title: Hugs and kisses

text: The earliest attestation of the use of either "x" or "o" to indicate kisses identified by the "Oxford English Dictionary" appears in the English novellist Florence Montgomery's 1878 book "Seaforth", which mentions "This letter [...] ends with the inevitable row of kisses,—sometimes expressed by × × × × ×, and sometimes by o o o o o o, according to the taste of the young scribbler". Here it appears that "x" and "o" are both ways to indicate a kiss. (Earlier versions of the dictionary identified an example from 1763, one Gil. White signing off a letter with "I am with many a xxxxxxx and many a Pater noster and Ave Maria, Gil. White". This has, however, since been reinterpreted as an indication of blessings rather than kisses, perhaps evoking the Christian sign of the cross.)


title: Hugs and kisses

text: Nothing more is known about the origins of "x" and "o" meaning 'hugs' or 'kisses'. An 2014 article in "The Washington Post" that drew on interviews with scholars noted that "the Internet abounds with origin theories" yet that "there is no definitive answer to how a cross came to mean a kiss" and even that "less is known about how 'o' came to signify a hug".


title: Hugs and kisses

text: Speculations include that the use of "x" to indicate a kiss was transferred from earlier symbolic uses of the letter. Allegedly, in the Middle Ages, a Christian cross might be drawn on documents or letters to mean sincerity, faith, and honesty; the sign was certainly sometimes used in place of a signature. Unscholarly speculations sometimes extend to the idea that after a cross was written at the end of a document, the writer might kiss it as a show of their sincerity. The Greek word for Christ, "ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ", gave rise to the practice of using the Latin letter "X" as an abbreviation for 'Christ' (similar to the more elaborate Chi Rho symbol). Supposedly, this was then kissed in this tradition of displaying a sacred oath.


title: Hugs and kisses

text: There is speculation on the Internet that the 'O' is of North American descent: when arriving in the United States, Jewish immigrants, most of whose first language was Yiddish, would use an 'O' to sign documents, thus not using the sign of the cross, and shop keepers would often use an 'O' when signing documents, in place of an 'X'.


title: Telugu script

text: Telugu script (), an abugida from the Brahmic family of scripts, is used to write the Telugu language, a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana as well as several other neighbouring states. The Telugu script is also widely used for writing Sanskrit texts and to some extent the Gondi language. It gained prominence during the Eastern Chalukyas also known as Vengi Chalukya era. It shares extensive similarities with the Kannada script, as they both evolved from the Kadamba and Bhattiprolu scripts of the Brahmi family. In 2008, the Telugu language was given the status of a Classical Language of India, in recognition of its rich history and heritage.


title: Telugu script

text: The Brahmi script used by Mauryan kings eventually reached the Krishna River delta and would give rise to the Bhattiprolu script found on an urn purported to contain Lord Buddha's relics. Buddhism spread to East Asia from the nearby ports of Ghantasala and Masulipatnam (ancient Maisolos of Ptolemy and Masalia of Periplus). The Bhattiprolu Brahmi script evolved into the Kadamba script by the 5th century, which in turn developed into the Kannada-Telugu script (or old Kannada script) after the 7th century. The Kannada and Telugu scripts then separated by around 1300 C.E.


title: Telugu script

text: The Muslim historian and scholar Al-Biruni referred to both the Telugu language as well as its script as "Andhri".


title: Telugu script

text: Telugu uses eighteen vowels, each of which has both an independent form and a diacritic form used with consonants to create syllables. The language makes a distinction between short and long vowels.


title: Telugu script

text: The independent form is used when the vowel occurs at the beginning of a word or syllable, or is a complete syllable in itself (example: a, u, o). The diacritic form is added to consonants (represented by the dotted circle) to form a consonant-vowel syllable (example: ka, kr̥, mo). అ does not have a diacritic form, because this vowel is already inherent in all of the consonants. The other diacritic vowels are added to consonants to change their pronunciation to that of the vowel.


title: Telugu script

text: There are also several other diacritics used in the Telugu script. ్ mutes the vowel of a consonant, so that only the consonant is pronounced. ం and ఁ nasalize the vowels or syllables to which they are attached. ః adds a voiceless breath after the vowel or syllable it is attached to.


title: Telugu script

text: Articulation of consonants is the logical combination of components in the two prayatnams. The below table gives a view upon articulation of consonants.


title: Telugu script

text: The Telugu script has generally regular conjuncts, with trailing consonants taking a subjoined form, often losing the tallakattu (the v-shaped headstroke). The following table shows all two-consonant conjuncts and one three-consonant conjunct, but individual conjuncts may differ between fonts.


title: Telugu script

text: In contrast to a syllabic script such as katakana, where one Unicode code point represents the glyph for one syllable, Telugu combines multiple code points to generate the glyph for one syllable, using complex font rendering rules.


title: Telugu script

text: On February 12, 2018 a bug in the iOS operating system was reported that caused iOS devices to crash if a particular Telugu character was displayed. The character is a combination of the characters "జ", "్", "ఞ", "ా" and The Zero-Width Non-Joiner character which looks combined like this "జ్ఞా". Apple confirmed a fix for iOS 11.3 and macOS 10.13.4.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito (Spanish for "The Little Hill") is a city in Contra Costa County, California, United States, and forms part of the San Francisco Bay Area. It has a population of 25,962 according to the 2020 census. El Cerrito was founded by refugees from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It was incorporated in 1917 as a village with 1,500 residents. As of the census in 2000, there were 23,171 people, 10,208 households and 5,971 families in the city.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito was founded by refugees from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. They settled in what was then Don Víctor Castro's Rancho San Pablo, and adjacent to the ranch owned by the family of Luís María Peralta, the Rancho San Antonio. A post office opened at the settlement in 1909 and the refugee camp became known as Rust, after Wilhelm F. Rust, its first postmaster. The village's residents did not care for the name and changed it to El Cerrito (meaning "little hill" or "knoll") in 1916, in reference to the many individual hills in the village. A year later, El Cerrito was incorporated as a village with 1,500 residents.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito was incorporated in August 1917. The communities of Stege Junction, Rust, Schmidtville, and Schindler, were all included in the new city. The 1920 census shows that the Schmidtville community had many Italian immigrants. A post office operated at Schmidtville from 1900 to 1901.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all of it land. The city ranges in elevation from 20 to 934 feet, with an average elevation of .


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito is located on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay in the extreme south-west corner of Contra Costa County. The hilly areas of El Cerrito provide views of its neighboring city, and of the Golden Gate Bridge. El Cerrito is located along Interstate 80, and nearby Interstate 580. El Cerrito is bordered by Albany and Kensington to the south, the Richmond annex to the west, East Richmond Heights to the north, and Wildcat Canyon Regional Park to the east. Local landmark Albany Hill is in Albany, just across the border with El Cerrito. (El Cerrito—Spanish, "the little hill"—takes its name from Albany Hill.) The Hayward Fault runs through El Cerrito. In addition, El Cerrito is within of Berkeley to the southeast, and approximately from the University of California Berkeley campus.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: At the 2010 census El Cerrito had a population of 23,549. The population density was . The 2010 racial makeup of El Cerrito was:


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The census reported that 23,456 people (99.6% of the population) lived in households, 48 (0.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 45 (0.2%) were institutionalized.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: There were 10,142 households, 2,394 (23.6%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 4,703 (46.4%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,047 (10.3%) had a female householder with no husband present, and 416 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 509 (5.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 189 (1.9%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 2,953 (29.1%) were one person and 1188 (11.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 2.31. There were 6,166 families (60.8% of households); the average family size was 2.84.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The age distribution was 4,087 people (17.4%) under the age of 18, 1,281 people (5.4%) aged 18 to 24, 6,918 people (29.4%) aged 25 to 44, 7,036 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,227 people (17.9%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 43.5 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: There were 10,716 housing units at an average density of ,of which 10,142 were occupied, 6,145 (60.6%) by the owners and 3,997 (39.4%) by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.4%. 14,474 people (61.5% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 8,982 people (38.1%) lived in rental housing units.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 23,171 people in 10,208 households, including 5,971 families, in the city. The population density was . There were 10,462 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 57.79% White, 8.54% Black or African American, 0.50% Native American, 24.38% Asian, 0.25% Pacific Islander, 3.06% from other races, and 5.48% from two or more races. 7.93% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: Of the 10,208 households 20.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.4% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% were non-families. 30.4% of households were one person and 12.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.81.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The age distribution was 15.9% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 25.7% from 45 to 64, and 20.4% 65 or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.6 males.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $57,253, and the median family income was $69,397 (these figures had risen to $77,650 and $97,488 respectively as of a 2007 estimate). Males had a median income of $50,316 versus $40,866 for females. The per capita income for the city was $32,593. About 3.5% of families and 6.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.9% of those under age 18 and 3.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: At home the percentages of the languages residents speak are English 70.47%, Spanish 6.26%, Chinese 5.96%, Japanese 2.70%, Mandarin 1.80%, Cantonese 1.57%, Persian 1.43%, Tagalog 1.30%, Korean 1.08%, French 0.90%, German 0.83%, Formosan 0.73%, Italian 0.66%, Vietnamese 0.57%, Urdu 0.50%, and 3.23% of people spoke some other language which represented less than 0.50% of the population.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: San Pablo Avenue stretches the length of El Cerrito and is the primary commercial and retail corridor of the city, though there is a segment in which the businesses on the west side of the avenue are actually in Richmond Annex but have an El Cerrito postal address.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito is home to El Cerrito Plaza, a large, regional mall, served by public transit at the adjacent El Cerrito Plaza station. The shopping center is further surrounded by other commercial and retail businesses along San Pablo Avenue and Fairmount Avenue, including the Cerrito Theater, a restored two-screen movie theater known for offering beer, wine, and a full dining menu.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The city is nominally home to Arhoolie Records (actually located in Richmond Annex), part of the Smithsonian Institution. Also located in the city was Playland-Not-At-The-Beach, a now-closed popular amusement park museum.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito city parks include both recreation/sports parks as well as undeveloped nature areas. Most notable are the Hillside Natural Area open space, Huber Park (Terrace Drive), Cerrito Vista Park (Moeser Lane and Pomona Avenue), and Arlington Park (Arlington Boulevard), Tassajara Park (Tassajara Avenue and Barrett Avenue), Poinsett Park (Poinsett Avenue), and the Canyon Trail Park and Art Center (Gatto Avenue).


