's past. Burnham and Lorca play the part of their Terran selves. Ensign Connor, who is now Captain Connor, attempts to kill Burnham in an attempt to maintain his new position, but fails. The ISS "Shenzhou" applaud Burnham for her killing as she takes the captain's chair. Later, Burnham appears exhausted keeping up the act, and goes to her quarters where she and Tyler, who joined Burnham as her personal bodyguard, have sex.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", Burnham becomes increasingly agitated with her facade as Mirror Burnham, and questions how long you can keep a facade up until you actually become something you initially weren't. She is alarmed by Mirror Saru, who is a nameless slave in this universe, and decides to name him Saru in honor of her friend. Mirror Saru is shocked by her friendly gesture. Burnham is tasked to destroy a rebel base on the planet Harlak. Instead, she and Tyler opt to form a secret alliance with the Vulcans, Klingons, Andorians and Tellarites who oppose the Terran Empire. Voq appears, the mirror universe counterpart of the Klingon she fought at the Binary Stars, and asks Mirror Sarek, known as The Prophet, to mind meld with Burnham to see if her intentions are pure. Mirror Sarek is taken aback by Burnham's memories, and concludes she is a compassionate person who means them no harm. Burnham becomes curious of Voq's ability to forge alliances with other alien races, in order to find the solution to the Klingon war in her universe. Voq's explanation triggers Tyler who speaks in Klingon and attacks Voq. Burnham convinces Mirror Voq to spare Tyler's life. When Burnham and Tyler return to the ISS "Shenzhou", having faked the attack, she confronts Tyler. Tyler admits he doesn't think he is actually Ash Tyler. It becomes apparent Tyler is actually Voq and speaking with Mirror Voq set off his true nature, having been brought on the USS "Discovery" originally as a sleeper agent all along. Burnham is confused, but then realizes Tyler is the one she fought at the Binary Stars. Tyler, now mentally fully turned into Voq, attempts to kill her. Burnham is unable to defend herself, and Mirror Saru arrives and attacks Tyler, saving her. Burnham fakes Tyler's execution, actually transporting him to the "Discovery" ship together with the files from the USS "Defiant" (NCC-1764) where he is held captive. Later, Burnham is dismayed to learn her falsities at Harlak have been uncovered by the silent emperor, who turns out to be her former captain Philippa Georgiou's mirror version.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", Burnham and Lorca are transported to the ISS "Charon", as the revelation that Georgiou is the emperor weighs down on her, making her feel the situation is a reckoning for her betrayal of her own Georgiou. Lorca refuses to bow to Georgiou, and is taken to an agony booth. Georgiou suspects Burnham of deception, and holding a knife to her neck asks why she has come here, revealing she is aware that she conspired to kill her and take her throne with Lorca. Burnham is left shocked by this revelation of her mirror counterpart's betrayal as well. When she refers to the emperor as "Philippa", she is outraged, as she would normally refer to her as "mother". Later, Burnham reveals prior to her execution that she is from another universe, using Prime Philippa's insignia as proof. Emperor Georgiou agrees to make a deal with Burnham to exchange the spore drive technology in exchange for her freedom to go home. Later, Burnham learns more about her mirror counterpart's history. In this universe, due to Terran supremacy, rather than Sarek and Amanda raising Michael after her parents were killed, Emperor Philippa Georgiou did instead. However, Mirror Burnham's quest to hunt down Lorca appears to be a ruse, as she was conspiring against her own adoptive mother to kill her and take her throne with Lorca, who Mirror Burnham once viewed as a father figure, until she grew up and it became romantic. Georgiou tells Burnham about Lorca planning to "cross time and space itself to take what was rightfully his" and Burnham puts the pieces together, along with Georgiou's sensitivity to light (the single biological difference between the Terrans and humans), that Lorca is from the mirror universe and their crossing over was not an accident.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", Burnham works out a plan to deliver Georgiou to Lorca in the same way she planned. Burnham tells Lorca she will stay in exchange for "Discovery"s safe passage home, but it is a ruse, as Georgiou and Burnham begin attacking and killing Lorca's men. Eventually, Burnham gets the upper hand on Lorca with a phaser, telling him that they would've helped him get home, because that's who Starfleet is, and that is who she is, which is why she won't kill him. Georgiou, however, kills him instead. She then allows Burnham to go back home, with her reign as emperor gone given Lorca's rebellion, deciding to die killing Lorca's men. However, Burnham saves Georgiou at the last minute, holding onto her, as they are transported back to the "Discovery" and into the prime universe.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In "", the "Discovery" jumps nine months ahead in 2257, with the Federation suffering significant losses in the war with the Klingons. Burnham reveals to Admiral Cornwell and Sarek about the arrival of their guest, Emperor Georgiou. Burnham asks Cornwell to give Emperor Georgiou political asylum, feeling sympathy for her, despite not being her Georgiou. Later, Tilly convinces Burnham to confront Ash, who is now fully recovered with dual memories, feeling deep remorse for Voq's actions. Sarek tells her not to regret loving someone, encouraging her further. Burnham ultimately ends their relationship. Ash begs her, saying he can't make it without her, but Burnham explains she was lost after the battle of the binary stars, and having to reclaim life is punishing and solitary.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In the season one finale, "", Emperor Georgiou poses as Prime Georgiou, enlisted by Starfleet to end the war however she sees fit in exchange for her freedom. Burnham, Tilly and Tyler accompany her to Qo'nos. Ultimately, Burnham is forced to stop Georgiou's genocidal attack on the Klingon home planet, outraged at Cornwell and Starfleet for enabling the act. Burnham manipulates Georgiou to give her the explosive device, by telling her if she doesn't, she will have to watch her daughter die again. Georgiou reluctantly agrees and walks off to her freedom. Burnham offers L'Rell a peace treaty, to call off the Klingons' planned invasion on Earth in exchange for the device as a measure of peace and diplomacy in order to end the war. Ash reassures a reluctant L'Rell to take charge. After the incident, Burnham's act of diplomacy in finishing the war ends with her, and many of the "Discovery" crew, decorated by Starfleet with the Medal of Honor for their heroic actions. Burnham is fully reinstated as a Commander in Starfleet, her record is expunged, she is pardoned by the Federation President, and she becomes the Chief Science Officer for the "Discovery". Burnham and Tyler decide to go their separate ways, Tyler planning to find a union between humans and Klingons with L'Rell, and Burnham back aboard "Discovery". On their course to Vulcan to pick up the new "Discovery" captain, they receive a transmission from Captain Christopher Pike of the USS "Enterprise".


