title: History of submarines

text: The Peral Submarine, constructed by Isaac Peral, was launched by the Spanish Navy in the same year, 1888. It had three Schwartzkopff torpedoes 14 in (360 mm) and one torpedo tube in the bow, new air systems, hull shape, propeller, and cruciform external controls anticipating much later designs. "Peral" was an all-electrical powered submarine with an underwater speed of 3 kn (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph). After two years of trials the project was scrapped by naval officialdom who cited, among other reasons, concerns over the range permitted by its batteries.


title: History of submarines

text: Many more designs were built at this time by various inventors, but submarines were not put into service by navies until the turn of the 20th century.


title: History of submarines

text: The turn of the 20th century marked a pivotal time in the development of submarines, with a number of important technologies making their debut, as well as the widespread adoption and fielding of submarines by a number of nations. Diesel electric propulsion would become the dominant power system and instruments such as the periscope would become standardized. Batteries were used for running underwater and gasoline (petrol) or diesel engines were used on the surface and to recharge the batteries. Early boats used gasoline, but quickly gave way to kerosene, then diesel, because of reduced flammability. Effective tactics and weaponry were refined in the early part of the century, and the submarine would have a large impact on 20th century warfare.


title: History of submarines

text: The Irish inventor John Philip Holland built a model submarine in 1876 and a full scale one in 1878, followed by a number of unsuccessful ones. In 1896, he designed the Holland Type VI submarine. This vessel made use of internal combustion engine power on the surface and electric battery power for submerged operations. Launched on 17 May 1897 at Navy Lt. Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey, the Holland VI was purchased by the United States Navy on 11 April 1900, becoming the United States Navy's first commissioned submarine and renamed USS Holland.


title: History of submarines

text: A prototype version of the A-class submarine ("Fulton") was developed at Crescent Shipyard under the supervision of naval architect and shipbuilder from the United Kingdom, Arthur Leopold Busch, for the newly reorganized Electric Boat Company in 1900. The "Fulton" was never commissioned by the United States Navy and was sold to the Imperial Russian Navy in 1905. The submarines were built at two different shipyards on both coasts of the United States. In 1902, Holland received for his relentless pursuit to perfect the modern submarine craft. Many countries became interested in Holland's (weapons) product and purchased the rights to build them during this time.


title: History of submarines

text: The Royal Navy commissioned the Holland-class submarine from Vickers, Barrow-in-Furness, under licence from the Holland Torpedo Boat Company during the years 1901 to 1903. Construction of the boats took longer than anticipated, with the first only ready for a diving trial at sea on 6 April 1902. Although the design had been purchased entirely from the US company, the actual design used was an untested improved version of the original Holland design using a new petrol engine.


title: History of submarines

text: Meanwhile, the French steam and electric "Narval" was commissioned in June 1900 and introduced the classic double-hull design, with a pressure hull inside the outer shell. These 200-ton ships had a range of over underwater. The French submarine "Aigrette" in 1904 further improved the concept by using a diesel rather than a gasoline engine for surface power. Large numbers of these submarines were built, with seventy-six completed before 1914.


title: History of submarines

text: By 1914, all the main powers had submarine fleets, though the development of a strategy for their use lay in the future.


title: History of submarines

text: At the start of World War I, the Royal Navy had the world's largest submarine service by a considerable margin, with 74 boats of the B, C and D classes, of which 15 were oceangoing, with the rest capable of coastal patrols. The D-class, built 1907–1910, were designed to be propelled by diesel motors on the surface to avoid the problems with petrol engines experienced with the A class. These boats were designed for foreign service with an endurance of at on the surface and much-improved living conditions for a larger crew. They were fitted with twin screws for greater maneuverability and with innovative saddle tanks. They were also the first submarines to be equipped with deck guns forward of the conning tower. Armament also included three torpedo tubes (two vertically in the bow and one in the stern). D-class was also the first class of submarine to be equipped with standard wireless transmitters. The aerial was attached to the mast of the conning tower that was lowered before diving. With their enlarged bridge structure, the boat profile was recognisably that of the modern submarine. The D-class submarines were considered to be so innovative that the prototype "D1" was built in utmost secrecy in a securely guarded building shed.


title: History of submarines

text: The British also experimented with other power sources. Oil-fired steam turbines powered the British "K" class submarines built during the First World War and in following years, but these were not very successful.


title: History of submarines

text: The Germans were slower to recognize the importance of this new weapon. A submersible was initially ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy from the Kiel shipyard in 1904, but cancelled after the Russo-Japanese War ended. One example was modified and improved, then commissioned into the Imperial German Navy in 1906 as its first U-boat, "U-1". It had a double hull, was powered by a Körting kerosene engine and was armed with a single torpedo tube. The fifty percent larger "SM U-2" had two torpedo tubes. A diesel engine was not installed in a German navy boat until the class of 1912–13. At the start of World War I, Germany had 20 submarines of 13 classes in service with more under construction.


title: History of submarines

text: Diesel submarines needed air to run their engines, and so carried very large batteries for submerged travel. These limited the speed and range of the submarines while submerged.


title: History of submarines

text: An early submarine snorkel was designed by James Richardson, an assistant manager at Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Greenock, Scotland, as early as 1916. The snorkel allowed the submarine to avoid detection for long periods by travelling under the water using non-electric powered propulsion. Although the company received a British Patent for the design, no further use was made of it—the British Admiralty did not accept it for use in Royal Navy submarines.


title: History of submarines

text: The first German U-boat to be fitted with a snorkel was , which experimented with the equipment in the Baltic Sea during the summer of 1943. The technology was based on pre-war Dutch experiments with a device named a "snuiver" ("sniffer"). As early as 1938, a simple pipe system was installed on the submarines and that enabled them to travel at periscope depth operating on its diesels with almost unlimited underwater range while charging the propulsion batteries. U-boats began to use it operationally in early 1944. By June 1944, about half of the boats stationed in the French bases were fitted with snorkels.


title: History of submarines

text: Various new submarine designs were developed during the interwar years. Among the most notable were submarine aircraft carriers, equipped with a waterproof hangar and steam catapult to launch and recover one or more small seaplanes. The submarine and its plane could then act as a reconnaissance unit ahead of the fleet, an essential role at a time when radar was not available. The first example was the British , followed by the French , and numerous aircraft-carrying submarines in the Imperial Japanese Navy.


title: History of submarines

text: Early submarine designs put the diesel engine and the electric motor on the same shaft, which also drove a propeller with clutches between each of them. This allowed the engine to drive the electric motor as a generator to recharge the batteries and also propel the submarine as required. The clutch between the motor and the engine would be disengaged when the boat dived so that the motor could be used to turn the propeller. The motor could have more than one armature on the shaft – these would be electrically coupled in series for slow speed and parallel for high speed (known as "group down" and "group up" respectively).


title: History of submarines

text: In the 1930s, the principle was modified for some submarine designs, particularly those of the U.S. Navy and the British U class. The engine was no longer attached to the motor/propeller drive shaft, but drove a separate generator, which would drive the motors on the surface and/or recharge the batteries. This diesel-electric propulsion allowed much more flexibility. For example, the submarine could travel slowly whilst the engines were running at full power to recharge the batteries as quickly as possible, reducing time on the surface, or use of its snorkel. Also, it was now possible to insulate the noisy diesel engines from the pressure hull, making the submarine quieter.


title: History of submarines

text: An early form of anaerobic propulsion had already been employed by the in 1864. The engine used a chemical mix containing a peroxide compound, which generated heat for steam propulsion while at the same time solved the problem of oxygen renovation in an hermetic container for breathing purposes. This system was not employed again until 1940 when the German Navy tested a system employing the same principles, the Walter turbine, on the experimental submarine and later on the naval .


title: History of submarines

text: At the end of the Second World War, the British and Russians experimented with hydrogen peroxide/kerosene (paraffin) engines, which could be used both above and below the surface. The results were not encouraging enough for this technique to be adopted at the time, although the Russians deployed a class of submarines with this engine type code named Quebec by NATO. They were considered a failure. Today, several navies, notably Sweden, use air-independent propulsion boats, which substitute liquid oxygen for hydrogen peroxide.


title: History of submarines

text: The first launch of a cruise missile (SSM-N-8 Regulus) from a submarine occurred in July 1953 from the deck of , a World War II fleet boat modified to carry this missile with a nuclear warhead. "Tunny" and her sister boat were the United States' first nuclear deterrent patrol submarines. They were joined in 1958 by two purpose-built Regulus submarines, , , and, later, by the nuclear-powered . So that no target would be left uncovered, four Regulus missiles had to be at sea at any given time. Thus, "Barbero" and "Tunny", each of which carried two Regulus missiles, patrolled simultaneously. "Growler" and "Grayback", with four missiles, or "Halibut", with five, could patrol alone. These five submarines made 40 Regulus strategic deterrent patrols between October 1959 and July 1964. They were replaced by the introduction of a greatly superior system beginning in 1961: the Polaris missile launched from nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs). The Soviet Navy developed submarine-launched ballistic missiles launched from conventional submarines a few years before the US, and paralleled subsequent US development in this area.


title: History of submarines

text: In the 1950s, nuclear power partially replaced diesel-electric propulsion. The sailing of the first nuclear-powered submarine, the USN in 1955 was soon followed by similar British, French and Russian boats. Equipment was also developed to extract oxygen from sea water. These two innovations, together with inertial navigation systems, gave submarines the ability to remain submerged for weeks or months, and enabled previously impossible voyages such as the crossing of the North Pole beneath the Arctic ice cap by the USS "Nautilus" in 1958. Most of the naval submarines built since that time in the United States and the Soviet Union and its successor state the Russian Federation have been powered by nuclear reactors. The limiting factors in submerged endurance for these vessels are food supply and crew morale in the space-limited submarine.