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The city is home to a segment of the Ohlone Greenway (named after the Native American Ohlone people), a trail that runs the length of the City along a former railroad grade underneath the BART right-of-way that is popular with walkers, runners, and bicyclists, as well as the blind, deaf, and mute population.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: In October, 2019, the California State Auditor's High Risk Cities report (which analyzed 2016-17 data) named El Cerrito as the 7th most fiscally at-risk city in California, largely due to having negative general fund reserves, cash flow and liquidity challenges, escalating pension costs, and a variety of other issues. In a letter to the community, the City Manager criticized the State Auditor's analysis for lacking important context and providing inadequate analysis, acknowledged that City budgets are tight, and defended the city's fiscal management practices. After an on-site assessment, the State Auditor received authorization from the California Legislature to conduct a full audit of the City of El Cerrito in order to determine the causes of its fiscal distress, which is expected to be released in March, 2020. Subsequently, in its next two annual High Risk Cities reports, the Auditor listed El Cerrito as 8th most at-risk (2017-18 data) and 6th most at-risk (2018-19 data).


title: El Cerrito, California

text: Following the lead of the State Auditor, others have criticized El Cerrito for its excessive reliance on short-term borrowing to paper over growing budget deficits and for having failed to note the significance of, and act upon, multiple going concern warnings from its own financial auditor. The local East Bay Times newspaper dubbed El Cerrito "the worst managed city in the Bay Area."


title: El Cerrito, California

text: El Cerrito is in the West Contra Costa Unified School District, a multi-city district that operates three elementary schools, one middle school, and one high school in the city:


title: El Cerrito, California

text: Interstate 80 runs north-south through El Cerrito, with San Pablo Avenue serving as the primary surface artery. Bay Area Rapid Transit serves two stations in the city – and – while AC Transit operates local bus service. El Cerrito del Norte station is a major hub for AC Transit, as well as North Bay regional bus operators including FAST, Golden Gate Transit, Vallejo Transit, Napa VINE, and WestCat.


title: El Cerrito, California

text: The Ohlone Greenway is part of a regional north-south active transportation route, and is a popular path for bike commuters and recreational cyclists and pedestrians.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Álvaro Arbeloa Coca (; born 17 January 1983) is a Spanish retired footballer, currently manager of Real Madrid Juvenil A. He predominantly played as a right-back, and occasionally on the left side.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: He started his professional career with Real Madrid, playing mostly with the reserves. In 2006 he moved to Deportivo, joining Liverpool after half a season and going on to appear in 98 official matches over three Premier League seasons. In 2009, he returned to Real Madrid for a fee of £5 million, spending seven years there and winning eight major titles, including the 2011–12 edition of La Liga and two Champions League titles.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa earned 56 caps for Spain, representing the country at the 2010 World Cup, Euro 2008 and Euro 2012 and winning all three tournaments.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa was born in Salamanca, Castile and León, relocating with his family to Zaragoza at the age of four. He started playing football at local Real Zaragoza, joining Real Madrid's youth system at the age of 18.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa spent three full seasons with Real Madrid Castilla, the reserve team, two of those spent in the Segunda División B. In 2004–05, he contributed 32 games and one goal – playoffs included – as they returned to Segunda División after a 14-year absence. On 16 October 2004, he made his La Liga debut with the main squad, coming on as a second-half substitute in a 1–1 away draw against Real Betis.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: On 24 July 2006, Arbeloa signed for Deportivo de La Coruña, with Real Madrid being entitled to 50% of any transfer occurring in the following three years. He said of his departure: "This is a strange situation for me; I have been playing for Real Madrid for five years, since I was 16", adding "Real always has the best players. There were eight defenders in the squad, something had to give in."


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Over a six-month spell with the team from Galicia, Arbeloa featured in 21 official games, 18 of his league appearances being complete.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa signed for English club Liverpool on 31 January 2007, managed by countryman Rafael Benítez. He made his Premier League debut on 10 February, replacing Jermaine Pennant for the final 15 minutes of the 2–1 away loss to Newcastle United.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa made his first start for the Reds against FC Barcelona, in the 2006–07 edition of the UEFA Champions League. He featured as a left-back at the Camp Nou, as his stronger right foot could stop Lionel Messi who had a tendency to cut his runs towards the center of the field; his team won 2–1 and eventually 2–2 on aggregate, with the player also featuring the full 90 minutes at Anfield.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa scored his first goal for Liverpool against Reading, on 7 April 2007. He replaced Steve Finnan in the last minutes of the Champions League final, a 2–1 defeat to A.C. Milan.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa's squad number changed from 2 to 17 for 2007–08, due to personal preference. He cemented a first-team place in that campaign, making 41 competitive appearances in a fourth-place finish.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: On 17 May 2009, in a match against West Bromwich Albion, Arbeloa was involved in an on-field clash with teammate Jamie Carragher – the two had to be separated by Daniel Agger, Xabi Alonso, Emiliano Insúa and Pepe Reina. Carragher later explained that he clashed with Arbeloa as a moment of poor defending from the latter threatened the clean sheet, further explaining "we want to keep a clean sheet and we want Pepe to have a chance of the Golden Glove for the fourth season running"; Benítez refused to comment about the incident.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: On 29 July 2009, it was announced that Real Madrid and Liverpool had reached an agreement on the transfer of Arbeloa, for a fee of £5 million and a five-year contract. After the departure of Míchel Salgado and Miguel Torres, he was handed the number 2 jersey.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa spent the vast majority of his first season in his second stint as a left-back, netting his first goal on 13 February 2010 in a 3–0 away win over Xerez CD. His second came in the Madrid Derby on 28 March, scoring with his right foot past David de Gea in the 3–2 defeat of Atlético Madrid. Under new manager José Mourinho, he celebrated his tenth appearance in the Champions League with his first goal in the competition, netting from outside the penalty area in a 4–0 victory at AFC Ajax in the group stage.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: In the 2011–12 campaign, due to Ricardo Carvalho's lengthy injury, Sergio Ramos was relocated to centre-back and Arbeloa began appearing almost exclusively on the right side of the back four. On 1 August 2012, he extended his link to the club until June 2016.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Subsequently, Arbeloa became a fringe player. In 2015–16 he appeared in just nine matches in all competitions, two of those being in the Champions League which was won for the second time in three years; on 8 May 2016, he confirmed he would leave on 30 June.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: On 31 August 2016, Arbeloa returned to the Premier League for the first time in seven years, signing for West Ham United for one season. He made his debut on 21 September, playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 home win against Accrington Stanley in the EFL Cup.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa was released at the end of the campaign after having made just four competitive appearances, three in the league. He retired in June 2017 at the age of 34, after a professional career that spanned 15 years.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa returned to Real Madrid in September 2020, being apponted manager of the under-14 side. Two years later, he progressed to the Juvenil A.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: On 1 February 2008, Arbeloa was called up to the Spanish national team for the first time, for a friendly with France in Málaga, but he was forced to pull out because of injury. He made his debut on 26 March against Italy, and was picked for UEFA Euro 2008's final stages, appearing in the first-round match against Greece (2–1 win) as the nation emerged victorious.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Arbeloa's versatility saw him being called up for the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2010 FIFA World Cup, again as Ramos backup. His contribution in the latter tournament, which also ended in victory, consisted of 14 minutes in the 2–0 victory over Honduras in the group phase.


title: Álvaro Arbeloa

text: Vicente del Bosque selected Arbeloa for the following tournament, Euro 2012. Due to Carles Puyol's absence, however, he was now part of the starting XI alongside Ramos, Gerard Piqué and Jordi Alba, with Spain only conceding once in six fixtures and winning the tournament.


title: Two witnesses

text: In the Book of Revelation, the two witnesses (, "duo martyron") are two prophets who are mentioned in Revelation 11:1-14. Christian eschatology interprets this as two people, two groups of people, or two concepts. The two witnesses are never identified in the Christian Bible. Some believe they are Enoch and Elijah, as in the Gospel of Nicodemus, since they are the only two that did not see death as required by the Scriptures. Others believe them to be Moses and Elijah because they appeared during the transfiguration of Jesus, or because Enoch was not Abraham's descendant. Some also believe that they are Moses and Elijah due to the description of what they are to do. They have the power to shut the heavens (Elijah) and turn water into blood (Moses)


title: Two witnesses

text: Dispensationalist Christians believe that the events described in the Book of Revelation will occur before and during the Second Coming.


title: Two witnesses

text: According to the text, the two witnesses are the "two olive trees and the two lampstands" that have the power to destroy their enemies, control the weather and cause plagues. This description may be symbolism, allegory, or literal.


title: Two witnesses

text: In attempting to interpret Revelation 11, commentators who hold to a premillennial eschatology generally interpret the two witnesses in one of three ways:


title: Two witnesses

text: The literalist typically has a dispensationalist or literal interpretation that the two witnesses will be actual people who will appear in the last days. However, there are varying views as to their identity.


