title: Historicism

text: Hegel's position is perhaps best illuminated when contrasted against the atomistic and reductionist opinion of human societies and social activities self-defining on an "ad hoc" basis through the sum of dozens of interactions. Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a social contract. Hegel considers the relationship between individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: even their social discourse is mediated by language, and language is based on etymology and unique character. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten metaphors. To understand why a person is the way he is, you must examine that person in his society: and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that influenced it. The "Zeitgeist", the "Spirit of the Age," is the concrete embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time. This contrasts with teleological theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the determining factor of activity, as well as those who believe in a tabula rasa, or blank slate, opinion, such that individuals are defined by their interactions.


title: Historicism

text: These ideas can be interpreted variously. The Right Hegelians, working from Hegel's opinions about the organicism and historically determined nature of human societies, interpreted Hegel's historicism as a justification of the unique destiny of national groups and the importance of stability and institutions. Hegel's conception of human societies as entities greater than the individuals who constitute them influenced nineteenth-century romantic nationalism and its twentieth-century excesses. The Young Hegelians, by contrast, interpreted Hegel's thoughts on societies influenced by social conflict for a doctrine of social progress, and attempted to manipulate these forces to cause various results. Karl Marx's doctrine of "historical inevitabilities" and historical materialism is one of the more influential reactions to this part of Hegel's thought. Significantly, Karl Marx's theory of alienation argues that capitalism disrupts traditional relationships between workers and their work.


title: Historicism

text: Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means by which human societies progress, specifically the dialectic and his conception of logic as representing the inner essential nature of reality. Hegel attributes the change to the "modern" need to interact with the world, whereas ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks. In his History of Philosophy Hegel writes:


title: Historicism

text: In modern times things are very different; now we no longer see philosophic individuals who constitute a class by themselves. With the present day all difference has disappeared; philosophers are not monks, for we find them generally in connection with the world, participating with others in some common work or calling. They live, not independently, but in the relation of citizens, or they occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state. Certainly they may be private persons, but if so, their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship. They are involved in present conditions, in the world and its work and progress. Thus their philosophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury and superfluity. This difference is really to be found in the manner in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion. In modern times, namely, on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself, the external world is at rest, is brought into order — worldly relationships, conditions, modes of life, have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational. We see a universal, comprehensible connection, and with that individuality likewise attains another character and nature, for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients. This connection is of such power that every individuality is under its dominion, and yet at the same time can construct for itself an inward world.


title: Historicism

text: This opinion that entanglement in society creates an indissoluble bond with expression, would become an influential question in philosophy, namely, the requirements for individuality. It would be considered by Nietzsche, John Dewey and Michel Foucault directly, as well as in the work of numerous artists and authors. There have been various responses to Hegel's challenge. The Romantic period emphasized the ability of individual genius to transcend time and place, and use the materials from their heritage to fashion works which were beyond determination. The modern would advance versions of John Locke's infinite malleability of the human animal. Post-structuralism would argue that since history is not present, but only the image of history, that while an individual era or power structure might emphasize a particular history, that the contradictions within the story would hinder the very purposes that the history was constructed to advance.


title: Historicism

text: In the context of anthropology and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. Historical Particularism is associated with the work of Franz Boas. His theory used the diffusionist concept that there were a few "cradles of civilization" which grew outwards, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances. The school of historicism grew in response to unilinear theories that social development represented adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a continuum. While these theories were espoused by Charles Darwin and many of his students, their application as applied in social Darwinism and general evolution characterized in the theories of Herbert Spencer and Leslie White, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution, as Darwin never attempted nor offered an explanation for cultural evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead emphasizing how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment. Julian Steward refuted the viability of globally and universally applicable adaptive standards proposing that culture was honed adaptively in response to the idiosyncrasies of the local environment, the cultural ecology, by specific evolution. What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another. This conclusion has likewise been adopted by modern forms of biological evolutionary theory.


title: Historicism

text: The primary method of historicism was empirical, namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a society or event, that only by emphasizing the data available could a theory of the source be determined. In this opinion, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive field work would determine the most likely explanation and history of a culture, and hence it is named "historicism."


title: Historicism

text: This opinion would produce a wide range of definition of what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the historical particulars of the culture itself.


title: Historicism

text: Since the 1950s, when Jacques Lacan and Michel Foucault argued that each epoch has its own knowledge system, within which individuals are inexorably entangled, many post-structuralists have used "historicism" to describe the opinion that all questions must be settled within the cultural and social context in which they are raised. Answers cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase the question. This version of historicism holds that there are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist in the present, and the conventions used to decode them. This school of thought is sometimes given the name of "New Historicism". The same term, "new historicism" is also used for a school of literary scholarship which interprets a poem, drama, etc. as an expression of or reaction to the power-structures of its society. Stephen Greenblatt is an example of this school.


title: Historicism

text: Within the context of 20th-century philosophy, debates continue as to whether ahistorical and immanent methods were sufficient to understand the meaning (that is to say, "what you see is what you get" positivism) or whether context, background and culture are important beyond the mere need to decode words, phrases and references. While post-structural historicism is relativist in its orientation—that is, it sees each culture as its own frame of reference—a large number of thinkers have embraced the need for historical context, not because culture is self-referential, but because there is no more compressed means of conveying all of the relevant information except through history. This opinion is often seen as deriving from the work of Benedetto Croce. Recent historians using this tradition include Thomas Kuhn.


title: Historicism

text: Talcott Parsons criticized historicism as a case of idealistic fallacy in "The Structure of Social Action" (1937). Post-structuralism uses the term "new historicism", which has some associations with both anthropology and Hegelianism.


title: Historicism

text: In Christianity, the term "historicism" refers to the confessional Protestant form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfillment of biblical prophecy has occurred throughout history and continues to occur; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future.


title: Historicism

text: There is also a particular opinion in ecclesiastical history and in the history of dogmas which has been described as historicist by Pope Pius XII in the encyclical "Humani generis". "They add that the history of dogmas consists in the reporting of the various forms in which revealed truth has been clothed, forms that have succeeded one another in accordance with the different teachings and opinions that have arisen over the course of the centuries."


title: Historicism

text: The social theory of Karl Marx, with respect to modern scholarship, has an ambiguous relation to historicism. Critics of Marx have understood his theory as historicist since its very genesis. However, the issue of historicism has been debated even among Marxists: the charge of historicism has been made against various types of Marxism, typically disparaged by Marxists as "vulgar" Marxism.


title: Historicism

text: Western Marxists such as Karl Korsch, Antonio Gramsci and the early Georg Lukacs emphasise the roots of Marx's thought in Hegel. They interpret Marxism as an historically relativist philosophy, which views ideas (including Marxist theory) as necessary products of the historical epochs that create them. In this view, Marxism is not an objective social science, but rather a theoretical expression of the class consciousness of the working class within an historical process. This understanding of Marxism is strongly criticised by the structural Marxist Louis Althusser, who affirms that Marxism is an objective science, autonomous from interests of society and class.


title: Historicism

text: Karl Popper used the term "historicism" in his influential books "The Poverty of Historicism" and "The Open Society and Its Enemies", to mean: "an approach to the social sciences which assumes that "historical prediction" is their primary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable by discovering the 'rhythms' or the 'patterns', the 'laws' or the 'trends' that underlie the evolution of history". Popper condemned historicism along with the determinism and holism which he argued formed its basis. In his "The Poverty of Historicism", he identified historicism with the opinion that there are "inexorable laws of historical destiny", which opinion he warned against. If this seems to contrast with what proponents of historicism argue for, in terms of contextually relative interpretation, this happens, according to Popper, only because such proponents are unaware of the type of causality they ascribe to history. Popper wrote with reference to Hegel's theory of history, which he criticized extensively.


title: Historicism

text: In "The Open Society and Its Enemies", Popper attacks "historicism" and its proponents, among whom (as well as Hegel) he identifies and singles out Plato and Marx—calling them all "enemies of the open society". The objection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming that there is an inevitable and deterministic pattern to history, abrogate the democratic responsibility of each one of us to make our own free contributions to the evolution of society, and hence lead to totalitarianism.


title: Historicism

text: Another of his targets is what he terms "moral historicism", the attempt to infer moral values from the course of history; in Hegel's words, that "history is the world's court of justice". This may take the form of conservatism (former might is right), positivism (might is right) or futurism (presumed coming might is right). As against these, Popper says that he does not believe "that success proves anything or that history is our judge". Futurism must be distinguished from prophecies that the right will prevail: these attempt to infer history from ethics, rather than ethics from history, and are therefore historicism in the normal sense rather than moral historicism.


title: Historicism

text: He also attacks what he calls "Historism", which he regards as distinct from historicism. By historism, he means the tendency to regard every argument or idea as completely accounted for by its historical context, as opposed to assessing it by its merits. In Popperian terms, the "New Historicism" is an example of historism rather than of historicism proper.


title: Historicism

text: Leo Strauss used the term "historicism" and reportedly termed it the single greatest threat to intellectual freedom insofar as it denies any attempt to address injustice-pure-and-simple (such is the significance of historicism's rejection of "natural right" or "right by nature"). Strauss argued that historicism "rejects political philosophy" (insofar as this stands or falls by questions of permanent, trans-historical significance) and is based on the belief that "all human thought, including scientific thought, rests on premises which cannot be validated by human reason and which came from historical epoch to historical epoch." Strauss further identified R. G. Collingwood as the most coherent advocate of historicism in the English language. Countering Collingwood's arguments, Strauss warned against historicist social scientists' failure to address real-life problems—most notably that of tyranny—to the extent that they relativize (or "subjectivize") all ethical problems by placing their significance strictly in function of particular or ever-changing socio-material conditions devoid of inherent or "objective" "value." Similarly, Strauss criticized Eric Voegelin's abandonment of ancient political thought as guide or vehicle in interpreting modern political problems.


