title: Deshdrohi

text: There were accusations that the movie was attempting to profit off of the 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra. The head of the Mumbai office of the Central Board of Film Certification opined that the movie has scenes that were derogatory to a particular community. Maharashtra Navnirman Sena expressed their protests against the movie. The Mumbai police served a notice for a special screening to find any objectionable content that might trigger unrest. Due to the protests and problems with exhibitors, the release date of the movie was postponed by a week from the original date of 7 November. The movie was released on 14 November, except in Maharashtra, where it was banned by the state government for 60 days under the Bombay Cinema Regulation Act. The producers of the film petitioned the Bombay High Court to lift the ban on the movie. After a two-month ban it was released on 23 January 2009 in Maharashtra.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: The series was adapted into an anime television series by Studio Pierrot, that ran from April 2016 to March 2017. The manga series has been licensed for an English language release in North America by Viz Media, publishing the first volume in July 2015. A video game was developed and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment for the PS Vita and released in January 2017 in Japan.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: As of December 2018, three light novels and two spin-off manga series have also been published and released in Japan.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: Rokuro is a young boy who used to be a powerful aspiring exorcist, before a tragic incident left his friends dead and made him abandon the profession. One day, he has a fateful encounter with Benio Adashino, a girl around his age and a well known exorcist from the east. According to a prophecy, Rokuro and Benio are the "Twin Star Exorcists" and are destined to marry and have a child known as the "Miko" which will be the ultimate exorcist, capable of cleansing all evil spirits (Kegare) from the world and ending the war that has lasted over a millennium.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: Yoshiaki Sukeno began serializing the manga in Shueisha's "Jump Square" magazine on October 4, 2013. A special chapter was published in "Weekly Shōnen Jump" in April 2016.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: Viz Media licensed the series for publication in North America, with the first volume released on July 7, 2015.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: The first spin-off manga series, "Sōsei no Onmyōji: SD Nyoritsuryō!!" (双星の陰陽師 SD如律令!!) is a comedy spin-off comic, written by koppy and supervised by Yoshiaki Sukeno. It is published at the official website of the original manga, as well as the magazine "Saikyō Jump". The content of this manga is canon, showing personalities of many characters. The compiled volume was published and released on March 3, 2017 in Japan.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: The second spin-off manga series, is a manga adaptation of the light novel "Sōsei no Onmyōji: Tenen Jakko", written and illustrated by the same authors. The back-story focuses on the characters, Seigen Amawaka and Yukari Otomi. The spin-off series was launched by Yoshiaki Sukeno on Shueisha's "Shonen Jump+" website on August 27, 2018. The compiled volume was published on December 4, 2018 in Japan.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: As of December 2018, three light novel adaptations have been published and released by Shueisha under its JUMP j-BOOKS imprint. The light novels are titled in the following order; , and . Each novel features a back-story from the perspective of different characters from the main series, serving as prologues to the main story. The light novels are written by Hajime Tanaka and supervised by Yoshiaki Sukeno.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: An anime television adaptation was announced on the January 2016 cover of "Jump Square" on December 4, 2015. The series is directed by Tomohisa Taguchi and written by Naruhisa Arakawa, with animation by Studio Pierrot. Additionally, Shishō Igarashi is serving as assistant director, Kikuko Sadakata is designing the characters, and Itsuko Takeda is serving as chief animation director. The series' first opening theme song is by Wagakki Band, while the first ending theme is by Hitomi Kaji. The second opening theme, "Re:Call", is performed by the idol group i☆Ris, while the second ending theme, is performed by the two-man group Itowokashi (Kashitarō Itō and Ryō Miyada). The third opening theme, "sync" is performed by lol, while the third ending theme "Hide & Seek" is performed by Girlfriend. The fourth opening theme, "Kanadeai" is performed by Itowokoashi, while the fourth ending theme "Hotarubi" is performed by Wagakki Band.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: The series began airing on April 6, 2016 on TV Tokyo and other TX Network stations, and later on AT-X and ended on March 29, 2017 with 50 episodes aired. Animax Asia aired the series with English Subtitles. Crunchyroll is simulcasting the series worldwide outside of Asia, and also released the series on Blu-ray + DVD with an English dub. Part 1 (Episodes 1-13) has been released on July 24, 2018 with a collector's box to store the later three parts, and Part 2 (Episodes 14-26) on September 18, 2018. Part 3 (Episodes 27-40) was released on November 13, 2018, and Part 4 (Episodes 41-50) on January 8, 2019. Chinese streaming site iQiyi has listed the series with fifty episodes.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: The anime is licensed in North America and the United Kingdom by Crunchyroll, with home video distribution handled by Funimation in North America and by Anime Limited in the UK.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: A video game adaptation of the series from Bandai Namco Entertainment was announced on September 3, 2016. The battle adventure game was released for PlayStation Vita, and features Rokuro as a playable character. It features an alternate setup with five different girls as candidates for the title of Twin Star, including Benio, Mayura, and three other characters designed exclusively for the game by original creator Yoshiaki Sukeno. The game was released to Japan on January 26, 2017.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: Volume 1 reached 11th place on the weekly Oricon manga charts, with 29,527 copies sold; volume 2 reached 23rd place, with 30,734 copies; volume 3 reached 46th place, with 38,835 copies; volume 4 reached 24th place, with 37,900 copies; volume 5 also reached 24th place, with 47,489 copies; volume 6 reached 32nd place, with 48,029 copies; volume 7 reached 20th place, with 48,762 copies; and volume 8 reached 11th place, with 56,947 copies. As of March 1, 2021, "Twin Star Exorcists" had over 5 million copies in circulation.