title: Two witnesses

text: Modern theologians, such as John Walvoord, have furthered the point of individualism by comparing the "two lampstands" and the "two olive trees" of Revelation 11 to the two golden pipes and two olive trees/branches of Zechariah 4. By the identification of the two olive branches as "two anointed ones" or "two sons of the oil", in Zechariah, this reinforces the literalist interpretation that the two witnesses are two people. The personification of the two witnesses in Revelation is so prevalent that according to theologian William Barclay, the passage seems to refer to definite persons. Walvoord further pointed out that because the Revelation passage does not specifically identify who the two witnesses are, it would be safer to conclude that they are not related to any previous historical character.


title: Two witnesses

text: The apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus (also known as Acts of Pilate) states that those two witnesses who will appear in times of Antichrist to engage in battle with him are Enoch and Elijah:


title: Two witnesses

text: "3. One of them answering, said, I am Enoch, who was translated by the word of God: and this man who is with me, is Elijah the Tishbite, who was translated in a fiery chariot. 4. Here we have hitherto been, and have not tasted death, but are now about to return at the coming of Antichrist, being armed with divine signs and miracles, to engage with him in battle, and to be slain by him at Jerusalem, and to be taken up alive again into the clouds, after 3 days and a half." - Gospel of Nicodemus, Chapter 20:3-4.


title: Two witnesses

text: Others have proposed Moses as one of the witnesses, for his ability to turn water into blood and the power to plague the earth.


title: Two witnesses

text: Early Christian writers such as Tertullian, Irenaeus, and Hippolytus of Rome, have concluded that the two witnesses would be Enoch and Elijah, the two prophets who did not die because God "took" them according to other Biblical passages.


title: Two witnesses

text: The two witnesses have been interpreted as representing the Church or a similar concept. The "1599 Geneva Study Bible" has asserted that the two witnesses are the exclusive purview of the church. Matthew Henry's "Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible" gives one church interpretation as consisting of believing Jews and that of the gentiles. John Wesley in his commentary on Revelation 11 suggests a more spiritual, almost ambiguous, application. John Gill's "Exposition of the Bible" interprets the two witnesses as the true Church in counterdistinction to the "antichrist system" of Roman Catholicism. Ross Taylor's "Verse by Verse Commentary on Revelation" clearly defines the Church as the "two olive trees and the two lampstands."


title: Two witnesses

text: Similarly, the two witnesses have been identified as Israel and the Christian Church. The number two has been associated with the witness of Israel to the gentile nations during the 70th Week of Daniel's prophecy. The olive tree signifies Israel. The "witness of the Church" is signified by the two lampstands, whose identity was disclosed by the seven golden lampstands (i.e., candlesticks) revealed in Revelation 2-3 as the "churches". Revelation 2:1 refers to the churches as golden lampstands.


title: Two witnesses

text: It has also been proposed that the two witnesses are the witnessing church, because Jesus sent out his disciples "two by two". The two witnesses are the true prophetic witness in Revelation (the church,) and they serve as the counterpart to the false prophetic witness, the beast from the land, who has two horns like a lamb (Rev. 13:11; cf.16:13; 19:20; 20:10).


title: Two witnesses

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that the two witnesses will be two prophets who are sent to Jerusalem (raised up to the Jews) in the modern nation of Israel, possibly two members of their Quorum of the Twelve or their First Presidency, who are considered to be prophets by the church. These two prophets will represent both the ancient Northern and Southern kingdoms of Israel (the two olive trees) and be descendants of the two covenant sons from the tribes of Judah and Joseph (as the two lampstands). Some members have suggested that the martyrdom of Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum Smith (Assistant President from 1841 to 1844) are prototypes and they represent the future two witnesses (stated in Revelation) who will be sent to Jerusalem and be killed for their testimonies.


title: Two witnesses

text: In the Seventh-day Adventist interpretation, Uriah Smith and Ellen G. White considered the two witnesses to be the Old and New Testaments. This in turn is personified into two people, one taking off after the ways of God during the Old Testament, the other taking the ways after God in the New Testament. They believed that the French Revolution was the time when the two witnesses were killed. Other historicists also consider the two witnesses in this way.


title: Two witnesses

text: The Baháʼí Faith identifies the two witnesses as Muhammed, the founder of Islam, and Ali, the son of Abú Tálib. They consider Muhammad as the root and Ali the branch, comparable to Moses and Joshua. They interpret "clothed in sackcloth" to mean that they initially appeared to be of no consequence and without a new revelation because the spiritual principles of Islam would correspond closely with those promulgated in Christianity and Judaism. They identify the "beast" to be the Umayyads, who would wage spiritual war against them. The 1,260 days is interpreted as the 1,260 lunar years since the start of the Islamic calendar, corresponding to the Gregorian year 1844; the year the Millerite movement also predicted the return of Christ. The Baháʼí Faith recognizes the significance of 1844 as the year of the declaration of the Báb, bearing a new message from God and proclaiming the coming of Baháʼu'lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith and promised return of Christ.


title: Two witnesses

text: Marshall Applewhite and Bonnie Nettles (Do and Ti), the leaders of the UFO religious cult Heaven's Gate, initially claimed to be the two witnesses in the 1970s. According to their interpretation, they would be killed and resurrected before ascending to heaven in a spacecraft. They ultimately rebranded their "assassinations" as symbolic rather than actual death, owing to the ridicule they were subjected to by the media.


title: Two witnesses

text: The two witnesses play a central role in the supernatural drama television series "Sleepy Hollow".  The first witness is Ichabod Crane, a Revolutionary War soldier who, after battling with the Horseman of Death (whom he causes to be headless), awakens in Sleepy Hollow in 2013.  The second witness is Lieutenant Abbie Mills, a contemporary woman in law enforcement who helps Crane adjust to the 21st century and aids him in battling dæmonic forces.  The two witnesses must face 'Seven Tribulations' (although other characters note that the Witnesses are only required to "witness" the events rather than take action themselves), the first being Moloch, the master of the Horsemen.  The second Tribulation is Pandora and her master, an ancient Sumerian god known as the Hidden One. Third was Malcolm Dryfus and Jobe. Although Lieutenant Mills (now Agent Mills of the F. B. I.) loses her soul, there must always be two witnesses, and the mantle passes on to Molly Thomas on her eleventh birthday.  Not long thereafter, Molly's older self, going by the name Lara, comes from the future to aid Crane in his battles, thereby assuming the mantle of the witness from her younger self.


title: Two witnesses

text: In the "Left Behind" franchise, the two witnesses prophesy at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem. They are later revealed to be Elijah and Moses, and are killed by the Antichrist Nicolae Carpathia.


title: Tin whistle

text: The tin whistle, also called the penny whistle, is a simple six-holed woodwind instrument. It is a type of fipple flute, putting it in the same class as the recorder, Native American flute, and other woodwind instruments that meet such criteria. A tin whistle player is called a whistler. The tin whistle is closely associated with Irish traditional music and Celtic music. Other names for the instrument are the flageolet, English flageolet, Scottish penny whistle, tin flageolet, or Irish whistle (also ).


title: Tin whistle

text: The tin whistle in its modern form is from a wider family of fipple flutes which have been seen in many forms and cultures throughout the world. In Europe, such instruments have a long and distinguished history and take various forms, of which the most widely known are the recorder, tin whistle, Flabiol, Txistu and tabor pipe.


title: Tin whistle

text: Almost all primitive cultures had a type of fipple flute, and it is most likely the first pitched flute type instrument in existence. Examples found to date include a possible Neanderthal fipple flute from Slovenia, which according to some scientists may date from 81,000 to 53,000 BC; a German flute from 35,000 years ago; and a flute, known as the Malham Pipe, made from sheep's bone in West Yorkshire dating to the Iron Age. (A revised dating of the Malham Pipe now places it within the early medieval period.) Written sources that describe a fipple-type flute include the Roman tibia and Greek aulos. In the early Middle Ages, peoples of northern Europe were playing the instrument as seen in 3rd-century British bone flutes, and Irish Brehon Law describes a flute-like instrument. By the 12th century, Italian flutes came in a variety of sizes, and fragments of 12th-century Norman bone whistles have been found in Ireland, as well as an intact 14 cm Tusculum clay whistle from the 14th century in Scotland. In the 17th century, whistles were called flageolets, a term to describe a whistle with a French made fipple headpiece (common to the modern penny whistle); and such instruments are linked to the development of the English flageolet, French flageolet and recorders of the renaissance and baroque period. The term flageolet is still preferred by some modern tin whistlers, who feel that this better describes the instrument, as the term characterises a wide variety of fipple flutes, including penny whistles.


title: Tin whistle

text: The modern penny whistle is indigenous to Great Britain and Ireland, in particular to England, when factory-made "tin whistles" were produced by Robert Clarke from 1840 to 1889 in Manchester, and later New Moston, England. Down to 1900, they were also marketed as "Clarke London Flageolets" or "Clarke Flageolets". The whistle's fingering system is similar to that of the six-hole, "simple system Irish flutes" ("simple" in comparison to Boehm system flutes). The six-hole, diatonic system is also used on baroque flutes, and was of course well-known before Robert Clarke began producing his tin whistles. Clarke's first whistle, the Meg, was pitched in high A, and was later made in other keys suitable for Victorian parlour music. The company showed the whistles in The Great Exhibition of 1851. The Clarke tin whistle is voiced somewhat on an organ-pipe with a flattened tube forming the lip of the fipple mouthpiece, and is usually made from rolled tin sheet or brass. They were mass-produced and widespread due to their relative affordability.


title: Tin whistle

text: As the penny whistle was generally considered a toy, it has been suggested that children or street musicians were paid a penny by those who heard them playing the whistle. However, in reality, the instrument was so called because it could be purchased for a penny. The name "tin-whistle" was also coined as early as 1825 but neither the tin whistle nor the penny whistle name seems to have been common until the 20th century. The instrument became popular in several musical traditions, namely: English, Scottish, Irish and American traditional music.