title: Historicism

text: In his books, "Natural Right and History" and "On Tyranny", Strauss offers a complete critique of historicism as it emerges in the works of Hegel, Marx, and Heidegger. Many believe that Strauss also found historicism in Edmund Burke, Tocqueville, Augustine, and John Stuart Mill. Although it is largely disputed whether Strauss himself was a historicist, he often indicated that historicism grew out of and against Christianity and was a threat to civic participation, belief in human agency, religious pluralism, and, most controversially, an accurate understanding of the classical philosophers and religious prophets themselves. Throughout his work, he warns that historicism, and the understanding of progress that results from it, expose us to tyranny, totalitarianism, and democratic extremism. In his exchange with Alexandre Kojève in "On Tyranny", Strauss seems to blame historicism for Nazism and Communism. In a collection of his works by Kenneth Hart entitled "Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity", he argues that Islam, traditional Judaism, and ancient Greece, share a concern for sacred law that makes them especially susceptible to historicism, and therefore to tyranny. Strauss makes use of Nietzsche's own critique of progress and historicism, although Strauss refers to Nietzsche himself (no less than to Heidegger) as a "radical historicist" who articulated a philosophical (if only untenable) justification for historicism.


title: Zip drive

text: The Zip drive is a removable floppy disk storage system that was introduced by Iomega in late 1994. Considered medium-to-high-capacity at the time of its release, Zip disks were originally launched with capacities of 100 MB, then 250 MB, and finally 750 MB.


title: Zip drive

text: The format became the most popular of the superfloppy products which filled a niche in the late 1990s portable storage market. However, it was never popular enough to replace the -inch floppy disk. Zip drives fell out of favor for mass portable storage during the early 2000s as CD-RW and USB flash drives became prevalent. The Zip brand later covered internal and external CD writers known as Zip-650 or Zip-CD, despite the dissimilar technology.


title: Zip drive

text: The Zip drive is a "superfloppy" disk drive that has all of the -inch floppy drive's convenience, but with much greater capacity options and with performance that is much improved over a standard floppy drive. However, Zip disk housings are much thicker than those of floppy disks.


title: Zip drive

text: In the Zip drive, the heads fly in a manner similar to a hard disk drive. A linear actuator uses the voice coil actuation technology related to modern hard disk drives. The Zip disk uses smaller media (about the size of a 9 cm (-inch) microfloppy, but more ruggedised, rather than the Compact Disc-sized Bernoulli media), and a simplified drive design that reduced its overall cost.


title: Zip drive

text: The original Zip drive has a maximum data transfer rate of about 1.4 MB/s (comparable to 8× CD-R; although some connection methods are slower, down to approximately 50 kB/s for maximum-compatibility parallel "nibble" mode) and a seek time of 28 ms on average, compared to a standard 1.44 MB floppy's effective ≈16 kB/s and ≈200 ms average seek time. Typical desktop hard disk drives from mid-to-late 1990s revolve at 5,400 rpm and have transfer rates from 3 MB/s to 10 MB/s or more, and average seek times from 20 ms to 14 ms or less.


title: Zip drive

text: Early-generation Zip drives were in direct competition with the SuperDisk or LS-120 drives, which hold 20% more data and can also read standard -inch 1.44 MB diskettes, but they have a lower data-transfer rate due to lower rotational speed.


title: Zip drive

text: The Zip drive was Iomega's third generation of products, different from Iomega's earlier Bernoulli Boxes in many ways, including the absence of the Bernoulli plate of the earlier products.


title: Zip drive

text: Parallel port external Zip drives are actually SCSI drives with an integrated Parallel-to-SCSI controller, meaning a true SCSI bus implementation but without the electrical buffering circuits necessary for connecting other external devices. Early Zip 100 drives use an AIC 7110 SCSI controller and later parallel drives (Zip Plus and Zip 250) used what was known as Iomega MatchMaker. The drives are identified by the operating system as "IMG VP0" and "IMG VP1" respectively.


title: Zip drive

text: Early external SCSI-based Zip drives were packaged with an included SCSI adapter known as Zip Zoom. The Zip Zoom is a relabeled ISA Adaptec SCSI host controller. Also, originally sold separately was a PCMCIA-to-SCSI adapter for laptop compatibility, also a relabeled Adaptec.


title: Zip drive

text: Zip disks must be used in a drive with at least the same capacity ability. Higher-capacity drives can read lower-capacity media. The 250 MB drive writes much more slowly to 100 MB disks than the 100 MB drive, and the Iomega software is unable to perform a "long" (thorough) format on a 100 MB disk (They can be formatted in any version of Windows as normal; the advantage of the Iomega software is that the long format can format the 100 MB disks with a slightly higher capacity. 250 MB disks format to the same size either way). The 750 MB drive has read-only support for 100 MB disks.


title: Zip drive

text: The retroreflective spot differs between the 100 MB disk and the 250 MB such that if the larger disk is inserted in a smaller-capacity drive, the disk is immediately ejected again without any attempt being made to access the disk. The 750 MB disk has no reflective spot.


title: Zip drive

text: Zip drives initially sold well after their introduction in 1994, owing to their low price and high (for the time) capacity. The drive was initially sold for just under US$200 with one cartridge included, and additional 100 MB cartridges for US$20. At this time hard disks typically had a capacity of 500 MB and cost around US$200 , and so backing up with Zip disks was very economical for home users—some computer suppliers such as Dell, Gateway and Apple Inc. included internal Zip drives in their machines. Zip drives also made significant inroads in the graphic arts market, as a cheaper alternative to the Syquest cartridge hard disk system. The price of additional cartridges swiftly dropped further over the next few years, as more companies began supplying them. Eventually, the suppliers included Fujifilm, Verbatim, Toshiba and Maxell, Epson and NEC. NEC also produced a licensed 100 MB drive model with its brand name.


title: Zip drive

text: Sales of Zip drives and disks declined steadily from 1999 to 2003. Zip disks had a relatively high cost per megabyte compared to the falling costs of then-new CD-R and CD-RW discs.


title: Zip drive

text: The growth of hard disk drives to multi-gigabyte capacity made backing up with Zip disks less economical. Furthermore, the advent of inexpensive recordable CD and DVD drives for computers, followed by USB flash drives, pushed the Zip drive out of the mainstream market. Nevertheless, during their prime, Zip disks greatly eased the exchange of files that were too big to fit into a standard -inch floppy or an email attachment, and there was no high-speed connection to transfer the file to the recipient. However, the advantages of magnetic media over optical media and flash memory, in terms of long-term file storage stability and high erase/rewrite cycles, still affords them a niche in the data-storage arena.


title: Zip drive

text: In September 1998, a class action suit was filed against Iomega over a type of Zip drive failure dubbed the "Click of Death", accusing Iomega of violation of the Delaware Consumer Fraud Act.


title: Zip drive

text: In 2006, "PC World" rated the Zip drive as the 15th worst technology product of all time. Nonetheless, in 2007, "PC World" rated the Zip drive as the 23rd "best" technology product of all time despite its known problems.


title: Zip drive

text: Zip drives are still used today by retro-computing enthusiasts as a means to transfer large amounts (compared to the retro hardware) of data between modern and older computer systems. The Commodore-Amiga, Atari ST, Apple II, and "old world" Macintosh communities often use drives with the SCSI interface prevalent on those platforms. They have also found a small niche in the music production community, as SCSI-compatible Zip drives can be used with vintage samplers and keyboards of the 1990s.


title: Zip drive

text: Zip disks were still in use in aviation as of 2012. Jeppesen distributed navigation database updates, and Universal Avionics supplies TAWS, UniLink and Performance databases for upload into flight management systems via 100 and 250 MB Zip disks.


title: Zip drive

text: Iomega also produced a line of internal and external recordable CD drives under the Zip brand in the late 1990s, called the ZipCD 650. It used regular CD-R media and had no format relation to the magnetic Zip drive. The external models were installed in a Zip-drive-style case, and used standard USB 1.1 connections.


title: Zip drive

text: Iomega used the DirectCD software from Adaptec to allow UDF drive-letter access to CD-R or CD-RW media.


title: Zip drive

text: Early models of ZipCD drives were relabeled Philips drives, which were also so unreliable that a class action lawsuit succeeded. Later models were sourced from Plextor.


title: Zip drive

text: The ZipCD 650 is able to record onto 700 MB CDs but can only burn data up to 650 MB. There is third-party firmware that forces the ZipCD 650 to be able to write data CDs up to 700 MB but makes the drive unstable.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: A cooper is a person trained to make wooden casks, barrels, vats, buckets, tubs, troughs and other similar containers from timber staves that were usually heated or steamed to make them pliable.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Journeymen coopers also traditionally made wooden implements, such as rakes and wooden-bladed shovels. In addition to wood, other materials, such as iron, were used in the manufacturing process. The trade is the origin of the surname Cooper.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: The word "cooper" is derived from Middle Dutch or Middle Low German "kūper" 'cooper' from "kūpe" 'cask', in turn from Latin "cupa" 'tun, barrel'. Everything a cooper produces is referred to collectively as "cooperage." A cask is any piece of cooperage containing a bouge, bilge, or bulge in the middle of the container. A barrel is a type of cask, so the terms "barrel-maker" and "barrel-making" refer to just one aspect of a cooper's work. The facility in which casks are made is also referred to as a cooperage.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: In much the same way as the trade or vocation of smithing produced the common English surname Smith and the German name Schmidt (see occupational surname), the cooper trade is also the origin of the English name Cooper.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: It is also the origin of the French Tonnelier and Tonnellier; Greek Varelas (); Danish Bødker; German Binder, Fassbender or Fassbinder (, literally 'cask-binder'), Böttcher ('tub-maker'), Scheffler, and Kübler; Dutch Kuiper and Cuypers; Lithuanian Kubilius; Latvian Mucenieks; Armenian Տակառագործյան; Hungarian Kádár, Bognár and Bodnár; Polish Bednarz, Bednarski, and Bednarczyk; Czech Bednář; Romanian Dogaru and Butnaru; Ukrainian Bondar, Bodnaruk, and Bodnarchuk, and Bondarenko (); Russian and Ukrainian Bondarev () and Bocharov (); Yiddish Bodner; Portuguese Tanoeiro and Toneleiro; Spanish Cubero, Tonelero, and (via Greek) Varela; Bulgarian Bachvarov (); Macedonian Bacvarovski (); Croatian Bačvar; Slovene Pintar (from German ) and Italian Bottai (from ).