title: History of submarines

text: The Soviet Navy attempted to use a very advanced lead cooled fast reactor on Project 705 "Lira" (NATO Alfa class) beginning in the 1970s, but its maintenance was considered too expensive, and only six submarines of this class were completed. By removing the requirement for atmospheric oxygen all nuclear-powered submarines can stay submerged indefinitely so long as food supplies remain (air is recycled and fresh water distilled from seawater). These vessels always have a small battery and diesel generator installation for emergency use when the reactors have to be shut down.


title: History of submarines

text: While the greater endurance and performance of nuclear reactors mean that nuclear submarines are better for long distance missions or the protection of a carrier battle-force, both countries that do and countries that do not use nuclear power continue to produce conventional diesel-electric submarines, because they can be made stealthier, except when required to run the diesel engine to recharge the ship's battery. Technological advances in sound dampening, noise isolation and cancellation have substantially eroded this advantage. Though far less capable regarding speed and weapons payload, conventional submarines are also cheaper to build. The introduction of air-independent propulsion boats led to increased sales numbers of such types of submarines.


title: History of submarines

text: In 1958 the USN carried out a series of trials with the . Various hull and control configurations were tested to reduce drag and so allow greater underwater speed and maneuverability. The results of these trials were incorporated into the and later submarines. From the same era is the first SSBN, the .


title: History of submarines

text: The German Type 212 submarine was the first series production submarine to use fuel cells for air-independent propulsion. It is powered by nine 34-kilowatt hydrogen fuel cells.


title: History of submarines

text: Most small modern commercial submarines that are not expected to operate independently use batteries that can be recharged by a mother-ship after every dive.


title: History of submarines

text: Towards the end of the 20th century, some submarines were fitted with pump-jet propulsors, instead of propellers. Although these are heavier, more expensive, and often less efficient than a propeller, they are significantly quieter, giving an important tactical advantage.


title: History of submarines

text: A possible propulsion system for submarines is the magnetohydrodynamic drive, or "caterpillar drive", which has no moving parts. It was popularized in the movie version of "The Hunt for Red October", written by Tom Clancy, which portrayed it as a virtually silent system. (In the book, a form of propulsor was used rather than an MHD.) Although some experimental surface ships have been built with this propulsion system, speeds have not been as high as hoped. In addition, the noise created by bubbles, and the higher power settings a submarine's reactor would need, mean that it is unlikely to be considered for any military purpose.


title: History of submarines

text: The first submarines had only a porthole to provide a view to aid navigation. An early periscope was patented by Simon Lake in 1893. The modern periscope was developed by the industrialist Sir Howard Grubb in the early 20th century and was fitted onto most Royal Navy designs.


title: History of submarines

text: Passive sonar was introduced in submarines during the First World War, but active sonar ASDIC did not come into service until the inter-war period. Today, the submarine may have a wide variety of sonar arrays, from bow-mounted to trailing ones. There are often upward-looking under-ice sonars as well as depth sounders.


title: History of submarines

text: Early experiments with the use of sound to 'echo locate' underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial navigation began in the late 19th century. The first patent for an underwater echo ranging device was filed by English meteorologist Lewis Fry Richardson a month after the sinking of the Titanic. The First World War stimulated research in this area. The British made early use of underwater hydrophones, while the French physicist Paul Langevin worked on the development of active sound devices for detecting submarines in 1915 using quartz. In 1916, under the British Board of Invention and Research, Canadian physicist Robert William Boyle took on the active sound detection project with A B Wood, producing a prototype for testing in mid-1917. This work, for the Anti-Submarine Division of the British Naval Staff, was undertaken in utmost secrecy, and used quartz piezoelectric crystals to produce the world's first practical underwater active sound detection apparatus.


title: History of submarines

text: By 1918, both France and Britain had built prototype active systems. The British tested their ASDIC on in 1920, and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-equipped vessels in 1923. An anti-submarine school, HMS "Osprey", and a training flotilla of four vessels were established on the English Isle of Portland in 1924. The US Sonar QB set arrived in 1931.


title: History of submarines

text: Early submarines carried torpedoes mounted externally to the craft. Later designs incorporated the weapons into the internal structure of the submarine. Originally, both bow-mounted and stern-mounted tubes were used, but the latter eventually fell out of favour. Today, only bow-mounted installations are employed. The modern submarine is capable of firing many types of weapon from its launch tubes, including UAVs. Special mine laying submarines were also built. Up until the end of the Second World War, it was common to fit deck guns to submarines to allow them to sink ships without wasting their limited numbers of torpedoes.


title: History of submarines

text: To aid in the weapons targeting mechanical calculators were employed to improve the fire control of the on-board weaponry. The firing calculus was determined by the targets' course and speed through measurements of the angle and its range via the periscope. Today, these calculations are achieved by digital computers with display screens providing necessary information on the torpedo status and ship status.


title: History of submarines

text: German submarines in World War II had rubber coatings and could launch chemical devices to provide a decoy when the boat came under attack. These proved to be ineffective, as sonar operators learned to distinguish between the decoy and the submarine. Modern submarines can launch a variety of devices for the same purpose.


title: History of submarines

text: After the sinking of the "A1" submarine in 1904, lifting eyes were fitted to British submarines, and in 1908 air-locks and escape helmets were provided. The Royal Navy experimented with various types of escape apparatus, but it was not until 1924 that the "Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus" was developed for crew members. The USN used the similar "Momsen Lung". The French used "Joubert's apparatus" and the Germans used "Draeger's apparatus".


title: History of submarines

text: Rescue submarines for evacuating a disabled submarine's crew were developed in the 1970s. A British unmanned vehicle was used for recovering an entangled Russian submarine crew in 2005. A new NATO Submarine Rescue System entered service in 2007.


title: History of submarines

text: Wireless was used to provide communication to and from submarines in the First World War. The D-class submarine was the first submarine class to be fitted with wireless transmitters in 1907. With time, the type, range and bandwidth of the communications systems have increased. With the danger of interception, transmissions by a submarine are minimised. Various periscope-mounted aerials have been developed to allow communication without surfacing.


title: History of submarines

text: The standard navigation system for early submarines was by eye, with use of a compass. The gyrocompass was introduced in the early part of the 20th century and inertial navigation in the 1950s. The use of satellite navigation is of limited use to submarines, except at periscope depth or when surfaced.


title: History of submarines

text: The first military submarine was "Turtle" in 1776. During the American Revolutionary War, "Turtle" (operated by Sgt. Ezra Lee, Continental Army) tried and failed to sink a British warship, HMS "Eagle" (flagship of the blockaders) in New York harbor on September 7, 1776. There is no record of any attack in the ships' logs.


title: History of submarines

text: During the War of 1812, in 1814 Silas Halsey lost his life while using a submarine in an unsuccessful attack on a British warship stationed in New London harbour.


title: History of submarines

text: During the American Civil War, the Union was the first to field a submarine. The French-designed "Alligator" was the first U.S. Navy sub and the first to feature compressed air (for air supply) and an air filtration system. It was the first submarine to carry a diver lock, which allowed a diver to plant electrically detonated mines on enemy ships. Initially hand-powered by oars, it was converted after 6 months to a screw propeller powered by a hand crank. With a crew of 20, it was larger than Confederate submarines. "Alligator" was long and about in diameter. It was lost in a storm off Cape Hatteras on 1 April 1863 while uncrewed and under tow to its first combat deployment at Charleston.


title: History of submarines

text: The "Intelligent Whale" was built by Oliver Halstead and tested by the U.S. Navy after the American Civil War and caused the deaths of 39 men during trials.


title: History of submarines

text: The Confederate States of America fielded several human-powered submarines, including CSS "H. L. Hunley" (named for its designer and chief financier, Horace Lawson Hunley). The first Confederate submarine was the "Pioneer", which sank a target schooner using a towed mine during tests on Lake Pontchartrain, but it was not used in combat. It was scuttled after New Orleans was captured and in 1868 was sold for scrap. The similar Bayou St. John submarine is preserved in the Louisiana State Museum. CSS "Hunley" was intended for attacking Union ships that were blockading Confederate seaports. The submarine had a long pole with an explosive charge in the bow, called a spar torpedo. The sub had to approach an enemy vessel, attach the explosive, move away, and then detonate it. It was extremely hazardous to operate, and had no air supply other than what was contained inside the main compartment. On two occasions, the sub sank; on the first occasion half the crew died, and on the second, the entire eight-man crew (including Hunley himself) drowned. On 17 February 1864, "Hunley" sank USS "Housatonic" off the Charleston Harbor, the first time a submarine successfully sank another ship, though it sank in the same engagement shortly after signalling its success. Submarines did not have a major impact on the outcome of the war, but did portend their coming importance to naval warfare and increased interest in their use in naval warfare.


title: History of submarines

text: On 14 June 1904, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) placed an order for five Holland "Type VII submersibles", which were built in Quincy, Massachusetts, at the "Fore River Yard", and shipped to Yokohama, Japan in sections. The five machines arrived on 12 December 1904. Under the supervision of naval architect Arthur L. Busch, the imported "Hollands" were re-assembled, and the first submersibles were ready for combat operations by August 1905, but hostilities were nearing the end by that date, and no submarines saw action during the war.


title: History of submarines

text: Meanwhile, the Imperial Russian Navy (IRN) purchased German constructed submersibles built by the Germaniawerft shipyards out of Kiel. In 1903, Germany successfully completed its first fully functional engine-powered submarine, "Forelle" (Trout), It was sold to Russia in 1904 and shipped via the Trans-Siberian Railway to the combat zone during the Russo-Japanese War.