title: Michael Burnham

text: Prior to the release of the television series, an original tie-in novel taking place in 2255, one year prior to the pilot, was announced. The novel titled "Star Trek Discovery: Desperate Hours" sees Burnham face the challenge needed in being a first officer upon recent promotion. The synopsis describes Burnham's journey as "To save thousands of innocent lives, Burnham must infiltrate the alien ship. But to do so she needs to face the truth of her troubled past, and seek the aid of a man she has tried to avoid her entire life—until now." She also works with her adoptive brother Spock, who visits the "Shenzhou" along with Captain Pike.


title: Michael Burnham

text: Writing for E! News, Chris Harnick reviewed the first two episodes of "Discovery"—"The Vulcan Hello" and "Battle at the Binary Stars"—and considered Martin-Green's performance the strongest element of the show. He praised her acting as a human raised in a Vulcan world by saying, "[T]he emotional conflict between the two ideologies in Michael Burnham is perhaps the most interesting part of the series, and presents a fascinating window into the world of "Star Trek: Discovery"." Writing for the episode "Context Is for Kings", Mallory Ortberg of "Vulture" referred to Martin-Green as "the standout" who is "given a lot more to work with and is, in turn, captivating, charming (I didn't know I wanted to see her scrabbling through a series of Jefferies tubes reciting "Alice in Wonderland" to herself until it happened), and heartbreakingly winsome."


title: Michael Burnham

text: Chaim Gartenberg for "The Verge" praised the uniqueness of Burnham in comparison to previous "Trek" protagonists saying, "[she] isn't like any protagonist we've seen in "Star Trek" so far, and not only because she doesn't command a starship or space station. She's a far more rounded, human character than any of the previous captains, with some serious trauma from a Klingon attack in her youth that's left her predisposed to hate the warrior race. And while "Star Trek" has plumbed the 'main character has demons' well in the past—most notably with Sisko in "Deep Space Nine", and Picard in the later films, when it comes to the Borg—Burnham feels far more compelling for not being a flawless human being in other respects, as her series-protagonist predecessors were."


title: Michael Burnham

text: "TV Guide" listed Martin-Green in the ranking of "The 25 Best TV Performances of 2017" coming at 14. The article highlighted, "Martin-Green has delivered the sort of performance that lights up every moment she's on screen. This is how stars are born." "CultureFly"s David Bedwell included Burnham in their list of "11 Best TV Characters of 2017" saying, "With their first ever black female lead and a character that's hardly straight-laced, Sonequa Martin-Green gets a lot to sink her teeth into.


title: Michael Burnham

text: "Variety" added Martin-Green among the list of Top Breakout TV Stars of 2017 in the role of Burnham. Joe Otterson said, "Despite a lot of negative news coming out ahead of "Discovery's" premiere (including multiple premiere date delays), Martin-Green deftly took on the challenge of leading the new installment of the iconic sci-fi franchise. Her portrayal of convicted Starfleet mutineer Michael Burnham made the new show truly binge-worthy."


