title: Alchon Huns

text: Toramana was finally vanquished with certainty by an Indian ruler of the Aulikara dynasty of Malwa, after nearly 20 years in India. According to the Rīsthal stone-slab inscription, discovered in 1983, King Prakashadharma defeated Toramana in 515 CE. The First Hunnic War thus ended with a Hunnic defeat, and Hunnic troops apparently retreated to the area of Punjab. The "Manjusri-mula-kalpa" simply states that Toramana died in Benares as he was returning westward from his battles with Narasimhagupta.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Second Hunnic War started in 520, when the Alchon king Mihirakula, son of Toramana, is recorded in his military encampment on the borders of the Jhelum by Chinese monk Song Yun. At the head of the Alchon, Mihirakula is then recorded in Gwalior, Central India as "Lord of the Earth" in the Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula. According to some accounts, Mihirakula invaded India as far as the Gupta capital Pataliputra, which was sacked and left in ruins.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Finally however, Mihirakula was defeated in 528 by an alliance of Indian principalities led by Yasodharman, the Aulikara king of Malwa, in the Battle of Sondani in Central India, which resulted in the loss of Alchon possessions in the Punjab and north India by 542. The Sondani inscription in Sondani, near Mandsaur, records the submission by force of the Hunas, and claims that Yasodharman had rescued the earth from rude and cruel kings, and that he "had bent the head of Mihirakula". In a part of the Sondani inscription Yasodharman thus praises himself for having defeated king Mihirakula:


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Gupta Empire emperor Narasimhagupta is also credited in helping repulse Mihirakula, after the latter had conquered most of India, according to the reports of Chinese monk Xuanzang. In a fanciful account, Xuanzang, who wrote a century later in 630 CE, reported that Mihirakula had conquered all India except for an island where the king of Magadha named Baladitya (who could be Gupta ruler Narasimhagupta Baladitya) took refuge, but that was finally captured by the Indian king. He later spared Mihirakula's life on the intercession of his mother, as she perceived the Hun ruler "as a man of remarkable beauty and vast wisdom". Mihirakula is then said to have returned to Kashmir to retake the throne. This ended the Second Hunnic War in 534, after an occupation which lasted nearly 15 years.


title: Alchon Huns

text: According to the Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena, the Maukharis also fought against the Hunas in the areas of the Gangetic Doab and Magadha. The Aphsad inscription of Ādityasena mentions the military successes of kings of the Later Gupta dynasty against the Maukharis, and explains that the Maukharis were past victors of the Hunas:


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Maukharis led by their king Ishanavarman, rather than any of the Guptas, were therefore pivotal in repelling the Hunas.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Alchon Huns resettled in the area of Gandhara and Kashmir in northwestern India under the rule of Sri Pravarasena (c.530-590 CE), thought to be the son of Toramana. His reign probably lasted about 60 years from circa 530 CE. According to Kalhana's 12th century text "Rajatarangini", Pravarasena established a new capital named Pravarapura (also known as Pravarasena-pura). Based on topographical details, Pravarapura appears to be same as the modern city of Srinagar. He also built a temple named "Pravaresha".


title: Alchon Huns

text: Pravarasena was probably succeeded by a king named Gokarna, a follower of Shiva, and then by his son king Narendraditya Khinkhila. The son of Narendraditya was Yudhishthira, who succeeded him as king, and was the last known king of the Alchon Huns. According to the "Rajatarangini" Yudhishthira ruled 40 years, probably until circa 625 CE, but he was dethroned by Pratapaditya, son of the founder of the Karkoṭa Empire, Durlabhavardhana.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Several rulers with Alchon names appear in Kalhana's "Rajatarangini". Although the chronology of the "Rajatarangini" is largely deficient, several of the names of these rulers, especially those belonging to the so-called Gonanda dynasty (II), have been confirmed by coin finds in Kashmir and dated to the 7th century CE. They were "very likely" descendents of the Alchon Huns in the Kashmir area.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Around the end of the 6th century CE, the Alchons withdrew to Kashmir and, pulling back from Punjab and Gandhara, moved west across the Khyber pass where they resettled in Kabulistan under the leadership of Toramana II. There, their coinage suggests that they merged with the Nezak – as coins in Nezak style now bear the Alchon "tamga" mark.


title: Alchon Huns

text: During the 7th century, continued military encounters are reported between the Hunas and the northern Indian states which followed the disappearance of the Gupta Empire. For example, Prabhakaravardhana, the Vardhana dynasty king of Thanesar in northern India and father of Harsha, is reported to have been "A lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of the Indus land".


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Alchons in India declined rapidly around the same time that the Hephthalites, a related group to the north, were defeated by an alliance between the Sassanians and the Western Turkic Kaghanate in 557–565 CE. The areas of Khuttal and Kapisa-Gandhara had remained independent kingdoms under the Alchon Huns, under kings such as Narendra, but in 625 CE they were taken over by the expanding Western Turks when they established the Yabghus of Tokharistan. Eventually, the Nezak-Alchons were replaced by the Turk Shahi dynasty around 665 CE.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama are mentioned as donors to a Buddhist stupa in the Talagan copper scroll inscription dated to 492 or 493 CE, that is, at a time before the Hunnic wars in India started. This corresponds to a time when the Alchons had recently taken control of Taxila (around 460 CE), at the center of the Buddhist regions of northwestern India. Numerous Alchon coins were found in the dedication compartment of the "Tope Kalān" stupa in Hadda.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Mural with paintings of probable Alchon devotees can be seen in the Buddhist complex of the Butkara Stupa (Butkara I, construction phase 4). Dated to the 5th century CE, they suggest that the Alchon Huns may have been participants to the local Buddhist culture.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Later, however, the attitude of the Alchons towards Buddhism is reported to have been negative. Mihirakula in particular is remembered by Buddhist sources to have been a "terrible persecutor of their religion" in Gandhara in northern (modern day) Pakistan. During his reign, over one thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. In particular, the writings of Chinese monk Xuanzang from 630 CE explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of monks. Indeed, the Buddhist art of Gandhara, in particular Greco-Buddhist art, becomes essentially extinct around that period. When Xuanzang visited northwestern India in CE, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Although the Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty, around the period of the invasions of the Alchon the Gupta rulers had apparently been favouring Buddhism. According to contemporary writer Paramartha, Mihirakula's supposed nemesis Narasimhagupta Baladitya was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher Vasubandhu. He built a sangharama at Nalanda and a high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the "Manjushrimulakalpa" (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana). Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son Vajra, who also commissioned a sangharama, "possessed a heart firm in faith".


title: Alchon Huns

text: The 12th century Kashmiri historian Kalhana also painted a dreary picture of Mihirakula's cruelty, as well as his persecution of the Buddhist faith:


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Alchons are generally described as sun worshipers, a traditional cult of steppe nomads. This stems from the appearance of sun symbols on some of their coins, combined with the probable influence they received from the worship of Surya in India.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Hindu Vaishnavite goddess Lakshmi, goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity and also an ancient goddess of Buddhism, also appears on the coinage of some rulers, especially Khingila, and Toramana.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Mihirakula is also said to have been an ardent worshiper of Shiva, although he may have been selectively attracted to the destructive powers of the Indian deity.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Mihirakula is said to have been the founder of the Shankaracharya Temple, a shrine dedicated to Shiva in Srinagar, a shrine to Shiva named Mihiresvara in Halada, and a large city called Mihirapura.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Alchon invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to the middle kingdoms of India.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Indian urban culture was left in decline. Major traditional cities, such as Kausambi and probably Ujjain were in ruins, Vidisha and Mathura fell into decline. Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks, started to collapse. Great centers of learning were destroyed, such as the city of Taxila, bringing cultural regression. The art of Mathura suffered greatly from the destructions brought by the Hunas, as did the art of Gandhara in the northwest, and both schools of art were nearly wiped out under the rule of the "Huna" Mihirakula. New cities arose from these destructions, such as Dashapura, Kanyakubja, Sthaneshvara, Valabhi and Shripura.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers, ended as well. Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas. Many autonomous regional states rose to prominence following the dislocation of Gupta power: the Aulikaras, the Maukharis, the Maitrakas, the Kalacuris or the Vardhanas, all in a constant flux of rivalry. With the end of Hunnic power, some India polities, such as the Maukhari dynasty were able to establish direct contacts with Central Asia and the Sasanian Empire: the Maukhari King Śarvavarman of Kannauj is said to have introduced the game of chess to the Sasanian court of Khosrow I, between the beginning of Śarvavarman's reign in 560/565 and the end of Khosrow's reign in 579.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Vaisnavism, which had been strongly supported by the Gupta Empire, was discredited by the decline and the ultimate failure of the Empire. All the newly arising regional powers preferred adopting Saivism instead, as did the Alchon Huns under Mihirakula, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of Shiva, and its ideology of power. Vaisnavism only remained strong in the territories which had not been affected by these events: South India and Kashmir.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia, particularly Indo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl and pepper from centers such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra and Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.


title: Alchon Huns

text: During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian caste system. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs. On the artistic side however, the Alchon Huns may have played a role, just like the Western Satraps centuries before them, in helping spread the art of Gandhara to the western Deccan region.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The advances of the Alchon Huns in India seems to have fostered a type of syncretic art in Gandhara during the 5th-6th century, mixing Gupta art with Sasanian and Hunish inspiration and themes. Particularly significant are a type of decorated lids from Gandhara which display courtly or hunting scenes, mixing them with Gupta decorative designs.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Several silver bowls related to the Alchons have been found in the area of Samarkand, including the "Chilek bowl" ("Čilek bowl"), which is considered as the "best known specimen of Hephthalite art", and is similar in composition with the Hephthalite silver bowl, but represents "six dancers in Indian costume with Iranian ribbons and Hephthalite-short heads". Each of the dancers is positionned under a pointed arch in Indian style, ans seems to be derived from contemporary Gupta art. This bowl, too, is considered as an Alchon object, but was possibly manufactured in India at the request of the Alchons. It is now in the Samarkand Museum.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The man in the medallion at the bottom of the Chilek bowl has a clearly elongated skull, characteristic of the Alchons Huns at that time and place.