title: History of submarines

text: Due to the naval blockade of Port Arthur, Russia sent their remaining submarines to Vladivostok, and by the end of 1904, seven subs were based there. On 1 January 1905, the IRN created the world's first operational submarine fleet around these seven submarines. The first combat patrol by the newly created IRN submarine fleet occurred on 14 February 1905, and was carried out by "Delfin" and "Som", with each patrol normally lasting about 24 hours. "Som" first made contact with the enemy on 29 April, when it was fired upon by IJN torpedo boats, which withdrew shortly after opening fire and resulting in no casualties or damage to either combatant. A second contact occurred on 1 July 1905 in the Tartar Strait when two IJN torpedo boats spotted the IRN sub "Keta". Unable to submerge quickly enough, "Keta" was unable to obtain a proper firing position, and both combatants broke contact.


title: History of submarines

text: The first time military submarines had significant impact on a war was in World War I. Forces such as the U-boats of Germany operated against Allied commerce ("Handelskrieg"); the submarine's ability to function as a practical war machine relied on new tactics, their numbers, and submarine technologies such as combination diesel/electric power system that had been developed in the preceding years. More like submersible ships than the submarines of today, submarines operated primarily on the surface using standard engines, submerging occasionally to attack under battery power. They were roughly triangular in cross-section, with a distinct keel, to control rolling while surfaced, and a distinct bow.


title: History of submarines

text: Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, submarines were employed by the Italian Regia Marina during the Italo-Turkish War without seeing any naval action, and by the Greek Navy during the Balkan Wars, where notably the French-built became the first such vessel to launch a torpedo against an enemy ship (albeit unsuccessfully).


title: History of submarines

text: At the start of the war, Germany had 48 submarines in service or under construction, with 29 operational. These included vessels of the diesel-engined "U-19" class with the range () and speed () to operate effectively around the entire British coast. Initially, Germany followed the international "Prize Rules", which required a ship's crew to be allowed to leave before sinking their ship. The U-boats saw action in the First Battle of the Atlantic.


title: History of submarines

text: After the British ordered transport ships to act as auxiliary cruisers, the German navy adopted unrestricted submarine warfare, generally giving no warning of an attack. During the war, 360 submarines were built, but 178 were lost. The rest were surrendered at the end of the war. A German U-boat sunk and is often cited among the reasons for the entry of the United States into the war.


title: History of submarines

text: In August 1914, a flotilla of ten U-boats sailed from their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea in the first submarine war patrol in history. Their aim was to sink capital ships of the British Grand Fleet, and so reduce the Grand Fleet's numerical superiority over the German High Seas Fleet. Depending more on luck than strategy, the first sortie was not a success. Only one attack was carried out, when "U-15" fired a torpedo (which missed) at , while two of the ten U-boats were lost. The had better luck. On 22 September 1914 while patrolling the Broad Fourteens, a region of the southern North Sea, "U-9" found three obsolescent British armoured cruisers (, , and ), which were assigned to prevent German surface vessels from entering the eastern end of the English Channel. The "U-9" fired all six of its torpedoes, reloading while submerged, and sank the three cruisers in less than an hour.


title: History of submarines

text: The British had 77 operational submarines at the beginning of the war, with 15 under construction. The main type was the E class, but several experimental designs were built, including the K class, which had a reputation for bad luck, and the M class, which had a large deck-mounted gun. The R class was the first boat designed to attack other submarines. British submarines operated in the Baltic, North Sea and Atlantic, as well as in the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Over 50 were lost from various causes during the war.


title: History of submarines

text: France had 62 submarines at the beginning of the war, in 14 different classes. They operated mainly in the Mediterranean; in the course of the war, 12 were lost. The Russians started the war with 58 submarines in service or under construction. The main class was the with 24 boats. Twenty-four submarines were lost during the war.


title: History of submarines

text: Although Germany was banned from having submarines in the Treaty of Versailles, construction started in secret during the 1930s. When this became known, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1936 allowed Germany to achieve parity in submarines with Britain.


title: History of submarines

text: Germany started the war with only 65 submarines, with 21 at sea when war broke out. Germany soon built the largest submarine fleet during World War II. Due to the Treaty of Versailles limiting the surface navy, the rebuilding of the German surface forces had only begun in earnest a year before the outbreak of World War II. Having no hope of defeating the vastly superior Royal Navy decisively in a surface battle, the German High Command planned on fighting a campaign of "Guerre de course" (Merchant warfare), and immediately stopped all construction on capital surface ships, save the nearly completed s and two cruisers, and switched the resources to submarines, which could be built more quickly. Though it took most of 1940 to expand production facilities and to start mass production, more than a thousand submarines were built by the end of the war.


title: History of submarines

text: Germany used submarines to devastating effect in World War II during the Battle of the Atlantic, attempting but ultimately failing to cut off Britain's supply routes by sinking more ships than Britain could replace. The supply lines were vital to Britain for food and industry, as well as armaments from Canada and the United States. Although the U-boats had been updated in the intervening years, the major innovation was improved communications, encrypted using the famous Enigma cipher machine. This allowed for mass-attack tactics or "wolfpacks" (Rudel), but was also ultimately the U-boats' downfall.


title: History of submarines

text: After putting to sea, the U-boats operated mostly on their own trying to find convoys in areas assigned to them by the High Command. If a convoy was found, the submarine did not attack immediately, but shadowed the convoy and radioed to the German Command to allow other submarines in the area to find the convoy. The submarines were then grouped into a larger striking force and attacked the convoy simultaneously, preferably at night while surfaced to avoid the ASDIC.


title: History of submarines

text: During the first few years of World War II, the "Ubootwaffe" ("U-boat force") scored unprecedented success with these tactics ("First Happy Time"), but were too few to have any decisive success. By the spring of 1943, German U-boat construction was at full capacity, but this was more than nullified by increased numbers of convoy escorts and aircraft, as well as technical advances like radar and sonar. High Frequency Direction Finding (HF/DF, known as Huff-Duff) and Ultra allowed the Allies to route convoys around wolfpacks when they detected radio transmissions from trailing boats. The results were devastating: from March to July of that year, over 130 U-boats were lost, 41 in May alone. Concurrent Allied losses dropped dramatically, from 750,000 tons in March to 188,000 in July. Although the Battle of the Atlantic continued to the last day of the war, the U-boat arm was unable to stem the tide of personnel and supplies, paving the way for Operation Torch, Operation Husky, and ultimately, D-Day. Winston Churchill wrote the U-boat "peril" was the only thing to ever give him cause to doubt eventual Allied victory.


title: History of submarines

text: By the end of the war, almost 3,000 Allied ships (175 warships, 2,825 merchantmen) were sunk by U-boats. Of the 40,000 men in the U-boat service, 28,000 (70%) lost their lives.


title: History of submarines

text: The Germans built some novel submarine designs, including the Type XVII, which used hydrogen peroxide in a Walther turbine (named for its designer, Dr Hellmuth Walther) for propulsion. They also produced the Type XXII, which had a large battery and mechanical torpedo handling.


title: History of submarines

text: Italy had 116 submarines in service at the start of the war, with 24 different classes. These operated mainly in the Mediterranean theatre. Some were sent to a base at Bordeaux in Occupied France. A flotilla of several submarines also operated out of the Eritrean colonial port of Massawa.


title: History of submarines

text: Italian designs proved to be unsuitable for use in the Atlantic Ocean. Italian midget submarines were used in attacks against British shipping near the port of Gibraltar.


title: History of submarines

text: The Royal Navy Submarine Service had 70 operational submarines in 1939. Three classes were selected for mass production, the seagoing S class and the oceangoing T class, as well as the coastal U class. All of these classes were built in large numbers during the war.


title: History of submarines

text: The French submarine fleet consisted of over 70 vessels (with some under construction) at the beginning of the war. After the Fall of France, the French-German Armistice required the return of all French submarines to German-controlled ports in France. Some of these submarines were forcibly seized by British forces.


title: History of submarines

text: The main operating theatres for British submarines were off the coast of Norway, in the Mediterranean, where a flotilla of submarines successfully disrupted the Axis replenishment route to North Africa from their base in Malta, as well as in the North Sea. As Germany was a Continental power, there was little opportunity for the British to sink German shipping in this theatre of the Atlantic.


title: History of submarines

text: From 1940, U-class submarines were stationed at Malta, to interdict enemy supplies bound for North Africa. Over a period of three years, this force sank over 1 million tons of shipping, and fatally undermined the attempts of the German High Command to adequately support General Erwin Rommel. Rommel's Chief of Staff, Fritz Bayerlein conceded that "We would have taken Alexandria and reached the Suez Canal, if it had not been for the work of your submarines". 45 vessels were lost during this campaign, and five Victoria Crosses were awarded to submariners serving in this theatre.


title: History of submarines

text: In addition, British submarines attacked Japanese shipping in the Far East, during the Pacific campaign. The Eastern Fleet was responsible for submarine operations in the Bay of Bengal, Strait of Malacca as far as Singapore, and the western coast of Sumatra to the Equator. Few large Japanese cargo ships operated in this area, and the British submarines' main targets were small craft operating in inshore waters. The submarines were deployed to conduct reconnaissance, interdict Japanese supplies travelling to Burma, and attack U-boats operating from Penang. The Eastern Fleet's submarine force continued to expand during 1944, and by October 1944 had sunk a cruiser, three submarines, six small naval vessels, of merchant ships, and nearly 100 small vessels. In this theatre, the only documented instance of a submarine sinking another submarine while both were submerged occurred. engaged the and the "Venturer" crew manually computed a successful firing solution against a three-dimensionally maneuvering target using techniques which became the basis of modern torpedo computer targeting systems.