title: Twin Star Exorcists

text: Volume 3 of the English translation appeared on the "New York Times" Manga Best Sellers list for two non-consecutive weeks, first at 8th place and then at 6th.


title: Cloak

text: A cloak is a type of loose garment worn over clothing, mostly but not always as outerwear for outdoor wear, serving the same purpose as an overcoat, protecting the wearer from the weather. It may form part of a uniform. Cloaks have been and are worn in countless societies. Over time cloak designs have been changed to match fashion and available textiles.


title: Cloak

text: Cloaks generally fasten at the neck or over the shoulder, vary in length, from hip all the way down to the ankle, mid-calf being the normal length. They may have an attached hood and may cover and fasten down the front, in which case they have holes or slits for the hands to pass through. However, cloaks are almost always sleeveless.


title: Cloak

text: The word "cloak" comes from Old North French "cloque" (Old French "cloche", "cloke") meaning "travelling cloak", from Medieval Latin "clocca" "travelers' cape," literally "a bell," so called from the garment's bell-like shape. Thus the word is related to the word "clock".


title: Cloak

text: Ancient Greeks and Romans were known to wear cloaks. Greek men and women wore the "himation", from the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods (c. 750-30 BC). Romans would later wear the Greek-styled cloak, the "pallium". The "pallium" was quadrangular, shaped like a square, and sat on the shoulders, not unlike the "himation".


title: Cloak

text: Romans of the Republic would wear the toga as a formal display of their citizenship. It was denied to foreigners and was worn by magistrates on all occasions as a badge of office. The toga was claimed to have originated with Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome.


title: Cloak

text: Powerful noblemen and elite warriors of the Aztec Empire would wear a tilmàtli; a Mesoamerican cloak/cape used as a symbol of their upper status. Cloth and clothing was of utmost importance for the Aztecs. The more elaborate and colorful tilmàtlis were strictly reserved for elite high priests, emperors; and the Eagle warriors as well as the Jaguar knights.


title: Cloak

text: In full evening dress in the Western countries, ladies and gentlemen frequently use the cloak as a fashion statement, or to protect the fine fabrics of evening wear from the elements, especially where a coat would crush or hide the garment. Opera cloaks are made of quality materials such as wool or cashmere, velvet and satin.


