title: Chinese painting

text: “The country is broken; mountains and rivers remain.” The poem by Du Fu (712-770) reflects the major principle in Chinese culture: the dynasty might change, but the landscape is eternal. This timelessness theme evolved from Six Dynasty period and early Northern Song. A donkey rider travelling through the mountains, rivers and villages is studied as an important iconographical character in developing of landscape painting.


title: Chinese painting

text: The donkey rider in the painting "Travelers in a wintry forest" by Li Cheng is assumed to be a portrait painting of Meng Haoran, “a tall and lanky man dressed in a scholar plain robe, riding on a small horse followed by a young servant.” Except Meng Haoran, other famous people for example, Ruan Ji, one of the seven sages of the Bamboo Grove and Du Fu, a younger contemporary of Meng are also depicted as donkey rider. Tang dynasty poets Jia Dao and Li He and early Song dynasty elites Pan Lang, Wang Anshi appears on the paintings as donkey rider. North Song poets Lin Bu and Su Shi are lately depicted as donkey rider. In this specific painting "Travelers in a wintry forest", the potential candidates for the donkey rider are dismissed and the character can only be Meng Haoran. Meng Haoran has made more than two hundred poems in his life but none of them is related with donkey ride. Depicting him as a donkey rider is a historical invention and Meng represents a general persona than an individual character. Ruan Ji was depicted as donkey rider since he decided to escape the office life and went back to the wilderness. The donkey he was riding is representing his poverty and eccentricity. Du Fu was portrayed as the rider to emphasis his failure in office achievement and also his poor living condition. Meng Haoran, similar to those two figures, disinterested in office career and acted as a pure scholar in the field of poem by writing real poems with real experience and real emotional attachment with the landscape. The donkey rider is said to travel through time and space. The audience are able to connect with the scholars and poets in the past by walking on the same route as those superior ancestors have gone on. Besides the donkey rider, there is always a bridge for the donkey to across. The bridge is interpreted to have symbolic meaning that represents the road which hermits depart from capital city and their official careers and go back to the natural world.


title: Chinese painting

text: During Song dynasty, paintings with themes ranging from animals, flower, landscape and classical stories, are used as ornaments in imperial palace, government office and elites’ residence for multiple purposes. The theme of the art in display is carefully picked to reflect not only a personal taste, but also his social status and political achievement. In emperor Zhezong's lecture hall, a painting depicting stories form Zhou dynasty was hanging on the wall to remind Zhezong how to be a good ruler of the empire. The painting also serves the purpose of expressing his determination to his court officers that he is an enlightened emperor.


title: Chinese painting

text: The main walls of the government office, also called walls of the “Jade Hall,” meaning the residence of the immortals in Taoism are decorated by decorative murals. Most educated and respected scholars were selected and given the title xueshi. They were divided into groups in helping the Instituted of Literature and were described as descending from the immortals. Xueshi are receiving high social status and doing carefree jobs. Lately, the xueshi yuan, the place where xueshi lives, became the permanent government institution that helped the emperor to make imperial decrees.


title: Chinese painting

text: During Tang dynasty reign of Emperor Xianzong (805-820), the west wall of the xueshi yuan was covered by murals depicting dragon-like mountain scene. In 820–822, immortal animals like Mount Ao, flying cranes, and xianqin, a kind of immortal birds were added to the murals. Those immortal symbols all indicate that the xueshi yuan as eternal existing government office.


title: Chinese painting

text: During Song dynasty, the xueshi yuan was modified and moved with the dynasty to the new capital Hangzhou in 1127. The mural painted by Song artist Dong yu, closely followed the tradition of Tang dynasty in depicting the misty sea surrounding the immortal mountains. The scenery on the walls of the Jade Hall which full of mist clouds and mysterious land is closely related to Taoism tradition. When Yan Su, a painter followed the style of Li Cheng, was invited to paint the screen behind the seat of the emperor, he included elaborated constructed pavilions, mist clouds and mountain landscape painting in his work. The theme of his painting is suggesting the immortal realm which accord with the entire theme of the Jade Hall provides to its viewer the feeling of otherworldliness. Another painter, Guo Xi made another screen painting for emperor Shenzong, depicting mountains in spring in a harmonized atmosphere. The image also includes immortal elements Mount Tianlao which is one of the realms of the immortals. In his painting, Early Spring, the strong branches of the trees reflects the life force of the living creatures and implying the emperor's benevolent rule.


title: Chinese painting

text: Female characters are almost excluded from traditional Chinese painting under the influence of Confucianism. Dong Zhongshu, an influential Confucian scholar in the Han dynasty, proposed the three-bond theory saying that: “the ruler is Yang and the subject is Yin, father is Yang and son is Yin…The husband is Yang, and the wife is Yin,” which places females in a subordinate position to that of males. Under the three-bond theory, women are depicted as housewives who need to obey to their husbands and fathers in literature. Similarly, in the portrait paintings, female characters are also depicted as exemplary women to elevate the rule of males. A hand roll "Exemplary Women"by Ku Kai Zhi, a six Dynasty artist, depicted woman characters who may be a wife, a daughter or a widow.


title: Chinese painting

text: During the Tang dynasty, artists slowly began to appreciate the beauty of a woman's body (shinu). Artist Zhang Xuan produced painting named "palace women listening to music" that captured women's elegance and pretty faces. However, women were still being depicted as submissive and ideal within male system.


title: Chinese painting

text: During the Song dynasty, as the love poem emerged, the images associated with those love stories were made as attractive as possible to meet the taste of the male viewers.


title: Chinese painting

text: Northern Song landscape painting different from Southern Song painting because of its paradigm shift in representation. If Southern Song period landscape painting is said to be looking inward, Northern Song painting is reaching outward. During the Northern Song period, the rulers’ goal is to consolidate and extend the elites value across the society. Whereas Southern Song painters decided to focus on personal expression. Northern Song landscapes are regarded as “real landscape”, since the court appreciated the representation relationship between art and the external world, rather than the relationship between art and the artists inner voice. The painting, "A Thousand Miles of Rivers and Mountains" is horizontally displayed and there are four mountain ranges arranged from left to right. Similar to another early Southern Song painter, Zhou Boju, both artists glorified their patrons by presenting the gigantic empire images in blue and green landscape painting. The only difference is that in Zhou's painting, there are five mountain ranges arranged from right to left. The scenes in the Southern Song paintings are about north landscape that echo the memory of their lost north territory. However, ironically, some scholars suggested that Wang Ximeng's "A Thousand Miles of Rivers and Mountains" depicts the scenes of the south not the north.


title: Chinese painting

text: The Chinese landscape painting are believed to be affected by the intertwining Chinese traditional religious beliefs, for example, “the Taoist love of nature”, and “Buddhist principle of emptiness,” and can represent the diversification of artists attitudes and thoughts from previous period. The Taoist love of nature is not always present in Chinese landscape painting but gradually developed from Six Dynasties period when Taoists Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu, the Pao-p’u tzu's thoughts are reflected in literature documents. Apart from the contemporary Confucian tradition of insisting on human cultivation and learning to be more educated and build up social framework, Taoist persist on going back to human's origin, which is to be ignorant. Taoists believe that if one discard wise, the robbery will stop. If people abandon expensive jewelry, thieves will not exist. From Han Dynasty, the practice of Taoism was associated with alchemical and medicine made. In order to better pursuit Taoism belief, Taoist need to go on pilgrim into specific mountains to connect themselves with the spirits and immortals that lived in those mountains. In the third and fourth century, the practice of escaping society and going back to nature mediating in the countryside is further enhanced by a group called Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove who would like to escape from the civil unrest. The wise men fleet the world and wonder in the countryside and enjoy the tranquil landscape and forgot to return. The Taoism ideology of forgetfulness, self-cultivation, harmonizing with nature world, and purifying soul by entering the isolated mountains to mediate and seek medicine herbs create the scene of landscape painting.


title: Chinese painting

text: During Han Dynasty, the mountains appeared in the design of the artworks shows the prevalence role of mountain in Han society. The emperor would climb on to the mountain to sacrifice and religion practice because mountains are thought to have connection between earth and heaven and can link human with spirits and immortals. And sometimes, mountains are depicted as mystical mountains” (shenshan), where sages and legendary animals settled. Hence, landscape painting is used as an object for Taoism practice which provide visualize form for religious ritual. During Six Dynasty period, the landscape painting experienced a stylistic change which myth and poem depiction were introduced into the painting. For example, in Ku Kai-chih's “Nymph of the river” scroll and “The Admonitions of the Court Preceptress”, audience are able to read narrative description and text accompanied by visualized images.


title: Chinese painting

text: Furthermore, in Buddhism practice, the mountain also has an important role in religious practice. From iconographical point of view, a Buddha's image is essence in helping a believer to practice meditation. For instance, Buddha's reflection image, or shadow, is assimilated the image of a mountain, Lushan. This assimilation is also recorded in a poem by poet from Six Dynasty period who pointed out that the beauty and nominosity of the mountain can elevate the spiritual connection between human being and the spirits. Thus, the landscape painting come into display Buddha's image in people's everyday ritual practice. Hui-yuan described in his poem that “Lushan seems to mirror the divine appearance” which unifies the two images—the true image and the reflection of Buddha. Moreover, spiritual elevation can be achieved by contemplating in front of landscape painting which depict the same mountain and path those old sages have been to. The painting contains both the spiritual force (ling) and the truth (li) of Buddha and also the objects that no longer physically presence. Hui-Yuan's famous image is closely relation with its landscape scene indicating the trend of transformation from Buddha image to landscape painting as a religious practice.


title: Chinese painting

text: In Chinese society, there is a long-time appreciation of natural beauty. The early themes of poems, artworks are associated with agriculture and everyday life associates with fields, animals. On the other hand, later Chinese painting pursuits majesty and grand. Thus, mountain scenery become the most popular subject to paint because it's high which represent human eminence. Also, mountain is stable and permanent suggests the eminent of the imperial power. Furthermore, mountain is difficult to climb showing the difficulties human will face through their lives.