title: History of submarines

text: By March 1945, British boats had gained control of the Strait of Malacca, preventing any supplies from reaching the Japanese forces in Burma by sea. By this time, there were few large Japanese ships in the region, and the submarines mainly operated against small ships which they attacked with their deck guns. The submarine torpedoed and sank the heavy cruiser in the Bangka Strait, taking down some 1,200 Japanese army troops. Three British submarines (, , and ) were sunk by the Japanese during the war.


title: History of submarines

text: Japan had the most varied fleet of submarines of World War II, including manned torpedoes (Kaiten), midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki, Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines (many for use by the Army), long-range fleet submarines (many of which carried an aircraft), submarines with the highest submerged speeds of the conflict (Sentaka "I-200"), and submarines that could carry multiple aircraft (World War II's largest submarine, the Sentoku "I-400"). These submarines were also equipped with the most advanced torpedo of the conflict, the oxygen-propelled Type 95 (what U.S. historian Samuel E. Morison postwar called "Long Lance").


title: History of submarines

text: Overall, despite their technical prowess, Japanese submarines – having been incorporated into the Imperial Navy's war plan of "Guerre D' Escadre" (Fleet Warfare), in contrast to Germany's war plan of "Guerre De Course" – were relatively unsuccessful. Japanese submarines were primarily used in offensive roles against warships, which were fast, maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In 1942, Japanese submarines sank two fleet aircraft carriers, one cruiser, and several destroyers and other warships, and damaged many others, including two battleships. They were not able to sustain these results afterward, as Allied fleets were reinforced and became better organized. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often used to transport supplies to island garrisons. During the war, Japan managed to sink about 1 million tons of merchant shipping (184 ships), compared to 1.5 million tons for Great Britain (493 ships), 4.65 million tons for the U.S. (1,079 ships) and 14.3 million tons for Germany (2,840 ships).


title: History of submarines

text: Early models were not very maneuverable underwater, could not dive very deep, and lacked radar. Later in the war, units that were fitted with radar were in some instances sunk due to the ability of U.S. radar sets to detect their emissions. For example, sank three such equipped submarines in the span of four days. After the war, several of Japan's most original submarines were sent to Hawaii for inspection in "Operation Road's End" ("I-400", "I-401", "I-201" and "I-203") before being scuttled by the U.S. Navy in 1946, when the Soviets demanded access to the submarines as well.


title: History of submarines

text: After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many of the U.S. Navy's front-line Pacific Fleet surface ships were destroyed or severely damaged. The submarines survived the attack and carried the war to the enemy. Lacking support vessels, the submarines were asked to independently hunt and destroy Japanese ships and submarines. They did so very effectively.


title: History of submarines

text: During World War II, the submarine force was the most effective anti-ship and anti-submarine weapon in the entire American arsenal. Submarines, though only about 2 percent of the U.S. Navy, destroyed over 30 percent of the Japanese Navy, including 8 aircraft carriers, 1 battleship and 11 cruisers. U.S. submarines also destroyed over 60 percent of the Japanese merchant fleet, crippling Japan's ability to supply its military forces and industrial war effort. Allied submarines in the Pacific War destroyed more Japanese shipping than all other weapons combined. This feat was considerably aided by the Imperial Japanese Navy's failure to provide adequate escort forces for the nation's merchant fleet.


title: History of submarines

text: Whereas Japanese submarine torpedoes of the war are considered the best, those of U.S. Navy are considered the worst. For example, the U.S. Mark 14 torpedo typically ran too deep and was tipped with a Mk VI exploder, with both magnetic influence and contact features, neither reliable. The faulty depth control mechanism of the Mark 14 was corrected in August 1942, but field trials for the exploders were not ordered until mid-1943, when tests in Hawaii and Australia confirmed the flaws. In addition, the Mark 14 sometimes suffered circular runs, which sank at least one U.S. submarine, . Fully operational Mark 14 torpedoes were not put into service until September 1943. The Mark 15 torpedo used by U.S. surface combatants had the same Mk VI exploder and was not fixed until late 1943. One attempt to correct the problems resulted in a wakeless, electric torpedo (the Mark 18) being placed in submarine service. was lost to a circular run by one of these torpedoes. Given the prevalence of circular runs, there were probably other losses among boats which simply disappeared.


title: History of submarines

text: During World War II, 314 submarines served in the United States Navy, of which nearly 260 were deployed to the Pacific. On 7 December 1941, 111 boats were in commission and 203 submarines from the , , and es were commissioned during the war. During the war, 52 US submarines were lost to all causes, with 48 directly due to hostilities; 3,505 sailors were lost, the highest percentage killed in action of any US service arm in World War II. U.S. submarines sank 1,560 enemy vessels, a total tonnage of 5.3 million tons (55% of the total sunk), including 8 aircraft carriers, a battleship, three heavy cruisers, and over 200 other warships, and damaged several other ships including the battleships (badly damaged by ) and (damaged by ). In addition, the Japanese merchant marine lost 16,200 sailors killed and 53,400 wounded, of some 122,000 at the start of the war, due to submarines.


title: History of submarines

text: During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union maintained large submarine fleets that engaged in cat-and-mouse games. This continues today, on a much-reduced scale. The Soviet Union suffered the loss of at least four submarines during this period: was lost in 1968 (which the CIA attempted to retrieve from the ocean floor with the Howard Hughes-designed ship named "Glomar Explorer"), in 1970, in 1986, and "Komsomolets" in 1989. Many other Soviet subs, such as were badly damaged by fire or radiation leaks. The United States lost two nuclear submarines during this time: and . The "Thresher" was lost due to equipment failure, and the exact cause of the loss of the "Scorpion" is not known.


title: History of submarines

text: The sinking of in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was the first submarine casualty in the South Asian region.


title: History of submarines

text: The United Kingdom employed nuclear-powered submarines against Argentina during the 1982 Falklands War. The sinking of the cruiser by was the first sinking by a nuclear-powered submarine in war. During this conflict, the conventional Argentinian submarine ARA "Santa Fé" was disabled by a Sea Skua missile, and the claimed to have made unsuccessful attacks on the British fleet.


title: History of submarines

text: Up to August 1914, there were 68 submarine accidents. There were 23 collisions, 7 battery gas explosions, 12 gasoline explosions, and 13 sinkings due to hull openings not being closed. was lost in the English Channel in 1951 due to the snort mast fracturing and in 1963 due to a pipe weld failure during a test dive. Many other scenarios have been proven to be probable causes of sinking, most notably a battery malfunction causing a torpedo to detonate internally, and the loss of the Russian "Kursk" on 12 August 2000 probably due to a torpedo explosion. An example of the latter was the incident between the Russian "K-276" and the in February 1992.


title: History of submarines

text: Since 2000, there have been 9 major naval incidents involving submarines. There were three Russian submarine incidents, in two of which the submarines in question were lost, along with three United States submarine incidents, one Chinese incident, one Canadian, and one Australian incident. In August 2005, "AS-28", a Russian Priz-class rescue submarine, was trapped by cables and/or nets off of Petropavlovsk, and saved when a British ROV cut them free in a massive international effort.


title: Santosh Anand

text: Santosh Anand was born in the town of Sikandrabad District Bulandshahr (30 km from Ghaziabad on G T Road towards Buland shahar). He began his career in 1970 with the film "Purab Aur Paschim". This film's soundtrack was composed by Kalyanji-Anandji. He wrote his favorite song "Ek Pyar Ka Naghma Hai" in 1972 film Shor. It was composed by Laxmikant-Pyarelal and sung by Mukesh and Lata Mangeshkar. He provided lyrics for the 1974 film "Roti Kapda Aur Makaan", also composed by Laxmikant-Pyarelal. Its song included "Aur Nahin Bas Aur Nahin," sung by Mahendra Kapoor, and the duet "Main Na Bhoolunga," sung by Mukesh and Lata Mangeshkar. Santosh obtained his first Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist for that film.


title: Santosh Anand

text: He penned the songs for the film "Kranti" (1981), the highest-grossing Hindi film of that year. The same year, he penned songs such as "Tera Saath Hai To" and "Megha Re Megha Re" in the film Pyaasa Sawan. In 1982, he penned the song "Mohabbat Hai Kya Cheez" under Laxmikant-Pyarelal in the film Prem Rog. He was awarded his second and last Filmfare Award for Best Lyricist for this song.


title: Santosh Anand

text: Santosh Anand started his career in the 1970 film "Purab Aur Paschim" under Kalyanji-Anandji. His soundtracks such as "Shor, Roti Kapda Aur Makan, Kranti, Pyaasa Sawan" and "Prem Rog" all had music by Laxmikant-Pyarelal. His only collaboration with music directors is limited to L-P.


title: Santosh Anand

text: His songs "Ek Pyar Ka Naghma Hai", "Main Na Bhoolunga", "Yeh Galiyan Yeh Chaubara", "Tera Saath Hai To", "Megha Re Megha Re" were all sung by the singer Lata Mangeshkar. Anuradha Paudwal also sung for him in movies like "Junoon" (1992) and "Tahalka" (1992). Among male singers, Mukesh, Mahendra Kapoor and Mohammed Aziz sang songs penned by him.


title: Agent-based model

text: An agent-based model (ABM) is a computational model for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) in order to understand the behavior of a system and what governs its outcomes. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to understand the stochasticity of these models. Particularly within ecology, ABMs are also called individual-based models (IBMs). A review of recent literature on individual-based models, agent-based models, and multiagent systems shows that ABMs are used in many scientific domains including biology, ecology and social science. Agent-based modeling is related to, but distinct from, the concept of multi-agent systems or multi-agent simulation in that the goal of ABM is to search for explanatory insight into the collective behavior of agents obeying simple rules, typically in natural systems, rather than in designing agents or solving specific practical or engineering problems.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent-based models are a kind of microscale model that simulate the simultaneous operations and interactions of multiple agents in an attempt to re-create and predict the appearance of complex phenomena. The process is one of emergence, which some express as "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". In other words, higher-level system properties emerge from the interactions of lower-level subsystems. Or, macro-scale state changes emerge from micro-scale agent behaviors. Or, simple behaviors (meaning rules followed by agents) generate complex behaviors (meaning state changes at the whole system level).