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Traditionally, a cooper is someone who makes wooden, staved vessels, held together with wooden or metal hoops and possessing flat ends or heads. Examples of a cooper's work include casks, barrels, buckets, tubs, butter churns, vats, hogsheads, firkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, troughs, pins and breakers. Traditionally, a "hooper" was the man who fitted the wooden or metal hoops around the barrels or buckets that the cooper had made, essentially an assistant to the cooper. The English name Hooper is derived from that profession. With time, many coopers took on the role of the hooper themselves.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: An Egyptian wall-painting in the tomb of Hesy-Ra, dating to 2600 BC, shows a wooden tub made of staves, bound together with wooden hoops, and used to measure. Another Egyptian tomb painting dating to 1900 BC shows a cooper and tubs made of staves in use at the grape harvest. Palm-wood casks were reported in use in ancient Babylon. In Europe, buckets and casks dating to 200 BC have been found preserved in the mud of lake villages. A lake village near Glastonbury dating to the late Iron Age has yielded one complete tub and a number of wooden staves.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: The Roman historian Pliny the Elder reports that cooperage in Europe originated with the Gauls in Alpine villages where they stored their beverages in wooden casks bound with hoops. Pliny identified three types of coopers: ordinary coopers, wine coopers and coopers who made large casks. Large casks contained more and longer staves and were correspondingly more difficult to assemble. Roman coopers tended to be independent tradesmen, passing their skills on to their sons. The Greek geographer Strabo records wooden "pithoi" (casks) were lined with pitch to stop leakage and preserve the wine. Barrels were sometimes used for military purposes. Julius Caesar used catapults to hurl barrels of burning tar into towns under siege to start fires. Empty barrels were sometimes used to make pontoon bridges to cross rivers.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Empty casks were used to line the walls of shallow wells from at least Roman times. Such casks were found in 1897 during archaeological excavation of Roman Silchester in Britain. They were made of Pyrenean silver fir and the staves were one and a half inches thick and featured grooves where the heads fitted. They had Roman numerals scratched on the surface of each stave to help with reassembly.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: In Anglo-Saxon Britain wooden barrels were used to store ale, butter, honey and mead. Drinking vessels were also made from small staves of oak, yew or pine. These items required considerable craftsmanship to hold liquids and might be bound with finely worked precious metals. They were highly valued items and were sometimes buried with the dead as grave goods. Churns, buckets and tubs made from staves have been excavated from peat bogs and lake villages in Europe. A large keg and a bucket were found in the Viking Gokstad ship excavated near Oslo Fiord in 1880.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: There were four divisions in the cooper's craft. The "dry" or "slack" cooper made containers that would be used to ship dry goods such as cereals, nails, tobacco, fruits, and vegetables. The "dry-tight" cooper made casks designed to keep dry goods in and moisture out. Gunpowder and flour casks are examples of a dry-tight cooper's work. The "white" cooper made straight-staved containers like washtubs, buckets, and butter churns, which would hold water and other liquids but did not allow shipping of the liquids. Usually there was no bending of wood involved in white cooperage. The "wet" or "tight" cooper made casks for long-term storage and transportation of liquids that could even be under pressure, as with beer. The "general" cooper worked on ships, on the docks, in breweries, wineries and distilleries, and in warehouses, and was responsible for cargo while in storage or transit.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Ships, in the age of sail, provided much work for coopers. They made water and provision casks, the contents of which sustained crew and passengers on long voyages. They also made barrels to contain high-value commodities, such as wine and sugar. The proper stowage of casks on ships about to sail was an important stevedoring skill. Casks of various sizes were used to accommodate the sloping walls of the hull and make maximum use of limited space. Casks also had to be tightly packed, to ensure they did not move during the voyage and endanger the ship, crew and cask contents. Whaling ships in particular, featuring long voyages and large crews, needed many casks – for salted meat, other provisions and water – and to store the whale oil. Sperm whale oil was a particularly difficult substance to contain, due to its highly viscous nature, and oil coopers were perhaps the most skilled tradesmen in pre-industrial cooperage. Whaling ships usually carried a cooper on board, to assemble shooks (disassembled barrels) and maintain casks.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Coopers in Britain started to organise as early as 1298. The Worshipful Company of Coopers is one of the oldest Livery Companies in London. It still survives today although it is now largely a charitable organisation.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Many coopers worked for breweries. They made the large wooden vats in which beer was brewed. They also made the wooden kegs in which the beer was shipped to liquor retailers. Beer kegs had to be particularly strong in order to contain the pressure of the fermenting liquid, and the rough handling they received when transported, sometime over long distances, to pubs where they were rolled into tap-rooms or were lowered into cellars.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Prior to the mid-20th century, the cooper's trade flourished in the United States; a dedicated trade journal was published, the "National Cooper's Journal", with advertisements from firms that supplied everything from barrel staves to purpose-built machinery.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: Plastics, stainless steel, pallets, and corrugated cardboard replaced most wooden containers during the last half of the 20th century, and largely made the cooperage trade obsolete.


title: Cooper (profession)

text: In the 21st century, coopers mostly operate barrel-making machinery and assemble casks for the wine and spirits industry. Traditionally, the staves were heated to make them easier to bend. This is still done, but now because the slightly toasted interior of the staves imparts a certain flavour over time to the wine or spirit contents that is much admired by experts. In England, the trade of master cooper is dwindling; but in Scotland there are several active cooperages that provide barrels to the whisky industry. It is thought that the last remaining master cooper in England works for Theakston Brewery in Masham.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The Walt Disney Company has produced an anthology television series since 1954 under several titles and formats. The program's current title, The Wonderful World of Disney, was used from 1969 to 1979 and again from 1991 to the present. The program moved among the Big Three television networks in its first four decades, but has aired on ABC since 1997 and Disney+ since 2020.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The original version of the series premiered on ABC in 1954. The show was broadcast weekly on one of the Big Three television networks until 1990, a 36-year span with only a two-year hiatus in 1984–85. The series was broadcast on Sunday for 25 of those years. From 1991 until 1997, the series aired infrequently.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The program resumed a regular schedule in 1997 on the ABC fall schedule, coinciding with Disney's purchase of the network in 1996. From 1997 to 2008, the program aired regularly on ABC. Since then, ABC has continued the series as an occasional special presentation from 2008 onward, the most recent being a holiday music special in 2019. In 2020, the series returned with movies from the Disney+ library.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The show has had only two hosts, founder and former president, Walt Disney, and former chairman and C.E.O., Michael Eisner.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The show is the second longest-running prime-time program on U.S. television, behind "Hallmark Hall of Fame".