title: Michael Burnham

text: Martin-Green was chosen as "TVLine" performer of the week for the episode "The Wolf Inside", as she "conveyed the resulting shock in gut-wrenching fashion, her eyes welling up with tears as Burnham was forced to point a phaser at the man she thought she loved." They went further saying, "Equally adept at big action scenes and quiet character moments, Martin-Green has been the glue holding Star Trek: Discovery together all season long—and all those weeks of repressed emotion just made this week's splendid showcase all the more impactful. Here's hoping Burnham lives long... and prospers."


title: Michael Burnham

text: In reviewing the full season, Marissa Martinelli of "Slate" felt that Martin-Green saved "Discovery" from "getting lost in a maze of plot twists [...] As a human raised by Vulcans, it would have been easy to make Burnham yet another Spock or Data, her humanity buried under layers and layers of logic. Instead, Martin-Green plays her with a fierce charisma and warmth, making Burnham not only a compass in the wilderness but a light in the darkness, too." Although the reviewer also felt Burnham's arc wrapped up "too neatly".


title: Michael Burnham

text: Some critics had a negative reaction to Burnham's arc. Andy Vandervell for "Wired" expressed disappointment in the conclusion of Burnham's first season arc saying, "I can see what they were trying to do with the finale in completing Michael Burnham's journey from mutineer to saviour of the Federation, both literally and figuratively, but the execution was so clumsy and anti-climactic it just undercut all the emotional weight of her story." Zack Handlen for "The A.V. Club" commented, "I can sort of see how Burnham changed (the trip to the Mirror Universe taught her the consequences of brutal thinking), but the show has done such a terrible job at establishing the character and motivations of Starfleet and the Federation that the sudden decision to commit murder on such a massive, unprecedented scale is at once shocking and utterly weightless."


title: Michael Burnham

text: Liz Shannon Miller for "IndieWire" and James Luxford for "Metro" appreciated the conclusions of Burnham's arc. Miller said, "Burnham's lengthy speech to the council awarding her and her fellow crewmen with well-deserved honors had plenty of standout moments. But there's something interesting about her choice to invoke Voq's official title within the Klingon Empire, which speaks to how both civilizations are now struggling to sort out their place in the world", while Luxford commented, "It's great to see Burnham redeemed." Scott Collura for "IGN" said, "There's a nice symmetry to Burnham and Voq/Tyler's journeys between the pilot episode and this finale, with Michael once again staging a sort of mutiny, only this time doing so for all the right reasons and with the support of her friends too."


title: Michael Burnham

text: In 2017, Screen Rant ranked Michael Burnham the 6th most attractive person in the "Star Trek" universe, in between Worf and Spock.


title: Michael Burnham

text: In 2019, Cinema Blend ranked Michael Burnham the seventh best Star Trek Starfleet character of all time. In 2019, Michael Burnham was ranked the number one sexiest "Star Trek" character by Syfy.


title: Memory leak

text: In computer science, a memory leak is a type of resource leak that occurs when a computer program incorrectly manages memory allocations in a way that memory which is no longer needed is not released. A memory leak may also happen when an object is stored in memory but cannot be accessed by the running code (i.e. unreachable memory). A memory leak has symptoms similar to a number of other problems and generally can only be diagnosed by a programmer with access to the program's source code.


title: Memory leak

text: A related concept is the "space leak", which is when a program consumes excessive memory but does eventually release it.


title: Memory leak

text: Because they can exhaust available system memory as an application runs, memory leaks are often the cause of or a contributing factor to software aging.


title: Memory leak

text: A memory leak reduces the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of available memory. Eventually, in the worst case, too much of the available memory may become allocated and all or part of the system or device stops working correctly, the application fails, or the system slows down vastly due to thrashing.


title: Memory leak

text: Memory leaks may not be serious or even detectable by normal means. In modern operating systems, normal memory used by an application is released when the application terminates. This means that a memory leak in a program that only runs for a short time may not be noticed and is rarely serious.


title: Memory leak

text: The following example, written in pseudocode, is intended to show how a memory leak can come about, and its effects, without needing any programming knowledge. The program in this case is part of some very simple software designed to control an elevator. This part of the program is run whenever anyone inside the elevator presses the button for a floor.


title: Memory leak

text: The memory leak would occur if the floor number requested is the same floor that the elevator is on; the condition for releasing the memory would be skipped. Each time this case occurs, more memory is leaked.


title: Memory leak

text: Cases like this would not usually have any immediate effects. People do not often press the button for the floor they are already on, and in any case, the elevator might have enough spare memory that this could happen hundreds or thousands of times. However, the elevator will eventually run out of memory. This could take months or years, so it might not be discovered despite thorough testing.


title: Memory leak

text: The consequences would be unpleasant; at the very least, the elevator would stop responding to requests to move to another floor (such as when an attempt is made to call the elevator or when someone is inside and presses the floor buttons). If other parts of the program need memory (a part assigned to open and close the door, for example), then no one would be able to enter, and if someone happens to be inside, they will become trapped (assuming the doors cannot be opened manually).