title: Agent-based model

text: Individual agents are typically characterized as boundedly rational, presumed to be acting in what they perceive as their own interests, such as reproduction, economic benefit, or social status, using heuristics or simple decision-making rules. ABM agents may experience "learning", adaptation, and reproduction.


title: Agent-based model

text: Most agent-based models are composed of: (1) numerous agents specified at various scales (typically referred to as agent-granularity); (2) decision-making heuristics; (3) learning rules or adaptive processes; (4) an interaction topology; and (5) an environment. ABMs are typically implemented as computer simulations, either as custom software, or via ABM toolkits, and this software can be then used to test how changes in individual behaviors will affect the system's emerging overall behavior.


title: Agent-based model

text: The idea of agent-based modeling was developed as a relatively simple concept in the late 1940s. Since it requires computation-intensive procedures, it did not become widespread until the 1990s.


title: Agent-based model

text: The history of the agent-based model can be traced back to the Von Neumann machine, a theoretical machine capable of reproduction. The device von Neumann proposed would follow precisely detailed instructions to fashion a copy of itself. The concept was then built upon by von Neumann's friend Stanislaw Ulam, also a mathematician; Ulam suggested that the machine be built on paper, as a collection of cells on a grid. The idea intrigued von Neumann, who drew it up—creating the first of the devices later termed cellular automata.


title: Agent-based model

text: Another advance was introduced by the mathematician John Conway. He constructed the well-known Game of Life. Unlike von Neumann's machine, Conway's Game of Life operated by simple rules in a virtual world in the form of a 2-dimensional checkerboard.


title: Agent-based model

text: The Simula programming language, developed in the mid 1960s and widely implemented by the early 1970s, was the first framework for automating step-by-step agent simulations.


title: Agent-based model

text: One of the earliest agent-based models in concept was Thomas Schelling's segregation model, which was discussed in his paper "Dynamic Models of Segregation" in 1971. Though Schelling originally used coins and graph paper rather than computers, his models embodied the basic concept of agent-based models as autonomous agents interacting in a shared environment with an observed aggregate, emergent outcome.


title: Agent-based model

text: In the early 1980s, Robert Axelrod hosted a tournament of Prisoner's Dilemma strategies and had them interact in an agent-based manner to determine a winner. Axelrod would go on to develop many other agent-based models in the field of political science that examine phenomena from ethnocentrism to the dissemination of culture.


title: Agent-based model

text: By the late 1980s, Craig Reynolds' work on flocking models contributed to the development of some of the first biological agent-based models that contained social characteristics. He tried to model the reality of lively biological agents, known as artificial life, a term coined by Christopher Langton.


title: Agent-based model

text: The first use of the word "agent" and a definition as it is currently used today is hard to track down. One candidate appears to be John Holland and John H. Miller's 1991 paper "Artificial Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory", based on an earlier conference presentation of theirs.


title: Agent-based model

text: At the same time, during the 1980s, social scientists, mathematicians, operations researchers, and a scattering of people from other disciplines developed Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory (CMOT). This field grew as a special interest group of The Institute of Management Sciences (TIMS) and its sister society, the Operations Research Society of America (ORSA).


title: Agent-based model

text: The 1990s were especially notable for the expansion of ABM within the social sciences, one notable effort was the large-scale ABM, Sugarscape, developed by


title: Agent-based model

text: Joshua M. Epstein and Robert Axtell to simulate and explore the role of social phenomena such as seasonal migrations, pollution, sexual reproduction, combat, and transmission of disease and even culture. Other notable 1990s developments included Carnegie Mellon University's Kathleen Carley ABM, to explore the co-evolution of social networks and culture.


title: Agent-based model

text: During this 1990s timeframe Nigel Gilbert published the first textbook on Social Simulation: Simulation for the social scientist (1999) and established a journal from the perspective of social sciences: the "Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation" (JASSS). Other than JASSS, agent-based models of any discipline are within scope of SpringerOpen journal "Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling" (CASM).


title: Agent-based model

text: Through the mid-1990s, the social sciences thread of ABM began to focus on such issues as designing effective teams, understanding the communication required for organizational effectiveness, and the behavior of social networks. CMOT—later renamed Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)—incorporated more and more agent-based modeling. Samuelson (2000) is a good brief overview of the early history, and Samuelson (2005) and Samuelson and Macal (2006) trace the more recent developments.


title: Agent-based model

text: In the late 1990s, the merger of TIMS and ORSA to form INFORMS, and the move by INFORMS from two meetings each year to one, helped to spur the CMOT group to form a separate society, the North American Association for Computational Social and Organizational Sciences (NAACSOS). Kathleen Carley was a major contributor, especially to models of social networks, obtaining National Science Foundation funding for the annual conference and serving as the first President of NAACSOS. She was succeeded by David Sallach of the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory, and then by Michael Prietula of Emory University. At about the same time NAACSOS began, the European Social Simulation Association (ESSA) and the Pacific Asian Association for Agent-Based Approach in Social Systems Science (PAAA), counterparts of NAACSOS, were organized. As of 2013, these three organizations collaborate internationally. The First World Congress on Social Simulation was held under their joint sponsorship in Kyoto, Japan, in August 2006. The Second World Congress was held in the northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C., in July 2008, with George Mason University taking the lead role in local arrangements.


title: Agent-based model

text: More recently, Ron Sun developed methods for basing agent-based simulation on models of human cognition, known as cognitive social simulation. Bill McKelvey, Suzanne Lohmann, Dario Nardi, Dwight Read and others at UCLA have also made significant contributions in organizational behavior and decision-making. Since 2001, UCLA has arranged a conference at Lake Arrowhead, California, that has become another major gathering point for practitioners in this field.


title: Agent-based model

text: Most computational modeling research describes systems in equilibrium or as moving between equilibria. Agent-based modeling, however, using simple rules, can result in different sorts of complex and interesting behavior. The three ideas central to agent-based models are agents as objects, emergence, and complexity.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent-based models consist of dynamically interacting rule-based agents. The systems within which they interact can create real-world-like complexity. Typically agents are


title: Agent-based model

text: situated in space and time and reside in networks or in lattice-like neighborhoods. The location of the agents and their responsive behavior are encoded in algorithmic form in computer programs. In some cases, though not always, the agents may be considered as intelligent and purposeful. In ecological ABM (often referred to as "individual-based models" in ecology), agents may, for example, be trees in a forest, and would not be considered intelligent, although they may be "purposeful" in the sense of optimizing access to a resource (such as water).


title: Agent-based model

text: The modeling process is best described as inductive. The modeler makes those assumptions thought most relevant to the situation at hand and then watches phenomena emerge from the agents' interactions. Sometimes that result is an equilibrium. Sometimes it is an emergent pattern. Sometimes, however, it is an unintelligible mangle.


title: Agent-based model

text: In some ways, agent-based models complement traditional analytic methods. Where analytic methods enable humans to characterize the equilibria of a system, agent-based models allow the possibility of generating those equilibria. This generative contribution may be the most mainstream of the potential benefits of agent-based modeling. Agent-based models can explain the emergence of higher-order patterns—network structures of terrorist organizations and the Internet, power-law distributions in the sizes of traffic jams, wars, and stock-market crashes, and social segregation that persists despite populations of tolerant people. Agent-based models also can be used to identify lever points, defined as moments in time in which interventions have extreme consequences, and to distinguish among types of path dependency.


title: Agent-based model

text: Rather than focusing on stable states, many models consider a system's robustness—the ways that complex systems adapt to internal and external pressures so as to maintain their functionalities. The task of harnessing that complexity requires consideration of the agents themselves—their diversity, connectedness, and level of interactions.


title: Agent-based model

text: Recent work on the Modeling and simulation of Complex Adaptive Systems has demonstrated the need for combining agent-based and complex network based models. describe a framework consisting of four levels of developing models of complex adaptive systems described using several example multidisciplinary case studies:


title: Agent-based model

text: Other methods of describing agent-based models include code templates and text-based methods such as the ODD (Overview, Design concepts, and Design Details) protocol.


title: Agent-based model

text: The role of the environment where agents live, both macro and micro, is also becoming an important factor in agent-based modelling and simulation work. Simple environment affords simple agents, but complex environments generates diversity of behaviour.


title: Agent-based model

text: One strength of agent-based modelling is its ability to mediate information flow between scales. When additional details about an agent are needed, a researcher can integrate it with models describing the extra details. When one is interested in the emergent behaviours demonstrated by the agent population, they can combine the agent-based model with a continuum model describing population dynamics. For example, in a study about CD4+ T cells (a key cell type in the adaptive immune system), the researchers modelled biological phenomena occurring at different spatial (intracellular, cellular, and systemic), temporal, and organizational scales (signal transduction, gene regulation, metabolism, cellular behaviors, and cytokine transport). In the resulting modular model, signal transduction and gene regulation are described by a logical model, metabolism by constraint-based models, cell population dynamics are described by an agent-based model, and systemic cytokine concentrations by ordinary differential equations. In this multi-scale model, the agent-based model occupies the central place and orchestrates every stream of information flow between scales.