title: Alchon Huns

text: As they invaded northern and central India circa 500 CE, the Alchon Huns issued several types of coinage on the model of the Sasanian Empire, with ruler in profile on the obverse and sacred fire with attendants on the reverse. It is thought that in the process of minting coins in occupied lands, they transmitted Sasanian coin designs to northern and western India. This created a major type of Indian coinage called "Indo-Sasanian coinage", which lasted in degraded form until the 12th century CE as far as the Gangetic region.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The Gurjaras and Gurjara-Pratiharas suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after the Hunas invasion of that region. The Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian element, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state, although its precise origins remain unclear. In Bana's "Harshacharita" (7th century CE), the Gurjaras are associated with the Hunas. Some of the Hunas may also have contributed to the formation of the warlike Rajputs.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Ancient sources refer to the Alchons and associated groups ambiguously with various names, such as Huna in Indian texts, and Xionites in Greek texts. Xuanzang chronicled some of the later history of the Alchons.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Modern archeology has provided valuable insights into the history of the Alchons. The most significant cataloguing of the Alchon dynasty came in 1967 with Robert Göbl's analysis of the coinage of the "Iranian Huns". This work documented the names of a partial chronology of Alchon kings, beginning with Khingila. In 2012, the Kunsthistorisches Museum completed a reanalysis of previous finds together with a large number of new coins that appeared on the antiquities market during the Second Afghan Civil War, redefining the timeline and narrative of the Alchons and related peoples.


title: Alchon Huns

text: A significant contribution to our understanding of Alchon history came in 2006 when Gudrun Melzer and Lore Sander published their finding of the "Talagan copper scroll", also known as the "Schøyen Copper Scroll", dated to 492 or 493, that mentions the four Alchon kings Khingila, Toramana, Javukha, and Mehama (who was reigning at the time) as donors to a Buddhist reliquary stupa.


title: Alchon Huns

text: The rulers of the Alchons practiced skull deformation, as evidenced from their coins, a practice shared with the Huns that migrated into Europe. The names of the first Alchon rulers do not survive. Starting from 430 CE, names of Alchon kings survive on coins and religious inscriptions:


title: Alchon Huns

text: The earliest Alchon Hun coins were based on Sasanian designs, often with the simple addition of the Alchon "tamgha" and a mention of "Alchon" or "Alkhan". Various coins minted in Bactria and based on Sasanian designs are known, often with busts imitating Sasanian kings Shapur II (r.309 to 379 CE) and Shapur III (r.383 to 388 CE), with attendants to a fire altar on the reverse. It is thought that the Sasanids lost control of Bactria to the Kidarites during the reign of Shapur II circa 370 CE, followed by the Hephthalites, and subsequently by the Alchon.


title: Alchon Huns

text: Later Alchon coinage became original and differed from predecessors in that it was devoid of Iranian (Sasanian) symbolism. The rulers are depicted with elongated skulls, apparently a result of artificial cranial deformation.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Leonhard "Sepp" Seppala (; September 14, 1877 – January 28, 1967) was a Norwegian-American sled dog breeder, trainer and musher who with his dogs played a pivotal role in the 1925 serum run to Nome, and participated in the 1932 Winter Olympics. Seppala introduced the work dogs used by Native Siberians at the time to the American public; the breed came to be known as the Siberian Husky in the English-speaking world. The Leonhard Seppala Humanitarian Award, which honors excellence in sled dog care, is named in honour of him.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Seppala was born in the Lyngen, Troms og Finnmark, Northern Norway. He was the eldest child of Isak Isaksen Seppälä (born in Sweden of Finnish descent) and Anne Henrikke Henriksdatter. His father's family name is of Finnish origin. Leonhard is considered to have been Kven. When Seppala was two years old, his family moved within Troms county to nearby Skjervøy municipality on the island of Skjervøya. While in Skjervøy, his father worked as a blacksmith and fisherman, building up a relatively large estate. Seppala initially followed in his father's footsteps as both a blacksmith and a fisherman. However, in 1900, he emigrated to Alaska during the Nome gold rush. His friend Jafet Lindeberg had returned from Alaska and convinced Seppala to come to work for his mining company in Nome. He became a naturalized citizen in 1906.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: During his first winter in Alaska, Seppala became a dogsled driver for Lindeberg's company. He enjoyed the task from his first run, which he recalled clearly for the rest of his life. He expressed pleasure in the rhythmic patter of the dogs' feet and the feeling of the sled gliding along the snow. While most drivers considered a long run, Seppala travelled between and most days. This also meant he worked as long as 12 hours a day. He kept his dogs in form during the summer by having them pull a cart on wheels instead of a sled. It was unusual at that time to keep sled dogs working when the snow thawed, or to spend as much time with them as he did.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: In 1913, Seppala inherited his first team of sled dogs by chance. Lindeberg, his friend and supervisor at Pioneer Mining Company, had brought the puppies from Siberia as a gift for the explorer Roald Amundsen, whom he hoped would use them for his upcoming expedition to the North Pole. Seppala was assigned to train the dogs. "I literally fell in love with them from the start", he recalled; "I could hardly wait for sledding snow to start their training". When Amundsen cancelled his trip a few weeks after the puppies arrived in Nome, Lindeberg gave them to Seppala.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Seppala made the decision to compete in his first race, the 1914 All Alaska Sweepstakes, at the last minute. Neither he nor his canine freight leader, Suggen, knew the dangerous trail, and when a blizzard suddenly descended on the area during the race, Seppala realized his young dogs had lost the trail and they were all at great risk of death due to the nearby drop-off to the Bering Sea. Indeed, when the whiteout conditions suddenly lifted, Seppala found that he and his team were at the bottom of a hill, racing towards the cliffs along the sea. Fortunately, he succeeded in stopping 20 feet from the drop-off, saving all their lives. However, many of his dogs' paw pads had been shredded and claws broken by the ice-encrusted snow as they clawed their way back to the top of the hill. A few also suffered frostbite. Seppala felt he had abused the dogs' loyalty by putting them in danger of death and injury, and withdrew from the race in shame. He nursed them back to health for most of the remainder of that year; they were not ready to train again until autumn.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Seppala's racing career took off the following year, at the 1915 All Alaska Sweepstakes. After a close competition between him and experienced musher Scotty Allan, Seppala defeated him on the fourth day of the race and finished two hours ahead of Allan to win the Sweepstakes. He went on to win the race the following two years, as well, at which point the All Alaska Sweepstakes was suspended until 1983.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: A diphtheria outbreak struck Seppala's town of Nome, Alaska in the winter of 1925. Previously unexposed children as well as adults were at risk of dying from the infection. Seppala's only child—an eight-year-old daughter named Sigrid—was also at risk. The only treatment available in 1925 was diphtheria antitoxin serum. However, the town's supply was not only insufficient but also of presumably low efficacy, being past its expiry date. Without the antitoxin, estimated mortality rates stood anywhere from 75% to 99.99%, practically a killing blow to Nome. The only practical way to deliver more serum to Nome in the middle of the coldest winter in 20 years was by dog sled. A relay of respected mushers was organized to expedite the delivery, and Seppala (with lead dog Togo) was chosen for the most forbidding part of the trail.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: The serum was to be taken by train to Nenana, and from there relay teams would set out from Nome and Nenana, meeting in the middle at Nulato. The whole trail was 674 miles from Nenana to Nome, and Seppala was initially selected to cover the more than 400 miles from Nome to Nulato and back.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Seppala's section of trail featured a dangerous shortcut across Norton Sound, which could save a full day of travel. It was decided that he was the most qualified of the relay mushers to attempt this shortcut. The ice on Norton Sound was in constant motion due to currents from the sea and the incessant wind. It ranged from rough hills of smashed-together ice to slippery "glare ice" polished by the wind, where it was difficult for the dogs to get a foothold. Small cracks in the ice could suddenly widen, and driver and team could be plunged into the freezing water. If the wind blew from the east, it could reach speeds as high as (windchill is the loss of body heat induced by temps of and at least winds), flipping over sleds, pushing dogs off course, and causing a windchill as low as . A sustained east wind could also push the ice out to sea, and a team caught on a drifting floe could find itself stranded on open water. Seppala had taken the shortcut across the Sound several times in his career; a less-experienced musher was likelier to lose not only his life and the lives of his dogs, but also the urgently needed serum. Seppala would cross the sound each way in the race to deliver the serum.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: Seppala set out from Nome on January 28—several days before he was due to meet the relay coming to Nulato. He crossed Norton Sound without incident. Meanwhile, the number of diphtheria cases in Nome continued to climb. To hasten delivery of the serum, more mushers were added to the relay. However, it was too late to inform Seppala that he would be meeting the relay closer to Nome than had originally been planned. After 3 days and , he came in sight of another relay musher, Henry Ivanoff, but did not realise it. Seppala saw the musher stopped on the trail and having trouble with his dogs, but did not intend to stop and be delayed. Ivanoff had to run after Seppala as he raced past, shouting, "The serum! The serum! I have it here!".