title: Memory leak

text: The memory leak lasts until the system is reset. For example: if the elevator's power were turned off or in a power outage, the program would stop running. When power was turned on again, the program would restart and all the memory would be available again, but the slow process of memory leak would restart together with the program, eventually prejudicing the correct running of the system.


title: Memory leak

text: The leak in the above example can be corrected by bringing the 'release' operation outside of the conditional:


title: Memory leak

text: Memory leaks are a common error in programming, especially when using languages that have no built in automatic garbage collection, such as C and C++. Typically, a memory leak occurs because dynamically allocated memory has become unreachable. The prevalence of memory leak bugs has led to the development of a number of debugging tools to detect unreachable memory. "BoundsChecker", "Deleaker", Memory Validator, "IBM Rational Purify", "Valgrind", "Parasoft Insure++", "Dr. Memory" and "memwatch" are some of the more popular memory debuggers for C and C++ programs. "Conservative" garbage collection capabilities can be added to any programming language that lacks it as a built-in feature, and libraries for doing this are available for C and C++ programs. A conservative collector finds and reclaims most, but not all, unreachable memory.


title: Memory leak

text: Although the memory manager can recover unreachable memory, it cannot free memory that is still reachable and therefore potentially still useful. Modern memory managers therefore provide techniques for programmers to semantically mark memory with varying levels of usefulness, which correspond to varying levels of "reachability". The memory manager does not free an object that is strongly reachable. An object is strongly reachable if it is reachable either directly by a strong reference or indirectly by a chain of strong references. (A "strong reference" is a reference that, unlike a weak reference, prevents an object from being garbage collected.) To prevent this, the developer is responsible for cleaning up references after use, typically by setting the reference to null once it is no longer needed and, if necessary, by deregistering any event listeners that maintain strong references to the object.


title: Memory leak

text: In general, automatic memory management is more robust and convenient for developers, as they don't need to implement freeing routines or worry about the sequence in which cleanup is performed or be concerned about whether or not an object is still referenced. It is easier for a programmer to know when a reference is no longer needed than to know when an object is no longer referenced. However, automatic memory management can impose a performance overhead, and it does not eliminate all of the programming errors that cause memory leaks.


title: Memory leak

text: RAII, short for Resource Acquisition Is Initialization, is an approach to the problem commonly taken in C++, D, and Ada. It involves associating scoped objects with the acquired resources, and automatically releasing the resources once the objects are out of scope. Unlike garbage collection, RAII has the advantage of knowing when objects exist and when they do not. Compare the following C and C++ examples:


title: Memory leak

text: The C version, as implemented in the example, requires explicit deallocation; the array is dynamically allocated (from the heap in most C implementations), and continues to exist until explicitly freed.


title: Memory leak

text: The C++ version requires no explicit deallocation; it will always occur automatically as soon as the object codice_1 goes out of scope, including if an exception is thrown. This avoids some of the overhead of garbage collection schemes. And because object destructors can free resources other than memory, RAII helps to prevent the leaking of input and output resources accessed through a handle, which mark-and-sweep garbage collection does not handle gracefully. These include open files, open windows, user notifications, objects in a graphics drawing library, thread synchronisation primitives such as critical sections, network connections, and connections to the Windows Registry or another database.


title: Memory leak

text: However, using RAII correctly is not always easy and has its own pitfalls. For instance, if one is not careful, it is possible to create dangling pointers (or references) by returning data by reference, only to have that data be deleted when its containing object goes out of scope.


title: Memory leak

text: D uses a combination of RAII and garbage collection, employing automatic destruction when it is clear that an object cannot be accessed outside its original scope, and garbage collection otherwise.


title: Memory leak

text: More modern garbage collection schemes are often based on a notion of reachability – if you don't have a usable reference to the memory in question, it can be collected. Other garbage collection schemes can be based on reference counting, where an object is responsible for keeping track of how many references are pointing to it. If the number goes down to zero, the object is expected to release itself and allow its memory to be reclaimed. The flaw with this model is that it doesn't cope with cyclic references, and this is why nowadays most programmers are prepared to accept the burden of the more costly mark and sweep type of systems.


title: Memory leak

text: In practice, this trivial example would be spotted straight away and fixed. In most real examples, the cycle of references spans more than two objects, and is more difficult to detect.


title: Memory leak

text: A well-known example of this kind of leak came to prominence with the rise of AJAX programming techniques in web browsers in the lapsed listener problem. JavaScript code which associated a DOM element with an event handler, and failed to remove the reference before exiting, would leak memory (AJAX web pages keep a given DOM alive for a lot longer than traditional web pages, so this leak was much more apparent).


title: Memory leak

text: If a program has a memory leak and its memory usage is steadily increasing, there will not usually be an immediate symptom. Every physical system has a finite amount of memory, and if the memory leak is not contained (for example, by restarting the leaking program) it will eventually cause problems.