title: Cloak

text: Ladies may wear a long (over the shoulders or to ankles) cloak usually called a cape, or a full-length cloak. Gentlemen wear an ankle-length or full-length cloak. Formal cloaks often have expensive, colored linings and trimmings such as silk, satin, velvet and fur.


title: Cloak

text: According to the King James Version of the Bible, Matthew recorded Jesus of Galilee saying in Matthew 5:40: "And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloke also." The King James Version of the Bible has the words recorded a little differently in Luke 6:29: "...and him that taketh away thy cloke, forbid not to take thy coat also."


title: Cloak

text: Cloaks are a staple garment in the fantasy genre due to the popularity of medieval settings, although fantasy cloak designs normally have more resemblance to 18th or 19th-century cloaks rather than medieval ones. They are also usually associated with witches, wizards, and vampires; the best-known stage version of "Dracula," which first made actor Bela Lugosi prominent, featured him wearing it so that his exit through a trap door concealed on the stage could seem sudden. When Lugosi reprised his role as Dracula for the 1931 Universal Studios motion picture version of the play, he retained the cloak as part of his outfit, which made such a strong impression that cloaks came to be equated with Count Dracula in nearly all non-historical media depictions of him.


title: Cloak

text: Fantasy cloaks are often magical. For example, they may grant the person wearing it invisibility as in the "Harry Potter" series by J. K. Rowling. A similar sort of garment is worn by the members of the Fellowship of the Ring in "The Lord of the Rings" by J. R. R. Tolkien, although instead of granting complete invisibility, the Elf-made cloaks simply appear to shift between any natural color (e.g. green, gray, brown) to help the wearer to blend in with his or her surroundings. In the Marvel comic book stories and in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, the sorcerer Doctor Strange is associated with a magical Cloak of Levitation, which not only enables its wearer to levitate, but has other mystical abilities as well. Doctor Strange also uses it as a weapon. Alternatively, cloaks in fantasy may nullify magical projectiles, as the "cloak of magic resistance" in NetHack.


title: Cloak

text: Figuratively, a cloak may be anything that disguises or conceals something. In many science fiction franchises, such as "Star Trek", there are cloaking devices, which provide a way to avoid detection by making objects appear invisible. A real device, albeit of limited capability, was demonstrated in 2006.


title: Cloak

text: Because they keep a person hidden and conceal a weapon, the phrase "cloak and dagger" has come to refer to espionage and secretive crimes: it suggests murder from hidden sources. "Cloak and dagger" stories are thus mystery, detective, and crime stories of this. The vigilante duo of Marvel comics Cloak and Dagger is a reference to this.


title: Nora B-52

text: The Nora B-52 is a 155 mm self-propelled howitzer developed by Military Technical Institute and manufactured by Yugoimport SDPR in Velika Plana, Serbia.


title: Nora B-52

text: The first self-propelled Nora B (developed on the basis of Nora C) was designed by the Military Technical Institute in 1984 with a modified 152 mm Nora M-84 howitzer mounted on an FAP 8x8 truck bed and was a third generation of artillery systems. Later, in 2000s, Military Technical Institute developed new versions of 4th generation artillery systems with 52 caliber 155 mm gun for fitting on a new system of Nora family with B-52 designation.


title: Nora B-52

text: B-52 operation depending on version is fully automated, including a 36-round autoloader. It is made in several versions:


title: Nora B-52

text: K designation stands for Kamaz chassis, number for orientation of main weapon in relationship to north and letter for level of equipment and/or export designation. It is possible on demand to equip Nora B-52 howitzer with 152 mm gun.


title: Nora B-52

text: All versions have differences in chassis, armour, turret, loading and support system. All versions with automatic loader features multiple rounds simultaneous impact capability. Standard equipment includes a computerized fire control system and a land navigation system. Ballistic protection is provided against small arms fire, shell splinters and some mines.


title: Nora B-52

text: For training and simulation purposes special computer simulator was developed by Mihajlo Pupin Institute that includes terrain maps of customer country with ability to train up to 3 battery of Nora B-52 or up to division of 18 gun, including crews for artillery designation on targets.