title: Agent-based model

text: We live in a very complex world where we face complex phenomena such as the formation of social norms and emergence of new disruptive technologies. To better understand such phenomena, social scientists often use a reductionism approach where they reduce complex systems to lower-lever variables and model the relationships among them through a scheme of equations such as partial differential equation (PDE). This approach that is called equation-based modeling (EBM) has some basic weaknesses in modeling real complex systems. EBMs emphasize nonrealistic assumptions, such as unbounded rationality and perfect information, while adaptability, evolvability, and network effects go unaddressed. In tackling deficiencies of reductionism, the framework of complex adaptive systems (CAS) has proven very influential in the past two decades. In contrast to reductionism, in the CAS framework, complex phenomena are studied in an organic manner where their agents are supposed to be both boundedly rational and adaptive. As a powerful methodology for CAS modeling, agent-based modeling (ABM) has gained a growing popularity among academics and practitioners. ABMs show how agents’ simple behavioral rules and their local interactions at micro-scale can generate surprisingly complex patterns at macro-scale.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent-based modeling has been used extensively in biology, including the analysis of the spread of epidemics, and the threat of biowarfare, biological applications including population dynamics, stochastic gene expression, plant-animal interactions, vegetation ecology, landscape diversity, sociobiology, the growth and decline of ancient civilizations, evolution of ethnocentric behavior, forced displacement/migration, language choice dynamics, cognitive modeling, and biomedical applications including modeling 3D breast tissue formation/morphogenesis, the effects of ionizing radiation on mammary stem cell subpopulation dynamics, inflammation,


title: Agent-based model

text: and the human immune system. Agent-based models have also been used for developing decision support systems such as for breast cancer. Agent-based models are increasingly being used to model pharmacological systems in early stage and pre-clinical research to aid in drug development and gain insights into biological systems that would not be possible "a priori". Military applications have also been evaluated. Moreover, agent-based models have been recently employed to study molecular-level biological systems. Agent-based models have also been written to describe ecological processes at work in ancient systems, such as those in dinosaur environments and more recent ancient systems as well.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent-based models now complement traditional compartmental models, the usual type of epidemiological models. ABMs have been shown to be superior to compartmental models in regard to the accuracy of predictions. Recently, ABMs such as CovidSim by epidemiologist Neil Ferguson, have been used to inform public health (nonpharmaceutical) interventions against the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Epidemiological ABMs have been criticized for simplifying and unrealistic assumptions. Still, they can be useful in informing decisions regarding mitigation and suppression measures in cases when ABMs are accurately calibrated.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent-based models have been used since the mid-1990s to solve a variety of business and technology problems. Examples of applications include marketing, organizational behaviour and cognition, team working, supply chain optimization and logistics, modeling of consumer behavior, including word of mouth, social network effects, distributed computing, workforce management, and portfolio management. They have also been used to analyze traffic congestion.


title: Agent-based model

text: Recently, agent based modelling and simulation has been applied to various domains such as studying the impact of publication venues by researchers in the computer science domain (journals versus conferences). In addition, ABMs have been used to simulate information delivery in ambient assisted environments. A November 2016 article in arXiv analyzed an agent based simulation of posts spread in Facebook. In the domain of peer-to-peer, ad hoc and other self-organizing and complex networks, the usefulness of agent based modeling and simulation has been shown. The use of a computer science-based formal specification framework coupled with wireless sensor networks and an agent-based simulation has recently been demonstrated.


title: Agent-based model

text: Agent based evolutionary search or algorithm is a new research topic for solving complex optimization problems.


title: Agent-based model

text: Prior to, and in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, interest has grown in ABMs as possible tools for economic analysis. ABMs do not assume the economy can achieve equilibrium and "representative agents" are replaced by agents with diverse, dynamic, and interdependent behavior including herding. ABMs take a "bottom-up" approach and can generate extremely complex and volatile simulated economies. ABMs can represent unstable systems with crashes and booms that develop out of non-linear (disproportionate) responses to proportionally small changes. A July 2010 article in "The Economist" looked at ABMs as alternatives to DSGE models. The journal "Nature" also encouraged agent-based modeling with an editorial that suggested ABMs can do a better job of representing financial markets and other economic complexities than standard models along with an essay by J. Doyne Farmer and Duncan Foley that argued ABMs could fulfill both the desires of Keynes to represent a complex economy and of Robert Lucas to construct models based on microfoundations. Farmer and Foley pointed to progress that has been made using ABMs to model parts of an economy, but argued for the creation of a very large model that incorporates low level models. By modeling a complex system of analysts based on three distinct behavioral profiles – imitating, anti-imitating, and indifferent – financial markets were simulated to high accuracy. Results showed a correlation between network morphology and the stock market index. However, the ABM approach has been criticized for its lack of robustness between models, where similar models can yield very different results.


title: Agent-based model

text: ABMs have been deployed in architecture and urban planning to evaluate design and to simulate pedestrian flow in the urban environment and the examination of public policy applications to land-use. There is also a growing field of socio-economic analysis of infrastructure investment impact using ABM's ability to discern systemic impacts upon a socio-economic network. Heterogeneity and dynamics can be easily built in ABM models to address wealth inequality and social mobility.


title: Agent-based model

text: ABMs have also been applied in water resources planning and management, particularly for exploring, simulating, and predicting the performance of infrastructure design and policy decisions, and in assessing the value of cooperation and information exchange in large water resources systems.


title: Agent-based model

text: The agent-directed simulation (ADS) metaphor distinguishes between two categories, namely "Systems for Agents" and "Agents for Systems." Systems for Agents (sometimes referred to as agents systems) are systems implementing agents for the use in engineering, human and social dynamics, military applications, and others. Agents for Systems are divided in two subcategories. Agent-supported systems deal with the use of agents as a support facility to enable computer assistance in problem solving or enhancing cognitive capabilities. Agent-based systems focus on the use of agents for the generation of model behavior in a system evaluation (system studies and analyses).


title: Agent-based model

text: Hallerbach et al. discussed the application of agent-based approaches for the development and validation of automated driving systems via a digital twin of the vehicle-under-test and microscopic traffic simulation based on independent agents. Waymo has created a multi-agent simulation environment Carcraft to test algorithms for self-driving cars. It simulates traffic interactions between human drivers, pedestrians and automated vehicles. People's behavior is imitated by artificial agents based on data of real human behavior. The basic idea of using agent-based modeling to understand self-driving cars was discussed as early as 2003.


title: Agent-based model

text: Many ABM frameworks are designed for serial von-Neumann computer architectures, limiting the speed and scalability of implemented models. Since emergent behavior in large-scale ABMs is dependent of population size, scalability restrictions may hinder model validation. Such limitations have mainly been addressed using distributed computing, with frameworks such as Repast HPC specifically dedicated to these type of implementations. While such approaches map well to cluster and supercomputer architectures, issues related to communication and synchronization, as well as deployment complexity, remain potential obstacles for their widespread adoption.


title: Agent-based model

text: A recent development is the use of data-parallel algorithms on Graphics Processing Units GPUs for ABM simulation. The extreme memory bandwidth combined with the sheer number crunching power of multi-processor GPUs has enabled simulation of millions of agents at tens of frames per second.


title: Agent-based model

text: Since Agent-Based Modeling is more of a modeling framework than a particular piece of software or platform, it has often been used in conjunction with other modeling forms. For instance, agent-based models have also been combined with Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This provides a useful combination where the ABM serves as a process model and the GIS system can provide a model of pattern. Similarly, Social Network Analysis (SNA) tools and agent-based models are sometimes integrated, where the ABM is used to simulate the dynamics on the network while the SNA tool models and analyzes the network of interactions.


title: Agent-based model

text: Verification and validation (V&V) of simulation models is extremely important. Verification involves making sure the implemented model matches the conceptual model, whereas validation ensures that the implemented model has some relationship to the real-world. Face validation, sensitivity analysis, calibration, and statistical validation are different aspects of validation. A discrete-event simulation framework approach for the validation of agent-based systems has been proposed. A comprehensive resource on empirical validation of agent-based models can be found here.


title: Agent-based model

text: As an example of V&V technique, consider VOMAS (virtual overlay multi-agent system), a software engineering based approach, where a virtual overlay multi-agent system is developed alongside the agent-based model. Muazi et al. also provide an example of using VOMAS for verification and validation of a forest fire simulation model. Another software engineering method, i.e. Test-Driven Development has been adapted to for agent-based model validation. This approach has another advantage that allows an automatic validation using unit test tools.


title: Primordial soup

text: Primordial soup, also known as, primordial goo, primordial ooze, prebiotic soup and prebiotic broth, is the hypothetical set of conditions present on the Earth around 3.7 to 4.0 billion years ago. It is an aspect of the heterotrophic theory (also known as the Oparin–Haldane hypothesis) concerning the origin of life, first proposed by Alexander Oparin in 1924, and J. B. S. Haldane in 1929.


title: Primordial soup

text: As formulated by Oparin, in the primitive Earth's surface layers, carbon, hydrogen, water vapour, and ammonia reacted to form the first organic compounds. The concept of a primordial soup gained credence in 1953 when the "Miller–Urey experiment" used a highly reduced mixture of gases—methane, ammonia and hydrogen—to form basic organic monomers, such as amino acids.


title: Primordial soup

text: The notion that living beings originated from inanimate materials comes from the Ancient Greeks—the theory known as spontaneous generation. Aristotle in the 4th century BCE gave a proper explanation, writing:


title: Primordial soup

text: Aristotle also states that it is not only that animals originate from other similar animals, but also that living things do arise and always have arisen from lifeless matter. His theory remained the dominant idea on origin of life (outside that of deity as a causal agent) from the ancient philosophers to the Renaissance thinkers in various forms. With the birth of modern science, experimental refutations emerged. Italian physician Francesco Redi demonstrated in 1668 that maggots developed from rotten meat only in a jar where flies could enter, but not in a closed-lid jar. He concluded that: "omne vivum ex vivo" (All life comes from life).