title: Memory leak

text: Most modern consumer desktop operating systems have both main memory which is physically housed in RAM microchips, and secondary storage such as a hard drive. Memory allocation is dynamic – each process gets as much memory as it requests. Active pages are transferred into main memory for fast access; inactive pages are pushed out to secondary storage to make room, as needed. When a single process starts consuming a large amount of memory, it usually occupies more and more of main memory, pushing other programs out to secondary storage – usually significantly slowing performance of the system. Even if the leaking program is terminated, it may take some time for other programs to swap back into main memory, and for performance to return to normal.


title: Memory leak

text: When all the memory on a system is exhausted (whether there is virtual memory or only main memory, such as on an embedded system) any attempt to allocate more memory will fail. This usually causes the program attempting to allocate the memory to terminate itself, or to generate a segmentation fault. Some programs are designed to recover from this situation (possibly by falling back on pre-reserved memory). The first program to experience the out-of-memory may or may not be the program that has the memory leak.


title: Memory leak

text: Some multi-tasking operating systems have special mechanisms to deal with an out-of-memory condition, such as killing processes at random (which may affect "innocent" processes), or killing the largest process in memory (which presumably is the one causing the problem). Some operating systems have a per-process memory limit, to prevent any one program from hogging all of the memory on the system. The disadvantage to this arrangement is that the operating system sometimes must be re-configured to allow proper operation of programs that legitimately require large amounts of memory, such as those dealing with graphics, video, or scientific calculations.


title: Memory leak

text: If the memory leak is in the kernel, the operating system itself will likely fail. Computers without sophisticated memory management, such as embedded systems, may also completely fail from a persistent memory leak.


title: Memory leak

text: Publicly accessible systems such as web servers or routers are prone to denial-of-service attacks if an attacker discovers a sequence of operations which can trigger a leak. Such a sequence is known as an exploit.


title: Memory leak

text: A "sawtooth" pattern of memory utilization may be an indicator of a memory leak within an application, particularly if the vertical drops coincide with reboots or restarts of that application. Care should be taken though because garbage collection points could also cause such a pattern and would show a healthy usage of the heap.


title: Memory leak

text: Note that constantly increasing memory usage is not necessarily evidence of a memory leak. Some applications will store ever increasing amounts of information in memory (e.g. as a cache). If the cache can grow so large as to cause problems, this may be a programming or design error, but is not a memory leak as the information remains nominally in use. In other cases, programs may require an unreasonably large amount of memory because the programmer has assumed memory is always sufficient for a particular task; for example, a graphics file processor might start by reading the entire contents of an image file and storing it all into memory, something that is not viable where a very large image exceeds available memory.


title: Memory leak

text: To put it another way, a memory leak arises from a particular kind of programming error, and without access to the program code, someone seeing symptoms can only guess that there "might" be a memory leak. It would be better to use terms such as "constantly increasing memory use" where no such inside knowledge exists.


title: Sex offender registry

text: A sex offender registry is a system in various countries designed to allow government authorities to keep track of the activities of sex offenders, including those who have completed their criminal sentences. In some jurisdictions, registration is accompanied by residential address notification requirements. In many jurisdictions, registered sex offenders are subject to additional restrictions, including on housing. Those on parole or probation may be subject to restrictions that do not apply to other parolees or probationers. Sometimes, these include (or have been proposed to include) restrictions on being in the presence of underage persons (under the age of majority), living in proximity to a school or day care center, owning toys or items targeted towards children, or using the Internet. Sex offender registries exist in many English-speaking countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of Ireland. The United States and United Kingdom are the only countries with a registry that is publicly accessible; all other countries in the English-speaking world have sex offender registries only accessible by law enforcement.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In offense-based systems, registration is required when a person is convicted (or, in some jurisdictions, adjudicated delinquent, found not guilty by reason of insanity, or found not criminally responsible) under one of the listed offenses requiring registration. In the US Federal system, persons registered are put into a tier program based on their offense of conviction. Risk based systems have been proposed but not implemented.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In the United States, the vast majority of the states are applying offense-based registries, leaving the actual risk level of the offender and severity of the offense uncertain. The few U.S. states applying risk-based systems are pressured by the U.S. federal government to adopt offense-based systems in accordance with Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act. Studies have shown that actuarial risk assessment instruments consistently outperform the offense-based system mandated by federal law. Consequently, the effectiveness of offense-based registries has been questioned by professionals, and evidence exists suggesting that such registries are counterproductive.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Some aspects of the current sex offender registries in the United States have been widely criticized by civil rights organizations Human Rights Watch and the ACLU, professional organizations Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers and Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, reformist groups Reform Sex Offender Laws, Inc., Women Against Registry and USA FAIR, and by child safety advocate Patty Wetterling, the Chair of National Center for Missing & Exploited Children. Virtually no studies exist finding U.S. registries effective, prompting some researchers to call them pointless, many even calling them counterproductive, arguing that they increase the rate of re-offense.