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: When the serum passed to Seppala, night was falling and a powerful low-pressure system was moving towards the trail from the Gulf of Alaska. Seppala had to decide whether to risk Norton Sound in high winds in the dark, when he could not see or hear potential warning signs from the ice. However, as going around the ice meant slowing the delivery of the serum by a full day, he chose to go across. While he raced to the roadhouse at Isaac's Point on the opposite shore, gale-force winds drove the windchill to an estimated from a real temperature of only . When he arrived there at 8 pm, his dogs were exhausted; they had run that day, much of it against the wind and in brutal cold. However, they could only afford a short rest, and set out again at 2 am.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: The next day, the gale had intensified into a severe blizzard, with blinding snow and winds of at least . Seppala continued the trail across Norton Sound. This meant avoiding rocky cliffs along the shore, but it also exposed him and his team to the dangers of the Sound. Conditions on the ice were perilous, with sudden soft spots in the ice underfoot and outright open water sometimes only a few feet away. Only a few hours after they had crossed it, the ice broke up altogether and drifted out to sea.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: With Norton Sound behind them, Seppala and his team now faced the final challenge of the trail—climbing an ridge formation that led to the summit of Little McKinley. The trail here was exposed and the steep grade grueling for the dogs, who were sleep-deprived and had already raced over the previous 4.5 days. However, at 3 P.M. that day, Seppala and his team arrived at Golovin and handed over the serum to the next musher. The serum was now only from Nome. Indeed, it arrived there the next day, Monday, February 2, at approximately 5:30 A.M., and was thawed and ready for use by 11 am.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: This emergency delivery, also known as the "Great Race of Mercy", is commemorated annually with the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: After the Serum Run, Seppala and some 40 of his dogs toured the "lower 48" with an Eskimo handler. His tour ended in January 1927 with the dogsled race at Poland Spring, Maine, where he accepted the challenge to race against Arthur Walden, founder of the New England Sled Dog Club and owner of the famous lead dog, "Chinook". Despite a series of time-consuming mishaps on the trail, Seppala won the race against the bigger, slower dogs driven by Walden and his followers. The enthusiasm for sled dog racing in New England together with the Serum Run publicity and the victory over Walden made it possible for Seppala and partner Elizabeth Ricker to establish a Siberian kennel at Poland Spring. This was the start of the spread of the Siberian Husky breed in the United States and Canada. He bred Togo, and the dog's descendants contributed to the "Seppala Siberian Sleddog", a sought after sled dog line, as well as mainstream show-stock Siberian Husky lines bred in New England and eventually elsewhere.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: In 1928, Seppala moved his permanent home to near Fairbanks, Alaska. In 1931 the Seppala–Ricker partnership ended. Sled dog racing was a demonstration event at the Lake Placid Winter Olympic Games in 1932, where Seppala earned a silver in the event. In 1946, he and his wife Constance moved to Seattle, Washington. In 1961, Seppala revisited Fairbanks and other places in Alaska at the invitation of American journalist Lowell Thomas, enjoying a warm reception from the Alaskan people. He and his wife lived in Seattle until his death at the age of 89. His wife, Constance, died a few years later aged 85. Both are buried in Nome, Alaska. They were survived by their daughter, Sigrid Hanks.


title: Leonhard Seppala

text: A street in Nome named Seppala Drive connects the town to its airport. Alaska Airlines has established the Leonhard Seppala Humanitarian Award. In June 1999, a memorial was erected to him in Skibotn. In 2019, Disney released a movie based on Seppala's feats in the 1925 serum run to Nome, titled "Togo" and starring Willem Dafoe as Seppala.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: Pauline McLynn (born 11 July 1962) is an Irish character actress and author. She is best known for her roles as Mrs Doyle in the Channel 4 sitcom "Father Ted", Libby Croker in the Channel 4 comedy drama "Shameless", Tip Haddem in the BBC One comedy "Jam & Jerusalem", and Yvonne Cotton in the BBC soap opera "EastEnders". McLynn also appeared as a Garda in Sky One's "Trollied".


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn was born in Sligo, and grew up with two younger brothers in Galway. She studied History of Art and Modern English at Trinity College, Dublin, but was more heavily involved in the college's drama society. She graduated with an MA.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: Although McLynn was in her early thirties when playing Mrs Doyle in "Father Ted", makeup was used to make her look far older to fit the character's elderly profile. She received a British Comedy Award for her performances in 1996. The award was presented to her by Tony Blair.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: Subsequent televised appearances included a similar elderly role in the "Yesterday Island" episode of youth sci-fi series "Life Force", sketches on "Bremner, Bird and Fortune", and panel shows "Just a Minute", "Have I Got News for You", and "If I Ruled the World". In 1999, she appeared in the film adaptation of "Angela's Ashes". She also appeared in Jennifer Saunders' "Jam & Jerusalem". Between 2001 and 2003 she reprised Mrs Doyle in an advert for online tax return filing by the Inland Revenue.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn was critically acclaimed for her performance in the 2005 film "Gypo", receiving an Irish Film and Television Award nomination for Best Actress.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn appeared in "Shameless", which was produced by the British broadcaster Channel 4, as Libby Croker. In January 2011 it was announced that she had left the show, reportedly after a "difficult year".


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn also played the role of Alice's mother in the Comedy Central show "Threesome". She starred in Samuel Beckett’s "Happy Days" at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield in 2011.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: In 2014, McLynn played the part of Evelyn in "Kiss for the Camera", a series three episode of the BBC comedy Pramface. On 12 May 2014, McLynn joined the cast of "EastEnders" as Yvonne Cotton, the mother of Charlie Cotton (Declan Bennett) and ex-daughter-in-law of Dot Branning (June Brown). After starting as a recurring character, McLynn quickly became a regular when her character's storylines escalated. She made her final appearance on 13 January 2015, at the end of her contract. However, McLynn returned to the soap opera on 14 May 2015 for one single episode to give evidence against Dot during Nick Cotton's (John Altman) murder trial.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: In 2017, McLynn appeared as the mother of lead character Marcella in Roisin Conaty's E4 comedy "GameFace", and in April 2018 she portrayed Sister Mary in the BBC Two biopic "Dave Allen At Peace". She appears as a minor character named Mrs. Trattner in the 2018 film "Johnny English Strikes Again".


title: Pauline McLynn

text: In 2020, McLynn was one of the celebrity pilgrims on the Sultans Trail in the BBC series "Pilgrimage: Road to Istanbul". She also appeared in "".


title: Pauline McLynn

text: In 2021 McLynn appeared as Oona in the E4 S6 of "Inside No. 9". She also appeared as Carol, a bar landlady, in the film "Last Night in Soho", which was released in October 2021. McLynn also appeared in "Doctor Who", as Mary in the New Year’s special "Eve of the Daleks".


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn is married to theatrical agent Richard Cook. She is a patron of the children's charity World Vision Ireland and is president of Friends of Innisfree Housing Association.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: She is also a patron for Littlehill Animal Rescue, Sanctuary in Ireland and Birmingham Greyhound Protection.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn is a fan of the Premier League football team Aston Villa. She says her best moment supporting Villa came in 1996 when she watched them beat Leeds United in the Football League Cup final with her "Father Ted" co-star Ardal O'Hanlon, who is a Leeds supporter. McLynn was raised as a Roman Catholic, but is now an atheist.


title: Pauline McLynn

text: McLynn is involved with many charities against the racing and export of greyhounds. She is a patron of Birmingham Greyhound Protection.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The Mysterious Cities of Gold, originally released in Japan as and released in France as Les Mystérieuses Cités d'Or, is an animated series which was co-produced by DiC Audiovisuel and Studio Pierrot.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Set in 1532, the series follows the adventures of a young Spanish boy named Esteban who joins a voyage to the New World in search of the lost Seven Cities of Gold and his father.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The series was originally broadcast in Japan and the French version, edited with different characterization and music, was subsequently redubbed and distributed in many countries. It is currently licensed for English-language home video release in the United Kingdom, Australia, and North America by Fabulous Films.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: "It is the 16th century. From all over Europe, great ships sail west to conquer the New World, the Americas. The men, eager to seek their fortune, to find new adventures in new lands. They long to cross uncharted seas and discover unknown countries, to find secret gold on a mountain trail high in the Andes. They dream of following the path of the setting sun that leads to El Dorado and the Mysterious Cities of Gold."


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: In 1532, a Spanish orphan named Esteban joins Mendoza, a navigator, and his associates Sancho and Pedro, in their search for one of the Seven Cities of Gold in the New World, hoping to find his father. They are joined on their quest by Zia, an Incan girl (who was kidnapped by Gomez, Gaspard, Perez and Mendoza), and Tao, the last descendant of the sunken empire of Mu (Hiva in the English dub).