title: Chinese painting

text: Landscape painting evolved under the influence of Taoist who fled from civil turbulence and prosecution of the government and went back to the wilderness. However, the development of Taoism was hindered by Han dynasty. During Han dynasty, the empire expanded and enlarged its political and economic influence. Hence, the Taoism's anti-social belief was disfavored by the imperial government. Han rulers only favored portrait painting which enabled their image to be perpetuate and their civilians to see and to memorize their great leaders or generals. Landscape at that time only focus on the trees for literary or talismanic value. The usage of landscape painting as ornament is suspects to be borrowed from other societies outside Han empire during its expansion to the Near East. Landscape and animal scene began to appear on the jars, but the decoration has little to do with connection with the natural world. Also, there is evidence showing that the emerging of landscape painting is not derived from map-making.


title: Chinese painting

text: During the Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasty, landscape painting began to have connection with literati and the production of poems. Taoism influence on people's appreciation of landscaping deceased and nature worshipping superseded. However, Taoist still used landscape painting in their meditation just as Confucius uses portrait painting in their ritual practice. (Ku Kai Chih's admonitions) During this time period, the landscape painting is more coherence with variation trees, rocks and branches. Moreover, the painting is more elaborated and organized. The evolution in landscape painting during Six Dynasty is that artists harmonized sprit with the nature. (Wu Tao-tzu) Buddhism might also contribute in affecting changes in landscape painting. The artists began to show space and depth in their works where they showed mountain mass, distanced hills and clouds. The emptiness of the space is helping the believers meditating to enter the space of emptiness and nothingness.


title: Chinese painting

text: The most important development in landscape painting is that people came to recognize the infinity variation of the nature world, so they tended to make each tree individualized. Every landscape painting is restricted by storytelling and is dependent on artists memory.


title: Chinese painting

text: Chinese landscape painting, “shanshui hua” means the painting of mountains and rivers which are the two major components that represents the essence of the nature. Shanshui in Chinese tradition is given rich meaning, for example mountain represents Yang and river indicates Yin. According to Yin Yang theory, Yin embodies Yang and Yang involved in Yin, thus, mountain and river is inseparable and is treated as a whole in a painting. In the "Mountains and rivers without end," for example, “the dyad of the mountain uplift, subduction, and erosion and the planetary water cycle” is consistent with the dyad of Buddhism iconography, both representing austerity and generous loving spirit.


title: Chinese painting

text: “Arts in maps, arts as maps, maps in arts, and maps as arts,” are the four relationships between art and map. Making a distinction between map and art is difficult because there are cartographic elements in both paintings. Early Chinese map making considered earth surface as flat, so artists would not take projection into consideration. Moreover, map makers did not have the idea of map scale. Chinese people from Song dynasty called paintings, maps and other pictorial images as tu, so it's impossible to distinguish the types of each painting by name. Artists who paint landscape as an artwork focus mainly on the natural beauty rather on the accuracy and realistic representation of the object. Map on the other hand should be depicted in a precise manner which more focus on the distance and important geographic features.


title: Chinese painting

text: The Changjiang Wan Li Tu, although the date and the authorship are not clear, the painting is believed to be made in Song dynasty by examining the place names recorded on the painting. Only based on the name of this painting, it is hard to distinguish whether this painting is painted as a landscape painting or as a map.


title: Chinese painting

text: The Shu Chuan Shenggai was once thought as the product done by North Song artist Li Gonglin, however, later evidence disapproved this thought and proposed the date should be changed to the end of South Song and artist remains unknown.


title: Chinese painting

text: Both those paintings, aiming to enhance viewers appreciation on the beauty and majesty of landscape painting, focusing on the light condition and conveying certain attitude, are characterized as masterpiece of art rather than map.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Cancer is caused by genetic changes leading to uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation. The basic cause of sporadic (non-familial) cancers is DNA damage and genomic instability. A minority of cancers are due to inherited genetic mutations. Most cancers are related to environmental, lifestyle, or behavioral exposures. Cancer is generally not contagious in humans, though it can be caused by oncoviruses and cancer bacteria. The term "environmental", as used by cancer researchers, refers to everything outside the body that interacts with humans. The environment is not limited to the biophysical environment (e.g. exposure to factors such as air pollution or sunlight), but also includes lifestyle and behavioral factors.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Over one third of cancer deaths worldwide (and about 75–80% in the United States) are potentially avoidable by reducing exposure to known factors. Common environmental factors that contribute to cancer death include exposure to different chemical and physical agents (tobacco use accounts for 25–30% of cancer deaths), environmental pollutants, diet and obesity (30–35%), infections (15–20%), and radiation (both ionizing and non-ionizing, up to 10%). These factors act, at least partly, by altering the function of genes within cells. Typically many such genetic changes are required before cancer develops. Aging has been repeatedly and consistently regarded as an important aspect to consider when evaluating the risk factors for the development of particular cancers. Many molecular and cellular changes involved in the development of cancer accumulate during the aging process and eventually manifest as cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Although there are over 50 identifiable hereditary forms of cancer, less than 0.3% of the population are carriers of a cancer-related genetic mutation and these make up less than 3–10% of all cancer cases. The vast majority of cancers are non-hereditary ("sporadic cancers"). Hereditary cancers are primarily caused by an inherited genetic defect. A cancer syndrome or family cancer syndrome is a genetic disorder in which inherited genetic mutations in one or more genes predisposes the affected individuals to the development of cancers and may also cause the early onset of these cancers. Although cancer syndromes exhibit an increased risk of cancer, the risk varies. For some of these diseases, cancer is not the primary feature and is a rare consequence.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Many of the cancer syndrome cases are caused by mutations in tumor suppressor genes that regulate cell growth. Other common mutations alter the function of DNA repair genes, oncogenes and genes involved in the production of blood vessels. Certain inherited mutations in the genes "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" with a more than 75% risk of breast cancer and ovarian cancer. Some of the inherited genetic disorders that can cause colorectal cancer include familial adenomatous polyposis and hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer; however, these represent less than 5% of colon cancer cases. In many cases, genetic testing can be used to identify mutated genes or chromosomes that are passed through generations.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Gene mutations are classified as "germline" or "somatic" depending on the cell type where they appear (germline cells include the egg and the sperm and somatic cells are those forming the body). The germline mutations are carried through generations and increase the risk of cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Particular substances, known as carcinogens, have been linked to specific types of cancer. Common examples of non-radioactive carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, and tobacco smoke. Although the public generally associates carcinogenicity with synthetic chemicals, it is equally likely to arise in both natural and synthetic substances. It is estimated that approximately 20,000 cancer deaths and 40,000 new cases of cancer each year in the U.S. are attributable to occupation. Every year, at least 200,000 people die worldwide from cancer related to their workplace. Millions of workers run the risk of developing cancers such as lung cancer and mesothelioma from inhaling asbestos fibers and tobacco smoke, or leukemia from exposure to benzene at their workplaces. Cancer related to one's occupation is believed to represent between 2–20% of all cases. Most cancer deaths caused by occupational risk factors occur in the developed world. Job stress does not appear to be a significant factor at least in lung, colorectal, breast and prostate cancers. Participation in Operation Ranchhand in Vietnam during the Vietnam war, or living near a golf course, or living on a farm would increase the risk of non-Hodgkins lymphoma due to exposure to the chemical 2,4-D. When 2,4-D is mixed with another chemical pesticide or herbicide, 2,4-T, at a 50:50 ratio, they are collectively known as Agent Orange.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Tobacco smoking is associated with many forms of cancer, and causes 80% of lung cancer. Decades of research has demonstrated the link between tobacco use and cancer in the lung, larynx, head, neck, stomach, bladder, kidney, esophagus and pancreas. There is some evidence suggesting a small increased risk of developing myeloid leukemia, squamous cell sinonasal cancer, liver cancer, colorectal cancer, cancers of the gallbladder, the adrenal gland, the small intestine, and various childhood cancers. Seven toxicants in cigarette smoke have been identified that are most associated with respiratory tract carcinogenesis. The mechanism of action of two of them, acrylonitrile and acrolein, appears to involve oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage. The other five toxicants, acetaldehyde, cadmium, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde and isoprene act through various mechanisms including direct interaction with DNA. Tobacco smoke contains over fifty known carcinogens, including nitrosamines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Tobacco is responsible for about one in three of all cancer deaths in the developed world, and about one in five worldwide. Lung cancer death rates in the United States have mirrored smoking patterns, with increases in smoking followed by dramatic increases in lung cancer death rates and, more recently, decreases in smoking rates since the 1950s followed by decreases in lung cancer death rates in men since 1990. However, the numbers of smokers worldwide is still rising, leading to what some organizations have described as the "tobacco epidemic".