title: Sex offender registry

text: The Australian National Child Offender Register (ANCOR) is a web-based system used in all jurisdictions. Authorized police use ANCOR to monitor persons convicted of child sex offences and other specified offences once they have served their sentence. Offenders are monitored for eight years, 15 years or the remainder of their life (four years or 7½ years for juvenile offenders). On 1 March 2011, there were 12,596 registered offenders across Australia.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Canada's National Sex Offender Registry (NSOR) came into force on 15 December 2004, with the passing of the Sex Offender Information Registration Act (SOIR Act). The public does not have access to the registry.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Since 2001, the Province of Ontario operates its own sex offender registry concurrently with the federal registry. Unlike the federal registry which has an opt-out provision if an offender can convince a judge they are not a threat, the Ontario registry has no such provision. As a result, individuals who have been convicted of a designated offence at any time after 2001, and relocate to Ontario, are obligated to register for a period of at least 10 years. The registration period begins on the day the ex-offender relocates to Ontario.


title: Sex offender registry

text: India began its sex offender registry in September 2018. The registry is administered by the National Crime Records Bureau.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Since its inception its reported to have over 450,000 people to begin with. It can be accessed only by law enforcement agencies and has names, addresses, photographs, fingerprints, DNA samples, and PAN and Aadhaar numbers of convicted sex offenders.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Under the 2001 Sexual Offenders Act, all those convicted of certain sexual offenses in the Republic of Ireland are obliged to notify the "Garda Síochána" within 7 days their name and address. They must also notify the Garda of any changes to this information or if they intend to stay somewhere other than their registered address for more than 7 days (including if they are traveling abroad). Individuals are subject to these registration requirements for varying durations, based on a sliding scale of the severity of the sentence they received. This scale is as follows:


title: Sex offender registry

text: The New Zealand Government planned to introduce a sex offenders register by the end of 2014. It will be managed by the New Zealand Police and information will be shared between the police, Child, Youth and Family, the Department of Corrections, the Ministry of Social Development, and the Department of Building and Housing—government agencies which deal with child safety. Like the Australian and British registers, the New Zealand sex offenders register will not be accessible to the general public but only to officials with security clearance. It will also include individuals who have been granted name suppression. This proposed register has received support from both the Fifth National Government and the opposition Labour Party. However political lobby group the Sensible Sentencing Trust has criticised the proposed register for its lack of public access.


title: Sex offender registry

text: On 4 August 2014, the New Zealand Cabinet formally approved the establishment of a sex offenders register. According to the Minister of Police and Corrections Anne Tolley, Cabinet has agreed to allocate $35.5 million over the next ten years for the technology component of the register and initial ICT work is underway as of 14 August 2014. The sex offenders' register is expected to be operational by 2016 once enabling legislation is passed and changes are made to the Corrections Act to enable information sharing. On 14 October 2016, the New Zealand Government formally established the Child Sex Offender Register (CSO Register) under the Child Protection (Child Sex Offender Government Agency Registration) Act 2016. The CSO Register is administrated by the police with the support of the Department of Corrections. The general public does not have access to the CSO Register. Only Police and Corrections personnel monitoring convicted child sex offenders have access to the database.


title: Sex offender registry

text: The National Register for Sex Offenders was established in terms of the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act, 2007. It records the details of anyone convicted of a sexual offence against a child or a mentally disabled person. The public does not have access to the registry; it is available to employers of people who work with children or mentally disabled people, to authorities responsible for licensing institutions that care for children or mentally disabled people, and to those responsible for approving foster care and adoptions. People listed on the register are prohibited from working with children or mentally disabled people, from managing institutions that care for children or mentally disabled people, and from being foster parents or adoptive parents.


title: Sex offender registry

text: The Sexual Offences Act Chapter 11:28 Part III provides for Notification Requirements for Sex Offenders. This Sex Offenders Registry is only accessible to the Police Service and other branches of government. There are several gaps in this policy noted by members of the Caribbean Committee against Sex Crimes, most notably that the registry only deals with offenses committed within the Jurisdiction of Trinidad and Tobago. Persons who are registered Sex Offenders from other jurisdictions are not registered when they immigrate or are deported to Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Sex offender registry