title: Tin whistle

text: Due to its affordability, the tin whistle was a popular household instrument, as ubiquitous as the harmonica. In the second half of the 19th century, some flute manufacturers such as Barnett Samuel and Joseph Wallis also sold whistles. These had a cylindrical brass tube. Like many old whistles, they had lead fipple plugs, and since lead is poisonous, caution should be exercised before playing an old whistle.


title: Tin whistle

text: While whistles have most often been produced in higher pitches, the "low" whistle has historically been produced. The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, has in its collection an example of a 19th-century low whistle from the Galpin collection.


title: Tin whistle

text: The most common whistles today are made of brass or nickel-plated brass, with a plastic mouthpiece, which contains the fipple. Generation, Feadóg, Oak, Acorn, Soodlum's (now Walton's), and other brands fall in this category.


title: Tin whistle

text: The first mass producer of tin whistles was The Clarke Tin Whistle company, with the company's founder, Robert Clarke producing his first tin whistle in 1843 with the help of a local blacksmith. The company expanded production from a factory in New Moston, Manchester.


title: Tin whistle

text: The Generation Whistle was introduced in 1966, and featured a brass tube with a lead fipple. Founded by businessman and engineer Alfred Brown in Oswestry, Shropshire, their most popular whistle, the Generation Flageolet, was introduced in 1968. The design was updated somewhat over the years, most notably the substitution of a plastic fipple for the lead fipple.


title: Tin whistle

text: Although most whistles have a cylindrical bore, other designs exist, for example a conical sheet metal whistle with a wooden stop in the wide end to form the fipple, the Clarke's brand being the most prevalent. Other less common variants are the all-metal whistle, the PVC whistle, the Flanna square holed whistle, and the wooden whistle.


title: Tin whistle

text: Gaining popularity as a folk instrument in the early 19th century Celtic music revivals, penny whistles now play an integral part of several folk traditions. Whistles are a prevalent starting instrument in English traditional music, Scottish traditional music and Irish traditional music, since they are usually inexpensive; relatively easy to play, free of tricky embouchure such as found with the transverse flute; and use fingerings are nearly identical to those on traditional six-holed flutes, such as the Irish flute and the Baroque flute. The tin whistle is a good starting instrument to learn the uilleann pipes, which has similar finger technique, range of notes and repertoire. The tin whistle is the most popular instrument in Irish traditional music today.


title: Tin whistle

text: In recent years, a number of instrument builders have started lines of "high-end" hand-made whistles, which can cost hundreds of US dollars each—expensive in comparison to cheap whistles, but nevertheless cheaper than most other instruments. These companies are typically either a single individual or a very small group of craftsmen who work closely together. The instruments are distinguished from the inexpensive whistles in that each whistle is individually manufactured and "voiced" by a skilled person rather than made in a factory.


title: Tin whistle

text: The whistle is tuned diatonically, which allows it to be used to easily play music in two major keys a perfect fourth apart and the natural minor key and Dorian mode a major second above the lowest note. The whistle is identified by its lowest note, which is the tonic of the lower of two major keys. This method of determining the key of the instrument is different from the method used to determine the key of a chromatic instrument, which is based on the relationship between notes on a score and sounded pitch.


title: Tin whistle

text: Whistles are available in all 12 chromatic keys; however, the most common whistles are pitched in D, followed by whistles in C and F, G, and then B and E, with other keys being somewhat more rare. The D whistle can easily play notes in the keys of D and G major. Since the D major key is lower these whistles are identified as "D whistles". The next most common whistle tuning is a "C whistle", which can easily play notes in the keys of C and F major. The D whistle is by far the most common choice for Irish and Scottish music.


title: Tin whistle

text: Although the whistle is essentially a diatonic instrument, it is possible to get notes outside the principal major key of the whistle, either by "half-holing" (partially covering the highest open finger hole) or by "cross-fingering" (covering some holes open while leaving some higher ones open). However, half-holing is somewhat more difficult to do correctly, and whistles are available in all keys, so for other keys a whistler will typically use a different whistle instead, reserving half-holing for accidentals. Some whistle designs allow a single mouthpiece to be used on differently keyed bodies.


title: Tin whistle

text: During the 1960s revival of traditional Irish music, the low whistle was "recreated" by Bernard Overton at the request of Finbar Furey.


title: Tin whistle

text: There are larger whistles which, by virtue of being longer and wider, produce tones an octave (or in rare cases two octaves) lower. Whistles in this category are likely to be made of metal or plastic tubing, sometimes with a tuning-slide head, and are almost always referred to as "low whistles" but sometimes called "concert whistles". The low whistle operates on identical principles to the standard whistles, but musicians in the tradition may consider it a separate instrument.


title: Tin whistle

text: The term "soprano whistle" is sometimes used for the higher-pitched whistles when it is necessary to distinguish them from low whistles.


title: Tin whistle

text: The notes are selected by opening or closing holes with the fingers. Holes are typically covered with the pads of the fingers, but some players, particularly when negotiating the larger holes and spacing in low whistles, may employ the "piper's grip". With all the holes closed, the whistle generates its lowest note, the tonic of a major scale. Successively opening holes from the bottom upward produces the rest of the notes of the scale in sequence: with the lowest hole open it generates the second, with the lowest two holes open, it produces the third and so on. With all six holes open, it produces the seventh.


title: Tin whistle

text: As with a number of woodwind instruments, the tin whistle's second and higher registers are achieved by increasing the air velocity into the ducted flue windway.


title: Tin whistle

text: On a transverse flute this is generally done by narrowing the lip/embouchure. Since the size and direction of the tin whistle's windway is fixed, like that of the recorder or fipple flute, it is necessary to increase the velocity of the air stream. (See overblowing).


title: Tin whistle

text: Fingering in the second register is generally the same as in the first/fundamental, though alternate fingerings are sometimes employed in the higher end of the registers to correct a flattening effect caused by higher aircolumn velocity. Also, the tonic note of the second register is usually played with the top hole of the whistle partially uncovered instead of covering all holes as with the tonic note of the first register; this makes it harder to accidentally drop into the first register and helps to correct pitch. Recorders perform this by "pinching" open the dorsal thumb hole.


title: Tin whistle

text: Various other notes (relatively flat or sharp with respect to those of the major scale) can be accessed by "cross fingering" techniques, and all the notes (except the lowest of each octave/register) can be flattened by "half holing". Perhaps the most effective and most used cross fingering is that which produces a flattened form of the seventh note (B instead of B on a C whistle, for example, or C instead of C on a D whistle). This makes available another major scale (F on a C whistle, G on a D whistle).


title: Tin whistle

text: The standard range of the whistle is two octaves. For a D whistle, this includes notes from D to D; that is, from the second D above middle C to the fourth D above middle C. It is possible to make sounds above this range, by blowing with sufficient force, but, in most musical contexts, the result will be loud and out of tune due to a cylindrical bore.


title: Tin whistle

text: Traditional whistle playing uses a number of ornaments to embellish the music, including cuts, strikes and rolls. Most playing is legato with ornaments to create breaks between notes, rather than tongued. The traditional music concept of the word "ornamentation" differs somewhat from that of European classical music in that ornaments are more commonly changes in how a note is articulated rather than the addition of separately-perceived notes to the piece. Common ornaments and articulations include:


title: Tin whistle

text: Traditional music from Ireland and Scotland is by far the most common music to play on the tin whistle, and comprises the vast majority of published scores suitable for whistle players. The tin whistle is very common in Irish music to the point that it could be called characteristic of the genre and fairly common in Scottish music.


title: Tin whistle

text: Kwela is a genre of music created in South Africa in the 1950s, and is characterized by an upbeat, jazzy tin whistle lead. Kwela is the only music genre created around the sound of the tin whistle. The low cost of the tin whistle, or jive flute, made it an attractive instrument in the impoverished, apartheid-era townships; the Hohner tin whistle was especially popular in kwela performance. The kwela craze accounted for the sale of more than one million tin whistles.


title: Tin whistle

text: In the late 1950s, mbaqanga music largely superseded kwela in South Africa, and so it followed that the saxophone surpassed the tin whistle as the township people's wind instrument of choice. Kwela master Aaron "Big Voice Jack" Lerole continued to perform into the 1990s; a few bands, such as The Positively Testcard of London, continue to record kwela music.


title: Tin whistle

text: Kwela sheet music is rarely published, and many of the recordings of founding kwela artists are out of print. One representative compilation is "Drum: South African Jazz and Jive".


title: Tin whistle

text: The tin whistle is used in many other types of music, though not to the extent that it could be called characteristic as with Irish music and kwela. In some Irish music composed for symphonic ensembles, it is often replaced with piccolo. It is not unusual to hear the tin whistle used in praise music and film soundtracks, notably the soundtrack to Lord of the Rings and . Published scores suitable for tin whistle performance are available in both of these genres. The tin whistle also appears in "crossover" genres like world music, folk rock, folk metal and folk punk.


title: Tin whistle

text: It is common to score music for the whistle using standard musical notation. The tin whistle is not a transposing instrument - for example, music for the D tin whistle is written in concert pitch, not transposed down a tone as would be normal for transposing instruments. Nevertheless, there is no real consensus on how tin whistle music should be written, or on how reading music onto the whistle should be taught. However, when music is scored for a soprano whistle it will be written an octave lower than it sounds, to spare ledger lines and make it much easier to read.


title: Tin whistle

text: The traditional music of Ireland and Scotland constitutes the majority of published scores for the whistle. Since the majority of that music is written in D major, G major, or one of the corresponding musical modes, use of the D major or G major key signatures is a "de facto" standard. For example, the "C whistle" edition of Bill Ochs's popular "The Clarke Tin Whistle Handbook" is scored in D and differs from the D edition only in that the accompanying audio CD is played on a C whistle.