title: Causes of cancer

text: Electronic cigarettes or e-cigarettes are handheld electronic devices that simulate the feeling of tobacco smoking. Daily long-term use of high voltage (5.0 V) electronic cigarettes may generate formaldehyde-forming chemicals at a greater level than smoking, which was determined to be a lifetime cancer risk of approximately 5 to 15 times greater than smoking. However, the overall safety and long-term health effects of electronic cigarettes is still uncertain.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Some substances cause cancer primarily through their physical, rather than chemical, effects on cells. A prominent example of this is prolonged exposure to asbestos, naturally occurring mineral fibers which are a major cause of mesothelioma, which is a cancer of the serous membrane, usually the serous membrane surrounding the lungs. Other substances in this category, including both naturally occurring and synthetic asbestos-like fibers such as wollastonite, attapulgite, glass wool, and rock wool, are believed to have similar effects. Non-fibrous particulate materials that cause cancer include powdered metallic cobalt and nickel, and crystalline silica (quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite). Usually, physical carcinogens must get inside the body (such as through inhaling tiny pieces) and require years of exposure to develop cancer. Common occupational carcinogens include:


title: Causes of cancer

text: Many different lifestyle factors contribute to increasing cancer risk. Together, diet and obesity are related to approximately 30–35% of cancer deaths. Dietary recommendations for cancer prevention typically include an emphasis on vegetables, fruit, whole grains, and fish, and avoidance of processed meat, red meat, animal fats, and refined carbohydrates. The evidence to support these dietary changes is not definitive.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Alcohol is an example of a chemical carcinogen. The World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. In Western Europe 10% of cancers in males and 3% of cancers in females are attributed to alcohol. Worldwide, 3.6% of all cancer cases and 3.5% of cancer deaths are attributable to alcohol. In particular, alcohol use has been shown to increase the risk of developing cancers of the mouth, esophagus, pharynx, larynx, stomach, liver, ovaries, and colon. The main mechanism of cancer development involves increased exposure to acetaldehyde, a carcinogen and breakdown product of ethanol. Acetaldehyde induces DNA interstrand crosslinks, a form of DNA damage. These can be repaired by an inaccurate replication-coupled DNA repair pathway. This repair pathway results in increased mutation frequency and altered mutational spectrum. Other mechanisms have been proposed, including alcohol-related nutritional deficiencies, changes in DNA methylation, and induction of oxidative stress in tissues.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Some specific foods have been linked to specific cancers. Studies have shown that individuals that eat red or processed meat have a higher risk of developing breast cancer, prostate cancer, and pancreatic cancer. This may be partially explained by the presence of carcinogens in food cooked at high temperatures. Several risk factors for the development of colorectal cancer include high intake of fat, alcohol, red and processed meats, obesity, and lack of physical exercise. A high-salt diet is linked to gastric cancer. Aflatoxin B1, a frequent food contaminate, is associated with liver cancer. Betel nut chewing has been shown to cause oral cancers.


title: Causes of cancer

text: The relationship between diet and the development of particular cancers may partly explain differences in cancer incidence in different countries. For example, gastric cancer is more common in Japan due to the frequency of high-salt diets and colon cancer is more common in the United States due to the increased intake of processed and red meats. Immigrant communities tend to develop the cancer risk profile of their new country, often within one to two generations, suggesting a substantial link between diet and cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: When deoxycholate was added to the food of mice so that their feces contained deoxycholate at about the same level present in feces of human on a high fat diet, 45% to 56% of the mice developed colon cancer over the next 10 months, while none of the mice on a diet without deoxycholate developed cancer. A recent prospective human study investigating the relationship between microbial metabolites and cancer found a strong correlation between circulating deoxycholate as well as other specific bile acids and colorectal cancer risk in women.


title: Causes of cancer

text: In the United States, excess body weight is associated with the development of many types of cancer and is a factor in 14–20% of all cancer deaths. Every year, nearly 85,000 new cancer diagnoses in the United States are related to obesity. Individuals who underwent bariatric surgery for weight loss have reduced cancer incidence and mortality.


title: Causes of cancer

text: There is an association between obesity and colon cancer, post-menopausal breast cancer, endometrial cancer, kidney cancer, and esophageal cancer. Obesity has also been linked with the development of liver cancer. The current understanding regarding the mechanism of cancer development in obesity relates to abnormal levels of metabolic proteins (including insulin-like growth factors) and sex hormones (estrogens, androgens and progestogens). Adipose tissue also creates an inflammatory environment which may contribute to the development of cancers. Adipose tissue dysregulation can result in oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage and cancer associated genetic instability.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Physical inactivity is believed to contribute to cancer risk not only through its effect on body weight but also through negative effects on immune system and endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to overnutrition rather than from eating too little healthy foods.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Some hormones play a role in the development of cancer by promoting cell proliferation. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins play a key role in cancer cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis, suggesting possible involvement in carcinogenesis.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Hormones are important agents in sex-related cancers such as cancer of the breast, endometrium, prostate, ovary, and testis, and also of thyroid cancer and bone cancer. For example, the daughters of women who have breast cancer have significantly higher levels of estrogen and progesterone than the daughters of women without breast cancer. These higher hormone levels may explain why these women have higher risk of breast cancer, even in the absence of a breast-cancer gene. Similarly, men of African ancestry have significantly higher levels of testosterone than men of European ancestry, and have a correspondingly much higher level of prostate cancer. Men of Asian ancestry, with the lowest levels of testosterone-activating androstanediol glucuronide, have the lowest levels of prostate cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Other factors are also relevant: obese people have higher levels of some hormones associated with cancer and a higher rate of those cancers. Women who take hormone replacement therapy have a higher risk of developing cancers associated with those hormones. On the other hand, people who exercise far more than average have lower levels of these hormones, and lower risk of cancer. Osteosarcoma may be promoted by growth hormones.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Some treatments and prevention approaches leverage this cause by artificially reducing hormone levels, and thus discouraging hormone-sensitive cancers. Because steroid hormones are powerful drivers of gene expression in certain cancer cells, changing the levels or activity of certain hormones can cause certain cancers to cease growing or even undergo cell death. Perhaps the most familiar example of hormonal therapy in oncology is the use of the selective estrogen-receptor modulator tamoxifen for the treatment of breast cancer. Another class of hormonal agents, aromatase inhibitors, now have an expanding role in the treatment of breast cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Worldwide, approximately 18% of cancer cases are related to infectious diseases. This proportion varies in different regions of the world from a high of 25% in Africa to less than 10% in the developed world. Viruses are the usual infectious agents that cause cancer but bacteria and parasites also contribute. Infectious organisms that increase the risk of cancer are frequently a source of DNA damage or genomic instability.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Viral infection is a major risk factor for cervical and liver cancer. A virus that can cause cancer is called an "oncovirus". These include human papillomavirus (cervical carcinoma), Epstein–Barr virus (B-cell lymphoproliferative disease and nasopharyngeal carcinoma), Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (Kaposi's sarcoma and primary effusion lymphomas), hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses (hepatocellular carcinoma), and Human T-cell leukemia virus-1 (T-cell leukemias).


title: Causes of cancer

text: In Western developed countries, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the most common oncoviruses. In the United States, HPV causes most cervical cancers, as well as some cancers of the vagina, vulva, penis, anus, rectum, throat, tongue and tonsils. Among high-risk HPV viruses, the HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins inactivate tumor suppressor genes when infecting cells. In addition, the oncoproteins independently induce genomic instability in normal human cells, leading to an increased risk of cancer development. Individuals with chronic hepatitis B virus infection are more than 200 times more likely to develop liver cancer than uninfected individuals. Liver cirrhosis, whether from chronic viral hepatitis infection or excessive alcohol use, is independently associated with the development of liver cancer, but the combination of cirrhosis and viral hepatitis presents the highest risk of liver cancer development.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Certain bacterial infections also increase the risk of cancer, as seen in Helicobacter pylori-induced gastric carcinoma. The mechanism by which "H. pylori" causes cancer may involve chronic inflammation or the direct action of some of the bacteria's virulence factors. Parasitic infections strongly associated with cancer include "Schistosoma haematobium" (squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder) and the liver flukes, "Opisthorchis viverrini" and "Clonorchis sinensis" (cholangiocarcinoma). Inflammation triggered by the worm's eggs appears to be the cancer-causing mechanism. Certain parasitic infections can also increase the presence of carcinogenic compounds in the body, leading to the development of cancers. Tuberculosis infection, caused by the mycobacterium "M. tuberculosis", has also been linked with the development of lung cancer.


title: Causes of cancer

text: There is evidence that inflammation itself plays an important role in the development and progression of cancer. Chronic inflammation can lead to DNA damage over time and the accumulation of random genetic alterations in cancer cells. Inflammation can contribute to proliferation, survival, angiogensis and migration of cancer cells by influencing tumor microenvironment. Individuals with inflammatory bowel disease are at increased risk of developing colorectal cancers.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Up to 10% of invasive cancers are related to radiation exposure, including both non-ionizing radiation and ionizing radiation. Unlike chemical or physical triggers for cancer, ionizing radiation hits molecules within cells randomly. If it happens to strike a chromosome, it can break the chromosome, result in an abnormal number of chromosomes, inactivate one or more genes in the part of the chromosome that it hit, delete parts of the DNA sequence, cause chromosome translocations, or cause other types of chromosome abnormalities. Major damage normally results in the cell dying, but smaller damage may leave a stable, partly functional cell that may be capable of proliferating and developing into cancer, especially if tumor suppressor genes were damaged by the radiation. Three independent stages appear to be involved in the creation of cancer with ionizing radiation: morphological changes to the cell, acquiring cellular immortality (losing normal, life-limiting cell regulatory processes), and adaptations that favor formation of a tumor. Even if the radiation particle does not strike the DNA directly, it triggers responses from cells that indirectly increase the likelihood of mutations.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Not all types of electromagnetic radiation are carcinogenic. Low-energy waves on the electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation and visible light are thought not to be because they have insufficient energy to break chemical bonds. Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones, electric power transmission, and other similar sources have been described as a possible carcinogen by the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer. However, studies have not found a consistent link between cell phone radiation and cancer risk.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Higher-energy radiation, including ultraviolet radiation (present in sunlight), x-rays, and gamma radiation, generally is carcinogenic, if received in sufficient doses. Prolonged exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun can lead to melanoma and other skin malignancies. The vast majority of non-invasive cancers are non-melanoma skin cancers caused by non-ionizing ultraviolet radiation. Clear evidence establishes ultraviolet radiation, especially the non-ionizing medium wave UVB, as the cause of most non-melanoma skin cancers, which are the most common forms of cancer in the world.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Sources of ionizing radiation include medical imaging, and radon gas. Ionizing radiation is not a particularly strong mutagen. Medical use of ionizing radiation is a growing source of radiation-induced cancers. Ionizing radiation may be used to treat other cancers, but this may, in some cases, induce a second form of cancer. Radiation can cause cancer in most parts of the body, in all animals, and at any age, although radiation-induced solid tumors usually take 10–15 years, and can take up to 40 years, to become clinically manifest, and radiation-induced leukemias typically require 2–10 years to appear. Radiation-induced meningiomas are an uncommon complication of cranial irradiation. Some people, such as those with nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome or retinoblastoma, are more susceptible than average to developing cancer from radiation exposure. Children and adolescents are twice as likely to develop radiation-induced leukemia as adults; radiation exposure before birth has ten times the effect.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Ionizing radiation is also used in some kinds of medical imaging. In industrialized countries, medical imaging contributes almost as much radiation dose to the public as natural background radiation. Nuclear medicine techniques involve the injection of radioactive pharmaceuticals directly into the bloodstream. Radiotherapy deliberately deliver high doses of radiation to tumors and surrounding tissues as a form of disease treatment. It is estimated that 0.4% of cancers in 2007 in the United States are due to CTs performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5–2% with rates of CT usage during this same time period.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Residential exposure to radon gas has similar cancer risks as passive smoking. Low-dose exposures, such as living near a nuclear power plant, are generally believed to have no or very little effect on cancer development. Radiation is a more potent source of cancer when it is combined with other cancer-causing agents, such as radon gas exposure plus smoking tobacco.