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The anthology series was an outgrowth of Walt Disney looking for funding for Disneyland with his brother Roy Disney approaching all the big-three networks with American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres taking the deal for programming for ABC.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Although Walt Disney was the first major film producer to venture into television, two established independent film producers successfully ventured into television production before Disney, Hal Roach and Jerry Fairbanks. Disney wanted to produce a television program to finance the development of the Disneyland amusement park. After being turned down by both CBS and NBC, Disney eventually signed a deal with ABC (which had merged with United Paramount Theaters in 1953) on March 29, 1954. The show contained teasers for Walt's park, as well as episodes representing life in one of the park's main sections: Adventureland, Tomorrowland, Fantasyland, and Frontierland, with the opening titles used from its inception until the show's move to NBC in 1961, showing the entrance to Disneyland itself, as well as the four aforementioned lands, one of which was then identified as the main feature of that evening's program.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Consequently, Davy Crockett and other pioneers of the Old West, and American history in general, appeared in "Frontier Land". Similarly, "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" might be the focus of an evening spent in "Adventure Land", although a documentary on the film could also be possibly presented as a topic for such episodes, including clips from the actual film. Topics for "Fantasy Land" would include either actual cartoons, and animated films, or documentaries on "The Making of ..." (such as behind-the-scenes presentation of Peggy Lee singing the duet of the wicked Siamese cats in "Lady and the Tramp", or the barbershop quartet of lost dogs in the municipal Dog Pound); excerpts from a "True-Life Adventure" documentary might also be included (for example, one on the life and works of beavers and their dam-building) or those using stroboscopic stop-action photography (such as investigating what really happened when a rain-drop fell in a puddle, as part of a "Fantasy Land" episode), explaining the techniques of cartoon animation. The multiplane camera used to create the three-dimensional effects of "Bambi" was also a topic for a "Fantasy Land"-set telecast. In one episode, four different artists were given the task of drawing the same tree, with each artist using his own preferred ways of drawing and imagining a tree; this led to cartoon examples of differently animated trees, as in some of the early "Silly Symphonies" shorts, and later full-length animated films. "Tomorrow Land" was an opportunity for the Disney studio staff to present cutting-edge science and technology, and to predict possible futures, such as futuristic automobiles and highways, and featured Wernher von Braun as an on-air technical consultant in Man and the Moon, which aired December 28, 1955. This format remained basically unchanged through the 1980s, though new material was scarce in later years. Other episodes were segments from Disney films such as "Seal Island" and "Alice in Wonderland", or cartoons of Donald Duck and other Disney standbys.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The program spawned the Davy Crockett craze of 1955 with the airing of a three-episode series (not shown over the course of consecutive weeks) about the historical American frontiersman, starring Fess Parker in the title role. Millions of dollars of merchandise relating to the title character were sold, and the theme song, "The Ballad of Davy Crockett", became a hit record that year. Three historically based hour-long programs aired during late 1954/early 1955, and were followed up by two dramatized installments the following year. The TV episodes were later edited into two theatrical films.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: On July 17, 1955, the opening of Disneyland was covered on a live television special, "Dateline: Disneyland", which is not technically considered to be part of the series. It was hosted by Art Linkletter, with whom Walt Disney had worked out a deal prior to the opening to allow Linkletter to lease a shop on Main Street in return for the broadcast. Art Linkletter was assisted by Bob Cummings and Ronald Reagan, and the program featured various other guests, including various appearances of Walt himself as he dedicated the various lands of Disneyland.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 1958, the series was retitled "Walt Disney Presents" and moved to a Friday-night timeslot; by 1960, ABC had switched it to Sunday nights, where it remained for 21 years. During this iteration, "The Peter Tchaikovsky Story", an episode made to promote Walt's latest animated feature, "Sleeping Beauty", was one of the first stereo simulcasts on TV; in this case it was 3 channel stereo. FM radio stations across the country carried the left channel at the same time as ABC broadcast the TV show in mono, which served as a center channel, and AM radio stations broadcast the right channel. In the second half of the show, a lengthy clip of "Sleeping Beauty" was shown, with its 6 channels (70mm version) mixed down into 3 for the broadcast. Walt apparently wanted people to see "Sleeping Beauty" in 70 mm, so, in the introduction, he explained the difference between 35 mm and 70 mm and held up a card with both sizes on it. In addition to episodes devoted to the latest additions at Disneyland, many episodes during this period were Westerns such as "Texas John Slaughter" and "Elfego Baca", while others talked about the United States' burgeoning efforts to explore outer space and others, such as "Moochie of the Little League", were set in the then-present day. Some episodes even mixed live-action and animation, showing Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, Chip 'n' Dale, Professor Owl and Jiminy Cricket talking with Walt himself, while one 1959 episode (titled The Adventures of Chip 'n' Dale) turned the spotlight on Chip 'n' Dale, combining their theatrical cartoons with mixed media wrap-around footage including the chipmunks' own theme song. The episode's genre is a live action/animated musical comedy, and as the title suggests, it stars the titular chipmunks. At the end of the episode, Chip 'n' Dale say (singing) their goodbyes to the audience and return to their nut home on the counter hoping the audience enjoyed their show.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Although the basic format remained the same, the series moved to NBC on September 24, 1961, to take advantage of that network's ability to broadcast programming in color. In addition, Walt Disney's relationship with ABC had soured as the network resisted selling its stake in the theme park before doing so in 1960. In a display of foresight, Disney had filmed many of the earlier shows in color, allowing them to easily be repeated on NBC; since all but three of Disney's feature-length films were also made in color (the three black-and-white exceptions were "The Shaggy Dog", "The Absent-Minded Professor", and "Son of Flubber", all family comedies starring Fred MacMurray), they could now also be telecast in that format.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: To emphasize the new feature, the series was retitled "Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color" when NBC began airing it. The first NBC episode even dealt with the principles of color, as explained by a new character named Ludwig Von Drake (voiced by Paul Frees), a bumbling professor with a thick German accent, who was the uncle of Donald Duck. Von Drake was the first Disney character created specifically for television.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, 12 years after the anthology series premiered. While the broadcast that aired three days after his death featured a memorial tribute from "Huntley-Brinkley Report" anchor Chet Huntley with film and television star Dick Van Dyke, the introductions that Walt already filmed prior to his death continued to air for the remainder of the season. After that, the studio decided that Walt's persona as host was such a key part of the show's appeal to viewers that the host segment was dropped.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The series was retitled "The Wonderful World of Disney" in September 1969, by which time the color distinction was no longer needed as all big three networks were broadcasting in color. It continued to gain solid ratings, often ranking in the top 20, until the mid-1970s.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 1976, Disney showed its hit 1961 film "The Parent Trap" on television for the first time, as a 2½-hour special. This marked a major step in broadcasting for the studio, which had never shown one of its more popular films on television in a time slot longer than an hour (although it had shown "Now You See Him, Now You Don't" and "Napoleon and Samantha" in a two-hour format in 1975). Walt Disney Productions also began running some of its multiepisode television programs, such as 1962's "Sammy The Way-Out Seal", as televised feature films on the anthology series. A slightly edited version of the 1954 Disney film "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" made its television debut as a two-hour special on NBC in October 1976. Several other Disney films, some of them not especially successful (such as "Superdad", which was an outright flop in its initial theatrical release) were also aired on the program in the form of two-hour broadcasts that year. However, the multiepisode format for feature films had not been discontinued; as late as 1981, films such as "Pollyanna" were still being shown on the Disney program in several installments running a week apart.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: During the early 1970s, the show began to increasingly concentrate less on animated cartoons and dramatic or comedy films, and began to place an emphasis on nature-oriented programs (such as the "True-Life Adventures").


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The show's continued ratings success in the post-Walt era came to an end during the 1975–76 season. At this time, Walt Disney Productions was facing a decline in fortunes due to falling box-office revenues, while NBC as a whole was also slipping in the ratings. The anthology series became even more dependent on airings of live-action theatrical features, its "True-Life Adventures", reruns of older episodes, and cartoon compilations. Nothing from the Disney animated features canon aired, with the exceptions of "Alice in Wonderland" and "Dumbo", as part of a long-standing policy placed on the program by Disney. Additionally, in 1975, when CBS regained the broadcast rights to the 1939 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film "The Wizard of Oz", it was scheduled opposite "Disney", as it had been between 1960 and 1968. At that time, telecasts of that film were highly rated annual events, which largely attracted the same family audience as the Disney series. From 1968 to 1975, when NBC held the television rights to "Oz" (which it had acquired from CBS in 1967), it usually pre-empted "Disney" to show it. However, the show's stiffest weekly competition came from CBS's newsmagazine "60 Minutes".