title: Tin whistle

text: Reading directly onto the C whistle is popular for the obvious reason that its "home key" or "name key" is the "all-natural" major key (C major). Some musicians are encouraged to learn to read directly onto one whistle, while others are taught to read directly onto another.


title: Tin whistle

text: The whistle player who wants music to read on to all whistles will need to learn the mechanics of written transposition, taking music with one key signature and rewriting it with another.


title: Tin whistle

text: Tablature notation for the tin whistle is a graphical representation of which tone holes the player should cover. The most common format is a vertical column of six circles, with holes to be covered for a given note shown filled with black, and a plus sign (+) at the top for notes in the second octave. Tablature is most commonly found in tutorial books for beginners.


title: Tin whistle

text: The tonic solfa is found in Ireland and possibly Wales, especially in schools. Many schools have printed sheets with tunes notated in tonic solfa, although in Ireland more have teaching by note. With the availability of good standard notation tutor books, teaching is possibly moving in this direction.


title: Tin whistle

text: Since the majority of popular tin whistle music is traditional and out of copyright, it is common to share tune collections on the Internet. ABC notation is the most common means of electronic exchange of tunes. It is also designed to be easy to read by people, and many musicians learn to read it directly instead of using a computer program to transform it into a standard musical notation score.


title: Tin whistle

text: During the 1960s, Tommy Makem played the tin whistle as a member of The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem, one of the most influential Irish folk groups, especially popular during the American folk music revival.


title: Tin whistle

text: Award-winning singer and musician Julie Fowlis recorded several tracks on the tin whistle, both in her solo work and with the band Dòchas.


title: Tin whistle

text: Aaron "Big Voice Jack" Lerole and his band recorded a single called "Tom Hark", which sold five million copies worldwide, and which Associated Television used as the theme song for the 1958 television series "The Killing Stones". But the most famous star of the kwela era was Spokes Mashiyane. Paul Simon's 1986 album "Graceland" draws heavily on South African music, and includes pennywhistle solos in the traditional style, played by Morris Goldberg.


title: Tin whistle

text: Steve Buckley, a British jazz musician is renowned for using the penny whistle as a serious instrument. His whistle playing can be heard on recordings with Loose Tubes, Django Bates and his album with Chris Batchelor Life As We Know It. Les Lieber is a celebrated American Jazz Tinwhistle player. Lieber has played with Paul Whiteman's Band and also with the Benny Goodman Sextet. Lieber made a record with Django Reinhardt in the AFN Studios in Paris in the post Second World War era and started an event called "Jazz at Noon" every Friday in a New York City restaurant playing with a nucleus of advertising men, doctors, lawyers, and business executives who had been or could have been jazz musicians. Howard Johnson has also been known to play this instrument. Musical polymath Howard Levy introduces the tune True North with a jazz and very traditionally Celtic-inspired whistle piece on Bela Fleck and the Flecktones' UFO TOFU.


title: Tin whistle

text: Howard Shore called for a tin whistle in D for a passage in his "Concerning Hobbits" from "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy. The tin whistle symbolizes the Shire, together with other instruments such as the guitar, the double bass, and the bodhrán. The tin whistle also plays a passage in the main theme in the same trilogy.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Bassel al-Assad (; 23 March 1962 – 21 January 1994) was a Syrian engineer, colonel, equestrian and politician who was the eldest son of Syrian President Hafez al-Assad and the older brother of (later) President Bashar al-Assad. It was widely expected that he would succeed his father as President of Syria until he died in a car accident in 1994.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Bassel al-Assad was born on 23 March 1962. He was trained as a civil engineer, and he held a PhD in military sciences. He mentioned growing up:


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Trained in parachuting, he was commissioned in the Special Forces and later switched to the armoured corps after training in the Soviet Military Academies. He rapidly progressed through the ranks, becoming a major and then commander of a brigade in the Republican Guard.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: After his father recovered from a serious illness in 1984, Bassel began to accompany him and he emerged on the national scene in 1987, when he won several equestrian medals at a regional tournament. The Ba'ath Party press in Syria eulogised him as the "Golden Knight" because of his prowess on horseback. He also had a reputation for an interest in fast cars, and his friends described him as charismatic and commanding. Assad was soon appointed Head of Presidential Security. In addition, he launched the Syrian Computer Society in 1989, which was later headed by Bashar.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Originally Assad's uncle, Rifaat al-Assad, was Hafez's chosen successor but Rifaat attempted to usurp power from Hafez while the latter was in a coma in 1984. This led to Rifaat's exile. Following the incident, Bassel was groomed to succeed his father. Hafez's efforts intensified to make Bassel the next President of Syria in the early 1990s; after Hafez's election victory in 1991, the President was publicly referred to as "Abu Basil" (Father of Bassel). Assad was also being introduced to European and Arab leaders; he was a close friend of the children of King Hussein of Jordan, especially Haya bint Hussein who also enjoyed equestrianism, and had been also introduced to King Fahd of Saudi Arabia.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Assad had a significant role in Lebanese affairs, and was known to Lebanese leaders of all sects. He organised a highly publicised anti-corruption campaign within the government and frequently appeared in full military uniform at official receptions to signal the government's commitment to the armed forces.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Former CIA director Michael Hayden has compared Bassel to Sonny Corleone in the novel "The Godfather". "There is no doubt the Assads, along with the Makhloufs who are tied to them in bonds of marriage and partnerships, were just as busy with crime and committing particularly cruel acts as they were with ruling over Syria."


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Bassel is said to have spoken French and Russian fluently. According to leaked United States diplomatic cables, he had a relationship with a Lebanese woman, Siham Asseily who later married Lebanese journalist and deputy Gebran Tueni.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: His older sister, Bushra, could not marry Assef Shawkat until his death, as he rejected that marriage.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: On 21 January 1994, while he was driving his Mercedes at a high speed (author Paul Theroux reports Bassel was driving at ) through fog to Damascus International Airport for a flight to Frankfurt, Germany on his way to a ski vacation in the Alps in the early hours of the morning, Bassel collided with a barrier and, not wearing a seatbelt, died instantly. Hafez Makhlouf was with him and was hospitalized with injuries after the accident, and a chauffeur in the back seat was unhurt.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Assad's body was taken to Al Assad University Hospital and then buried in Qardaha, where his father's body was also later buried.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: After his death, shops, schools and public offices in Syria closed, and the sale of alcohol was suspended in respect. He was elevated by the state into "the martyr of the country, the martyr of the nation and the symbol for its youth".


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: A great number of squares and streets were named after him. The new international swimming complex, various hospitals, sporting clubs and a military academy were named after him. The international airport in Latakia was named after him, Bassel Al-Assad International Airport. His statue is found in several Syrian cities, and even after his death, he is often pictured on billboards with his father and brother. He also has an equestrian statue in Aleppo, and formerly in Chtaura, Lebanon.


title: Bassel al-Assad

text: Bassel Assad's death led to his lesser-known brother Bashar al-Assad, who was then undertaking postgraduate training in ophthalmology in London, assuming the mantle of president-in-waiting. Bashar became President following the death of his father, on 10 June 2000. Bassel Assad's posters and his name were also used to secure a smooth transition after Hafez Assad introduced the slogan "Bassel, the Example; Bashar, the Future."


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Clouds of Sils Maria (known simply as Sils Maria in some territories) is a 2014 psychological drama film written and directed by Olivier Assayas, and starring Juliette Binoche, Kristen Stewart, and Chloë Grace Moretz. The film is a French-German-Swiss co-production. Principal photography took place from August to October 2013, with most of the filming taking place in Sils Maria, Switzerland. The film follows an established middle-aged actress (Binoche) who is cast as the older lover in a romantic lesbian drama opposite an upstart young starlet (Moretz). She is overcome with personal insecurities and professional jealousies—all while sexual tension simmers between her and her personal assistant (Stewart). The screenplay was written with Binoche in mind and incorporates elements from her life into the plot.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: "Clouds of Sils Maria" was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2014, and also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and New York Film Festival. The film received positive reviews, with critics lauding the work as psychologically complex and praising the lead actresses' performances. It won the Louis Delluc Prize for Best Film in December 2014, and received six César Award nominations. Stewart received the César Award for Best Supporting Actress in February 2015, the first time an American won the award.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Maria Enders is an international film and stage actress. She travels with a loyal and young American assistant, Valentine. Twenty years earlier, Maria got her big break when she was cast and successfully performed as a young girl Sigrid in both the play and film version of "Maloja Snake" by Wilhelm Melchior, a Swiss playwright who is now elderly. The play centers on the tempestuous relationship between Sigrid and Helena, a vulnerable older woman. Helena commits suicide after Sigrid takes advantage of her and dumps her.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: While traveling to Zürich to accept an award on behalf of Wilhelm, and planning to visit him at home the following day at his house in Sils Maria—a remote settlement in the Alps—Maria learns of his death. His widow Rosa later confides that Wilhelm had ended his life and had been terminally ill. During the awards ceremony, Maria is approached by Klaus Diesterweg, a popular theater director. He wants to persuade her to appear onstage in a revival of "Maloja Snake", but this time in the role of Helena.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Maria is torn and reluctantly accepts. To prepare for the role, she accepts Rosa's offer to stay at the Melchiors' house in Sils Maria. Rosa is leaving to escape her memories of Wilhelm. Maria's discussions with Valentine and their read-throughs of the play's scenes evoke uncertainty about the nature of their relationship. A young American actress, 19-year-old Jo-Ann Ellis, has been chosen to portray the role of Sigrid. Researching her on Google and the Internet, Valentine tells Maria, who is out of touch with social media, that Ellis has been involved in numerous scandals.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Questions soon multiply regarding aging, time, culture and the blurring line between the Sigrid/Helena and the Valentine/Maria relationships. Maria and Jo-Ann finally meet, but their relationship is complicated. Jo-Ann appears to be implicated in the attempted suicide of the ex-wife of her new boyfriend.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: During their time at Sils Maria, Maria and Valentine spend much of their days hiking in the Alps. On one such final outing, they hike to the Maloja Pass to observe the Maloja Snake (both the "Maloja Snake" of the play's title and the "Clouds of Sils Maria" in the film's title). When discussing the play’s ending, in which Helena walks into the mountains never to return, Valentine suggests that Helena can still be alive and walk away to start a new life. Maria protests that Helena must be dead because she doesn’t return. After suggesting that their approaches to the play are too different for her (Valentine) to be a useful assistant, Valentine disappears without explanation.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: A few weeks later, a young filmmaker who has previously sent a script to Maria visits her by appointment five minutes before the curtain rises on the opening night of "Maloja Snake" in London. Maria seems preoccupied, being so close to the start of the performance, and dismisses his suggested ideas about the proposed film role he is offering her as "too abstract for me". When she says the role he has written is too young for her and would suit Jo-Ann better, he suggests that the character is ageless and that he does not relate to his era with its Internet scandals and trashy values. Maria does not give him a reply as to whether she will take part in the film. She then appears onstage, smoking and waiting for Sigrid.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Principal photography of "Clouds of Sils Maria" began on 22 August 2013 and ended on 4 October. The film was shot on location in the titular village of Sils Maria, Switzerland as well as Zürich; Leipzig, Germany; and South Tyrol, Italy.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: In an interview, Assayas said that all the film's interiors were shot in Germany. The production moved to Sils Maria to film the hiking scenes, and moved again to film the scenes in and around the chalet in South Tyrol.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The Chanel company debuted in film financing with this production. In addition it supplied the actresses with clothes, jewelry, accessories, and makeup, and the brand was scripted in as a provider of the same to Maria. Chanel provided some of the budget to allow Olivier Assayas to fulfill his dream of shooting a film on 35-mm film instead of digitally.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Assayas has described the fictional play "Maloja Snake" as a "condensed, brutalized version" of "The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant," a play by Rainer Werner Fassbinder (it was later adapted as a film of the same name).