title: Causes of cancer

text: The development of donor-derived tumors from organ transplants is exceedingly rare. The main cause of organ transplant associated tumors seems to be malignant melanoma, that was undetected at the time of organ harvest. There have also been reports of Kaposi's sarcoma occurring after transplantation due to tumorous outgrowth of virus-infected donor cells.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Physical trauma resulting in cancer is relatively rare. Claims that breaking bones resulted in bone cancer, for example, have never been proven. Similarly, physical trauma is not accepted as a cause for cervical cancer, breast cancer, or brain cancer. One accepted source is frequent, long-term application of hot objects to the body. It is possible that repeated burns on the same part of the body, such as those produced by kanger and kairo heaters (charcoal hand warmers), may produce skin cancer, especially if carcinogenic chemicals are also present.


title: Causes of cancer

text: Frequently drinking scalding hot tea may produce esophageal cancer. Generally, it is believed that the cancer arises, or a pre-existing cancer is encouraged, during the process of repairing the trauma, rather than the cancer being caused directly by the trauma. However, repeated injuries to the same tissues might promote excessive cell proliferation, which could then increase the odds of a cancerous mutation.


title: Causes of cancer

text: In the United States, approximately 3,500 pregnant women have a malignancy annually, and transplacental transmission of acute leukemia, lymphoma, melanoma and carcinoma from mother to fetus has been observed. Excepting the rare transmissions that occur with pregnancies and only a marginal few organ donors, cancer is generally not a transmissible disease. The main reason for this is tissue graft rejection caused by MHC incompatibility. In humans and other vertebrates, the immune system uses MHC antigens to differentiate between "self" and "non-self" cells because these antigens are different from person to person. When non-self antigens are encountered, the immune system reacts against the appropriate cell. Such reactions may protect against tumor cell engraftment by eliminating implanted cells.


title: Uniform continuity

text: In mathematics, a real function formula_1 of real numbers is said to be uniformly continuous if there is a positive real number formula_2 such that function values over any function domain interval of the size formula_2 are as close to each other as we want. In other words, for a uniformly continuous real function of real numbers, if we want function value differences to be less than any positive real number formula_4, then there is a positive real number formula_2 such that formula_6 at any formula_7 and formula_8 in any function interval of the size formula_2.


title: Uniform continuity

text: The difference between uniform continuity and (ordinary) continuity is that, in uniform continuity there is a globally applicable formula_2 (the size of a function domain interval over which function value differences are less than formula_4) that depends on only formula_12, while in (ordinary) continuity there is a locally applicable formula_2 that depends on the both formula_12 and formula_7. So uniform continuity is a stronger continuity condition than continuity; a function that is uniformly continuous is continuous but a function that is continuous is not necessarily uniformly continuous. The concepts of uniform continuity and continuity can be expanded to functions defined between metric spaces.


title: Uniform continuity

text: Continuous functions can fail to be uniformly continuous if they are unbounded on a bounded domain, such as formula_16 on formula_17, or if their slopes become unbounded on an infinite domain, such as formula_18 on the real (number) line. However, any Lipschitz map between metric spaces is uniformly continuous, in particular any isometry (distance-preserving map).


title: Uniform continuity

text: Although continuity can be defined for functions between general topological spaces, defining uniform continuity requires more structure. The concept relies on comparing the sizes of neighbourhoods of distinct points, so it requires a metric space, or more generally a uniform space.


title: Uniform continuity

text: For a function formula_19 with metric spaces formula_20 and formula_21, the following definitions of uniform continuity and (ordinary) continuity hold.


title: Uniform continuity

text: In the definitions, the difference between uniform continuity and continuity is that, in uniform continuity there is a globally applicable formula_2 (the size of a neighbourhood in formula_34 over which values of the metric for function values in formula_35 are less than formula_12) that depends on only formula_12 while in continuity there is a locally applicable formula_2 that depends on the both formula_12 and formula_7. Continuity is a "local" property of a function — that is, a function formula_1 is continuous, or not, at a particular point formula_7 of the function domain formula_90, and this can be determined by looking at only the values of the function in an arbitrarily small neighbourhood of that point. When we speak of a function being continuous on an interval, we mean that the function is continuous at every point of the interval. In contrast, uniform continuity is a "global" property of formula_1, in the sense that the standard definition of uniform continuity refers to every point of formula_90. On the other hand, it is possible to give a definition that is "local" in terms of the natural extension formula_93(the characteristics of which at nonstandard points are determined by the global properties of formula_1), although it is not possible to give a local definition of uniform continuity for an arbitrary hyperreal-valued function, see below.


title: Uniform continuity

text: A mathematical definition that a function formula_1 is continuous on an interval formula_96 and a definition that formula_1 is uniformly continuous on formula_96 are structurally similar as shown in the following.


title: Uniform continuity

text: Continuity of a function formula_99 for metric spaces formula_20 and formula_21 at every point "formula_7" of an interval formula_103 (i.e., continuity of formula_1 on the interval formula_96) is expressed by a formula starting with quantifications


title: Uniform continuity

text: (metrics formula_107 and formula_108 are formula_109 and formula_110 for formula_111 for the set of real numbers formula_112).


title: Uniform continuity

text: For uniform continuity, the order of the first, second, and third quantifications (formula_113, formula_114, and formula_115) are rotated:


title: Uniform continuity

text: Thus for continuity on the interval, one takes an arbitrary point formula_7 of the interval"," and then there must exist a distance formula_2,


title: Uniform continuity

text: while for uniform continuity, a single formula_2 must work uniformly for all points formula_7 of the interval,


title: Uniform continuity

text: Every uniformly continuous function is continuous, but the converse does not hold. Consider for instance the continuous function formula_123 where formula_124 is the set of real numbers. Given a positive real number formula_12, uniform continuity requires the existence of a positive real number formula_2 such that for all formula_127 with formula_128, we have formula_129. But


title: Uniform continuity

text: and as formula_7 goes to be a higher and higher value, formula_2 needs to be lower and lower to satisfy formula_133 for positive real numbers formula_134 and the given formula_12. This means that there is no specifiable (no matter how small it is) positive real number formula_2 to satisfy the condition for formula_1 to be uniformly continuous so formula_1 is not uniformly continuous.


title: Uniform continuity

text: Any absolutely continuous function (over a compact interval) is uniformly continuous. On the other hand, the Cantor function is uniformly continuous but not absolutely continuous.


title: Uniform continuity

text: The image of a totally bounded subset under a uniformly continuous function is totally bounded. However, the image of a bounded subset of an arbitrary metric space under a uniformly continuous function need not be bounded: as a counterexample, consider the identity function from the integers endowed with the discrete metric to the integers endowed with the usual Euclidean metric.


title: Uniform continuity

text: The Heine–Cantor theorem asserts that "every continuous function on a compact set is uniformly continuous". In particular, "if a function is continuous on a closed bounded interval of the real line, it is uniformly continuous on that interval". The Darboux integrability of continuous functions follows almost immediately from this theorem.


title: Uniform continuity

text: If a real-valued function formula_1 is continuous on formula_140 and formula_141 exists (and is finite), then formula_1 is uniformly continuous. In particular, every element of formula_143, the space of continuous functions on formula_124 that vanish at infinity, is uniformly continuous. This is a generalization of the Heine-Cantor theorem mentioned above, since formula_145.


title: Uniform continuity

text: For a uniformly continuous function, for every positive real number formula_154 there is a positive real number formula_155 such that two function values formula_156 and formula_157 have the maximum distance formula_12 whenever formula_7 and formula_8 are within the maximum distance formula_2. Thus at each point formula_162 of the graph, if we draw a rectangle with a height slightly less than formula_163 and width a slightly less than formula_164 around that point, then the graph lies completely within the height of the rectangle, i.e., the graph do not pass through the top or the bottom side of the rectangle. For functions that are not uniformly continuous, this isn't possible; for these functions, the graph might lie inside the height of the rectangle at some point on the graph but there is a point on the graph where the graph lies above or below the rectangle. (the graph penetrates the top or bottom side of the rectangle.)


title: Uniform continuity

text: The first published definition of uniform continuity was by Heine in 1870, and in 1872 he published a proof that a continuous function on an open interval need not be uniformly continuous. The proofs are almost verbatim given by Dirichlet in his lectures on definite integrals in 1854. The definition of uniform continuity appears earlier in the work of Bolzano where he also proved that continuous functions on an open interval do not need to be uniformly continuous. In addition he also states that a continuous function on a closed interval is uniformly continuous, but he does not give a complete proof.