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The series is a mix of ancient South American history, archaeology, and science fiction. During their journey, the travelers encounter the Mayas, Incas, and Olmecs. They discover many lost technological wonders of the Mu Empire, including a solar-powered ship (the "Solaris") and The Golden Condor, a huge solar-powered ornithopter (mechanical bird), capable of traveling considerable distances under the sun's power alone. They are constantly pursued by antagonists Gomez and Gaspard, who are also in search of the Cities of Gold.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The Seven Cities of Gold were built by the Emperor of Hiva out of fear that a global war would destroy all civilizations. Such a war actually broke out, destroying the Empires of Mu and Atlantis when they used the "Weapons of the Sun". The Seven Cities of Gold hold copies of books in their "Universal Libraries" as well as powerful artefacts, including the "Great Legacy", a portable fusion reactor. Other elements of this technology turn up in unexpected places, like the "Solaris" on Tao's home island, Esteban's and Zia's medallions as keys to the Cities, and Tao's jar as an important piece of the Great Legacy.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Reminiscences of this ancient story are present in Inca legends written on golden quipu, which only Zia can read. This triggers an obsessive quest for the Cities of Gold on the part of the Spaniards Mendoza, Gomez, Gaspard and Francisco Pizarro.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Esteban seeks his long-lost father and he is also tied to Mendoza, who rescued Esteban from a sinking ship when he was a baby. Esteban seems to have a magical ability to make the sun appear, which proves to be an invaluable asset throughout the series. Zia also seeks her father, from whom she was taken and was brought to Spain as a gift for the princess Margarita when she was seven years old. She has a medallion just like the one which Esteban carries.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Tao seeks signs of his ancestors. He possesses an encyclopedia which contains information about their lost technology as well as a mysterious jar which according to the legend, only the High Priest of the City of Gold can open, and it proves to be the Great Legacy's cooling or control rod system. Mendoza, Sancho and Pedro are motivated by their search for gold, but Mendoza genuinely appears to be fond of the three children.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The Olmecs are the descendants of survivors of the global war who hid under their mountain. Only their elite were able to survive, suspended in cryogenic hibernation. The Olmecs do not appear to be human—or if they were once human, it is implied that they were horribly mutated by the fallout of the nuclear war that destroyed their ancestors. They are short and thin and they also have pointed ears and enlarged frontal bones. They are highly intelligent but they are devious and selfish.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Led by their king, Menator, the Olmecs seek an artefact called the "Great Legacy" in order to power their cryogenic systems, as well as samples of healthy cells from the children in order to combat their mutations and their sterility. Their technology is generally inferior to modern technology, and they use weapons such as spears and swords. They maintain some elements of their advanced technological heritage, such as the stasis and medical technology which is used to keep the elite of the Olmecs in suspended animation until an opportunity to revive them arises, technology which is powered by what appears to be a geothermal power system.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: This power system is destroyed during an escape by the children and Mendoza, causing the Olmecs to conduct a frantic search for the fusion reactor core (the Great Treasure) which is hidden inside the City of Gold. They also possess a flying machine which appears to have been constructed with the same type of advanced technology which the Golden Condor was constructed with. It is armed with a particle beam or a focused heat weapon which is very powerful.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Eventually, the Olmecs succeed, at great cost, in taking control of the Great Legacy. It begins to melt down without the moderation which is supposed to be provided by Tao's jar. The resulting earthquakes and volcanism destroy the City of Gold. A world-threatening meltdown is avoided by the personal sacrifice of Esteban's father who, acting as the High Priest of the Cities, is presumed to be dead after he replaces the jar. At the end of the series, Mendoza, Sancho and Pedro, who have salvaged some gold before the city's destruction, return to Spain, while Esteban and his friends set out across the Pacific Ocean on the golden condor in search of the remaining Cities of Gold.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The story was written by Jean Chalopin and Bernard Deyriès, and is very loosely based on the novel "The King's Fifth" by Scott O'Dell. The series' chief director was Hisayuki Toriumi. The producers were Max Saldinger and Atsumi Yajima (NHK). The musical score was composed by Haim Saban and Shuki Levy in the Western version (Nobuyoshi Koshibe in the Japanese version). Shingo Araki was involved with the series as an animator and some episodes were directed by Toyoo Ashida and Mizuho Nishikubo.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Originally Koshibe's score was to be used for the Western version as well. In contrast, Bernard Deyriès recalled his reaction to the proposed music he heard from "Ulysses 31" in that he felt that the score was rather understated as he was expecting a more adventurous feel, something akin to films like "Indiana Jones". At that point Haim Saban and Shuki Levy had met Deyriès, and became involved with the soundtracks of "Ulysses 31" and "The Mysterious Cities of Gold".


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The series originally aired in Japan on NHK (the national public broadcaster) and premiered on June 29, 1982, running weekly for 39 episodes until its conclusion on June 7, 1983.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The French version first aired on Antenne 2 from September 1983 to July 1984. All non-Japanese versions of the series originate from the French version.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The series first aired in English in the United States on the Nickelodeon cable network from June 30, 1986, to June 29, 1990. in the United Kingdom, twice on Children's BBC in 1986/87 and 1989 and on The Children's Channel in 1994/1995; in Ireland on Network 2 in 1988/1989; and in Australia, on the public broadcaster ABC in the early to mid-1980s.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: The series also aired in Turkey on TRT; in East Germany on DFF and later in unified Germany on ORB, MDR and Your Family Entertainment; in Italy on Rai 2; in Sweden on TV3; in Spain on ETB 1; in Bulgaria on BNT 2 and Diema 2; in Israel on IETV and Zoom; in Hungary (translated as "The Kingdom of Inca" - "Az Inka Királyság"); in Portugal on RTP; in New Zealand on TV One and TV2; in South Africa on TV1 and SABC1; in Belgium BRT; in Russia; in Namibia on both SWABC and NBC; in Gibraltar on GBC TV; in Zambia on ZNBC; in Luxembourg on RTL Télévision and in several Arab nations.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: "The Mysterious Cities of Gold" was released on both VHS and DVD in France, Belgium, Japan, Portugal, Canada (in French) and Germany. In 2007, Fabulous Films acquired the licence to release the series in Region 2 (Europe), Region 1, and Region 4. All 39 episodes of the series were released in the United Kingdom on June 23, 2008, as a six-disc DVD set with the picture and sound restored. The DVD was released in Australia in August 2008. It was released in North America on April 7, 2009. The show is also available to purchase and stream via digital retailers.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Three new seasons of 26 episodes each have been produced, picking up the storyline where the 1982 series left off. Unlike the original series, this sequel is produced entirely in France, as a co-joint venture between the French television channel TF1, the Belgian channel La Trois, the French animation company Blue Spirit and Jean Chalopin's company Movie-Plus Group. The new seasons see the series move to China and subsequently Japan. The design of the characters are more or less the same, although some subtle changes have been made to their physical appearances. Jean Chalopin and Bernard Deyriès act as creative consultants on the new series, with Chalopin concentrating particularly on the scripts (which are written by Hadrian Soulez-Lariviere from Chalopin's own draft for the sequel) and Deyriès focusing particularly on the graphical aspects. New background music is composed by the original theme song's singer Noam Kaniel.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: A 45-minute special, consisting of the first two episodes of the new series, was released on December 9, 2012, on TF1. The series started its regular airing during the first half of 2013. Like the 1982 series, each episode has a summary of the previous episode, a teaser to the next and a small documentary at the end. The voices for the English-language version were recorded in Paris under the direction of voice director, Matthew Géczy. The sequel received a premiere on the Kix (UK and Ireland) channel in the United Kingdom on November 9, 2013, before a daily airing due to start on November 11.


title: The Mysterious Cities of Gold

text: Two games have been produced by Ynnis Interactive. The first, "The Mysterious Cities of Gold: Flight of the Condor", was released in 2013 only for iOS users on Apple devices. The second was titled "" and was made in 2013 for PC after a successful Kickstarter campaign. The game was released in 2014 for iOS, Wii U and Nintendo 3DS.


title: Escort agency

text: An escort agency is a company that provides escorts for clients, usually for sexual services. The agency typically arranges a meeting between one of its escorts and the client at the customer's house or hotel room (outcall), or at the escort's residence (incall). Some agencies also provide escorts for longer durations, who may stay with the client or travel along on a holiday or business trip. While the escort agency is paid a fee for this booking and dispatch service, the customer must negotiate any additional fees or arrangements directly with the escort for any other services that are not provided by the agency involved, such as providing sexual services (regardless of the legality of these services).


title: Escort agency

text: Escort agencies claim that they are dispatching these individuals to provide a social or conversational service rather than a sexual service, since prostitution laws often forbid taking payment for sex or communicating for the purpose of arranging a contract for sexual services. Advertisements for escort agencies often carefully skirt the legal line, and avoid specifically offering prostitution or sexual services. This fact in turn is well known to police and the political powers, who, where prostitution is illegal, usually prefer to act against more visible and problematic street prostitution. This has been criticized as hypocrisy, especially where governments license and tax the escort agencies. However, there almost certainly do exist agencies that do go by these laws and do not facilitate prostitution. Some countries have used a two-pronged approach of criminalizing street prostitution but permitting or licensing prostitution in brothels or via escort agencies.


title: Escort agency

text: Escort agencies often recruit individuals to work as escorts by placing employment advertisements in a magazine or newspaper. Escort agencies typically maintain a list of escorts of different ages and appearances to cater to the varying interests of clients. Some agencies may specifically deal in a certain type of escort. There are male-for-male, female-for-male, and female-for-female escort agencies, as well as a few male-for-female agencies. Agencies commonly specialize in only one sex. Transsexual or transgender escorts are available from some escort agencies.


title: Escort agency

text: It is very common for escorts to enter the business through referrals from friends who have been in the business. The effectiveness of ads in weeklies or specialized sites has been questioned by some operators as there are so many that they are diluted. Typically, an escort will interview with an agency.


title: Escort agency

text: Once an escort is hired by an agency, they will provide photographs or pose for a photographer. These pictures are posted on the agency's website or circulated among clients to promote business.


title: Escort agency

text: Some larger escort agencies maintain websites with photo galleries of their escorts. Clients contact agencies by telephone and offer a description of what kind of escorts are sought. The agency will then suggest an escort who might fit that client's need.


title: Escort agency

text: The agency collects the client's contact information and calls the escort. Usually, to protect the identity of the escort and ensure effective communication with the client, the agency arranges the appointment. Sometimes, it may be up to the escort to contact the client directly to make arrangements for the location and time of an appointment. Generally, the escort is also expected to call the agency upon arrival at the location and upon leaving, to ensure the safety of the escort.


title: Escort agency

text: The arm's-length relationship between the escort and the escort agency is designed to protect the escort agency (to some degree) from prosecution for breaking laws against prostitution. If the employee is solely responsible for arranging any illegal prostitution-oriented activities, the agency can maintain plausible deniability should an arrest be made.


title: Escort agency

text: Escort services aim to provide an experience that allows the operators to claim that whatever happens between the escort and the client is consensual. Operators tend to avoid discussing specifics over the telephone or via emails to avoid complications with the law.