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The American title of the film is "Clouds of Sils Maria." In France the film was released as "Sils Maria," Assayas' original name.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The first trailer for the film was released on 22 May 2014. Another international trailer followed on 7 July.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The film was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or in the main competition section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2014. It also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival and New York Film Festival.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 91% of 179 critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads: "Bolstered by a trio of powerful performances from its talented leads, "Clouds of Sils Maria" is an absorbing, richly detailed drama with impressive depth and intelligence." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 41 reviews from critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: "Clouds of Sils Maria" premiered at the Cannes Film Festival to positive reviews. Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph" stated, "This is a complex, bewitching and melancholy drama, another fearlessly intelligent film from Assayas." He said, "Binoche plays the role with elegance and melancholic wit – her character slips between fiction and fact in a way that recalls her role in Abbas Kiarostami's "Certified Copy." But it's Stewart who really shines here. Valentine is probably her best role to date: she's sharp and subtle, knowable and then suddenly distant, and a late, surprising twist is handled with a brilliant lightness of touch."


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Peter Debruge of "Variety" said it was Assayas' "daring rejoinder, a multi-layered, femme-driven meta-fiction that pushes all involved—including next-gen starlets Kristen Stewart and Chloë Grace Moretz — to new heights." Matt Risley of "Total Film" called it "an elegant, intelligent drama, enlivened by strong performances by Binoche, Moretz and especially Stewart, for whom this will surely usher in a new dawn."


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: Stephanie Zacharek of "The Village Voice" wrote: "But the movie's true center, the meteorological phenomenon that makes it so pleasurable to watch, is the half-prickly, half-affectionate interplay between Binoche and Stewart." Ben Sachs of "Chicago Reader" wrote: "This recalls Ingmar Bergman's chamber dramas in the intensity and psychological complexity of the central relationship, yet the filmmaking is breathtakingly fluid, evoking a sense of romantic abandon."


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: However, Kyle Smith of the "New York Post" writes: "A backstage drama that has all the sizzle of a glass of water resting on the windowsill, [...] "Clouds of Sils Maria" mistakes lack of dramatic imagination for smoldering subtlety." Richard Brody from "The New Yorker" writes: "Clouds of Sils Maria, as the title suggests, is a sort of travelogue, a commercial for European cultural tourism, and, as such, it's the perfect image of the very system that created it. There's almost no independent filmmaking in France, and there isn't supposed to be. If there were, it would stand as a threat to the system that, by way of training, enticements, and restrictions, is the source of the comforts that the movie depicts and that the movie reflects. The mediocrity is stifling."


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: "Clouds of Sils Maria" opened in France on 20 August 2014 in 150 theaters for a $3,663 per theater average and a box office total of $549,426 as of 24 August 2014. The film expanded to 195 theaters in its second week of release, and the box office increased to an estimated $1,150,090.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: "Clouds of Sils Maria" opened in the United States on 10 April 2015 in three theaters and grossed $69,729 on its opening weekend for an average of $23,243 per. As of 4 June 2015, the film has grossed an estimated $1,743,577 after expanding theaters.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The film won the Louis Delluc Prize for Best Film in December 2014. The film received six César Award nominations including best film, best director, best actress, best original screenplay, and best cinematography, while Stewart won for best supporting actress, becoming the first American actress to win a César and the third American actor to win after Adrien Brody in 2003 and Christopher Lambert in 1985.


title: Clouds of Sils Maria

text: The film was released on DVD and Digital HD by Paramount Home Media on July 14, 2015; the company also handles the digital entertainment sales, with IFC handling the video on demand sales.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: Rhodiola rosea (commonly golden root, rose root, roseroot, Aaron's rod, Arctic root, king's crown, lignum rhodium, orpin rose) is a perennial flowering plant in the family Crassulaceae. It grows naturally in wild Arctic regions of Europe (including Britain), Asia, and North America ( N.B., Nfld. and Labrador, N.S., QC.; Alaska, Maine, N.Y., N.C., Pa., Vt), and can be propagated as a groundcover.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: Although "Rhodiola rosea" has been used in traditional medicine, there is no high-quality clinical evidence of its effectiveness to treat any disease. The United States Food and Drug Administration has issued several warnings to manufacturers of "R. rosea" dietary supplements for making false health claims about its safety and efficacy.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: The plant is threatened in many countries due to rapidly growing demand. Supply comes mostly from wild harvesting on an industrial scale, and a combination of growing scarcity and a lack of regulation has led to environmental degradation, substitution or adulteration in the market, and illegal harvesting in protected areas.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: "Rhodiola rosea" is from tall, fleshy, and has several stems growing from a short, scaly rootstock. Flowers have 4 sepals and 4 petals, yellow to greenish yellow in color sometimes tipped with red, about long, and blooming in summer. Several shoots growing from the same thick root may reach in height. "R. rosea" is dioecious – having separate female and male plants.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: "Rhodiola rosea" was first described by Pedanius Dioscorides in De Materia Medica. Many of North American plants formerly included in "R. rosea" are now treated separate as "Rhodiola integrifolia" and "Rhodiola rhodantha".


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: About 140 chemical compounds are in the subterranean portions of "R. rosea". "Rhodiola" roots contain phenols, rosavin, rosin, rosarin, organic acids, terpenoids, phenolic acids and their derivatives, flavonoids, anthraquinones, alkaloids, tyrosol, and salidroside.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: The chemical composition of the essential oil from "R. rosea" root growing in different countries varies. For example, rosavin, rosarin, and rosin at their highest concentration according to many tests can be found only in "R. rosea" of Russian origin; the main component of the essential oil from "Rhodiola" growing in Bulgaria are geraniol and myrtenol; in China the main components are geraniol and 1-octanol; and in India the main component is phenethyl alcohol. Cinnamyl alcohol was discovered only in the sample from Bulgaria.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: Although rosavin, rosarin, rosin, and salidroside (and sometimes p-tyrosol, rhodioniside, rhodiolin, and rosiridin) are among suspected active ingredients of "R. rosea", these compounds are mostly polyphenols. There are no peer reviewed studies demonstrating that these chemicals have any physiological effect in humans that could prevent or reduce risk of disease. Although these phytochemicals are typically mentioned as specific to "Rhodiola rosea" extracts, "rosea" and other "Rhodiola" species contain many other constituent polyphenols, including proanthocyanidins, quercetin, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid and kaempferol.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: "Rhodiola rosea" grows in cold regions of the world, including much of the Arctic, the mountains of Central Asia, scattered in eastern North America and mountainous parts of Europe. It grows on sea cliffs and on mountains at high altitude.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: The leaves and shoots are eaten raw, having a bitter flavor, or cooked like spinach, and are sometimes added to salads. An extract is sometimes added as a flavoring in vodkas.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: Through 2019, human studies evaluating "R. rosea" did not have sufficient quality to determine whether it has properties affecting fatigue or any other condition. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has issued warning letters to manufacturers of "R. rosea" dietary supplement products unapproved as new drugs, adulterated, misbranded and in federal violation for not having proof of safety or efficacy for the advertised conditions of alleviating Raynaud syndrome, altitude sickness, depression or cancer.


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: In Russia and Scandinavia, "R. rosea" has been used for centuries to cope with the cold Siberian climate and stressful life. It is also used to increase physical endurance and resistance to high-altitude sickness, but the scientific evidence for such benefits is weak. The plant has been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is called "hóng jǐng tiān".


title: Rhodiola rosea

text: A 2012 report by the European Medicines Agency on literature concerning the dried extract of "R. rosea" stated that "The published clinical trials exhibit considerable deficiencies in their quality. Therefore 'well-established use' cannot be accepted" and added: "The traditional use as an adaptogen 'for temporary relief of symptoms of stress such as fatigue and sensation of weakness' is appropriate for traditional herbal medicinal products. ... The long-standing use as well as the outcome of the clinical trials support the plausibility of the use of the mentioned herbal preparation in the proposed indication."