title: Uniform continuity

text: In non-standard analysis, a real-valued function "formula_1" of a real variable is microcontinuous at a point "formula_166" precisely if the difference formula_167 is infinitesimal whenever "formula_2" is infinitesimal. Thus "formula_1" is continuous on a set "formula_170" in formula_124 precisely if formula_93 is microcontinuous at every real point formula_173. Uniform continuity can be expressed as the condition that (the natural extension of) formula_1 is microcontinuous not only at real points in formula_170, but at all points in its non-standard counterpart (natural extension) formula_176 in formula_177. Note that there exist hyperreal-valued functions which meet this criterion but are not uniformly continuous, as well as uniformly continuous hyperreal-valued functions which do not meet this criterion, however, such functions cannot be expressed in the form formula_93 for any real-valued function formula_1. (see non-standard calculus for more details and examples).


title: Uniform continuity

text: For a function between metric spaces, uniform continuity implies Cauchy continuity . More specifically, let formula_170 be a subset of formula_181. If a function formula_182 is uniformly continuous then for every pair of sequences formula_183 and formula_184 such that


title: Uniform continuity

text: Let formula_90 be a metric space, formula_188 a subset of formula_90"," formula_190 a complete metric space, and formula_191 a continuous function. A question to answer: "When can formula_1 be extended to a continuous function on all of formula_90?"


title: Uniform continuity

text: If "formula_188" is closed in formula_90, the answer is given by the Tietze extension theorem. So it is necessary and sufficient to extend "formula_1" to the closure of formula_188 in formula_90: that is, we may assume without loss of generality that "formula_188" is dense in formula_90, and this has the further pleasant consequence that if the extension exists, it is unique. A sufficient condition for formula_1 to extend to a continuous function formula_202 is that it is Cauchy-continuous, i.e., the image under "formula_1" of a Cauchy sequence remains Cauchy. If formula_90 is complete (and thus the completion of "formula_188"), then every continuous function from "formula_90" to a metric space "formula_207" is Cauchy-continuous. Therefore when "formula_90" is complete, "formula_1" extends to a continuous function formula_202 if and only if "formula_1" is Cauchy-continuous.


title: Uniform continuity

text: It is easy to see that every uniformly continuous function is Cauchy-continuous and thus extends to "formula_90". The converse does not hold, since the function formula_213 is, as seen above, not uniformly continuous, but it is continuous and thus Cauchy continuous. In general, for functions defined on unbounded spaces like "formula_190", uniform continuity is a rather strong condition. It is desirable to have a weaker condition from which to deduce extendability.


title: Uniform continuity

text: For example, suppose formula_215 is a real number. At the precalculus level, the function formula_216 can be given a precise definition only for rational values of "formula_7" (assuming the existence of qth roots of positive real numbers, an application of the Intermediate Value Theorem). One would like to extend formula_1 to a function defined on all of formula_190. The identity


title: Uniform continuity

text: shows that "formula_1" is not uniformly continuous on the set "formula_222" of all rational numbers; however for any bounded interval "formula_96" the restriction of "formula_1" to formula_225 is uniformly continuous, hence Cauchy-continuous, hence formula_1 extends to a continuous function on "formula_96". But since this holds for every "formula_96", there is then a unique extension of "formula_1" to a continuous function on all of "formula_190".


title: Uniform continuity

text: More generally, a continuous function formula_191 whose restriction to every bounded subset of "formula_188" is uniformly continuous is extendable to "formula_90", and the converse holds if "formula_90" is locally compact.


title: Uniform continuity

text: A typical application of the extendability of a uniformly continuous function is the proof of the inverse Fourier transformation formula. We first prove that the formula is true for test functions, there are densely many of them. We then extend the inverse map to the whole space using the fact that linear map is continuous; thus, uniformly continuous.


title: Uniform continuity

text: In the special case of two topological vector spaces formula_235 and formula_236, the notion of uniform continuity of a map formula_237 becomes: for any neighborhood formula_238 of zero in formula_236, there exists a neighborhood formula_170 of zero in formula_235 such that formula_242 implies formula_243


title: Uniform continuity

text: For linear transformations formula_237, uniform continuity is equivalent to continuity. This fact is frequently used implicitly in functional analysis to extend a linear map off a dense subspace of a Banach space.


title: Uniform continuity

text: Just as the most natural and general setting for continuity is topological spaces, the most natural and general setting for the study of "uniform" continuity are the uniform spaces. A function formula_99 between uniform spaces is called "uniformly continuous" if for every entourage "formula_235" in "formula_207" there exists an entourage "formula_248" in "formula_90" such that for every formula_250 in formula_248 we have formula_252 in formula_235.


title: Uniform continuity

text: In this setting, it is also true that uniformly continuous maps transform Cauchy sequences into Cauchy sequences.


title: Uniform continuity

text: Each compact Hausdorff space possesses exactly one uniform structure compatible with the topology. A consequence is a generalization of the Heine-Cantor theorem: each continuous function from a compact Hausdorff space to a uniform space is uniformly continuous.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Jeremy Scott (born August 8, 1975) is an American fashion designer. He is the creative director of the fashion house Moschino and the sole owner of his namesake label. Since launching his brand in Paris in 1997, Scott has built a reputation as "pop culture’s most irreverent designer", and "fashion's last rebel".


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Known for his designs of clothes, accessories and footwear for Adidas and Moschino, Scott has consistently worked with various celebrities such as Björk, Madonna, Katy Perry, CL and 2NE1, Nicki Minaj, Fergie, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, Ariana Grande, Kanye West, Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato, Selena Gomez, Justin Bieber, ASAP Rocky, M.I.A., Rita Ora, Cardi B, and Grimes. As an early proponent of blending high fashion with street style, he creates designs often incorporating pop-culture icons.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott was born in 1975 in Kansas City, Missouri. He grew up partly on a farm in Lowry City and partly in a suburb outside Kansas City. Jeremy was interested in fashion from an early age. At 14, he began studying French and took night courses in Japanese because he was determined to become a fashion designer. In high school, he drew fashion in his notebooks and was bullied because of his dressing style. He discovered runway fashion in "Details", looking up to Jean Paul Gaultier, Martin Margiela, Thierry Mugler, and Franco Moschino as role models. In 1992, Scott moved to New York to study fashion design at Pratt Institute, one of the city's Art and Design colleges, where he wore sci-fi-inspired clothes, "1880s vs 1980s" outfits, and shredded and decaying clothes. Scott did an internship in the New York offices of Aeffe, the company that owns Moschino.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: After graduating in 1996, Scott moved to Paris. While looking for a job in the fashion industry, he was forced to scrounge meals and sleep in the Metro. When he ran into a PR for Jean Paul Gaultier who liked his hair (Scott cut his own hair since he was five), he got a job promoting parties at a nightclub. Not having any luck with fashion jobs, he decided to create his own brand.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: The following season, in 1997, Jeremy Scott, the brand, made its debut in a bar near Bastille. The show was based on the J. G. Ballard book and David Cronenberg film "Crash", with most of the material coming from paper hospital gowns. Scraps of fabric from the Porte de Clignancourt flea market resembling garbage bags were used in the follow-up show, all in black, which was described by Scott as "Blade Runner, trash bags and the apocalypse." The collection was later exhibited in the influential Parisian shop Colette, which has carried Jeremy Scott ever since.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: His third collection, all in white, was a critical hit. It won awards and attracted Mario Testino, the editor of French Vogue, and Carlyne Cerf de Dudzeele, a French stylist, art director and photographer. The white show was the first runway appearance of the soon-to-be-supermodel Devon Aoki, who was only 13 at the time. (Twenty years later, the pair would collaborate again on Scott's Autumn/Winter 2016 campaign.) Björk was an early adopter, wearing an angel dress from the white show for her Homogenic world tour. Scott would provide costumes on several of her tours.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In the same year, Scott made a show about 1980s decadence (sable, shoulder pads, big hair, gold lamé) as maybe the first designer to revive the eighties. The models' unbalanced heels were designed by Christian Louboutin. Opposing the prevalent minimalism, the show was panned by Vogue and others. Scott himself considers "the gold show" as the hardest moment of his career.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: HIs 1998 spring collection titled "Duty Free Glamour" featured flight-attendant inspired looks and khaki jackets plastered with logos. Writing in "The Times", the fashion critic Cathy Horyn pointed out the original use of the experience of a Midwesterner as a foil to jet set glamour. Karl Lagerfeld said that Scott was the only person working in fashion who could take over Chanel after he left.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In 2001 Scott left Paris for Los Angeles. It was seen as a surprising move, since Los Angeles was not yet a fashion capital at the time.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott had cemented his reputation as a cult label with fervid fans, particularly in Asia, but he was still on the fringe of the fashion establishment, as he was considered neither "serious" nor "commercial". He closed one show in 2001 by throwing fake banknotes with his face printed on them into the audience. At the close of another show, he shouted: ""Vive l’avant-garde!"", and left yellow T-shirts stamped with the message on every seat.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In 2006, Scott started his ongoing collaboration with the French leather-goods company Longchamp, which makes bags for front-row guests at his fashion shows.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott first worked with Adidas in 2002 for the "!Signed" project, for which he created a silk jacquard with a motif of money scattered around with his own likeness replacing that of George Washington. The design was on the Adidas classic high top model, the Forum. The shoe was handmade in the Adidas factory in Scheinfeld, Germany. There were only 100 pairs made: 50 went to Scott and 50 went to Adidas. Scott would revisit the design with Money Wings 2.0 in Fall/Winter 2013.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: However, his best-known Adidas collaboration came in 2008, when Adidas Originals launched Scott's collection of footwear and apparel that included JS Wings (winged high-tops) and JS Bears (furry sneakers with teddy bear heads). With early co-signs from rappers like Lil Wayne, Scott's footwear gained him mass appeal. His sneakers are considered "some of the most eye-catching sneakers ever seen", making "an indisputable imprint on the shoe landscape". Over the years, his iconic wings adorned many different Adidas silhouettes. He also applied them to other objects for other clients, including Smart cars and baby prams.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: He collaborated with Swatch in 2011, creating three watch designs that were hailed as the return of Swatch to its "uber-fun Eighties roots" with Scott's "pop aesthetic, fun twist and overstated form".