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 1975, an amendment to the Prime Time Access Rule gave the Sunday 7:00 pm Eastern Time slot back to the networks, allowing NBC to move "Disney" back by a half-hour. It also allowed CBS to schedule "60 Minutes" at 7:00 pm Eastern Time starting on December 7; prior to this, "60 Minutes" had aired at 6:00 pm Eastern and did not begin its seasons until after the National Football League season ended. "Disney" fell out of the top 30, while "60 Minutes" had its ratings rise significantly.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In September 1979, the studio agreed to then-NBC president Fred Silverman's request for changes to the program. The show shortened its title to "Disney's Wonderful World", and updated the opening sequence with a computer-generated logo and disco-styled theme song, but largely kept the same format. The problems for the show continued. As a result of the ratings strength of "60 Minutes", compounded by low ratings, increasingly less original material, and frequent pre-emptions (primarily due to sporting events such as NFL game telecasts), NBC cancelled "Disney" in 1981. One factor that was beyond the control of either Disney or NBC was a 94-day strike by the Screen Actors' Guild that cut the number of shows for the 1980–1981 season, but the damage was done nonetheless.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Following NBC's announcement that it would drop the anthology series, CBS picked up the program and began airing it on Saturdays at 8:00 pm Eastern Time, in September 1981. Despite a more elaborate credit sequence and another title change, to simply "Walt Disney", the series' format remained unchanged. During the 1981–1982 season, the series had a full season's worth of material again, but little of it was new. Among the little that actually was new were a handful of pilots based on "Pollyanna", "Escape to Witch Mountain", and "The Apple Dumpling Gang", but only the last of the three pilots was sold and became the half-hour sitcom "Gun Shy" the following season, one of the studio's first entries in that genre but only lasted six episodes.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The 1982–1983 season had enough material to fill the time slot, but almost all of it was pre-existing material, the lone exception being the celebrity-laden opening ceremony of Epcot on October 23. It also did not help matters that NBC slotted the family-friendly sitcoms "Diff'rent Strokes" and "Silver Spoons" at 8:00 pm and 8:30 pm up against it to draw children away from CBS. After moving to Tuesday at the beginning of 1983, it went on hiatus on February 15 while the aforementioned "Gun Shy" took up the second half of its time slot. When it came back for summer reruns on May 3, it was still on Tuesday at 8:00 pm; its final network broadcast was on September 24, bringing an uninterrupted 29-year run on all three networks to a close.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The end of the show coincided with the launch of the studio's cable television network, the Disney Channel. While ratings were a factor, the final decision to end the show came from Walt Disney Productions' then-CEO Card Walker, who felt that having both the show and the new channel active would result in cannibalization of viewership. The new channel would provide a home for the show in reruns for the next two decades, but for the time being, Disney's presence on U.S. network TV would be limited to the occasional holiday special, theme park anniversary, or cartoon compilation.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: After the studio – which was rechristened as the Walt Disney Company in 1986 – underwent a change in management, Disney sought to bring back some sort of programming to broadcast television. Their efforts led to the premiere of "The Disney Sunday Movie", which debuted on February 2, 1986, on ABC. Many names were considered to serve as presenter for the revived show, including Julie Andrews, Dick Van Dyke, Cary Grant, Tom Hanks, Walter Cronkite, Roy E. Disney (who closely resembled his uncle), and even Mickey Mouse. The studio finally decided to have Michael Eisner, the company's recently hired CEO, host the series. Although he was not a performer, after filming a test video with his wife Jane and a member of his executive team (which required multiple takes), studio management believed he could do the hosting job. Eisner hired Michael Kay, a director of political commercials for then-U.S. Senator Bill Bradley, to help him improve his on-camera performance.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: "The Disney Sunday Movie" initially aired as ABC's lead-off program on Sundays, running from 7:00 to 9:00 pm Eastern Time. By this point, the format was similar to a movie-of-the-week. Gary Barton, a Disney senior vice president, was in charge of the program. "Help Wanted: Kids" was the first episode's film. Other first revival year films were, "Young Again", "The Richest Cat in the World", "I-Man" (starring Scott Bakula), and "My Town". Sometimes the slot would feature a special instead of dramatic material, such as "Disney Goes to the Oscars" featuring the studio's Academy Award winners, and "The Greatest Moments in Disney Animation". A handful of Disney Channel original films made their network television debuts during these iteration as well, but the program did not present any film made by Disney's Touchstone subsidiary, as such films were not considered appropriate for children. However, "Splash, Too", a sequel to the 1984 film, aired on the series over two weeks in May 1988. The series had increased Disney park attendance and ABC's Sunday night ratings for the evening by an average 27% for the rest of the season. Disney, wanting to make it a regular viewing habit, gave ABC additional films from its library, including "Old Yeller", "The Apple Dumpling Gang" and "Candleshoe" for the normal rerun mid-year period. "The Last Electric Knight" series movie produced a spin-off, originally to be called "Karate Kid" for ABC's 1987 season.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Despite improving ABC's numbers, the program's ratings were never strong as the established "60 Minutes" and scripted mystery series "Murder, She Wrote" on CBS, both of which Disney was competing with for viewers, remained the leading primetime programs on Sunday nights. In 1987, ABC reduced "The Disney Sunday Movie" from two hours to one. The move did not help drive ratings, and the network decided not to renew its contract with Disney or pick up a fourth season of the second iteration of the anthology series.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In early 1988, NBC decided to renew its association with the company after it cut ties to the anthology series seven years earlier; the network brought the series, now named "The Magical World of Disney", to serve as the lead-in of its Sunday lineup in September 1988. As the program had done during its last season as "The Disney Sunday Movie", "The Magical World of Disney" ran for one hour, airing at 7:00 pm Eastern Time; Michael Eisner also returned as its presenter. During this period, the show attempted to reintroduce the rotating format the show started out with in 1954. It also introduced new versions of Walt-era movies and TV shows such as "The Absent-Minded Professor", a reboot of "Davy Crockett", and the musical "Polly", which was based on the book "Pollyanna" by Eleanor H. Porter and the Walt Disney's 1960 film adaptation of it. In the 1989–1990 season, during which the company was negotiating with Jim Henson to buy The Muppets, they aired two Muppet specials; one of them was "The Muppets at Walt Disney World", which turned out to be Henson's last Muppet special. He died May 16, 1990, 10 days after the special aired, and the company only acquired The Muppets more than a decade later.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: After two seasons experiencing the same lackluster ratings as it had accrued during the end of its initial NBC run and its subsequent runs on CBS and ABC, Disney elected to end the broadcast television run of "The Magical World of Disney" and began airing the anthology on the Disney Channel – in the same time slot it had been airing for the past decade – starting in September 1990, expanding back to a two-hour format. Since the Disney Channel operated as a premium channel at the time, films presented on the series were presented without commercial interruption. "The Magical World of Disney" originally aired on the cable channel as a weekly Sunday-only program for its first 5½ years; but in September 1996, as part of the first phase of a programming revamp that culminated in its formal conversion into a commercial-free basic cable channel in April 1997, the Disney Channel expanded the "Magical World" brand to encompass its Monday through Saturday primetime film block, maintaining its 7:00 pm Eastern time slot.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: "The Wonderful World of Disney" returned in 1991 as an umbrella title for Disney specials airing on major networks (CBS airings used the historical title "The Wonderful World of Disney" for the first few years, while other networks broadcast the show with another title, "A Disney Special").


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 1997, with Disney acquiring ABC the previous year, ABC gave the series a regular slot in the schedule. Disney CEO Eisner formed Disney Telefilms by 1995 to supply original films to the series and program together with ABC. It led the network's Sunday night lineup at the 7:00 p.m. Eastern time slot, resulting in the displacement of Sunday mainstay "America's Funniest Home Videos", which had occupied the slot since 1992. On September 28, 1997, the all-new "The Wonderful World of Disney" premiered with the network television premiere of "Toy Story". On October 5, 1997, Disney Telefilms' first production, "Toothless", debuted on the series. In addition to the planned 16 original Disney telemovies, ABC and Disney added a few direct-to-video movies and films from other sources.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 2001, a Spanish-language version of the program premiered on Telemundo (which, incidentally, was acquired by the English version's former home, NBC, that same year 2001–2010) as "El Maravilloso Mundo de Disney", with more of a focus on Disney theatrical films than the English broadcasts at the time for Spanish version's former Disney Channel (Latin America).


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In September 2003, "The Wonderful World of Disney" moved to Saturdays at 8:00 pm Eastern, with the previous Sunday time slot being ceded to "AFV" (which moved back to Sundays that season) and drama series in the 8:00 pm hour. Rare exceptions to the program's format occurred during this time; for example, a "Little House on the Prairie" miniseries ran for several weeks in 2004 under the "Wonderful World of Disney" banner. For most of its second run on ABC, the program aired throughout the television season, with the exception of the 2005–06 season (when it aired during the midseason only), and in 2007 and 2008 (when it was relegated to the summer months), with a broader array of films occupying the network's Saturday primetime slot at other times, when sports programming did not air. The series ended as a regular program in 2008.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: At this point, the series began to shift focus toward Disney theatrical films, relying less on original television films; however, the series aired two Disney Channel Original Movies (2002's "Cadet Kelly" and 2008's "Camp Rock", currently the only Disney Channel television films to have aired on non-Disney Channel-branded network domestically) during its ABC run. The second ABC revival also included some family-oriented films produced by studios other than Disney under the "Wonderful World" banner, such as "The Sound of Music" from 20th Century Fox (which is presently owned by Disney) and the "Harry Potter" film series and "Space Jam" from Warner Bros., as well as television films such as "Princess of Thieves" from Granada Productions and the 2001 remake of "Brian's Song" from Columbia TriStar Television (now known as Sony Pictures Television).


title: Disney anthology television series

text: On December 12, 2015, ABC's "The Wonderful World of Disney" officially returned to its anthology format with a showing of "Mary Poppins" for the first time on ABC since 2002, hosted by Dick Van Dyke. Van Dyke took viewers on a tour through the Disney Archives, as they explored props and costumes from the production of "Mary Poppins" and discussed the film's history and context within the Disney legacy. It was then shown on February 21, 2016, with the special "", which honored Disneyland's 60th anniversary; on November 24, 2016, for their Magical Holiday Celebration, filmed at Walt Disney World; and on December 11, 2016, for the network television premiere of "Frozen". On August 5, 2019, it was announced that "The Wonderful World of Disney" would present "The Little Mermaid Live!" on November 5 of that year with Auliʻi Cravalho, Queen Latifah and Shaggy starring as Ariel, Ursula and Sebastian, respectively. The cast also included John Stamos as Chef Louis and Graham Phillips as Prince Eric. The special featured music from both the film and the Tony Award-nominated Broadway stage version and was performed in front of a live audience with giant projection surface. The title was used again on November 28, 2019, for a two-hour music special, "The Wonderful World of Disney: Magical Holiday Celebration", hosted by Emma Bunton and Matthew Morrison.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: On May 7, 2020, it was announced that "The Wonderful World of Disney" would bring back its banner for a series of theatrical movies from the Disney+ library, which includes "Moana", "", "Up", and "Big Hero 6", for four weeks beginning May 20, 2020. A fifth week was later added, featuring the 2010 Disney/Pixar film, "Toy Story 3", marking ten years since its theatrical release. The program returned on September 23, 2020, featuring the 2014 Marvel film, "Guardians of the Galaxy", filling a gap in ABC's fall 2020 schedule. On October 9, 2020, ABC announced the program would return on October 14, with the broadcast television premiere of the 2017 Disney/Pixar film, "Coco".


title: Disney anthology television series

text: On April 28, 2021, it was announced that the program would return on May 3, 2021, for five weeks with a series of theatrical movies from the Disney+ library, which includes the broadcast television premieres of "Incredibles 2" and "Finding Dory", "Monsters, Inc.", "Tangled" and "The Princess and the Frog". On October 28, 2021, the program returned with the broadcast television premiere of the 2019 Disney/Pixar film "Toy Story 4".