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Henderson Island (formerly also San Juan Bautista and Elizabeth Island) is an uninhabited island in the south Pacific Ocean. It is part of the Pitcairn Island Group, together with Pitcairn, Oeno, and Ducie Islands. Measuring , it has an area of and is located northeast of Pitcairn Island. It has poor soil and little fresh water, and is unsuitable for agriculture. There are three beaches on the northern end and the remaining coast comprises steep (mostly undercut) cliffs up to in height. In 1902, it was annexed to the Pitcairn Islands colony, which is now a British Overseas Territory.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Henderson is one of the last two raised coral atolls in the world whose ecosystems remain relatively unaffected by human contact, along with Aldabra in the Indian Ocean. In 1988, it was designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations. Ten of its 51 flowering plants, all four of its land birds and about a third of the identified insects and gastropods are endemic – a remarkable diversity given the island's size.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: The island was settled by Polynesians — possibly as early as 800 CE — but by the 1600s it had been abandoned. There is good evidence that the island was continuously occupied for a 600-year period sometime between those dates. The reasons for the inhabitants’ disappearance remain uncertain, but they may relate to an exhaustion of resources and to the disappearance around the same time of the Polynesians on Pitcairn Island, on whom those on Henderson would have relied for many of the basics of life, especially for the stone needed to make tools. The Pitcairn Polynesians may in turn have disappeared because of the decline of nearby Mangareva; thus, Henderson was at the end of a chain of small, dependent colonies of Mangareva.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: On 29 January 1606, Portuguese captain Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, leading a Spanish expedition in search of the fabled great south land (Terra Australis), was the first European to see the island, and named it "San Juan Bautista". More than 200 years later, on 17 January 1819, Captain Henderson of the British East India Company ship "Hercules" rediscovered the island. Six weeks later, on 2 March 1819, Captain Henry King, in the "Elizabeth", landed on the island to find the king's colours already flying. His crew scratched the name of their ship into a tree, and for a while the island was known as both Elizabeth and Henderson Island. Thomas Raine, master of the ship "Surry" of London, named it Henderson's Island because it appeared to him, from a conversation he had with James Henderson at Valparaíso, to have been Henderson's discovery.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: On 20 November 1820, a sperm whale rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship "Essex" (a report of which inspired Herman Melville to write "Moby-Dick"), and the ship's 20 crewmen arrived at Henderson on 20 December in three small whaleboats. They found the island's only known drinkable water source – a brackish spring on the north shore, exposed at half tide – and ate fish, birds, eggs, crabs and peppergrass, but within a week they had largely exhausted the readily available food. Therefore, on 27 December, the three boats set sail for South America, leaving behind Thomas Chappel, Seth Weeks and William Wright who chose to stay and survived until their rescue several months later, on 9 April 1821.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In 1902, Henderson Island, along with Oeno and Ducie islands, was formally annexed to the British Empire by Captain G. F. Jones, who visited the islands in a cutter with a crew of Pitcairn Islanders. In August 1937, HMS "Leander", on a journey from Europe to New Zealand, carried out an aerial survey of Henderson, Oeno and Ducie, and, on each island, a British flag was planted and an inscription was nailed up proclaiming: "This island belongs to H.B.M. King George VI".


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In 1957, a 27-year-old American, Robert Tomarchin, lived the life of a castaway on the island for approximately two months, accompanied by a pet chimpanzee, apparently as a publicity stunt, until people from Pitcairn rescued him in two longboats.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In the early 1980s, the American businessman Arthur "Smiley" Ratliff expressed interest in establishing a mansion for himself on the island, with an airstrip. The Pitcairn Island Council approved his plans but, after environmentalists lobbied to protect the natural ecology and environment of the island, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office overrode the decision and vetoed the proposed development. Henderson Island was listed as a World Heritage Site in 1988.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In 2019, a group of scientists, journalists, film makers, and artists took part in an expedition to Henderson Island to investigate plastic pollution and marine litter on the island. Five members of the expedition became stranded on the island when their inflatable craft capsized. In 2021, Pitcairn Islanders participated in a scientific expedition to assess the effects of climate change.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In March 2022 a Royal Navy survey by HMS "Spey", as part of an effort to update maritime charts regarding British Overseas Territories, found the island to be 1 mile (1.6 kilometres) south of its indicated position. The existing data dates to an aerial survey in 1937, indicating a calculation error when the chart was produced.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Since the introduction of aluminium-hulled long-boats in the 20th century, Pitcairners have made regular trips to Henderson to harvest the wood of "miro" and "tou" trees. Usually, they venture to Henderson once per year, but they may make up to three trips if the weather is favourable. Pitcairners carve the wood into curios for tourists, from which they derive much of their income.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Henderson Island is a raised coral atoll that, with Pitcairn, Ducie and Oeno islands, forms the Pitcairn Island Group. The nearest major landmass is the continent of South America, more than away. This coral limestone island sits atop a conical (presumed volcanic) mound, rising from a depth of roughly . Its surface is mostly reef-rubble and dissected limestone – an extremely rugged mixture of steep, jagged pinnacles and shallow sinkholes – and, except for the north end, the island is encircled by steep limestone cliffs up to high.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: There are three main beaches, on the northwest, north, and northeast shores, and the north and northwest beaches are fringed by reefs. The depression at the island's center is thought to be a raised lagoon. There is only one known potable water source, a brackish spring on the north shore exposed at half tide, rising from a crevice in flat rock, large surfaces of which compose the face of the beach. The surrounding ocean tidal range is about one metre at spring tide.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Apart from five species bordering the beaches, including coconut palms, the vegetation is undisturbed. Henderson Island is covered by 5–10 m tall tangled scrub forest, more thinly covered in the central depression. It has 51 native species of flowering plants, ten of which are endemic to the island. Dominant tree species include coconut palms, "Pandanus tectorius"," Thespesia populnea" (miro), "Heliotropium foertherianum", "Cordia subcordata" (tou), "Guettarda speciosa", "Pisonia grandis", "Geniostoma hendersonense", "Nesoluma st-johnianum", "Hernandia stokesii", "Myrsine hosakae", and "Celtis sp."


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: The island is home to four extant endemic land bird species – the Henderson fruit dove, Henderson lorikeet, Henderson reed warbler and the flightless Henderson crake. Three species of the family Columbidae – the Henderson ground dove, the Henderson imperial pigeon and the Henderson archaic pigeon – as well as the Henderson sandpiper, were formerly endemic to the island, but became extinct when the Polynesians arrived around 1000 AD. Of the fifteen non-endemic seabird species found, nine or more are believed to breed on the island. Breeding colonies of the globally endangered Henderson petrel formerly existed on Ducie but were wiped out by invasive rats by 1922. It is believed to now nest uniquely on Henderson island.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Bones associated with prehistoric Polynesian settlement sites dating to somewhere between 500 and 800 years ago include those of the Polynesian storm petrel, Marquesan imperial pigeon, and Polynesian or Pacific imperial pigeon which are no longer found on the island, and two others – Christmas shearwater and red-footed booby – that still visit but no longer nest. It is hypothesized that the Polynesian settlers may have driven these bird species, along with six terrestrial snail species, to local extinction, and this loss of a ready and regular food supply may have contributed to the Polynesians' subsequent disappearance. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area for its endemic landbirds and breeding seabirds.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: The invertebrate species are largely unknown but a third of the island's known non-marine gastropods and insects are endemic. There are no native mammals but the Pacific rat, introduced by Polynesians 800 years ago, abounds. A skink ("Emoia cyanura") and the green sea turtle have been identified, and an unidentified gecko has been reported. There are also crabs.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Land bird populations appear to be relatively stable but there is a high risk of introduction to the island of predators, disease vectors, and diseases by unauthorized landings of yachts. Introduction of the Eurasian black rat or the domestic cat would be likely to cause almost immediate extinction of the ground-dwelling Henderson crake and possibly other species. The endemic birds may have no immunity to the fatal avian pox which is transmitted by biting flies such as Hippoboscidae.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Between July and November 2011 a partnership of the Pitcairn Islands Government and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds implemented a poison baiting programme aimed at eradicating the Pacific rat. Mortality was massive but of the 50,000 to 100,000 population, 60 to 80 individuals survived and the population has now fully recovered.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: Research published in April 2017 looked at debris on several beaches, and reported "the highest density of plastic rubbish anywhere in the world" as a result of the South Pacific Gyre. The beaches contain an estimated 37.7 million items of debris together weighing 17.6 tonnes. In a study transect on North Beach, each day 17 to 268 new items washed up on a 10-meter section. The study noted that purple hermit crabs ("Coenobita spinosus") make their homes in plastic containers washed up on beaches, and the debris may reduce shoreline gastropod diversity, may contribute to a reduction in the number of sea turtle laying attempts and may increase the risk of entanglement for coastal-nesting seabirds.


title: Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)

text: In June 2019, an expedition organised by the UK Government attempted to remove some of the plastic debris from the island's East beach. The team collected six tonnes of rubbish, but weather conditions hampered efforts to take the rubbish off the island. A further expedition, planned for April 2020, was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1929 United Kingdom general election was held on Thursday, 30 May 1929 and resulted in a hung parliament. It stands as the fourth of six instances under the secret ballot, and the first of three under universal suffrage, in which a party has lost on the popular vote but won the highest number (known as "a plurality") of seats versus all other parties (the others are 1874, January 1910, December 1910, 1951 and February 1974). In 1929, Ramsay MacDonald's Labour Party won the most seats in the House of Commons for the first time. The Liberal Party led again by former Prime Minister David Lloyd George regained some ground lost in the 1924 general election and held the balance of power. Parliament was dissolved on 10 May.