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott starred in the Adidas 2012 print and video campaign with Nicki Minaj, Sky Ferreira and 2NE1. Madonna's dancers in the 2012 Super Bowl halftime show wore Jeremy Scott track suits for Adidas Originals.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In June 2012, Adidas decided that a pair of sneakers designed by Scott called the "JS Roundhouse Mids" would not be sold after the shoes were criticised for their bright yellow handcuffs which, as some believed, were "shackles" alluding to slavery. Scott denied that the shoes had anything to do with slavery, stating it was a reference to the children's toy My Pet Monster.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: For his Fall 2012 collection, Scott introduced 1990s nostalgia, with several computer references like a printed gloved-hand cursor and '90s-era Mac screenshots. He made a show-closing homage to Lisa Frank with a vacuum-formed plexiglass bustier encrusted in hundreds of Frank stickers.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In February 2013, Scott plagiarized designs from Santa Cruz Skateboards. Santa Cruz and Scott reached a settlement whereby Scott ceased production of his collection.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: He debuted his first fragrance for Adidas on February 1, 2015, in a glass replica of his Adidas winged sneakers. In the 2016 film "Suicide Squad", the character Harley Quinn wears high-top heels from Jeremy Scott's 2014 collaboration with Adidas.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In October 2013 Scott became Moschino's creative director. After turning down several other offers, he chose the Italian label because it had a similarly irreverent approach, its founder Franco Moschino seeing fashion as a form of protest.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: After redesigning the entire Pre-Fall collection, Scott showed his first Moschino collection in fall 2014. He re-told the fashion gags of Franco Moschino (rubbish bags, witty slogans, beefeater hats) through the eyes of an American (McDonald's handbags, popcorn dresses, nutrition-label ballgowns, SpongeBob SquarePants fur coats). An example of his proceeding was a vis-a-vis jacket in McDonald's colors (ketchup-red and bright yellow) with a matching quilted leather handbag bearing a golden "M" in the shape of a heart. His first Moschino fragrance was called Moschino Toy. The bottle literally looked like a teddy bear, with the spray nozzle under its head.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In his 2015 manifesto in "The Guardian", Scott described his approach to American consumer culture: "An image of Mickey Mouse is understood in Mumbai, Timbuktu and Los Angeles in the same way. It’s a clear message even if you subvert it by, say, putting Mickey ears on an army helmet (as I did in 2007)... A lot of my collections are informed by nostalgia." In fact, his fashion is often humorous: a 2016 show included a handbag that looked like a box of Marlboro Reds and bore the warning "Fashion Kills".


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In August 2015, Scott was sued along with Moschino for copyright infringement in relation to the Moschino Fall/Winter 2015 clothing line. The garments in question included "literal copies" of the plaintiff's work, according to the original complaint filed. The suit was settled out of court.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: His Moschino Fall/Winter 2016 collection was inspired by the Florentine Bonfire of the Vanities of 1497. Dresses featured shards of mirrors, a fallen grand chandelier, and the innards of a destroyed grand piano. In a technical first, a few dresses were followed by trails of smoke on the runway because of integrated smoke machines inside them. At the same time, the Fall 2016 collection of his personal brand in New York included cartoony Max Headroom and rockabilly guitar prints, glitzy high-heeled cowboy boots, and cow print denim. It was called "Cowboys and Poodles" after a vintage store on Melrose Avenue in Los Angeles that introduced the 1950s rockabilly culture to the 1980s punks.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott created a TV commercial for the Moschino Barbie doll, which he wrote and art-directed, based on toy commercials of the eighties and nineties. It attracted attention as the first Barbie commercial to feature a boy. For the Moschino Spring/Summer 2017 collection, Scott commented on the internet generation's fixation on 2D screens. He used trompe-l'œil techniques to render Moschino's gold accessories, leather jackets, and larger-than-life branding in 2D, including life-sized pull tabs and stuck-on accessories of paper dolls of old.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott has been credited with reviving the Moschino brand, boosting its sales and turning it into a fan favorite.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: An important part of Scott's work has been outfitting show business celebrities such as Beyoncé, Rihanna, Lady Gaga, and Nicki Minaj. Some of them, like Katy Perry, Miley Cyrus, and CL, have collaborated with him so frequently that they have earned the nickname "the Jezza posse". Scott described his work with celebrities: "I understand the language of pop culture, and these people are totems of pop culture."


title: Jeremy Scott

text: In January 2015, Scott created the costumes for the Super Bowl XLIX Half Time show performance of pop star Katy Perry. Perry introduced his custom bustier on the cover of "Rolling Stone". The designer and the singer started collaborating ten years earlier, before Perry's first album came out.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Rihanna wore Jeremy Scott denim bra top and circle skirt in the "We Found Love" music video. The retro-futuristic stewardess frock worn by Britney Spears in her "Toxic" video was made by Scott. He designed Lady Gaga's outfit in "Paparazzi". For the 2015 Metropolitan Museum of Art's Anna Wintour Costume Center gala, Scott dressed Perry, as well as Madonna, whom he considers the original music/fashion icon. At the 2016 Met Gala, his outfits were worn by Nicki Minaj and Demi Lovato.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott dressed The Muppets' Miss Piggy for a photoshoot with Kermit the Frog as Andy Warhol. He has dressed Piggy on more than one occasion, including her front row appearance at his fashion show and for The Muppets world premiere. As the creative director for MTV Video Music Awards 2015, he redesigned the Moonman statuette.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott has been called fashion's equivalent of Andy Warhol. "The Vulgar: Fashion Redefined", a British exhibition themed around different concepts of vulgarity, included Scott's sweet wrapper-themed dresses alongside Warhol's Souper Dress in the pop art-centric "Too Popular" section.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: "Jeremy Scott: The People's Designer" is a 2015 documentary film directed by Vlad Yudin detailing the life of Scott and his rise in the fashion industry. It was released on September 18, 2015. It features appearances by Katy Perry, Rihanna, Miley Cyrus, Rita Ora, Paris Hilton, ASAP Rocky and CL from 2NE1.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott won the ANDAM Fashion Award in 2000 and the Womenswear Designer of the Year award at the Annual Fashion Los Angeles Awards in 2015. He won the Venus de la Mode award for best new designer in 1998 and 1999 for his second and third collections and was nominated for Best Young Designer of 1999 by the Council of Fashion Designers of America.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott was the featured Guest Designer at the 88th Pitti Uomo, Florence's premier bi-annual menswear tradeshow. His Adidas sneakers were included in the Brooklyn Museum’s "The Rise of Sneaker Culture" exhibit. He has agreed to hold a retrospective of his fashions at the Dallas Contemporary museum in 2017, on the 20th anniversary of his debut.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Jeremy's parents are Jim, an engineer, and Sandy, a teacher. Jeremy has two older siblings, Barbara, a lawyer, and James. Since he began designing, members of his family have attended almost every show.


title: Jeremy Scott

text: Scott owns two houses designed by John Lautner: the Foster-Carling House (1947) in the Hollywood Hills and the Elrod House (1969) in Palm Springs. He is a vegetarian.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Moroccan cuisine () is the cuisine of Morocco, fueled by interactions and exchanges with many cultures and nations over the centuries. Moroccan cuisine is usually a mix of Arab, Berber, Andalusi, and Mediterranean cuisines, with minimal European (French and Spanish) and sub-Saharan influences. Like the rest of the Maghrebi cuisine, Moroccan cuisine has more in common with Middle Eastern cuisine than with the rest of Africa.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: According to Moroccan chef and cuisine researcher Hossin Houari, the oldest traces of Moroccan cuisine that can still be observed today, go back to the 7th century BC.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Morocco produces a large range of Mediterranean fruits and vegetables, as well as tropical products like snails. Common meats include beef, goat, mutton and lamb, which, together with chicken and seafood, serve as a base for the cuisine. Characteristic flavorings include lemon pickle, argan oil, preserved butter (smen), olive oil, and dried fruits.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: The staple grains today are rice and wheat, used for bread and couscous, though until the mid-20th century, barley was an important staple, especially in the south. Grapes are mostly eaten fresh, as a dessert; wine consumption is only about 1 liter per capita per year. The traditional cooking fats are butter and animal fat, though olive oil is now replacing them. Butter is used both fresh, "zebeda", and preserved, "smen".


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Spices and Ras el hanout are used extensively in Moroccan food. Although some spices have been imported to Morocco through the Arabs, introducing Persian and Arabic cooking influences, many ingredients—like saffron from Talaouine, mint and olives from Meknes, and oranges and lemons from Fes—are home-grown, and are being exported. After the Idrissids established Fes in 789, predominant in Arab culture, many spices were brought from the east. Common spices include cinnamon, cumin, turmeric, ginger, paprika, coriander, saffron, mace, cloves, fennel, anise, nutmeg, cayenne pepper, fenugreek, caraway, black pepper and sesame seeds. Twenty-seven spices are combined for the Moroccan spice mixture "ras el hanout".