text: On 13 September 2019, Trinidad and Tobago passed THE SEXUAL OFFENCES (AMENDMENT) BILL, 2019 which will allow the High Court discretion to sentence sex offenders to be placed on a public registry available on a website.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Section 48 of the amendment provides for public access to an online sex offenders registry, the court under section 49(4)c may make an order providing for a sex offender to be published on the website established in Section 48.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Trinidad and Tobago is now the smallest country in the world to adopt any form of Public Sex Offender Registration law.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In the United Kingdom, the Violent and Sex Offender Register (ViSOR) is a database of records of those required to register with the Police under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, those jailed for more than 12 months for violent offences, and unconvicted people thought to be at risk of offending. The Register can be accessed by the Police, National Probation Service and HM Prison Service personnel. It is managed by the National Policing Improvement Agency of the Home Office.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Sex offender registries in the United States consist of federal and state level systems designed to collect information of convicted sex offenders for law enforcement and public notification purposes. All 50 states and District of Columbia maintain registries that are open to public via sex offender registration websites, although some registered sex offenders are visible to law enforcement only. According to NCMEC, as of 2015 there were 843,260 registered sex offenders in the United States. Registrants have to periodically appear in person to their local law enforcement for purposes of collecting their personal information, such as photograph, fingerprints, name, scars, tattoos, living address, place of employment and vehicle information.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Information pertaining to names, addresses, physical description and vehicles are made public via official websites. In addition, registrants are often subject to restrictions that bar loitering, working or living within exclusion zones that sometimes cover entire cities and have forced registrants into encampments, such as the Julia Tuttle Causeway sex offender colony.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Anthropology professor Roger Lancaster has called the restrictions "tantamount to practices of banishment" that he deems disproportional, noting that registries include not just the "worst of the worst", but also "adults who supplied pornography to teenage minors; young schoolteachers who foolishly fell in love with one of their students; men who urinated in public, or were caught having sex in remote areas of public parks after dark." In many instances, individuals have pleaded guilty to an offense like urinating in public decades ago, not realizing the result would be their placement on a sex offender registry, and all of the restrictions that come with it.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Depending on jurisdiction, offenses requiring registration range in their severity from public urination or children and teenagers experimenting with their peers, to violent predatory sexual offenses. In some states non-sexual offenses such as unlawful imprisonment may require sex offender registration. According to Human Rights Watch, children as young as 9 have been placed on the registry for sexually experimenting with their peers. Juvenile convicts account for as much as 25 percent of the registrants. Federal Adam Walsh Act pressured states to register juveniles by tying federal funding to the degree to which state registries comply with the federal law's classification system for sex offenders.


title: Sex offender registry

text: States apply differing sets of criteria dictating which offenders are made visible to public. Some states scientifically evaluate the future risk of the offender and hide low-risk offenders from public. In other states, offenders are categorized according to the tier level related to statute of conviction. Duration of registration vary usually from 10 years to life depending on the state legislation and tier/risk category. Some states exclude low tier offenders from public registries while in others, all offenders are publicly listed. Some states offer possibility to petition to be removed from the registry under certain circumstances.


title: Sex offender registry

text: A majority of states apply systems based on conviction offenses only, where sex offender registration is mandatory if person pleads or is found guilty of violating any of the listed offenses. Under these systems, the sentencing judge does not sentence the convict into sex offender registry and "cannot" usually use judicial discretion to forgo registration requirement, even if s/he thinks the registration would be unreasonable, taking into account mitigating factors pertaining to individual cases. Instead, registration is a mandatory collateral consequence of criminal conviction. Due to this feature, laws target a wide range of behaviors and tend to treat all offenders the same. Civil right groups, law reform activists, academics, some child safety advocates, politicians and law enforcement officials think that current laws often target the wrong people, swaying attention away from high-risk sex offenders, while severely impacting lives of all registrants, and their families, attempting to re-integrate to society.


title: Sex offender registry

text: The Supreme Court of the United States has upheld sex offender registration laws twice, in two respects. Several challenges to some parts of state level sex offender laws have succeeded, however.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In the United States, sex offender registration has been applied to crimes other than rape, child molestation, and child pornography offenses and is sometimes applied to certain non-sexual offenses.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In Connecticut, those with state convictions for certain misdemeanors have to register, including: Public Indecency, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a-186, provided the court finds the victim was under 18; and Sexual Assault, 4th Degree, in violation of C.G.S. § 53a-73a.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In New York and various other states, crimes that society does not necessarily view as sexual in nature are also considered to be registerable sex offenses, such as kidnapping, "sexual misconduct", unlawful imprisonment, and in some cases "sexually motivated offenses" (such as assault, burglary, etc.) that are not categorized as sexual offenses unless the court determines that the offense was committed pursuant to the offender's own sexual gratification. In New York specifically, kidnapping and unlawful imprisonment are registerable offenses only if the victim is under 17 and the offender is not a parent of the victim.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In Kentucky, all sex offenders who move into the state and are required to register in their previous home states are required to register with Kentucky for life, even if they were not required to register for life in their previous residence.