title: Escort agency

text: Prostitution in India is legal, but a number of related activities, including owning or managing a brothel, pimping and pandering, are crimes.


title: Escort agency

text: In 2010, Mexico legislators added a law similar to that of the UK called the Anti Trafficking in Persons Act (rough translation) which makes it a crime to offer the sexual services of another person against their will. The law is still broadly interpreted and has many websites which offered the services of escorts running for cover and newspapers like "El Universal" stopped taking classified ads for escorts or "executive massages" because of the law which also goes after anyone promoting the trafficking of persons. The legislator who is spearheading the campaign there has filed a lawsuit against the newspaper "Reforma" because they have not stopped taking classified ads for these services, but have instead put in place a mandatory presentation of official identification of the person placing the ad and the signing of a waiver stating that they are placing the ad on their own behalf and releasing the newspaper from anything that may come from the services offered.


title: Escort agency

text: The legislature in Mexico has modified the law to close some loopholes or grey areas and are, like the United States, zooming in on the "end user" or client. The new law encompasses penalties of 7–9 years in prison for contracting an escort, 7–9 years in prison for transporting an escort to her appointment and now the most broad addition like in the United States, "facilitation" of any person, persons or company that promotes or services of an escort whether a newspaper, internet ad or website is subject to 9–11 years in prison, which grows to a maximum of 23 years if the offending person is a public servant of any kind.


title: Escort agency

text: Escort prostitution is one of the forms that the sex trade takes in the United Kingdom, along with prostitution practiced in massage parlors, saunas, private flats (such as the Soho walk-ups) and street prostitution. Working as an outcall escort is not an offence, and neither is working as a prostitute in private. However, under the Policing and Crime Act 2009 it is a criminal offence to pay for services of a prostitute who is controlled for gain if any third party uses force, threat (whether or not relating to violence) or any other form of coercion. In 2015 the HMRC set up a dedicated “adult entertainment task force” to collect unpaid income tax from, among others, online escort agencies.


title: Escort agency

text: The amount of money that is made by an escort varies with many factors, such as sexual attractiveness, competition from legal and illegal sources, and the commissions to be paid to the agency. Typically, an agency will charge their escorts either a flat fee for each client connection or a percentage of the pre-arranged rate. According to police in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the high fees charged by escort agencies may make escorting less lucrative than street prostitution, especially as agencies often also deduct the license fees directly from the earnings.


title: Escort agency

text: Independent escorts may have differing fees depending on the season, or whether the client is a regular or semi-regular customer. Independent escorts may tend to see clients for extended meetings involving dinner or social activities whereas agency escorts tend to be split into two categories: Cheaper services, especially if mainly based on incall appointments (client visiting the escort at her accommodation), often only provide sexual services, while agencies that provide mainly outcall appointments (the escort visiting the client at either their home or hotel) tend to offer services similar to that of independent escorts.


title: Escort agency

text: In New York City, escort services charge anywhere from $200 to $1500 or more per hour. The industry standard for dividing the money is 50% to the escort, 40% to the agency, and 10% to the booker (a kind of sales representative). Given the level of business can vary week to week, it is not uncommon for escorts to be featured by more than one agency provided they are operated by the same ownership group.


title: Escort agency

text: A 2005 government survey in New Zealand (where prostitution was regulated and for the most part legalized in 2003) estimated that of the 6,000 prostitutes surveyed, around 20% worked for escort agencies.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber is a thick layer of vascularized adipose tissue under the skin of all cetaceans, pinnipeds, penguins, and sirenians.


title: Blubber

text: Lipid-rich, collagen fiber-laced blubber comprises the hypodermis and covers the whole body, except for parts of the appendages. It is strongly attached to the musculature and skeleton by highly organized, fan-shaped networks of tendons and ligaments, can comprise up to 50% of the body mass of some marine mammals during some points in their lives, and can range from thick in dolphins and smaller whales, to more than thick in some bigger whales, such as right and bowhead whales. However, this is not indicative of larger whales' ability to retain heat better, as the thickness of a whale's blubber does not significantly affect heat loss. More indicative of a whale's ability to retain heat is the water and lipid concentration in blubber, as water reduces heat-retaining capacities, and lipid increases them.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber is the primary fat storage on some mammals, specifically those that live in water. It is particularly important for species that feed and breed in different parts of the ocean. During these periods, the animals metabolize fat. Blubber may save energy for marine mammals, such as dolphins, in that it adds buoyancy while swimming.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber differs from other forms of adipose tissue in its extra thickness, which provides an efficient thermal insulator, making blubber essential for thermoregulation. Blubber is more vascularized—rich in blood vessels—than other adipose tissue.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber has advantages over fur (as in sea otters) in that, though fur retains heat by holding pockets of air, the air expels under pressure (i.e., when the animal dives). Blubber, however, does not compress under pressure. It is effective enough that some whales can dwell in temperatures as low as . While diving in cold water, blood vessels covering the blubber constrict and decrease blood flow, thus increasing blubber's efficiency as an insulator.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber aids buoyancy and streamlines the body, because the organized, complex collagenous network supports the noncircular cross sections characteristic of cetaceans. The buoyancy of blubber could be problematic for bottom-feeding marine mammals such as sirenians and the extinct marine sloths, both of which do or probably did have limited amounts of it for that reason.


title: Blubber

text: Research into the thermal conductivity of the common bottlenose dolphin's blubber reveals its thickness and lipid content vary greatly amongst individuals and across life history categories. Blubber from emaciated dolphins is a poorer insulator than that from nonpregnant adults, which in turn have a higher heat conductivity than blubber from pregnant females and adolescents.


title: Blubber

text: "Uqhuq", or "uqsuq", ("blubber" in the Inuktitut language) is an important part of the traditional diets of the Inuit and of other northern peoples, because of its high energy value and availability. Whale blubber, which tastes like arrowroot biscuits, has similar properties.


title: Blubber

text: Whaling largely targeted the collection of blubber: whalers rendered it into oil in try pots, or later, in vats on factory ships. The oil could serve in the manufacture of soap, leather, and cosmetics. Whale oil was used in candles as wax, and in oil lamps as fuel. A single blue whale can yield a blubber harvest of up to 50 tons.


title: Blubber

text: Blubber from whales and seals contains omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin D. Without the vitamin D, for example, the Inuit and other natives of the Arctic would likely suffer from rickets. There is evidence blubber and other fats in the arctic diet also provide the calories needed to replace the lack of carbohydrates which are found in the diets of cultures in the rest of the world.


title: Blubber

text: In the 21st century, blubber contains man-made polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), carcinogens that damage human nervous, immune, and reproductive systems. The source of PCB concentrations is unknown. Since toothed whales are high on the food chain, they likely consume large amounts of industrial pollutants (bioaccumulation); even baleen whales, by merit of the huge amount of food they consume, are bound to have toxic chemicals stored in their bodies. Additionally, there are high levels of mercury in the blubber of seals of the Canadian arctic.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Feni (misspelt fenno or fenny, Indo-Portuguese; fénnim) is a spiritous liquor indigenous to the state of Goa, India. The two most popular types of feni are Cashew feni and Coconut feni, depending on the ingredients; however, other varieties and newer blends are also sold by distillaries. The small-batch distillation of feni has a fundamental effect on its final character, which still retains some of the delicate aromatics, congeners, and flavour elements of the juice from which it was produced.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: The word "feni" is derived from the Sanskrit word , in Naagri Konkani; "फेन" or "फेण" & in Romi Konkani; "fenn"; which means "froth"; thought to come from the bubbles that form when the liquor is shaken inside a bottle or poured into a glass. It is generally accepted that coconut feni (palm toddy) was produced before it, and feni followed the same process until distillation was introduced by Europeans. Coconut palms are abundant along the western coastline of the Konkan region in south Asia/ India, whereas the cashew tree was an exotic species of crops, imported by the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay, from what was colonial Brazil in south America. There is ambiguity about when and who first produced a fermented beverage of cashew fruits, to make the distilled spirit of feni.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: The feni consumed in southern Goa is generally of higher alcohol content (43–45% abv) as compared to the feni produced in northern Goa. Commercially packaged feni is available at 42.8% abv.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: In the traditional method of making cashew feni, only tree-ripened cashew apples that have fallen are picked and taken for the crush. The cashew apples are de-seeded and then dropped into the stomping area. This area is called a "collmi" and is usually a rock cut into a basin shape. The cashew apples are stomped to release the juice. Stomping has now gradually been replaced by the use of a press called a "pingre" (cage). The pulp is then hand-patted into small mounds traditionally using a particular vine, "nudi", which is snaked around it to hold it together while a heavyweight (typically a boulder) is placed on top. The juice produced through this second extraction process is known as "Neero/Niro", and is refreshing to drink; however, it is not used in the fermentation process generally for making feni. The first juice extract, obtained by stomping cashew apples, is transferred traditionally in a large earthen pot called a "koddem", which is buried halfway in the ground and left while the juice ferments for several days. Delicate earthen "koddem" have now been replaced by plastic drums for the sake of practicality. The juice is then allowed to sit for three days as it ferments. No artificial yeast or nutrients are added to hasten the process.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Cashew feni is distilled employing the traditional pot, which is still practiced. A traditional still for feni is still known as a "bhatti". The use of an earthen pot as the boiling pot has now been replaced with copper pots, both known by the same name, "bhann". The distillate is collected in an earthen pot called a "launni". The tradition of cold water being continuously poured on the "launni" to condense the distillate has now been replaced by immersing a coil in cold water.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Cashew feni is a triple-distilled spirit. The first distillate of the fermented "neero" is known as Urrak, about 15% alcohol (30 proof). "Urrak" is then mixed with "neero" in a proportion determined by the distiller, and redistilled to give a spirit called "cazulo" or "cajulo" (40–42% abv). "Cazulo" or "cajulo" is again distilled with "Urrak" to give a high-strength spirit called feni (45% abv). Note that "cazulo" is generally sold as "feni", as the spirit is considered too strong of an alcoholic beverage for consumption. All cashew feni now available is double-distilled.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Coconut feni, also known as "Maddel" or "Maddachim Fenni", is distilled from fermented toddy from the coconut palm. Traditionally toddy is collected from the coconut palm by a toddy-tapper called a "Reindér". Toddy-tapping—the collection of juice from the bud or spadix of palm tree flowers—has been practiced in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia for centuries. The sap of the coconut palm is collected in an earthen pot called a "zamonnô" or "damonnem", which is fitted over the spadix ("ipoi") that grows out of the base of each coconut leaf. In order to produce toddy, the spadix is tightly bound with a rope ("gofê"/"gophe") made from filaments ("vaiê") cut with a small knife ("piskathi") from the base of the leaf, while remaining attached to the pedicle. The spadix then must be tapped all around very gently with the handle of the "kathi" (a flat semi-circular sickle) every alternate day until it becomes round and flexible, a sign that the sap is ready. The tip of the spadix is then cut off to let the sap ooze out into the "damonnem".