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Common herbs in Moroccan cuisine include mint, parsley, coriander, oregano, peppermint, marjoram, verbena, sage and bay laurel.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: A typical lunch begins with a series of hot and cold salads, followed by a "tagine" or "dwaz". Often, for a formal meal, a lamb or chicken dish is next, or couscous topped with meat and vegetables. Traditionally, Moroccans eat with their hands and use bread. The consumption of pork and alcohol is uncommon due to religious restrictions.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: The main Moroccan dish people are most familiar with is couscous; beef is the most commonly eaten red meat in Morocco, usually eaten in a "tagine" with a wide selection of vegetables. Chicken is also very commonly used in "tagines" or roasted. They also use additional ingredients such as plums, boiled eggs, and lemon. Like their national food, the "tagine" has a unique taste of popular spices such as saffron, cumin, cinnamon, ginger, and cilantro, as well as ground red pepper.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Since Morocco lies on two coasts, the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, Moroccan cuisine has ample seafood dishes. European pilchard is caught in large but declining quantities. Other fish species include mackerel, anchovy, sardinella, and horse mackerel.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Other famous Moroccan dishes are "pastilla" (also spelled "basteeya" or "bestilla"), "tanjia", and "rfissa".


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: A big part of the daily meal is bread. Bread in Morocco is principally made from durum wheat semolina known as "khobz". Bakeries are very common throughout Morocco and fresh bread is a staple in every city, town, and village. The most common is whole-grain coarse ground or white-flour bread or baguettes. There are also a number of flat breads and pulled unleavened pan-fried breads.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: In addition, there are dried salted meats and salted preserved meats such as "khlea" and "g'did" (basically sheep bacon), which are used to flavor "tagines" or used in "el rghaif", a folded savory Moroccan pancake.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: "Harira", a typical heavy soup, eaten during winter to warm up and is usually served for dinner. It is typically eaten with plain bread or with dates during the month of Ramadan. "Bissara" is a broad bean-based soup that is also consumed during the colder months of the year.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Salads include both raw and cooked vegetables, served either hot or cold. include "zaalouk," an aubergine and tomato mixture, and "taktouka" (a mixture of tomatoes, smoked green peppers, garlic, and spices) characteristic of the cities of Taza and Fes, in the Atlas. Another cold salad is called "bakoula", or "khoubiza", consisting of braised mallow leaves, but can also be made with spinach or arugula, with parsley, cilantro, lemon, olive oil, and olives.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Usually, seasonal fruits rather than cooked desserts are served at the close of a meal. A common dessert is "kaab el ghzal" (, "gazelle ankles"), a pastry stuffed with almond paste and topped with sugar. Another is "halwa chebakia", pretzel-shaped dough deep-fried, soaked in honey and sprinkled with sesame seeds; it is eaten during the month of Ramadan. "Jowhara" is a delicacy typical of Fes, made with fried "waraq" pastry, cream, and toasted almond slices. Coconut fudge cakes, 'Zucre Coco', are popular also.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Morocco is endowed with over 3000 km of coastline. There is an abundance of fish in these coastal waters with the sardine being commercially significant as Morocco is the world's largest exporter. Sardines were used in the production of garum in Lixus.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: At Moroccan fish markets one can find sole, swordfish, tuna, turbot, mackerel, shrimp, conger eel, skate, red snapper, spider crab, lobster and a variety of mollusks.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: In Moroccan cuisine, seafood is incorporated into, among others, "tajines", "bastilla", "briouat", and "paella".


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: The most popular drink is Moroccan mint tea, locally called "atay". Traditionally, making good mint tea in Morocco is considered an art form and the drinking of it with friends and family is often a daily tradition. The pouring technique is as crucial as the quality of the tea itself. Moroccan tea pots have long, curved pouring spouts and this allows the tea to be poured evenly into tiny glasses from a height. For the best taste, glasses are filled in two stages. The Moroccans traditionally like tea with bubbles, so while pouring they hold the teapot high above the glasses. Finally, the tea is accompanied with hard sugar cones or lumps. Morocco has an abundance of oranges and tangerines, so fresh orange juice is easily found and inexpensive.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Selling fast food in the street has long been a tradition, and the best example is Djemaa el Fna square in Marrakech. "Ma'quda" is a potato fritter popular among students and people of modest means, particularly in Fes. Starting in the 1980s, new snack restaurants, primarily in the north, started serving "bocadillos" (a Spanish word for a sandwich).


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Dairy product shops locally called "mhlaba" (), are very prevalent all around the country. Those dairy stores generally offer all types of dairy products, juices, smoothies, and local fare such as bocadillos, "msemmen" and "harcha".


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Another popular street food in Morocco is snails, served in their juices in small bowls, and eaten using a toothpick.


title: Moroccan cuisine

text: Among those who have brought Moroccan cuisine to a wider audience are TV chef Choumicha and Al-Amīn al-Hajj Mustafa an-Nakīr, chef to the former king of Morocco Hassan II.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: "Memory" is a show tune composed by Andrew Lloyd Webber, with lyrics by Trevor Nunn based on poems by T. S. Eliot. It was written for the 1981 musical "Cats", where it is sung primarily by the character Grizabella as a melancholic remembrance of her glamorous past and as a plea for acceptance. "Memory" is the climax of the musical and by far its best-known song, having achieved mainstream success outside of the musical. According to musicologist Jessica Sternfeld, writing in 2006, it is "by some estimations the most successful song ever from a musical."


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: Elaine Paige originated the role of Grizabella in the West End production of "Cats" and was thus the first to perform the song publicly on stage. "Memory" was named the Best Song Musically and Lyrically at the 1982 Ivor Novello Awards. In 2020, Jessie Thompson of the "Evening Standard" wrote, "Paige’s version set the standard and enabled Memory to become one of the most recognisable musical theatre songs of all time."


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: In "Cats", "Memory" is sung primarily by Grizabella, a one-time "glamour cat" who has fallen on hard times and is now only a shell of her former self. For most of the musical, Grizabella is ostracized by her fellow Jellicle cats. She sings a prelude version of "Memory" at the end of the first act, recalling the time before she became an outcast.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: Melodic fragments of "Memory" are then sung twice in a higher D major key by Jemima (also known as Sillabub), a young cat who is sympathetic to Grizabella's plight. The first instance occurs at the beginning of the second act after "The Moments of Happiness", and the second instance occurs near the end of the second act right before Grizabella's final appearance. As Grizabella returns near the end of the musical, she sings the full version of the song as she pleads for acceptance, with Jemima joining in briefly to urge her on.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: Andrew Lloyd Webber originally composed the tune for a proposed Giacomo Puccini project that he later abandoned. Although the tune was intentionally written in the style of Puccini, Lloyd Webber was concerned that he had unknowingly lifted it from one of Puccini's works. He asked his father, a noted expert on Puccini, for his opinion on whether it sounded like one of the composer's works; according to Lloyd Webber, his father responded: "It sounds like a million dollars!" Prior to its inclusion in "Cats", the composition had also been earmarked for his early draft of "Sunset Boulevard".


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: The widow of Larry Clinton claimed that "Memory" was based on Clinton's "Bolero in Blue", which in turn was based on Maurice Ravel's "Boléro". Musicologist John Snelson dismissed this claim, however, noting the difference in the phrasing between "Boléro" and "Memory": the former is long and continuous, while the latter is centered on a repeated tone and a "turnlike figure" to emphasize said tone. Snelson further argues that the chord progression (I-vi-IV-iii) and time signature () in "Memory" are more akin to popular music of the time, suggesting a completely different origin than "Boléro".


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: "Cats" is based on a 1939 book of poems by T. S. Eliot, "Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats", and the lyrics for "Memory" were adapted from Eliot's poems "Rhapsody on a Windy Night" and "Preludes" by the musical's director Trevor Nunn. Lloyd Webber's former writing partners Don Black and Tim Rice had also each submitted a lyric to the show's producers for consideration, although Nunn's version was favoured. Elaine Paige was given a different lyric to sing to the tune of "Memory" every night during previews for "Cats".


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: There are three key changes in "Memory" so as to keep the song within the comfortable range for a chest voice. It starts off in the key of B-flat major, switches to G-flat major as Grizabella collapses, then changes again to D-flat major for the climax. Lloyd Webber and Nunn wrote two versions of the song: one for the stage production and another for a single that Elaine Paige recorded. In the stage version, a section of the song is sung an octave higher by the kitten Jemima; the reasoning was that the low pitch (as sung by Grizabella in the single) would be difficult to hear in the live theatre setting and moreover, this duet would allow for a visual contrast between the innocent young kitten and the fallen Grizabella in the stage show. The stage version also features different lyrics as it was felt that a kitten would not sing about the same hard times as Grizabella.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: The first commercial release of "Memory" was an instrumental single performed by guitarist Gary Moore. It was released in early 1981 by MCA Records to promote "Cats" while the musical was still in development. Paige heard this version driving home one evening and rushed into the house to record it from the radio, vowing to contact Lloyd Webber to insist on recording a vocal version of it. Before she was able to do so, the following morning he rang her to ask whether she would, at short notice, replace the injured Judi Dench as Grizabella in the London production of "Cats". Paige later recalled that the opportunity to sing "Memory" was the principal reason for agreeing.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: In the 2019 film adaptation featuring Jennifer Hudson as Grizabella, Jemima's soprano part was given to Victoria the White Cat.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: Elaine Paige, who originated the role of Grizabella in the West End production of "Cats", released a version of the song that was a Top 10 hit in the UK, peaking at No. 6 on the UK Singles Chart in July 1981. The single recording was incorporated into the original London cast recording of the musical.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: She re-recorded the song in 1998 for the video release of the musical. This version, featuring the theatre lyrics, reached #36 in the UK Singles Chart in October of that year. Paige also recorded a version for her 1983 album "Stages", produced by Tony Visconti. Live performances of "Memory", which is considered her signature song, are featured on her albums "Performance", "Live: Celebrating A Life On Stage", and "I'm Still Here: Live at the Royal Albert Hall". She also performed the song for Andrew Lloyd Webber's 50th birthday concert, released on DVD as "Andrew Lloyd Webber: Celebration", for the first Chinese concerts of his work, released on DVD as "Andrew Lloyd Webber: Masterpiece." Paige sang it for the recording of "This is Your Life" (1994) focused on the composer, and the BBC's concert for his 60th birthday in Hyde Park, London, which was filmed but, as of 2020, has never been broadcast.