title: Primordial soup

text: The experiment of French chemist Louis Pasteur in 1859 is regarded as the death blow to spontaneous generation. He experimentally showed that organisms (microbes) can not grow in sterilised water, unless it is exposed to air. The experiment won him the Alhumbert Prize in 1862 from the French Academy of Sciences, and he concluded: "Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow of this simple experiment."


title: Primordial soup

text: Evolutionary biologists believed that a kind of spontaneous generation, but different from the simple Aristotelian doctrine, must have worked for the emergence of life. French biologist Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck had speculated that the first life form started from non-living materials. "Nature, by means of heat, light, electricity and moisture", he wrote in 1809 in "Philosophie Zoologique" ("The Philosophy of Zoology"), "forms direct or spontaneous generation at that extremity of each kingdom of living bodies, where the simplest of these bodies are found".


title: Primordial soup

text: When English naturalist Charles Darwin introduced the theory of natural selection in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species", his supporters, such as the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, criticised him for not using his theory to explain the origin of life. Haeckel wrote in 1862: "The chief defect of the Darwinian theory is that it throws no light on the origin of the primitive organism—probably a simple cell—from which all the others have descended. When Darwin assumes a special creative act for this first species, he is not consistent, and, I think, not quite sincere."


title: Primordial soup

text: Although Darwin did not speak explicitly about the origin of life in "On the Origin of Species", he did mention a "warm little pond" in a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker dated February 1, 1871:


title: Primordial soup

text: A coherent scientific argument was introduced by Soviet biochemist Alexander Oparin in 1924. According to Oparin, in the primitive Earth's surface, carbon, hydrogen, water vapour, and ammonia reacted to form the first organic compounds. Unbeknownst to Oparin, whose writing was circulated only in Russian, an English scientist J. B. S. Haldane independently arrived at a similar conclusion in 1929. It was Haldane who first used the term "soup" to describe the accumulation of organic material and water in the primitive Earth


title: Primordial soup

text: According to the theory, organic compounds essential for life forms were synthesized in the primitive Earth under prebiotic conditions. The mixture of inorganic and organic compounds with water on the primitive Earth became the prebiotic or primordial soup. There, life originated and the first forms of life were able to use the organic molecules to survive and reproduce. Today the theory is variously known as the heterotrophic theory, heterotrophic origin of life theory, or the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis. Biochemist Robert Shapiro has summarized the basic points of the theory in its "mature form" as follows:


title: Primordial soup

text: Alexander Oparin first postulated his theory in Russian in 1924 in a small pamphlet titled "Proiskhozhdenie Zhizny " ("The Origin of Life"). According to Oparin, the primitive Earth's surface had a thick red-hot liquid, composed of heavy elements such as carbon (in the form of iron carbide). This nucleus was surrounded by the lightest elements, i.e. gases, such as hydrogen. In the presence of water vapour, carbides reacted with hydrogen to form hydrocarbons. Such hydrocarbons were the first organic molecules. These further combined with oxygen and ammonia to produce hydroxy- and amino-derivatives, such as carbohydrates and proteins. These molecules accumulated on the ocean's surface, becoming gel-like substances and growing in size. They gave rise to primitive organisms (cells), which he called coacervates. In his original theory, Oparin considered oxygen as one of the primordial gases; thus the primordial atmosphere was an oxidising one. However, when he elaborated his theory in 1936 (in a book by the same title, and translated into English in 1938), he modified the chemical composition of the primordial environment as strictly reducing, consisting of methane, ammonia, free hydrogen and water vapour—excluding oxygen.


title: Primordial soup

text: In his 1936 work, impregnated by a Darwinian thought that involved a slow and gradual evolution from the simple to the complex, Oparin proposed a heterotrophic origin, result of a long process of chemical and pre-biological evolution, where the first forms of life should have been microorganisms dependent on the molecules and organic substances present in their external environment. That external environment was the primordial soup.


title: Primordial soup

text: The idea of a heterotrophic origin was based, in part, on the universality of fermentative reactions, which, according to Oparin, should have first appeared in evolution due to its simplicity. This was opposed to the idea, widely accepted at that time, that the first organisms emerged endowed with an autotrophic metabolism, which included photosynthetic pigments, enzymes and the ability to synthesize organic compounds from CO and HO; for Oparin it was impossible to reconcile the original photosynthetic organisms with the ideas of Darwinian evolution.


title: Primordial soup

text: From the detailed analysis of the geochemical and astronomical data known at that date, Oparin also proposed a primitive atmosphere devoid of O and composed of CH, NH and HO; under these conditions it was pointed out that the origin of life had been preceded by a period of abiotic synthesis and subsequent accumulation of various organic compounds in the seas of primitive Earth. This accumulation resulted in the formation of a primordial broth containing a wide variety of molecules.


title: Primordial soup

text: There, according to Oparin, a particular type of colloid, the coacervates, were formed due to the conglomeration of organic molecules and other polymers with positive and negative charges. Oparin suggested that the first living beings had been preceded by pre-cellular structures similar to those coacervates, whose gradual evolution gave rise to the appearance of the first organisms.


title: Primordial soup

text: Like the coacervates, several of Oparin's original ideas have been reformulated and replaced; this includes, for example, the reducing character of the atmosphere on primitive Earth, the coacervates as a pre-cellular model and the primitive nature of glycolysis. In the same way, we now understand that the gradual processes are not necessarily slow, and we even know, thanks to the fossil record, that the origin and early evolution of life occurred in short geologic time lapses.


title: Primordial soup

text: However, the general approach of Oparin's theory had great implications for biology, since his work achieved the transformation of the study of the origin of life from a purely speculative field to a structured and broad research program. Thus, since the second half of the twentieth century, Oparin's theory of the origin and early evolution of life has undergone a restructuring that accommodates the experimental findings of molecular biology, as well as the theoretical contributions of evolutionary biology.


title: Primordial soup

text: A point of convergence between these two branches of biology and that has been perfectly incorporated into the heterotrophic origin theory is found in the RNA world hypothesis.


title: Primordial soup

text: J.B.S. Haldane independently postulated his primordial soup theory in 1929 in an eight-page article "The origin of life" in "The Rationalist Annual". According to Haldane the primitive Earth's atmosphere was essentially reducing, with little or no oxygen. Ultraviolet rays from the Sun induced reactions on a mixture of water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia. Organic substances such as sugars and protein components (amino acids) were synthesised. These molecules "accumulated till the primitive oceans reached the consistency of hot dilute soup." The first reproducing things were created from this soup.


title: Primordial soup

text: As to the priority over the theory, Haldane accepted that Oparin came first, saying, "I have very little doubt that Professor Oparin has the priority over me."


title: Primordial soup

text: One of the most important pieces of experimental support for the "soup" theory came in 1953. A graduate student, Stanley Miller, and his professor, Harold Urey, performed an experiment that demonstrated how organic molecules could have spontaneously formed from inorganic precursors, under conditions like those posited by the Oparin–Haldane hypothesis. The now-famous "Miller–Urey experiment" used a highly reduced mixture of gases—methane, ammonia and hydrogen—to form basic organic monomers, such as amino acids. This provided direct experimental support for the second point of the "soup" theory, and it is one of the remaining two points of the theory that much of the debate now centers.


title: Primordial soup

text: Apart from the Miller–Urey experiment, the next most important step in research on prebiotic organic synthesis was the demonstration by Joan Oró that the nucleic acid purine base, adenine, was formed by heating aqueous ammonium cyanide solutions. In support of abiogenesis in eutectic ice, more recent work demonstrated the formation of s-triazines (alternative nucleobases), pyrimidines (including cytosine and uracil), and adenine from urea solutions subjected to freeze-thaw cycles under a reductive atmosphere (with spark discharges as an energy source).


title: Janice Rule

text: Mary Janice Rule (August 15, 1931 – October 17, 2003) was an American actress and psychotherapist, earning her PhD while still acting, then acting occasionally while working in her new profession.


title: Janice Rule

text: Rule was born in Norwood, Ohio, to parents of Irish origin. Her father was a dealer in industrial diamonds. She began dancing at the Chez Paree nightclub in Chicago at age 15, which paid for ballet lessons, and was a dancer in the 1949 Broadway production of "Miss Liberty". Rule also studied acting at the Chicago Professional School.


title: Janice Rule

text: She was pictured on the cover of "Life" magazine on January 8, 1951, as being someone to watch in the entertainment industry. Gaining a contract by Warner Bros., her first credited screen role was as Virginia in "Goodbye, My Fancy" (1951), which featured Joan Crawford in the lead. The established star belittled the younger woman, making Rule's work on the film difficult, although Crawford years later wrote a letter of apology to Rule for treating her badly on this film. Rule's Warner contract was allowed to lapse after only two films. She was troubled by the attitude toward women's beauty at the studios in the early 1950s: "Because I was afraid of being robbed of my individuality, I fought with the makeup people, the hairdressers, and I didn't understand problems of the publicity department," she was reported as saying in 1957.


title: Janice Rule

text: Rule was in the original 1953 Broadway cast of William Inge's "Picnic" (in the role of Madge Owens, the innocent beauty, played by Kim Novak in the film version), whose company also included Paul Newman in his Broadway debut. This commitment led her to turn down the role ultimately played by Eva Marie Saint in "On the Waterfront" (1954). "I knew I couldn't shoot in a movie all day and work on a stage at night and do my best in both," she was quoted as saying by Hedda Hopper of the "Los Angeles Times" in 1966. Among her other Broadway shows were "The Flowering Peach", "The Happiest Girl in the World", and Michael V. Gazzo's "Night Circus", a 1958 production which lasted for only a week, but introduced Rule to Ben Gazzara, who became her third husband.