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Toddy is collected from the "damonnem" in the morning and evening, and then carried down the tree in a gourd-shaped container called a "dudhinnem" before being poured into a clay pot called a "kollsô". The spadix is sharpened at noon by slicing a small piece horizontally off the top, called "cheu", so as to reactivate the flow of sap. For three days the toddy used to be left to ferment in clay or porcelain pots, called "monn" or "jhallo".


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Coconut feni is largely produced and consumed only in South Goa. It is distilled employing the traditional pot. Coconut feni is prepared in a distillery known as a "sôreachi bhatti". The use of an earthen pot as the boiling pot has now been replaced with copper cauldrons, both known by the same name, "bhann". The mouth of the "bhann" is sealed with a wooden stopper called a "mhorannem". The vapours from the "bhann" pass through a tube called a "nollo", made from a "bonnki/bonnqui" stem, and are collected in a clay distillation pot called a "launni", which is placed in an open clay vessel called a "koddem" filled with water. The copper coil is immersed in cold water to condense the vapours.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Commercially bottled coconut feni has a strength of 42.8% abv. Coconut feni is a double-distilled spirit; the first distillate is called a "mollop", about 15% alcohol (30 proof). Four "kollxem" (plural of "kollsô") of toddy produce two pots of "mollop". Four pots of "mollop" are then mixed with one "kollso" of toddy, which is added to distill what is then a fiery coconut feni.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: The feni selling market is largely unorganised. Locals tend to buy feni directly from the thousands of traditional distillers who run seasonal mini-distilleries or stalls in the villages of Goa. A large volume of feni that is distilled is sold directly by distillers to taverns who have business relationships that extend over generations.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Cashew feni is seasonal, distilled only from late February to mid-May. It is highly dependent on the fruiting of the season. The price of cashew feni is also speculated on the fruiting season.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Coconut feni is produced throughout the year as coconut trees are tapped year round. During the monsoon months, the coconut palms produce more toddy than the drier months. Toddy tapping is very labour-intensive and so is not an appealing profession. This has led to the dramatic decline in production of coconut feni.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: In the organised sector, there are also hundreds of brands to choose from that cater to the tourist market. Locals have slowly begun to switch to standardised bottled feni in recent years.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Feni can be served neat or over ice, and can be mixed in classic cocktails or with juices. It can be served with a slice of lime, and sometimes with sugar or sugar syrup, which are popular additions.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Popular mixers are cola, tonic water& lemonade, with the latter probably the most popular. Feni is also often mixed with Limca, Maaza, Sprite, or 7up.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Feni has also culinary applications, such as in the marinade for pork, along with garlic, ginger, Indian spices, and vinegar, as the base for the iconic Vindaloo curry.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: Cashew feni was awarded Geographical Indication registration in 2009 as a speciality alcoholic beverage from Goa, described as a colourless, clear liquid that when matured in wooden barrels develops golden brown tint. This designation was achieved through the efforts of the Goa Cashew Feni Distillers & Bottlers Association and the Department of Science, Technology & Environment of the Government of Goa. The application of a G.I. for coconut feni has been neglected.


title: Feni (liquor)

text: In 2016, the Goan government initiated a process for feni to be recognised as a heritage brew outside of the state. Goa Chief Minister Laxmikant Parsekar described feni as "part of our culture". Plans include nature tourism where tourists can see cashew harvesting and follow the process of the drink's manufacture. Several distillers urged the government to issue rules on distillation process and ensure that they are obeyed. Counterfeit feni and adulteration in quality were some of the issues raised by participants.


title: Customary law

text: A legal custom is the established pattern of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of "what has always been done and accepted by law".


title: Customary law

text: Most customary laws deal with "standards of the community" that have been long-established in a given locale. However, the term can also apply to areas of international law where certain standards have been nearly universal in their acceptance as correct bases of action – for example, laws against piracy or slavery (see "hostis humani generis"). In many, though not all instances, customary laws will have supportive court rulings and case law that have evolved over time to give additional weight to their rule as law and also to demonstrate the trajectory of evolution (if any) in the interpretation of such law by relevant courts.


title: Customary law

text: A central issue regarding the recognition of custom is determining the appropriate methodology to know what practices and norms actually constitute customary law. It is not immediately clear that classic Western theories of jurisprudence can be reconciled in any useful way with conceptual analyses of customary law, and thus some scholars (like John Comaroff and Simon Roberts) have characterized customary law norms in their own terms. Yet, there clearly remains some disagreement, which is seen in John Hund's critique of Comaroff and Roberts' theory, and preference for the contributions of H. L. A. Hart. Hund argues that Hart's " The Concept of Law" solves the conceptual problem with which scholars who have attempted to articulate how customary law principles may be identified, defined, and how they operate in regulating social behavior and resolving disputes.


title: Customary law

text: Comaroff and Roberts' famous work, "Rules and Processes", attempted to detail the body of norms that constitute Tswana law in a way that was less legalistic (or rule-oriented) than had Isaac Schapera. They defined "mekgwa le melao ya Setswana" in terms of Casalis and Ellenberger's definition: "melao" therefore being rules pronounced by a chief and "mekgwa" as norms that become customary law through traditional usage. Importantly, however, they noted that the Tswana seldom attempt to classify the vast array of existing norms into categories and they thus termed this the 'undifferentiated nature of the normative repertoire'. Moreover, they observe the co-existence of overtly incompatible norms that may breed conflict, either due to circumstances in a particular situation or inherently due to their incongruous content. This lack of rule classification and failure to eradicate internal inconsistencies between potentially conflicting norms allows for much flexibility in dispute settlement and is also viewed as a 'strategic resource' for disputants who seek to advance their own success in a case. The latter incongruities (especially inconsistencies of norm content) are typically solved by elevating one of the norms (tacitly) from 'the literal to the symbolic. This allows for the accommodation of both as they now theoretically exist in different realms of reality. This is highly contextual, which further illustrates that norms cannot be viewed in isolation and are open to negotiation. Thus, although there are a small number of so-called non-negotiable norms, the vast majority are viewed and given substance contextually, which is seen as fundamental to the Tswana.


title: Customary law

text: Comaroff and Roberts describe how outcomes of specific cases have the ability to change the normative repertoire, as the repertoire of norms is seen to be both in a state of formation and transformation at all times. These changes are justified on the grounds that they are merely giving recognition to de facto observations of transformation [219]. Furthermore, the legitimacy of a chief is a direct determinant of the legitimacy of his decisions. In the formulation of legislative pronouncements, as opposed to decisions made in dispute resolution, the chief first speaks of the proposed norm with his advisors, then council of headmen, then the public assembly debate the proposed law and may accept or reject it. A chief can proclaim the law even if the public assembly rejects it, but this is not often done; and, if the chief proclaims the legislation against the will of the public assembly, the legislation will become melao, however, it is unlikely that it will be executed because its effectiveness depends on the chief's legitimacy and the norm's consistency with the practices (and changes in social relations) and will of the people under that chief.


title: Customary law

text: Regarding the invocation of norms in disputes, Comaroff and Roberts used the term, "paradigm of argument", to refer to the linguistic and conceptual frame used by a disputant, whereby 'a coherent picture of relevant events and actions in terms of one or more implicit or explicit normative referents' is created. In their explanation, the complainant (who always speaks first) thus establishes a paradigm the defendant can either accept and therefore argue within that specific paradigm or reject and therefore introduce his or her own paradigm (usually, the facts are not contested here). If the defendant means to change the paradigm, they will refer to norms as such, where actually norms are not ordinarily explicitly referenced in Tswana dispute resolution as the audience would typically already know them and just the way one presents one's case and constructs the facts will establish one's paradigm. The headman or chief adjudicating may also do same: accept the normative basis implied by the parties (or one of them), and thus not refer to norms using explicit language but rather isolate a factual issue in the dispute and then make a decision on it without expressly referring to any norms, or impose a new or different paradigm onto the parties.


title: Customary law

text: Hund finds Comaroff and Roberts' flexibility thesis of a 'repertoire of norms' from which litigants and adjudicator choose in the process of negotiating solutions between them uncompelling. He is therefore concerned with disproving what he calls "rule scepticism" on their part. He notes that the concept of custom generally denotes convergent behaviour, but not all customs have the force of law. Hund therefore draws from Hart's analysis distinguishing social rules, which have internal and external aspects, from habits, which have only external aspects. Internal aspects are the reflective attitude on the part of adherents toward certain behaviours perceived to be obligatory, according to a common standard. External aspects manifest in regular, observable behaviour, but is not obligatory. In Hart's analysis, then, social rules amount to custom that has legal force.