title: Sex offender registry

text: A few states have also created separate online registries for crimes other than sex offenses. Montana, for example, has a publicly accessible violent offender registry that includes crimes such as aggravated assault, robbery, assaulting a police officer, both deliberate and non-deliberate homicide and a third conviction for domestic violence. Kansas has publicly accessible registries of people convicted of both serious drug offenses and people convicted of crimes involving a weapon. Indiana, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Montana all have publicly accessible registries for those convicted of murder. Florida requires all felons, regardless of the crime, to register with law enforcement for 5 years after release, although the Florida felon registry is not available to the general public. If a felon in Florida is convicted of enough non-sexual felonies in a certain period of time, however, they are required to register for the rest of their life on a "Habitual Offender" registry that is available to the general public. Ohio has a publicly accessible registry for people convicted five or more times of drunken driving.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In 2014, a murder registry was proposed in Rhode Island and an animal abuser registry was proposed in Pennsylvania. A bill to create a publicly accessible registry for domestic violence offenders passed the Texas House of Representatives in 2013, but was not voted on in the Texas Senate.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Currently, only the United States allows, and more often than not requires public disclosure of offender information, regardless of individual risk. Other countries do not make sex offender information public, unless the risk assessment has been conducted and the offender has been determined to pose a high risk of re-offending.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In some localities in the United States, the lists of all sex offenders are made available to the public: for example, through the newspapers, community notification, or the Internet. However, in other localities, the complete lists are not available to the general public but are known to the police. In the United States offenders are often classified in three categories: Level (Tier) I, Level II, and Level III offenders, information is usually accessible related to that level (information being more accessible to the public for higher level offenders). In some US jurisdictions, the level of offender is reflecting the evaluated recidivism risk of the individual offender, while in others, the level is designated merely by the virtue of conviction, without assessing the risk level posed by the offender.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In general, in states applying risk-based registry schemes, low-risk (Tier I) offenders are often excluded from the public disclosure. In some states only the highest risk (Tier III) offenders are subject to public disclosure, while some states also include moderate-risk (Tier II) offenders in public websites.


title: Sex offender registry

text: In SORNA compliant states, only Tier I registrants may be excluded from public disclosure, but since SORNA merely sets the minimum set of rules that states must follow, many SORNA compliant states have adopted stricter system and have opted to disclose information of all tiers. Some states have disclosed some of Tier I offenders, while in some states all Tier I offenders are excluded from public disclosure.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Just like states differ with respect to disclosure of information regarding different Tiers/Levels, they also differ with respect to classifying offenses into tiers. Thus, identical offenses committed in different states could produce very different outcomes in terms of public disclosure and registration period. Offense classified as Tier I offense in one state with no public disclosure, might be classified as Tier II or Tier III offense in another, leading to considerably longer registration period and public disclosure. These disparities in state legislation have caused unexpected problems to some registrants when moving from state to another, finding themselves subject to public disclosure on their destination state's sex offender website, and longer registration periods (sometimes for life), even though they originally were excluded from public registry and required to register for a shorter period. Some states appear to apply "catch-all" statutes for former registrants moving into their jurisdiction, requiring registration and public posting of information, even when the person has completed their original registration period. At least one state (Illinois) reclassifies all registrants moving in the state into the highest possible tier (Sexual Predator), regardless of the original tier of the person, leading to a lifetime registration requirement and being publicly labelled as a "Sexual Predator". As noted previously, Kentucky requires lifetime registration for all currently registered individuals who move into the state.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Determining the tier level and whether or not a person would be subject to public disclosure, when relocating to another state, can be close to impossible without consulting an attorney or officials responsible for managing registration in the destination state, due to constantly changing laws and vagueness in some states legislative language.


title: Sex offender registry

text: While these disparities in level of public disclosure among different states might cause unexpected problems after registration, they have also caused some registrants to move into locations where public disclosure of lower level offenders is not permitted, in order to avoid public persecution and other adverse effects of public disclosure they were experiencing in their original location.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Sex offenders on parole or probation in the United States are generally subject to the same restrictions as other parolees and probationers.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Sex offenders who have completed probation or parole may also be subject to restrictions above and beyond those of most felons. In some jurisdictions, they cannot live within a certain distance of places children or families gather. Such places are usually schools, worship centers, and parks, but could also include public venues (stadiums), airports, apartments, malls, major retail stores, college campuses, and certain neighborhoods (unless for essential business). In some U.S. states, they may also be barred from voting after a sentence has been completed and, at the federal level, barred from owning firearms, like all felons.


title: Sex offender registry

text: Some U.S. states have Civic Confinement laws, which allow very-high-risk sex offenders to be placed in secure facilities, "in many ways like prisons", where they are supposed to be offered treatment and regularly reevaluated for possible release. In practice, most states with Civil Commitment centers rarely release anyone. Texas has not released anyone in the 15 years since the program was started. In 2015, in response to a class action lawsuit, a Federal judge ruled Minnesota's Civil Commitment program to be unconstitutional, both for not providing effective treatment and for not fully releasing anyone since the program was started in 1994.