title: Janice Rule

text: Her other films in the 1950s included "A Woman's Devotion" (1956), the Western "Gun for a Coward" (1957) and "Bell, Book and Candle" (1958), in which she played the fiancée who loses publisher 'Shep' Henderson (James Stewart) to the spell-casting witch Gillian Holroyd (Kim Novak). On television, she appeared in an episode of "Checkmate" ("The Mask of Vengeance", 1960), where she played Elena Nardos, the roommate of Cloris Leachman's character, Marilyn Parker. She was also in "The Twilight Zone" episode "Nightmare as a Child." She appeared as different characters in three episodes of "Route 66". She acted as both Barbara Webb and Barbara Wells with David Janssen in two episodes of "The Fugitive" entitled "Wife Killer" and "The Walls of Night". She also had a major role as Nancy Reade in "Three Bells to Perdido", the debut episode of the Richard Boone western "Have Gun – Will Travel". Rule also starred, second billing to Yul Brynner, in the western film "Invitation to a Gunfighter" (1964).


title: Janice Rule

text: Among her later film roles were Emily Stewart in "The Chase" (1966), Sheila Sommers in "The Ambushers" (1967), Burt Lancaster's bitter ex-lover in "The Swimmer" (1968), Willie in Robert Altman's "3 Women" (1977), journalist Kate Newman in Costa Gavras' political thriller "Missing" (1982), and Kevin Costner's mother in "American Flyers" (1985).


title: Janice Rule

text: Rule had a brief engagement to Farley Granger in 1956. They had appeared in the Broadway play "The Carefree Tree" in 1955. Next followed a relationship with Ralph Meeker; Meeker had played Hal in "Picnic".


title: Janice Rule

text: Rule was briefly married, during 1955, to television and film writer N. Richard Nash. Her second marriage was to television and film writer Robert Thom in 1956; they had one daughter, Kate, before divorcing in 1961. Her last marriage was to actor Ben Gazzara in 1961, having one daughter together before their divorce in 1982.


title: Janice Rule

text: During the 1960s, she became interested in psychoanalysis. She began her formal studies in 1973, specializing in treating her fellow actors, and received her PhD 10 years later from the Southern California Psychoanalytic Institute in Los Angeles. She practiced in New York and Los Angeles, and continued to act occasionally until her death from a cerebral hemorrhage in 2003. She was cremated after her death.


title: Janice Rule

text: By an odd coincidence, Rule appeared in the first or second episode of four long-running television series: "Have Gun – Will Travel" episode 1; "Route 66" episode 2; "The Streets of San Francisco" episode 2; and, "Barnaby Jones" episode 2.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park ("Parque Nacional dos Lençóis Maranhenses") is a national park in Maranhão state in northeastern Brazil, just east of the Baía de São José. Protected on June 2, 1981, the park includes of coastline, and an interior composed of rolling sand dunes. During the rainy season, the valleys among the dunes fill with freshwater lagoons, prevented from draining due to the impermeable rock beneath. The park is home to a range of species, including four listed as endangered, and has become a popular destination for ecotourists.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The park is located on the northeastern coast of Brazil in the state of Maranhão along the eastern coast, bordered by of beaches along the Atlantic Ocean. Inland, it is bordered by the Parnaíba River, the São José Basin, and the rivers of Itapecuru, Munim, and Periá. The park encompasses an area of , composed mainly of expansive coastal dune fields (composed of barchanoid dunes), which formed during the late Quaternary period.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: While much of the park has the appearance of a desert, the area receives about of rain per year, while deserts, by definition, receive less than annually. About 70% of this rainfall occurs between the months of January and May.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The sand is carried to the park from the interior of the continent by the Parnaíba and Preguiças rivers, where it is then driven back inland up to by winds, creating a series of sand dunes rising as much as tall. During the rainy season, between the months of January and June, the rainstorms fill the spaces among the dunes with fresh water lagoons of up to in length and in depth, and together comprising as much as 41% of the area of the park. The water in the lagoons is prevented from draining by a layer of impermeable rock located beneath the sandy surface. The lagoons typically have a temperature between and , pH of between 4.9 and 6.2, and low levels of dissolved nutrients. When the dry season returns, the pools quickly evaporate, losing as much as of depth per month.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: In the interior of the park are located two oases or restingas, Queimada do Britos, covering an area of , and Baixa Grande, covering an area of .


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The area of the park has an average annual temperature of between and and an annual temperature variation of about 1.1 °C (2 °F).


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The lagoons in the park are often interconnected with one another, as well as with the rivers that run through the area. They are home to a number of fish and insect species, including the wolf fish, which burrows down into wet layers of mud and remains dormant during the dry season. Besides the dunes that form the centerpiece of the park, the ecosystem also includes area of restinga and mangrove ecosystems.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The park is home to four species listed on the Brazilian List of Endangered Species, the scarlet ibis ("Eudocimus ruber"), the neotropical otter ("Lontra longicaudis"), the oncilla ("Leopardus tigrinus") and the West Indian manatee ("Trichechus manatus"). The park also includes 133 species of plants, 112 species of birds, and at least 42 species of reptiles.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park receives as many as 60,000 visitors a year. Common activities within the park include surfing, canoeing and horseback riding.


title: Lençóis Maranhenses National Park

text: The park was featured in the Brazilian film "The House of Sand". Kadhal Anukkal, a song from an Indian Tamil language film Enthiran starring Rajnikanth and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan was also shot here. The films "" (2018) and "" (2019) used the park's landscape as the planet of Vormir.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Russell Dana Feingold ( ; born March 2, 1953) is an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States Senator from Wisconsin from 1993 to 2011. A member of the Democratic Party, he was its nominee in the 2016 election for the same U.S. Senate seat he had previously occupied. From 1983 to 1993, he was a Wisconsin State Senator representing the 27th District.


title: Russ Feingold

text: With John McCain, Feingold received the 1999 John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award. He and McCain cosponsored the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain–Feingold Act), a major piece of campaign finance reform legislation. He was the only senator to vote against the Patriot Act during the first vote on the legislation.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold was mentioned as a possible candidate in the 2008 presidential election, but in November 2006 announced he would not run. In 2010, Feingold lost his campaign for reelection to the U.S. Senate to Republican nominee Ron Johnson. On June 18, 2013, he was selected by Secretary of State John Kerry to replace R. Barrie Walkley as a special envoy to the Great Lakes region of Africa.


title: Russ Feingold

text: On May 14, 2015, Feingold announced his candidacy for his old Senate seat in 2016. He was defeated by Johnson in a rematch of their 2010 Senate race. In 2020, Feingold became president of the American Constitution Society.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold was born in Janesville, Wisconsin, to a Jewish family. His grandparents were immigrants from Russia and Galicia. His father, Leon Feingold (1912–1980), was an attorney; his mother, Sylvia Feingold (née Binstock; 1918–2005), worked at a title company. Feingold was one of four children. Feingold's father and his older brother David, a Vietnam War conscientious objector, were the major influences on his political development as a youth. As a boy he was also involved with the B'nai B'rith Youth Organization and Aleph Zadik Aleph.


title: Russ Feingold

text: In 1972, Feingold volunteered for the presidential campaign of New York City mayor John Lindsay. He later supported the presidential campaigns of Mo Udall and Ted Kennedy.


title: Russ Feingold

text: After graduating from Joseph A. Craig High School, Feingold attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison and graduated in 1975 with a Bachelor of Arts degree with honors in political science. He was a member of the Phi Beta Kappa honor society and was inducted into the Iron Shield Society, which is considered the highest honor achievable by University of Wisconsin-Madison undergraduate students. Feingold then went to Magdalen College at the University of Oxford on a Rhodes Scholarship, where he graduated in 1977 with a first-class honours Bachelor of Arts in Jurisprudence. Upon returning to the U.S., he attended Harvard Law School, receiving his J.D. with honors in 1979.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold worked as an attorney at the private law firms of Foley & Lardner and La Follette & Sinykin from 1979 until 1985.


title: Russ Feingold

text: In 1982, Feingold was elected to the Wisconsin Senate, where he served for ten years until his election to the United States Senate. After he was elected to the United States Senate, Feingold was succeeded in the state senate by Joe Wineke.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold's senatorial career began in 1992 with a victory over incumbent Republican Senator Bob Kasten. Feingold had little name recognition in the state and was campaigning in a primary against Congressman Jim Moody and businessman Joe Checota, but adopted several proposals to gain the electorate's attention. He painted five promises on his garage door, calling it a contract with Wisconsin voters. Among Feingold's promises was a pledge to rely on Wisconsin citizens for most of his contributions and a pledge to hold a "listening session" in each of Wisconsin's 72 counties each year he was in office.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold released an advertisement featuring an Elvis Presley impersonator endorsing his candidacy. His Republican opponent, Bob Kasten, responded to the ad with one of his own featuring another Elvis impersonator attacking Feingold's record.


title: Russ Feingold

text: During the primary campaign, Feingold unveiled an 82-point plan that aimed to eliminate the deficit by the end of his first term. The plan called for a raise in taxes and cuts in the defense budget, among other things, and was derided as "extremist" by Republicans and "too liberal" by his Democratic opponents. Feingold also announced his support for strict campaign finance reform and a national health care system and voiced his opposition to term limits and new tax cuts.


title: Russ Feingold

text: Feingold won by positioning himself as a quirky underdog who offered voters an alternative to what was seen by many as negative campaigning of opponents Jim Moody and Joe Checota. On primary day, Feingold, who had polled in the single digits during much of the campaign, won 70% of the vote. Seven weeks later, while Bill Clinton, George H. W. Bush, and Ross Perot split the Wisconsin presidential vote 41%-37%-21%, Feingold beat Kasten, 53% to 46%.