title: Customary law

text: Hart identifies three further differences between habits and binding social rules. First, a social rule exists where society frowns on deviation from the habit and attempts to prevent departures by criticising such behaviour. Second, when this criticism is seen socially as a good reason for adhering to the habit, and it is welcomed. And, third, when members of a group behave in a common way not only out of habit or because everyone else is doing it, but because it is seen to be a common standard that should be followed, at least by some members. Hund, however, acknowledges the difficulty of an outsider knowing the dimensions of these criteria that depend on an internal point of view.


title: Customary law

text: For Hund, the first form of rule scepticism concerns the widely held opinion that, because the content of customary law derives from practice, there are actually no objective rules, since it is only behaviour that informs their construction. On this view, it is impossible to distinguish between behaviour that is rule bound and behaviour that is not—i.e., which behaviour is motivated by adherence to law (or at least done in recognition of the law) and is merely a response to other factors. Hund sees this as problematic because it makes quantifying the law almost impossible, since behaviour is obviously inconsistent. Hund argues that this is a misconception based on a failure to acknowledge the importance of the "internal element". In his view, by using the criteria described above, there is not this problem in deciphering what constitutes "law" in a particular community.


title: Customary law

text: According to Hund, the second form of rule scepticism says that, though a community may have rules, those rules are not arrived at 'deductively', i.e. they are not created through legal/moral reasoning only but are instead driven by the personal/political motives of those who create them. The scope for such influence is created by the loose and undefined nature of customary law, which, Hund argues, grants customary-lawmakers (often through traditional 'judicial processes') a wide discretion in its application. Yet, Hund contends that the fact that rules might sometimes be arrived at in the more ad hoc way, does not mean that this defines the system. If one requires a perfect system, where laws are created only deductively, then one is left with a system with no rules. For Hund, this cannot be so and an explanation for these kinds of law-making processes is found in Hart's conception of "secondary rules" (rules in terms of which the main body of norms are recognised). Hund therefore says that for some cultures, for instance in some sections of Tswana society, the secondary rules have developed only to the point where laws are determined with reference to politics and personal preference. This does not mean that they are not "rules". Hund argues that if we acknowledge a developmental pattern in societies' constructions of these secondary rules then we can understand how this society constructs its laws and how it differs from societies that have come to rely on an objective, stand-alone body of rules.


title: Customary law

text: The modern codification of civil law developed from the tradition of medieval custumals, collections of local customary law that developed in a specific manorial or borough jurisdiction, and which were slowly pieced together mainly from case law and later written down by local jurists. Custumals acquired the force of law when they became the undisputed rule by which certain rights, entitlements, and obligations were regulated between members of a community. Some examples include Bracton's "De Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae" for England, the "Coutume de Paris" for the city of Paris, the "Sachsenspiegel" for northern Germany, and the many "fueros" of Spain.


title: Customary law

text: In international law, "customary law" refers to the "Law of Nations" or the legal norms that have developed through the customary exchanges between states over time, whether based on diplomacy or aggression. Essentially, legal obligations are believed to arise between states to carry out their affairs consistently with past accepted conduct. These customs can also change based on the acceptance or rejection by states of particular acts. Some principles of customary law have achieved the force of peremptory norms, which cannot be violated or altered except by a norm of comparable strength. These norms are said to gain their strength from universal acceptance, such as the prohibitions against genocide and slavery. Customary international law can be distinguished from treaty law, which consists of explicit agreements between nations to assume obligations. However, many treaties are attempts to codify pre-existing customary law.


title: Customary law

text: Customary law is a recognized source of law within jurisdictions of the civil law tradition, where it may be subordinate to both statutes and regulations. In addressing custom as a source of law within the civil law tradition, John Henry Merryman notes that, though the attention it is given in scholarly works is great, its importance is "slight and decreasing". On the other hand, in many countries around the world, one or more types of customary law continue to exist side by side with official law, a condition referred to as legal pluralism (see also List of national legal systems).


title: Customary law

text: In the canon law of the Catholic Church, custom is a source of law. Canonical jurisprudence, however, differs from civil law jurisprudence in requiring the express or implied consent of the legislator for a custom to obtain the force of law.


title: Customary law

text: It is a broad principle of property law that, if something has gone on for a long time without objection, whether it be using a right of way or occupying land to which one has no title, the law will eventually recognise the fact and give the person doing it the legal right to continue.


title: Customary law

text: It is known in case law as "customary rights". Something which has been practised since time immemorial by reference to a particular locality may acquire the legal status of a custom, which is a form of local law. The legal criteria defining a custom are precise. The most common claim in recent times, is for customary rights to moor a vessel.


title: Customary law

text: The mooring must have been in continuous use for "time immemorial" which is defined by legal precedent as 12 years (or 20 years for Crown land) for the same purpose by people using them for that purpose. To give two examples: a custom of mooring which might have been established in past times for over two hundred years by the fishing fleet of local inhabitants of a coastal community will not simply transfer so as to benefit present day recreational boat owners who may hail from much further afield. Whereas a group of houseboats on a mooring that has been in continuous use for the last 25 years


title: Customary law

text: with a mixture of owner occupiers and rented houseboats, may clearly continue to be used by houseboats, where the owners live in the same town or city. Both the purpose of the moorings and the class of persons benefited by the custom must have been clear and consistent.


title: Customary law

text: In Canada, customary aboriginal law has a constitutional foundation and for this reason has increasing influence.


title: Customary law

text: Customary law is also used in some developing countries, usually used alongside common or civil law. For example, in Ethiopia, despite the adoption of legal codes based on civil law in the 1950s according to Dolores Donovan and Getachew Assefa there are more than 60 systems of customary law currently in force, "some of them operating quite independently of the formal state legal system". They offer two reasons for the relative autonomy of these customary law systems: one is that the Ethiopian government lacks sufficient resources to enforce its legal system to every corner of Ethiopia; the other is that the Ethiopian government has made a commitment to preserve these customary systems within its boundaries.


title: Customary law

text: In 1995, President of Kyrgyzstan Askar Akaev announced a decree to revitalize the "aqsaqal" courts of village elders. The courts would have jurisdiction over property, torts and family law. The "aqsaqal" courts were eventually included under Article 92 of the Kyrgyz constitution. As of 2006, there were approximately 1,000 "aqsaqal" courts throughout Kyrgyzstan, including in the capital of Bishkek. Akaev linked the development of these courts to the rekindling of Kyrgyz national identity. In a 2005 speech, he connected the courts back to the country's nomadic past and extolled how the courts expressed the Kyrgyz ability of self-governance. Similar "aqsaqal" courts exist, with varying levels of legal formality, in other countries of Central Asia.


title: Customary law

text: The Somali people in the Horn of Africa follow a customary law system referred to as "xeer". It survives to a significant degree everywhere in Somalia and in the Somali communities in the Ogaden. Economist Peter Leeson attributes the increase in economic activity since the fall of the Siad Barre administration to the security in life, liberty and property provided by Xeer in large parts of Somalia. The Dutch attorney Michael van Notten also draws upon his experience as a legal expert in his comprehensive study on Xeer, "The Law of the Somalis: A Stable Foundation for Economic Development in the Horn of Africa" (2005).


title: Customary law

text: In India many customs are accepted by law. For example, Hindu marriage ceremonies are recognized by the Hindu Marriage Act.


title: Customary law

text: In Indonesia, customary adat laws of the country's various indigenous ethnicities are recognized, and customary dispute resolution is recognized in Papua. Indonesian adat law are mainly divided into 19 circles, namely Aceh, Gayo, Alas, and Batak, Minangkabau, South Sumatra, the Malay regions, Bangka and Belitung, Kalimantan, Minahasa, Gorontalo, Toraja, South Sulawesi, Ternate, the Molluccas, Papua, Timor, Bali and Lombok, Central and East Java including the island of Madura, Sunda, and the Javanese monarchies, including the Yogyakarta Sultanate, Surakarta Sunanate, and the Pakualaman and Mangkunegaran princely states.


title: Customary law

text: Custom is used in tort law to help determine negligence. Following or disregarding a custom is not determinative of negligence, but instead is an indication of possible best practices or alternatives to a particular action.


title: HomePod

text: The HomePod is a smart speaker developed by Apple Inc. The HomePod was designed to work with the Apple Music subscription service.


title: HomePod

text: The HomePod was announced on June 5, 2017, at the Apple Worldwide Developers Conference. Its launch was later delayed from December 2017 to February 2018. Apple began taking orders on January 26, 2018. The speaker was formally released on February 9, 2018. It incorporates beamforming and eight speakers and was sold in two colors: white and space gray.


title: HomePod

text: The HomePod received mixed reviews: it was praised for its design and sound quality compared to other speakers of its price, and criticized for lack of third-party support and high price compared to other smart speakers. Additionally, the silicone base on the bottom of the device was found to occasionally damage wooden surfaces.


title: HomePod

text: As of August 2018, the HomePod had sold an estimated 1 to 3 million units. It was discontinued on March 12, 2021, in favor of the smaller and less expensive HomePod Mini.


title: HomePod

text: The HomePod has a rounded, cylindrical shape, and has a small touchscreen on its top. It has seven tweeters in its base and a four-inch woofer (Apple does not specify Hz frequency range) towards the top, as well as six microphones used for voice control and acoustic optimization. The system-on-a-chip is the Apple A8, which Apple previously included in the Apple TV HD, iPod touch (6th generation), iPad mini 4 and iPhone 6/6 Plus.