title: Disney anthology television series

text: "Hocus Pocus" aired on September 29, 2022 to promote "Hocus Pocus 2", which premiered on Disney+ a day later.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: "The Magical World of Toons" was the daily prime time programming block featuring character's key series episodes coinciding with the launch of Disney's new channel, Toon Disney, on April 18, 1998. It continued at least until 2003.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In 2012, Disney Junior launched a variant of the movie night anthology as "The Magical World of Disney Junior" on its new 24/7 channel. The channel also premiered its first Disney Junior Original Movie, "Lucky Duck" during "Magical World" on Friday, June 20, 2014.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Prior to the launch of the Disney Channel, several of the films and specials made for the anthology series were licensed to pay-TV networks such as HBO; in HBO's case, the kaleidoscopic-pattern titles that preceded them in the original run were retained.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Around the same time that the 1980s incarnations aired on ABC and NBC, reruns of older episodes of the Disney anthology series, airing under the "Wonderful World of Disney" banner, were syndicated to broadcast television stations throughout the United States as well as in various international markets. In Australia, the program aired on Network Seven on Saturdays at 6:30 pm, before it was dropped in 1994 due to Optus Vision (later Foxtel)'s launch of a domestic version of the Disney Channel, with "Saturday Disney" replacing it as the channel's main block of Disney films.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Reruns of the shows were a staple of the Disney Channel for several years under the title "Walt Disney Presents" (which used the same title sequence as the 1980s CBS incarnation), when it was an outlet for vintage Disney cartoons, television series, and films, basically serving the same function that the anthology series served in the days before cable. The original opening titles were restored to the episodes in 1997. Reruns of the anthology series were discontinued when the channel exclude all vintage material with the removal of its Vault Disney late-night block on September 8, 2002. However, a few select episodes are available on VHS or DVD (some of which are exclusive to the Disney Movie Club), with the possibility of additional future releases.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: From 2014 to 2019, live-action Disney films from the 1950s to the 1980s including special episodes from Walt Disney's Wonderful


title: Disney anthology television series

text: World of Color aired on Turner Classic Movies, without commercial interruption, and presented uncut and with letterboxing on the network's standard-definition feed.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: All of the episodes and existing material used on the series up to 1996 are listed in the Bill Cotter book "The Wonderful World of Disney Television", which was released in 1997 by Hyperion Books (which was owned by the Walt Disney Company at the time of the book's publication).


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Originally hosted by Walt Disney himself, the original format of the Disney anthology series consisted of a balance of theatrical animated cartoons, live-action features, and other informational material (some original, some pre-existing) from the studio's library. For many years, the show also featured edited one-hour versions of such then-recent Disney films as "Alice in Wonderland", and in other cases, telecasts of complete Disney films that were split into two or more one-hour episodes. Later original programs consisted of dramatizations of other historical figures and legends along the lines of the Davy Crockett mini-series. These included a miniseries based on Daniel Boone (not the Fess Parker characterization), Texas John Slaughter, Elfego Baca, Francis Marion (the "Swamp Fox") and 1977's "Kit Carson and the Mountain Man" (with Christopher Connelly as Kit Carson, Robert Reed as John C. Fremont, and Gregg Palmer as mountain man Jim Bridger).


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Occasionally, a more educational segment would be featured (such as "The Story of the Animated Drawing"), including nature and animal programs similar to the "True-Life Adventures" that were released in theaters, as well as various dramatic installments which were either structured as single-part, two-part, and sometimes, multipart editions. Much of the original informational excerpts were to create awareness of Disneyland. In spite of essentially serving as advertisements for the park, entertainment value was emphasized, as well to make the shows palatable. Some of the program's informational content was formatted to promote upcoming feature film releases by the studio (such as "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" and "Darby O'Gill and the Little People"), with some programs focusing on the art and technology of animation itself.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: "El mundo de Disney" (The World of Disney) aired for the first time on the OTA network Telefe in 1990, hosted by Leonardo Greco. He remained as the sole presenter of the show, lasting until 1995, when the series concluded. The programme started airing at 8:00 pm nightly from the second half of 1990 until December 1992. By 1993, it was moved to weekday afternoons at 5:00 pm. When it was coming to an end, around 1994, shifted to Sunday afternoons, and aired a long marathon of movies and cartoons. According to Greco, this programme was possible because of a distributor who acquired the material, and was allowed to be shown without following a strict format, because the company wanted to do so.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: Telefe wanted a comeback, and appointed chef and host Maru Botana (then network talent) to present "Planeta Disney" (Disney Planet) on Sunday evenings, at 8:00pm, beginning November 21, 2004. Starting on July 9, 2005, Botana was replaced with two personalities employed by Disney, Carolina Ibarra and Dani Martins. They both shared the duties of hosting this show and the South American edition of Zapping Zone, on Disney Channel. This lasted for a year and a half, with relative success.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: While Telefe had a major success carrying the animated movies and some TV series like "Blossom" or "Dinosaurs" (distributed by Buena Vista Television), Canal 13 saw the possibility of buying material from the company and airing it (sometimes competing against the Telefe's program) on Sunday afternoons, beginning in 1994, which at that time was filled with telecasts of ancient Argentinian films from the 1950s, 1960s or 1970s, and by reruns of "Tarzan" and "The Three Stooges". The only clear difference was that only movies starring human actors, like "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" or "The Island at the Top of the World", could be broadcast, and not the cartoons. This experiment lasted until early 1996. By 2007, the network took off from Telefe the exclusive rights to show all the Disney franchise movies and programs, and began to air its movies on Sunday evenings at 7:00 pm, without a host. This also allowed Canal 13 to detain rights for other shows not related with Disney, but with the ABC network, like "Lost" or "Grey's Anatomy", and to produce a localized version of the high-grossing film "".


title: Disney anthology television series

text: For more than 30 years, The Wonderful World of Disney was broadcast on the Seven Network, but in 2019, The Wonderful World of Disney moved to Saturday nights on the Nine Network and Friday nights on Nine's sister network, 9Go!. In 2020, The Wonderful World Of Disney moved to Friday, Saturday and Sunday nights on Seven's sister network, 7flix.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: The ABC run of the program under "The Magical World of Disney" title originally aired in that country under the title "Cine Disney", now as "O Mundo Mágico de Disney" and "Sessão de Domingo Disney", on the Brazilian-Portuguese version of Sistema Brasileiro de Televisão (SBT) in partnership with The Walt Disney Company. The ABC run of the program under "The Wonderful World of Disney" title originally aired in that country under the title "O Maravilhoso Mundo de Disney" on the Brazilian Portuguese version of Disney Channel; the program moved to SBT as "Mundo Disney" in 2015, for return in partnership with The Walt Disney Company, for end partnership in 2018 from 2 years.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: CBC aired Disney shows many years. Disney Movies were Simsubbed in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s on CBS, NBC and ABC with the CBC Broadcast vis Cable and later with satellite. CTV aired the Santa Claus but later moved to CBC. The movies moved to 4pm eastern many times to prevent Simsubbing.


title: Disney anthology television series

text: In the 1980s, Walt Disney Home Video released 15 volumes of the anthology series on VHS, while many episodes have been released on DVD from either the Disney Movie Club or the Disney Generations movies-on-demand (MOD) program on Amazon.com.


title: To the Wonder

text: To the Wonder is a 2012 American experimental romantic drama film written and directed by Terrence Malick and starring Ben Affleck, Olga Kurylenko, Rachel McAdams, and Javier Bardem. Filmed in Oklahoma and Paris, the film chronicles a couple who, after falling in love in Paris, struggle to keep their relationship from falling apart after moving to the United States. The film premiered in competition at the 2012 Venice Film Festival, where it was nominated for the Golden Lion Award. It received mixed reactions at its premiere in Venice, but was awarded the SIGNIS Award at the same festival. The film continued to polarize critics upon its theatrical release, with many praising Malick's direction and Lubezki's cinematography, though finding the narrative emotionally unsatisfying.


title: To the Wonder

text: Neil (Ben Affleck) is an American traveling in Europe who in Paris meets and falls in love with Marina (Olga Kurylenko), a Ukrainian divorcée who is living with her ten-year-old daughter Tatiana (Tatiana Chiline). Basking in their new romance, the lovers travel to Mont St. Michel, the island abbey off the coast of Normandy. Neil makes a commitment to Marina, inviting her to relocate with Tatiana to his native Oklahoma. Neil takes a job as an environmental inspector, and Marina settles into her life in the United States. After some time, the couple’s passionate romance cools. Marina finds solace with the Catholic priest Father Quintana (Javier Bardem), who is undergoing his own crisis of faith. Tatiana begins to feel homesick due to not having made friends at her school, and complains that Neil is not her real father. Some time later, Marina tells Neil that her visa has expired, and she and her daughter return to France.


title: To the Wonder

text: Continuing his work as an environmental inspector, Neil reconnects with Jane (Rachel McAdams), a childhood friend. Jane tells Neil very quietly that her farm is going bankrupt because her former husband encumbered it with his huge gambling debt. Neil begins a romance with Jane. Back in France, after giving Tatiana back to her father (Marina's former husband), Marina finds she misses Oklahoma and is unable to find a job. Due to Neil's unwillingness to commit to Jane, their relationship disintegrates.


title: To the Wonder

text: Returning to Oklahoma, Marina reconnects with Neil. The couple marry in a civil ceremony. After going to the doctor to discuss removing an intrauterine device in order to be able to conceive, Marina begins to feel isolated again. Although they also had a religious wedding ceremony, the couple's relationship begins to deteriorate. Meanwhile, Father Quintana ministers to prisoners and local people. One day, Marina approaches Charlie (Charles Baker), a carpenter who had given her a wind harp. She follows him to a motel where the two have a tryst. While in a drive-through at a fast food restaurant, Marina confesses the event to Neil and asks his forgiveness. In anger, Neil pulls over and leaves Marina stranded by the road. Shortly after, Neil returns to pick her up.


title: To the Wonder

text: Neil later seeks counselling from Father Quintana. Marina appears to have borne a child since her encounter with Charlie but there is ambiguity about the identity of its father. Neil accompanies the priest as he ministers to the poor, learning forgiveness and humility. Eventually offering Marina forgiveness, Neil kneels before her and kisses her hands. Neil and Marina appear to divorce, and they are last seen together as he leaves her at an airport. Marina tells him, "I want to keep your name".