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: "Memory" has been covered by numerous musical acts. By 2006, there were around 600 recorded versions of the song, ranging from easy listening to techno covers. Among the more notable are:


title: Memory (Cats song)

text: American singer, songwriter, actress and director Barbra Streisand recorded "Memory" (produced by Lloyd Webber himself) for her 1981 album "Memories". When released as a single, Streisand's cover reached No. 52 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and No. 9 on the "Billboard" adult contemporary chart in 1982. In the UK this version peaked at No. 34 the same year. In Europe, it peaked at number one in Finland.


title: Casual dating

text: Casual dating or a casual relationship is a physical and emotional relationship between two people who may have casual sex or a near-sexual relationship without necessarily demanding or expecting the additional commitments of a more formal romantic relationship. Motives for casual relationships vary. There are significant gender and cultural differences in acceptance of and breadth of casual relationships, as well as in regrets about action/inaction in those relationships.


title: Casual dating

text: Casual dating may or may not entail partner-exclusivity. In each case, the relationship's dominance in the lives of those involved is being voluntarily limited, and there is usually a sense that the relationship is intended to endure only so long as both parties wish it to. Casual relationships sometimes include mutual support, affection and enjoyment, which underpin other forms of loving relationship.


title: Casual dating

text: A "no strings attached" relationship is most commonly found in young adults such as college students. The shift from childhood to adulthood brings on much exploration in different fields. One of these fields include relationships and sexual activity. Grello "et al."'s study suggests that, in most cases, the same students who lost their virginity in high school did so in a romantic relationship. After experiencing sexual intercourse, many college students go on to have casual sex with either friends or peers they have been recently or newly acquainted with.


title: Casual dating

text: A casual relationship, unlike a romantic relationship, is difficult to ascribe norms, scripts, and expectations to. Rebecca Plante, an associate professor at Ithaca College who has specialized in research on casual relationships, says that this type of relationship can be beneficial, saying that casual relationships can establish a "healthy outlet for sexual needs and desires."


title: Casual dating

text: J.A. Lee defined two main types of lovers for college aged young adults: "Eros" lovers who are passionate lovers, and "Ludas" or "Ludic" lovers, which are game-playing lovers. "Eros" lovers are lovers that immediately form a close connection. They fall in love with the physical appearance of another before considering other characteristics of the person. This type of lover also commits to casual sex relationships. Because physical appearance is the main reason for their attraction, it is difficult for a genuine romantic relationship to form. "Ludic" lovers look for the feeling of a conquest, and typically enter a relationship or hook-up with very little or no intentions of commitment. In most cases, they will have more than one sexually active partner at a given time. They also find it difficult to consider a serious relationship.


title: Casual dating

text: Many casual relationships establish guidelines or a set of rules. The two participants in the relationship will reach an agreement about what each expects from the relationship. Another major concern is that one of the partners will develop romantic feelings for the other. Communication between the two partners is essential to making this type of relationship work and because the partners in the casual relationship are often friends beforehand, talking to one another is a much simpler task.


title: Casual dating

text: Casual relationships, being a mix between a friendship and a non-romantic sexual relationship, result in the partners facing many challenges in maintaining a working relationship. Based on the exchange theory, Hughes witnessed an individual dependency on either partner as the exchange of resources, knowledge, rewards, and costs of items, becomes more and more prominent. The partners may become dependent on advice the other partner gives, or the company they receive when being around one another. This may be a one-way street and one partner may not feel this way. Any partner that is not fully dependent upon the other typically controls the casual relationship. The dependent partner is more submissive to their dominant partner as they do not want the relationship to end. This allows the less dependent partner to be able to fix and maintain the relationship the way he/she wants it to be. They normally control when they meet up, when they have sex, and when they do things together.


title: Casual dating

text: Hughes's study also revealed the four main categories of why partners participating in a casual relationship did not feel the need to tell their same sex friends about the relationship. The first category was that the partners did not feel that their same sex friends needed to know this information. The second category consisted of people wanting to keep the casual relationship a secret and didn't want their same sex friends to know. The feeling of embarrassment was the third category. Many students said that they would feel ashamed or didn't want to be judged by their same sex friends. The final category is students who didn't want to tell their same sex friends because they would show disapproval of the relationship.


title: Casual dating

text: Hughes's study suggests that there were five main motivations to why college students wanted to be in a casual relationship. The five main motivators are:


title: Casual dating

text: A traditional stereotype of heterosexual casual relationships in college is that the men initiate the sexual activity. Another stereotype is that men are more sexually active and women link sex with romance. This is not true all the time, especially in college students.


title: Casual dating

text: A study conducted by Paul and her team suggests that when it comes to gender participation, there are just as many women initiating these relationships. Pressure from friends and other social means may persuade college students to participate in a casual relationship or "hook-up" regardless of their gender.


title: Casual dating

text: Many casual dating sites have an unbalanced gender ratio, as they have much more men than women. Some of these sites are animating their male users to keep them interested or to lure them into paid subscriptions. Usually, these animated casual dating sites are stating this directly in their Terms of Service (as they could be sued otherwise for fraud). As most users do not read Terms of Service when they register on a new website, the animation stays hidden for most users.


title: Casual dating

text: Alcohol consumption and parties often take place on college and university campuses. Promiscuity is also prevalent. Being placed in an environment of sexually active students can put pressure on other students to consume alcohol, become sexually active, and engage in casual dating. Colleges and universities known for a larger alcohol consumption by their students seem to also have a larger number of students participating in casual relationships. Researchers have struggled with the idea that the "perceived disinhibitory function" leads to the reason for increased sexual activity.


title: Casual dating

text: Casual sex are certain types of sexual activity outside the context of a romantic relationship. Although individuals in a casual relationship may engage in casual sex, the former encompasses a range of activities not confined to the context of the latter.


title: Casual dating

text: In sexual relationships among teenagers in the U.S., it is common that penetrative sex is not the predominant sexual activity. Rather oral sex and mutual masturbation are more common, as this reduces the risks associated with sexual promiscuity, such as pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Some teenagers do not view oral sex as "real sex" and use it to retain what they consider "technical" virginity.


title: Casual dating

text: A common aspect of casual sex is that sexual activity occurs within a relationship between two partners that have no commitment to one another. Casual sex presents itself as less risky than random sexual activity because of the person's prior knowledge of the partner they are engaging in sexual activity with. When participating in casual sex, a person may be more likely to know their partner (on a more personal level) than someone they just had a one-night stand with.


title: Diyu

text: Diyu () is the realm of the dead or "hell" in Chinese mythology. It is loosely based on a combination of the Buddhist concept of Naraka, traditional Chinese beliefs about the afterlife, and a variety of popular expansions and reinterpretations of these two traditions.


title: Diyu

text: Diyu is typically depicted as a subterranean maze with various levels and chambers, to which souls are taken after death to atone for the sins they committed when they were alive. The exact number of levels in Diyu and their associated deities differ between Buddhist and Taoist interpretations. Some speak of three to four "courts"; others mention "Ten Courts of Hell", each of which is ruled by a judge (collectively known as the Ten Yama Kings); other Chinese legends speak of the "Eighteen Levels of Hell". Each court deals with a different aspect of atonement and different punishments; most legends claim that sinners are subjected to gruesome tortures until their "deaths", after which they are restored to their original state for the torture to be repeated.


title: Diyu

text: According to ideas from Taoism, Buddhism and traditional Chinese folk religion, Diyu is a purgatory that serves to punish and renew spirits in preparation for reincarnation. Many deities, whose names and purposes are the subject of conflicting accounts, are associated with Diyu.


title: Diyu

text: Some early Chinese societies speak of people going to Mount Tai, Jiuyuan, Jiuquan or Fengdu after death. At present, Fengdu and the temples on Mount Tai have been rebuilt into tourist attractions, incorporating artistic depictions of hell and the afterlife. Some Chinese folk religion planchette writings, such as the Taiwanese novel "Journeys to the Under-World", say that new hells with new punishments are created as the world changes and that there is a City of Innocent Deaths () designed to house those who died with grievances that have yet to be redressed.


title: Diyu

text: The concept of the "Ten Courts of Yanluo" () began after Chinese folk religion was influenced by Buddhism. In Chinese mythology, the Jade Emperor put the Hell King Yanwang in charge of overseeing the affairs of Diyu. There are 12,800 hells located under the earth – eight dark hells, eight cold hells and 84,000 miscellaneous hells located at the edge of the universe. All will go to Diyu after death but the period of time one spends in Diyu is not forever – it depends on the severity of the sins one committed. After receiving due punishment, one will eventually be sent for reincarnation. In the meantime, souls pass from stage to stage at the decision of Yanwang (閻王). Yama also reduced the number of hells to ten. He divided Diyu into ten courts, each overseen by a Yanwang, while he remained as the sovereign ruler of Diyu.


title: Diyu

text: The concept of the eighteen hells started in the Tang dynasty. The Buddhist text "Sutra on Questions about Hell" () mentioned 134 worlds of hell, but was simplified to the Eighteen Levels of Hell in the "Sutra on the Eighteen Hells" () for convenience. Some literature refers to eighteen types of hells or to eighteen hells for each type of punishment.


title: Diyu

text: Some religious or literature books say that wrongdoers who were not punished when they were alive are punished in the hells after death. Sinners feel pain and agony just like living humans when they are subjected to the tortures listed below. They cannot "die" from the torture because when the ordeal is over, their bodies will be restored to their original states for the torture to be repeated.