title: HomePod

text: Siri can be used to control the speaker and other HomeKit devices, and can be used to conduct text messaging and voice calls from an iPhone. The HomePod mainly supports Apple's own platforms and technologies, including Apple Music, iTunes Store purchases and Match, iTunes podcasts, Beats 1 radio, and AirPlay (with limited third-party support for internet radio services iHeartRadio, Radio.com, and TuneIn coming in the fall of 2019), while an iOS 11 device is required for initial setup. HomePod can serve as a sound bar within a home entertainment system when selected through an Apple TV. The HomePod does not officially support audio-in from Bluetooth sources. Andrew Faden has developed a solution he calls "BabelPod" to allow line in and Bluetooth input to the HomePod through the use of a Raspberry Pi.


title: HomePod

text: AirPlay 2 and multi-room, multi-speaker support were announced in February 2018, and released in September 2018 in iOS 12 along with additional features such as multiple named timers, Find my iPhone, Siri shortcuts, the ability to make, receive and screen phone calls directly on the HomePod, and the ability to search for songs using the lyrics. HomePod initially lacked support for allowing multiple users to use the device, but multi user support was eventually added with the release of iOS 13.2.


title: HomePod

text: The 13.4 software update, released in March 2020, updated the OS from an iOS code base to a tvOS based system.


title: HomePod

text: Greenhouse gas emissions for production, expected use and recycling for the HomePod are estimated at 146 kg COe.


title: HomePod

text: The HomePod received mixed reviews. The review from "The Verge" praised the HomePod's automatic acoustic calibration system, and felt that it sounded "noticeably richer and fuller" than competitors such as the Sonos One (described as sounding "a little empty") and Google Home Max (described as being a "bass-heavy mess"). The review from "Ars Technica" stated that the sound quality of the HomePod was "pretty good, rich and full for its size, better than the Sonos One but probably not $150 better, [and] a galaxy ahead of the Echo."


title: HomePod

text: Its lack of support for third-party services and platforms was criticized, with "Ars Technica" arguing that it gave the device "intense inflexibility". Siri on the HomePod was also criticized for its limited functionality in comparison to assistants such as Alexa and Google Assistant; "The Verge" cited the inability to actually place phone calls from the speaker (they must be made on an iPhone and transferred to the HomePod), set multiple timers at once, or distinguish between multiple voices, and only supporting basic commands when using AirPlay, among other limitations. Multiple reminders can be used in lieu of multiple timers, albeit with less precision than a timer. All these issues have been fixed in iOS 12, released on September 17, 2018.


title: HomePod

text: "The Verge" gave HomePod a 7.5 out of 10, writing that it "does more to make music sound better than any other speaker of this kind has ever done before", but that consumers should consider other options "unless you live entirely inside Apple's walled garden and prioritize sound quality over everything else." "Wired" shared similar criticisms over its lack of Siri functionality and support for third-party services, concluding that the HomePod would be of little interest to those who are not heavily invested in Apple's software and hardware ecosystem.


title: HomePod

text: It was reported by some owners that the HomePod's silicone base stained oiled wooden surfaces with a white "ring" mark. Although Apple states that "it is not unusual for any speaker with a vibration-dampening silicone base to leave mild marks when placed on some wooden surfaces", and that the marks would eventually "improve" on its own, Stuart Miles (founder of the British technology blog "Pocket-lint") reported that in his experience, the stain occurred after only about 20 minutes of use on a wooden surface, and that he had to sand and re-oil the surface to remove it. John Gruber criticized Apple for this abnormality, remarking that he had never seen an Apple product damage surfaces in such a manner before, and that it "seems like an issue that should have been caught during the period where HomePod was being widely tested at home by many Apple employees."


title: HomePod

text: Apple released a four-minute short film "Welcome Home", directed by Spike Jonze and starring FKA Twigs, to promote the HomePod, along with commercial-length versions.


title: HomePod

text: Strategy Analytics estimated that around 600,000 HomePods were sold in first quarter of 2018, making Apple the fourth best selling smart speaker brand after Amazon, Google and Alibaba, giving Apple a 6% market share in the industry. The HomePod also has 6% market share in the United States according to a report from Consumer Intelligence Research Partners and sold an estimated 700,000 units worldwide in the second quarter of 2018. Also in the second quarter of 2018, Strategy Analytics estimated that the HomePod outsold all smart speakers that cost more than $200, giving Apple a 70% market share in premium brand smart speakers. As of mid 2018, the HomePod had sold an estimated 3 million units. Sales increased 45% in Q4 2018, with Apple selling 1.6 million units that quarter. In April 2019, Apple reduced the price to USD $299. In March 2021, the price got reduced to £279. As of May 2021, Apple was still reportedly selling units manufactured for the HomePod's launch stock.


title: HomePod

text: On March 12, 2021, Apple discontinued the HomePod in favor of the HomePod Mini. In a statement, Apple said "HomePod Mini has been a hit since its debut last fall, offering customers amazing sound, an intelligent assistant, and smart home control all for just $99. We are focusing our efforts on HomePod mini. We are discontinuing the original HomePod, it will continue to be available while supplies last through the Apple Online Store, Apple Retail Stores, and Apple Authorized Resellers. Apple will provide HomePod customers with software updates and service and support through Apple Care."


title: Tarzan Boy

text: "Tarzan Boy" is the debut single by Italian-based act Baltimora. The song was written by Maurizio Bassi and Naimy Hackett, and released in 1985 as the lead single from Baltimora's debut album "Living in the Background". The song was re-recorded and released in 1993, and has been covered by several artists throughout the years.


title: Tarzan Boy

text: The refrain uses Tarzan's cry as a melodic line. The song is rhythmical, with an electronic melody and simple lyrics. Baltimora are often considered a one-hit wonder due to the success they experienced with "Tarzan Boy". It features a melodic motif that was later named the millennial whoop.


title: Tarzan Boy

text: The music video for the song features the frontman for the band's performances, Jimmy McShane, who according to some sources did not actually sing the song but rather lip synced it.


title: Tarzan Boy

text: The song is currently used by "Jungle Boy" Jack Perry, a wrestler for AEW (All Elite Wrestling), as his entrance music.


title: Tarzan Boy

text: "Tarzan Boy" was an international hit, debuting in the top five Italian charts and performing well in several other European countries, including Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and notably, France, where "Tarzan Boy" was most successful, topping the charts there for five consecutive weeks. In the United Kingdom, it reached number 3 in September 1985. The single had success in the United States (where it was released by EMI), with the single remaining on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for six months and ultimately peaking at number 13 in early 1986.


title: Northrop YA-9

text: The Northrop YA-9 was a prototype attack aircraft developed for the United States Air Force A-X program. The YA-9 was passed over in preference for the Fairchild Republic YA-10 that entered production as the A-10 Thunderbolt II.


title: Northrop YA-9

text: Criticism that the U.S. Air Force did not take close air support seriously prompted a few service members to seek a specialized attack aircraft. In the Vietnam War, large numbers of ground-attack aircraft were shot down by small arms, surface-to-air missiles, and low-level anti-aircraft gunfire, prompting the development of an aircraft better able to survive such weapons. Fast jets such as the North American F-100 Super Sabre, Republic F-105 Thunderchief, and McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II proved for the most part to be ineffective for close air support. The Douglas A-1 Skyraider was the USAF's primary close air support aircraft.


title: Northrop YA-9

text: In mid-1966, the U.S. Air Force formed the Attack Experimental (A-X) program office. On 6 March 1967, the Air Force released a request for information to 21 defense contractors for the A-X. The objective was to create a design study for a low-cost attack aircraft. Discussions with A-1 Skyraider pilots operating in Vietnam and analysis of the effectiveness of current aircraft used in the role indicated the ideal aircraft should have long loiter time, low-speed maneuverability, massive cannon firepower, and extreme survivability; an aircraft that had the best elements of the Ilyushin Il-2, Henschel Hs 129 and Skyraider. While turboprop engines were requested in the initial request, by May 1969, requirements had changed to specify use of turbofan engines.


title: Northrop YA-9

text: In May 1970, the USAF issued a modified, and much more detailed request for proposals (RFP). The threat of Soviet armored forces and all-weather attack operations had become more serious. Now included in the requirements was that the aircraft would be designed specifically for the 30 mm cannon. The RFP also called for an aircraft with a maximum speed of , takeoff distance of , external load of , mission radius, and a unit cost of US$1.4 million. Simplicity and low cost were also vital requirements, with a maximum flyaway cost of $1.4 million based on a 600 aircraft production run. Performance was to be sacrificed where necessary to keep development and production costs under control. During this time, a separate RFP was released for A-X's 30 mm cannon with requirements for a high rate of fire (4,000 round/minute) and a high muzzle velocity. Six companies submitted proposals to the USAF, with Northrop and Fairchild Republic selected on 18 December 1970 to build prototypes: the YA-9A and YA-10A, respectively. Meanwhile, General Electric and Philco-Ford were selected to build and test GAU-8 cannon prototypes.


title: Northrop YA-9

text: The A-9 was a shoulder-wing monoplane of all-riveted aluminum alloy construction, with honeycomb structures and chemically milled skins. The required twin turbofans were fitted in nacelles under the aircraft's wing roots. Northrop selected the Lycoming YF102 engine for the YA-9 rather than the more powerful () General Electric TF34 used by the A-10, although either engine could be accommodated. The YF102 engine was a new design, based on the Avco Lycoming T55 turboshaft that powered the Boeing CH-47 Chinook helicopter, which was selected in order to minimize costs. The aircraft had a large cruciform stabilizer in order to improve directional stability for low-level flight. Split ailerons were fitted that could be used as airbrakes. When these airbrakes were operated asymmetrically in conjunction with the aircraft's rudder, sideways control forces could be applied (and the aircraft moved sideways) without yawing or banking, easing weapon aiming.