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was often referred to as the "Flapper Election", because it was the first in which women aged 21–29 had the right to vote (owing to the Representation of the People Act 1928). (Women over 30 had been able to vote since the 1918 general election.)


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was fought against a background of rising unemployment, with the memory of the 1926 general strike still fresh in voters' minds. By 1929, the Cabinet was being described by many as "old and exhausted".


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: The Liberals campaigned on a comprehensive programme of public works under the title "We Can Conquer Unemployment". There was anticipation of a potential revival of the Liberal Party after the reunification of Independent Liberals and National Liberals under Lloyd George's leadership in 1928 and following some victories in a series of by-elections after 1926. The incumbent Conservatives campaigned on the theme of "Safety First", with Labour campaigning on the theme of "Labour & the Nation".


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: This was the first general election to be contested by the newly formed Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru.


title: 1929 United Kingdom general election

text: It stood as the last time when a third party polled more than one-fifth of the popular vote until 1983. The Liberals performed more successfully than at the previous general election in 1924, but could not regain its pre-World War I status as a party of government. The next election thus ushered in five decades in which two-party politics dominated.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The Berdan rifle ("винтовка Бердана"/"vintovka Berdana" in Russian) is a Russian rifle created by the American firearms expert and inventor Hiram Berdan in 1868. It was standard issue in the Russian army from 1870 to 1891, when it was replaced by the Mosin–Nagant rifle. It was widely used in Russia as a hunting weapon, and sporting variants, including shotguns, were produced until the mid-1930s.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The "Russian" Berdan I (M1868) and Berdan II (M1870) rifles of .42 caliber are distinct from the "Spanish" Berdan 15mm (.58+ cal) conversion rifles adopted by Spain as the M1857/67 Berdan (and related engineer, artillery & short rifles).


title: Berdan rifle

text: Two different versions of the later single-shot Berdan rifle were adopted as service weapons by Imperial Russia. The first version, manufactured by Colt in the US, is known as model 1868, or Berdan I. It is a hammerless "trapdoor" breechblock design, and was manufactured in limited numbers (the contract stipulated 30,000) as a full-length infantry rifle. Colt also manufactured a few half-stock Berdan I cavalry carbine prototypes, but these were never adopted for Russian service. Colt even produced a few target rifles based on the Berdan I.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The model 1870, or Berdan II, is a single-shot bolt-action with a distinctive short, pear-shaped bolt handle. The bolt handle serves as the only locking lug for the action, and when closed, points upwards at a 30-degree angle, rather than horizontally. The Berdan II was produced in four variants: an infantry rifle, the lighter and slightly shorter dragoon rifle, a Cossack rifle with a button trigger and no trigger guard, and a cavalry carbine. Infantry and dragoon rifles were issued with quadrangular socket bayonets. Initial production of the Berdan II was at Birmingham Small Arms in England. The rifles were later manufactured in large numbers by Russian factories at Tula, Izhevsk, and Sestroretsk. Estimated total production of all models is over 3 million. The rifle was known for its accuracy, simplicity and reliability.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The 10.7×58mmR cartridge used in the Berdan was also invented by Hiram Berdan, with the assistance of Russian colonel . It was the subject of many patents in both the United States and United Kingdom. The bottleneck cartridge case used the Berdan primer, its first use in a small arms cartridge. Cartridges were issued in blue paper packets of six rounds each. In addition to the regular cartridge for rifles, a special cartridge was manufactured for use in the cavalry carbine. It consisted of the same cartridge case and bullet, but with a lighter powder charge of only 4.5 grams, and was issued in six round pink paper packets. At the time of its use, the 10.75×58mmR (4.2 line) cartridge was known for its power and accuracy.


title: Berdan rifle

text: No magazine-fed versions of the Berdan ever progressed beyond the prototype phase. Russian troops, however, did have various cartridge holders, such as the Krnka quick-loader, attached to their rifles to aid in reloading. By the late 1880s Russia began the process of replacing the Berdan with a high velocity and magazine fed rifle, and this resulted in the adoption of the Mosin–Nagant. In 1892, a batch of 3,004 Berdan II rifles were converted to 7.62×54mmR for Russian service by arms makers in Belgium. These rifles have new barrels and sights, and new bolts with a front locking lug and longer bolt handle. Had the conversion been deemed fit for service, an additional 40,000 were to be converted. However this did not go through.


title: Berdan rifle

text: Sporting rifles and shotguns were re-manufactured in Russia from surplus rifles after the Mosin–Nagant was adopted into service.


title: Berdan rifle

text: Markings on the Berdan rifle usually consist of the Imperial Russian double-headed eagle cypher on the top receiver flat. The manufacturer's name in Cyrillic, date of manufacture, and rifle serial number, are on the top of the barrel. Some rifles also show a date of manufacture on the receiver. The serial number was also applied to the bolt. Additional proof marks and property markings are found on the receiver and barrel. There is a factory cartouche on the right side of the buttstock.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The Swiss military bought 8900 in 1869, but these were replaced in favour of the Vetterli soon after.


title: Berdan rifle

text: The Berdan II saw service, though by then very limited, in Finland as late as World War II. In the Finnish Civil War of 1918, troops stationed in Finland still had Berdan rifles in storage and some 2nd line troops continued to employ the Berdan II. During this conflict, newer rifles were not always available in needed numbers, so Berdans saw limited use on both sides. As the Finnish military was not interested in the obsolete Berdan, in 1919 some 2,500 were issued to the Suojeluskunta (National Guard) General HQ. When the Suojeluskunta obtained modern rifles, the Berdans were returned to Finnish Army stores. About 3,000 Berdan rifles were issued to Finnish troops during the initial stages of the 1939 Winter War due to the great lack of modern infantry weapons. These rifles were replaced by more modern rifles as soon as it was possible. It appears that the Finns retained the Berdan rifles in store until scrapping them starting in 1945. In 1955 the remaining 1,029 were sold abroad, mostly in the U.S., through surplus arms dealers.


title: Erra (band)

text: Erra (stylized as ERRA) is an American progressive metalcore band from Birmingham, Alabama, formed in 2009. The band was named after the homonymous Akkadian god of war and plague. The band has released five studio albums and three EPs to date. Their latest album, titled "Erra", was released on March 19, 2021. They have toured with bands such as As I Lay Dying, August Burns Red, TesseracT, Born of Osiris, Ice Nine Kills, Glass Cloud, Within the Ruins and Texas in July.


title: Erra (band)

text: Erra was formed in 2009 by high school friends Alex Ballew, Jesse Cash, Adam Hicks, Garrison Lee and Alan Rigdon in Birmingham, Alabama. The band wrote and self-released two EPs: a self-titled in 2009 and "Andromeda" in 2010. This gained the attention of Tragic Hero Records, which had signed them in 2011. Later that year, the band released their first studio album "Impulse" and toured with bands such as Born of Osiris and Upon a Burning Body.


title: Erra (band)

text: In 2012, Adam Hicks left the band to pursue other career options and the band began writing their second studio album with Cash tracking both guitar and bass for the album. "Augment" was released and gained the band considerably more attention from touring bands, and they began touring more extensively. Hicks was replaced by guitarist Sean Price, who was included in the "Hybrid Earth" music video. The band toured the following year to promote their second release. Vocalist Garrison Lee and guitarist Alan Rigdon announced their departure from the band in 2014 and left on good terms.


title: Erra (band)

text: Following the end of their record deal with Tragic Hero, Erra signed to Sumerian Records in mid-2014. Bassist Sean Price moved to rhythm guitar and vocalist Ian Eubanks replaced Garrison Lee's position. In 2014, their third EP "Moments of Clarity" was released through Sumerian. It reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers Albums chart. Throughout 2015, Erra opened up for bands such as August Burns Red on their Frozen Flame Tour and TesseracT on their 2015 Polaris album tour. In late 2015, Eubanks parted ways with the band, citing an impact on his health as the main reason.


title: Erra (band)

text: In 2016, vocalist J.T. Cavey, a former member of Texas in July, joined the band to replace Ian Eubanks's position. Cavey and the band entered the studio and wrote and released their third studio album "Drift". The album reached No. 1 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers Albums chart. The band toured on the Sumerian 10-year tour, along with Born of Osiris, Veil of Maya, After the Burial and Bad Omens.


title: Erra (band)

text: On June 12, 2018, the band issued the first single from their album "Neon". The album was released on August 10, 2018, and is the band's third release on the label Sumerian Records, and the second album to feature J.T. Cavey on vocals. It peaked at No. 1 on the US "Billboard 200"'s Heatseekers Albums chart. In September 2018, the band departed on tour with After the Burial and The Acacia Strain.


title: Erra (band)

text: On August 8, 2019, the band released a new single titled "Eye of God"; it was made available to pre-save. In August 2019, Erra went on the Neon/Alien tour through North America with Northlane, Crystal Lake and Currents. On October 10, the band released their cover of Queens of the Stone Age's "You Think I Ain't Worth a Dollar, But I Feel Like a Millionaire" on streaming music services.


title: Erra (band)

text: On August 27, 2020, the band announced that they had parted ways with Sumerian Records and signed with UNFD, and they released a new single "Snowblood" along with a corresponding music video. On November 19, the band released another single "House of Glass".


title: Erra (band)

text: On January 13, 2021, the band released the third single "Divisionary" along with an accompanying music video. That same day, the band revealed the tracklist, album's official artwork and announced that their new upcoming self-titled fifth studio album is set for release on March 19, 2021. On February 3, one and a half months before the album's release, the band unveiled the fourth single, "Scorpion Hymn". On March 11, the band released the fifth single, "Shadow Autonomous". On September 10, just under six months after the album's original release, the band released an instrumental version of the album.