title: To the Wonder

text: The film's closing moments depict Fr. Quintana tending the aged, the poor, and the imprisoned with voice-over from the priest reciting a variation of the prayer of St. Patrick ("Christ with me. Christ before me. Christ behind me..."). A few years later, Neil is seen with what looks like his family. Marina is shown walking in a rain-drenched, pastoral setting. In a state of ecstatic discovery, she turns to see a brilliant, golden light pass over her face. "The Wonder" – Mont Saint-Michel – remains rooted to the earth with its spire piercing the heavens.


title: To the Wonder

text: When announced in February 2010, the film was set to co-star Christian Bale. Bale ultimately dropped out of the production and was replaced by Ben Affleck; Rachel McAdams also joined the cast.


title: To the Wonder

text: As with its predecessor, "The Tree of Life", and its successor, "Knight of Cups", the film's conception and plot stem from autobiographical elements: Terrence Malick met his second wife Michèle Morette in Paris in the early 1980s, and the couple lived in Oklahoma for a period prior to their separation.


title: To the Wonder

text: When the film entered production it did not have a title, and was referred to by the crew as "Project D". Filming took place primarily in Bartlesville and Pawhuska, Oklahoma, the latter the center of the Osage Nation, and began in September 2010. Additional shooting took place in early 2011 in Bartlesville and Paris, France.


title: To the Wonder

text: Malick and his crew adopted an experimental approach. Actors described working without a screenplay or the use of lights. Olga Kurylenko described the shooting process as more like a dance performance than traditional acting, stating: “What he always said was, ‘Keep moving, keep moving. Don’t stop.’ If I ever stopped, he’d poke me to keep going.” Likewise, cinematographer on the film, Emmanuel Lubezki, was given instructions to be “in the eye of the hurricane” — in the middle of a scene, constantly interacting with the characters. Lubezki called the film "abstract", and described it as being less tied to theatrical conventions and more purely cinematic than any prior film directed by Malick.


title: To the Wonder

text: Malick handed out works of literature to his editing team for inspiration, such as Flaubert's "Madame Bovary" and Walker Percy's "The Moviegoer". Also referenced to his editors was a phrase found in Margaret A. Doody’s introduction to Samuel Richardson’s 1740 novel "Pamela." The phrase "radiant zigzag becoming", became an unofficial motto for the film's editing team during post-production. Also referenced during the editing of the film were the French New Wave films "Jules and Jim" by Truffaut (the score of which was used as part of a temp soundtrack) and Godard's "Breathless", "Pierrot le Fou", and "Vivre Sa Vie". They were chosen for their elliptical narrative and editing styles which Malick hoped his editing team would embrace.


title: To the Wonder

text: Typical of a Malick project, many actors who worked on the film were eventually cut during post-production. Jessica Chastain, Rachel Weisz, Amanda Peet, Barry Pepper and Michael Sheen were originally part of the film, but no footage of their performances was kept for the final cut.


title: To the Wonder

text: After a world premiere on September 2, 2012, as an official selection of the 69th Venice Film Festival, the film screened at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival. Shortly after, Magnolia Pictures acquired distribution rights to the film. The film was released in a limited release and through video on demand on April 12, 2013.


title: To the Wonder

text: The film opened with $130,000 in select screens and was in the top ten iTunes rentals the week of its opening. It ended up with an approximate worldwide gross of $2,783,139.


title: To the Wonder

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 46% approval rating based on 172 reviews, with an average rating of 5.78 out of 10. The site's consensus reads, ""To the Wonder" demonstrates Terrence Malick's gift for beautiful images, but its narrative is overly somber and emotionally unsatisfying." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100 based on 41 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: To the Wonder

text: "To the Wonder" was the final film reviewed by Roger Ebert prior to his death on April 4, 2013. His review was published two days later. He awarded it three and a half out of four stars, stating:


title: To the Wonder

text: Several reviewers welcomed the religious themes of the film. Dawn LaValle, writing for "First Things", summarizes: ""To the Wonder" startles us into realizing that the world is shot through, positively charged, with [divine] presence. Whether that presence is fructifying love or slinking destruction stands as an accusing question throughout the film." Likewise, the Jury which awarded "To the Wonder" the SIGNIS Award at the Venice Film Festival, said of the film: "The film’s rich composition, textured direction, and its use of light bring together elements of divinity and humanity ultimately creating a sacramental experience which reveals God’s gift of unconditional love."


title: Tim Booth

text: Timothy John Booth (born 4 February 1960) is an English singer-songwriter, actor and dancer. He is the lead singer and co-founder of the indie rock band James, and co-wrote several of their hit singles including "Sit Down", "Come Home", and "Laid". As an actor, Booth is best known for portraying Victor Zsasz in the 2005 film "Batman Begins".


title: Tim Booth

text: Booth was born in Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, and grew up in Clifford, Trafford, Greater Manchester, England in his teenage years. He attended Shrewsbury School. Whilst a student at the University of Manchester studying drama, Booth encountered Jim Glennie, Paul Gilbertson and Gavan Whelan in 1981 in the cellar bar of the university's students' union. Impressed by Booth's distinctive dancing style, Gilbertson invited Booth to join their band as a dancer. Booth accepted the offer, and was soon promoted to lead singer and lyricist of the band James. (Maconie, 2000)


title: Tim Booth

text: After a struggle for success and recognition throughout the 1980s, James finally achieved commercial success in the early 1990s with the rise of the "Madchester" music scene, and their single "Sit Down" reaching number 2 in the UK Singles Chart


title: Tim Booth

text: During 1995, Booth took a break from James and recorded an album with film composer Angelo Badalamenti, entitled "Booth and the Bad Angel". He then returned to James to complete the recording of the album "Whiplash", and stayed with the band until 2001 when he announced his departure to concentrate on other projects.


title: Tim Booth

text: After leaving James, Booth spent time concentrating on teaching the dance practice known as the 5Rhythms, a movement meditation practice. In 2004, together with record producer Lee Muddy Baker and songwriter KK (Kevin Kerrigan), he released his first solo album, "Bone", to general critical acclaim, though he referred to it as a collaborative effort and preferred to credit the album to 'Tim Booth & the Individuals' as opposed to taking sole credit. He also began taking acting lessons during this time, and starred in a production at Bolton's Octagon Theatre. He also appeared as the Batman villain Victor Zsasz in the 2005 film "Batman Begins". Booth also voiced the character in the video game adaptation of the film.


title: Tim Booth

text: On Good Friday, 14 April 2006, he appeared as Judas in the Manchester Passion – a musical style show in the middle of Manchester, using music from the region to tell the story of Easter. Booth sang a version of the Smiths's "Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now", and although the James song "Sit Down" was used, it was not sung by Booth himself (he did, however, sing it in an encore after the cameras had stopped rolling).


title: Tim Booth

text: In January 2007, it was announced that Booth would be rejoining James. The band played an eight date tour in April 2007 and made appearances at several music festivals throughout 2007. This was followed by a new James album, "Hey Ma" in April 2008 which coincided with a UK tour.


title: Tim Booth

text: He has also stated that, despite the reunion of James, he still plans to release further solo material.


title: Tim Booth

text: In 2010, Booth continued his acting career with a role in the independent film "Poor Wee Me", the debut feature from Salford film director Simon Powell, in which he played the role of Gabriel De Souza, the shady boss of a debt collection agency.


title: Tim Booth

text: Booth released a new solo album, "Love Life", in April 2011; again with Lee 'Muddy' Baker producing, co-writing and playing guitar. The release of the album was accompanied by a tour of the UK and then continental Europe, with Tim's backing band featuring Baker as well as Saul Davies, violinist with James.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland (born Sofia Kristina Hellqvist; 6 December 1984), is a member of the Swedish royal family. Before marrying Prince Carl Philip and becoming a princess of Sweden in 2015, Sofia was a glamour model and reality television contestant. They have three sons, Prince Alexander, Prince Gabriel and Prince Julian, who are fifth, sixth and seventh in the line of succession to the Swedish throne, respectively.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: Sofia Hellqvist was born in 1984 at Danderyd Hospital in Danderyd, to a Swedish mother, Marie Britt Rotman (born 1957), a marketing manager in the plastics industry, and a Danish–Swedish father, Erik Oscar Hellqvist (born 1949), an employment counsellor at the Swedish employment agency. She was baptised on 26 May 1985 in Tibble Church. She moved to Älvdalen at the age of six. She has two sisters, Lina Hellqvist (humanitarian project coordinator, born 1982) and Sara Hellqvist (criminologist, born 1988). She attended Älvdalen Montessori School and Älvdal School. She studied the arts programme at Vansbro Education Centre.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: At the age of 20, Hellqvist was published in photos in the men's magazine "Slitz" wearing only a bikini bottom and a live boa constrictor around her upper body and was later voted "Miss Slitz 2004" by readers. When her relationship with Prince Carl Philip was revealed in 2010, "Expressen" republished the photos. Following the "Miss Slitz" win, Hellqvist was cast in the "Paradise Hotel" reality show on TV4 where she made it to the final. In the show, she had a much publicised feud with Olinda Castielle and finally voted Castielle off the show.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: In 2005, she moved to New York to study accounting, specialising in business development. She has also studied global ethics, child and youth science, children's communication and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in theory, and in Swedish practice at Stockholm University. She is also a certified yoga instructor and worked as such in New York.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: Back in Sweden she studied in Stockholm, where she also worked part-time as a waitress and glamour model.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: Hellqvist was mentioned in some newspapers for having kissed American adult film star Jenna Jameson while in Las Vegas to do a Swedish version of reality show "Paradise Hotel".


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: In July 2010, the Swedish Royal Court confirmed the relationship between Hellqvist and Prince Carl Philip. In April 2011, the couple moved in together in Djurgården of Stockholm, which was confirmed by the palace.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: On 27 June 2014, the couple's engagement was announced, and in December, Hellqvist made an appearance at the Nobel Banquet with her future husband. In May 2015, it was announced that she would receive the title of princess. The couple married at Slottskyrkan in Stockholm on 13 June 2015.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: On 19 April 2016, Sofia gave birth to their first child, Prince Alexander Erik Hubertus Bertil, Duke of Södermanland at Danderyd Hospital. Their second child, Prince Gabriel Carl Walter, Duke of Dalarna, was born on 31 August 2017 at Danderyd Hospital. Their third child, Prince Julian Herbert Folke, Duke of Halland, was born on 26 March 2021 at Danderyd Hospital.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: On 7 October 2019, Sofia's father-in-law, the king, issued a statement rescinding the royal status of Prince Alexander and Prince Gabriel in an effort to more strictly associate Swedish royalty to the office of the head of state; they are still to be styled as princes and dukes of their provinces, and they remain in the line of succession to the throne. Sofia and Carl Philip commented that their sons now will have more freedom of choice for their future lives.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: In 2010, Hellqvist was one of the co-founders of non-profit organisation "Project Playground", a charity that assists underprivileged children in South Africa. Princess Sofia is the honorary chair.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: To mark the occasion of Prince Carl Philip and Princess Sofia's marriage in 2015, the couple founded Prince Carl Philip and Princess Sofia's Foundation. The foundation's purpose is to counteract bullying.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: Princess Sofia is an honorary chair of Sophiahemmet since 2016. She succeeded Princess Christina, Mrs. Magnuson, who had been honorary chair since 1972.


title: Princess Sofia, Duchess of Värmland

text: In April 2020, the Princess completed a three-day emergency online training course from Sophiahemmet University, created to help hospitals amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. It was announced that she would work as a volunteer at the Sophiahemmet Hospital in Stockholm, where she would support "doctors and nurses through kitchen shifts, disinfecting instruments and cleaning."


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Concrete military bunkers are a ubiquitous sight in Albania, with an average of 5.7 bunkers for every square kilometre (14.7 per square mile). The bunkers () were built during the Stalinist and anti-revisionist government of Enver Hoxha from the 1960s to the 1980s, as the regime fortified Albania by building more than 750,000 bunkers


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Hoxha's program of "bunkerization" ("bunkerizimi") resulted in the construction of bunkers in every corner of the then People's Socialist Republic of Albania, ranging from mountain passes to city streets. They were never used for their intended purpose during the years that Hoxha governed. The cost of constructing them was a drain on Albania's resources, diverting them away from more pressing needs, such as dealing with the country's housing shortage and poor roads.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: The bunkers were abandoned following the dissolution of the communist government in 1992. A few were used in the Albanian insurrection of 1997 and the Kosovo War of 1999. Most are now derelict, though some have been reused for a variety of purposes, including residential accommodation, cafés, storehouses, and shelters for animals or the homeless.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: From the end of World War II to his death in April 1985, Enver Hoxha pursued a style of politics informed by hardline Stalinism as well as elements of Maoism. He broke with the Soviet Union after Nikita Khrushchev embarked on his reformist Khrushchev Thaw, withdrew Albania from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 in protest of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and broke with China after U.S. President Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to China.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: His government was also hostile towards the country's immediate neighbours. Albania did not end its state of war with Greece, left over from the Second World War, until as late as 1987 – two years after Hoxha's death – due to Greek territorial ambitions in southern Albania as well as Greece's status as a NATO member state.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Hoxha was virulently hostile towards the government of Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia, accusing Tito's government of maintaining "an anti-Marxist and chauvinistic attitude towards our Party, our State, and our people". He asserted that Tito intended to take over Albania and make it into the seventh republic of Yugoslavia, and castigated the Yugoslav government's treatment of ethnic Albanians in Kosovo, claiming that "Yugoslav leaders are pursuing a policy of extermination there."


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Albania still maintained some links with the outside world at this time, trading with neutral countries such as Austria and Sweden, and establishing links across the Adriatic Sea with its former invader Italy. However, a modest relaxation of domestic controls was curtailed by Hoxha in 1973 with a renewed wave of repression and purges directed against individuals, the young and the military, whom he feared might threaten his hold on the country. A new constitution was introduced in 1976 that increased the Labor Party's control of the country, limited private property, and forbade foreign loans. The country sank into a decade of isolation and economic stagnation, virtually cut off from the outside world.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Starting in 1967 and continuing until 1986, the Albanian government carried out a policy of "bunkerisation" that saw the construction of hundreds of thousands of bunkers across the country. They were built in every possible location, ranging from "beaches and mountains, in vineyards and pastures, in villages and towns, even on the manicured lawns of Albania's best hotel". Hoxha envisaged Albania fighting a two-front war against an attack mounted by Yugoslavia, NATO or the Warsaw Pact, involving a simultaneous incursion by up to eleven enemy airborne divisions. As he put it, "If we slackened our vigilance even for a moment or toned down our struggle against our enemies in the least, they would strike immediately like the snake that bites you and injects its poison before you are aware of it."


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Albania's military doctrine was based on a concept of "people's war,” drawing on the experience of the Albanian resistance during World War II, which Hoxha had led. The Partisans' victory was mythologized on a massive scale by the Hoxha regime, which used its wartime successes to legitimise its rule. The Albanian People's Army was based on the Partisan model and built around infantry units; 75 percent of the regular forces and 97 percent of reservists were employed in infantry roles.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Partisan strategy was mountain-based guerrilla warfare, in which they took refuge in the mountains and launched raids into the less defensible lowlands. By contrast, Hoxha aimed to defend Albania's national integrity and sovereignty "at all costs", which necessitated defending the lowlands as well. The bunkers were therefore intended to establish defensive positions across the entirety of the country. Smaller ones were laid out in lines radiating out within sight of a large command bunker, which was permanently manned. The commanders of the large bunkers would communicate with their superiors by radio and with the occupants of the smaller bunkers by making visual signals that could be seen through slits.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: The regime also sought intensively to militarise civilians. 800,000 people out of a population of about three million served in defence in some way, ranging from the regular armed forces and reserves to civil defence and student armed youth units. Many sectors of the government, state-owned businesses and the public service were also given roles in defence, meaning that almost the entire population was brought in one way or another into the scope of state defence planning. From the age of three, Albanians were taught that they had to be "vigilant for the enemy within and without," and propaganda slogans constantly emphasised the need for watchfulness.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Citizens were trained from the age of 12 to station themselves in the nearest bunker to repel invaders. Local Party cells organised families to clean and maintain their local bunkers, and civil defence drills were held at least twice a month, lasting for up to three days, in which civilians of military age of both sexes were issued with rifles (but no ammunition).


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Members of the Young Pioneers, the Hoxhaist youth movement, were trained to defend against airborne invasion by fixing pointed spikes to treetops to impale descending foreign parachutists. Despite the militarisation of the population, the Albanian defence system was massively inefficient and took little account of the country's real defence needs; training was minimal, fuel and ammunition were scarce, uniforms and equipment were of poor quality, weapons were antiquated and the military lacked a proper command and control system.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: The bunkers were constructed of concrete, steel and iron and ranged in size from one- or two-person pillboxes with gun slits to large underground nuclear bomb shelters intended for use by the Party leadership and bureaucrats. The most common type of bunker is a small concrete dome set into the ground with a circular bottom extending downwards, just large enough for one or two people to stand inside. Known as "Qender Zjarri" ("firing position") or QZ bunkers, they were prefabricated and transported to their final positions, where they were assembled. They consist of three main elements: a diameter hemispherical concrete dome with a firing slit, a hollow cylinder to support the dome and an outer wall with a radius larger than the cylinder. The gap between the cylinder and outer wall is filled with earth.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: At various places along the coast, large numbers of QZ bunkers were built in groups of three, linked to each other by a prefabricated concrete tunnel. Elsewhere bunkers were constructed in groupings around strategic points across the country, or in lines across swathes of territory. Tirana was particularly heavily defended, with thousands of bunkers radiating out in fifty concentric circles around the city.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: The QZ bunker was designed by military engineer Josif Zagali, who served with the Partisans during World War II and trained in the Soviet Union after the war. He observed how dome-shaped fortifications were virtually impervious to artillery fire and bombs, which simply ricocheted off the dome. He used his knowledge to design the subsequently ubiquitous dome-shaped bunkers. Hoxha was initially delighted with the design and had many thousands of Zagali's bunkers constructed.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: Zagali himself was promoted to the rank of colonel and became chief engineer of the Albanian Ministry of Defence. However, Hoxha's paranoia led to Zagali being purged in 1974 and imprisoned for eight years on false charges of "sabotage" as a "foreign agent". His wife went insane, his family was shunned by friends and acquaintances, and his daughter died of breast cancer. Zagali later said that it was "a painful and tragic fate not only for me and my family but for thousands and thousands of such families in Albania who have experienced the dictatorship of Enver Hoxha". His experiences were later used as the basis of "Kolonel Bunker", a film by Albanian director Kujtim Çashku.


title: Bunkers in Albania

text: The command-and-control bunkers, known as "Pike Zjarri" ("firing point") or PZ bunkers, were also prefabricated and assembled on site. They are far larger and heavier than the QZ bunkers, with a diameter of . They are made from a series of concrete slices, each weighing eight or nine tons, which were concreted together on site to form an interlocking dome. Fully assembled, they weigh between 350–400 tons.