title: Nora B-52

text: Special truck chassis upgrade as resupply vehicle for ammunition reload was developed and used within battery of Nora B-52 self-propelled howitzer.


title: Nora B-52

text: Serbia has exported the Nora B-52 artillery systems (B-52 selected versions of self-propelled howitzer K1, KE, KI), reconnaissance BOV M11, command (BOV M10) and battery fire control and meteorological vehicles, ammunition loading trucks, artillery battlefield software for platoon, battery and division level) to the armed forces of Myanmar, Kenya and Bangladesh. One fully equipped battery usually consist of 6-12 self-propelled howitzer, reconnaissance 1-2 BOV M11, three command BOV M10(1 for each platoon and 1 for battery command), 3-6 munition trucks, communication and workshop vehicle, 2-3 general supply vehicles (fuel, food, water etc.) and 1-2 fire direction and gunfire locator vehicle with radar and sound ranging. With latest order for Cyprus instead BOV M11 the new BOV M16 Miloš was delivered as artillery reconnaissance and artillery battery command vehicle.


title: Nora B-52

text: There are various type of ammunition available that includes domestic and foreign 155mm projectiles as it is JBMOU-compatible. Depending on ammo used different maximum ranges and effects on target can be achieved.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Cyril Suresh Shroff (born 1959) is an Indian corporate lawyer. He is the managing partner of Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas (CAM), India's largest full services law firm, since May 2015, and previously was the managing partner of Amarchand & Mangaldas & Suresh A Shroff & Co, since 1995. He was awarded ‘Deal Maker of the Year’ in 2020 & ‘Managing Partner of the Year’ in 2019 and 2022 by Asian Legal Business (ALB) India Law Awards.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Shroff was admitted to the Bar in 1982 after receiving his BA, LLB degree from the Government Law College, Mumbai. He is a solicitor, High Court of Bombay, since 1983.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Shroff has over 40 years of experience in a range of areas, including corporate and securities law, disputes, banking, bankruptcy, infrastructure, corporate governance, private client, financial regulatory and others. He has consistently been ranked as “star practitioner” in India by Chambers Global and has been called the “M&A King of India”. He was awarded Asian Law Business (ALB) India managing partner award in 2015.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Shroff took control of the Mumbai operations of the Amarchand Mangaldas at the age of 35 and slowly rose to being a favoured adviser to India's corporate elite.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Cyril Shroff is son of Suresh Amarchand Shroff, who was the former managing partner of Amarchand & Mangaldas & Suresh A Shroff & Co. Cyril's grandfather Amarchand Shroff started Amarchand Mangaldas with Mangaldas Mehta in 1917. After the death of Bharti Shroff, Cyril's mother, the firm split into two with Cyril heading Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas and brother Shardul S. Shroff heading Shardul Amarchand Mangaldas.


title: Cyril Shroff

text: Cyril Shroff is married to Vandana Shroff, who is also a partner in Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas. He has two children, Rishabh Shroff, Partner & Co- Private Client and Paridhi Adani, Partner and Head - Ahmedabad at Cyril Amarchand Mangaldas. Rishabh is married to Saloni Shroff. Paridhi is married to Karan Adani, son of Gautam Adani, chairman and founder of the Adani Group.


title: RangiTaranga

text: RangiTaranga (English: "Colourful Wave") is a 2015 Indian Kannada-language mystery thriller film written and directed by Anup Bhandari in his debut, and produced by H.K.Prakash, under Shree Devi Entertainers. It features debutantes Nirup Bhandari, Radhika Chetan and Avantika Shetty in the lead roles, along with the veteran actor, Saikumar.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Anup Bhandari said that in writing story for the film, he took inspiration from "Dennana Dennana", a track that featured as the theme song in the 1990s Kannada television soap "Guddada Bhoota". In addition to directing the film, Bhandari also scored for its soundtrack, also penning its lyrics. It featured cinematography by US-based cinematographers Lance Kaplan and William David, the former of who, had previously collaborated with Bhandari on a short film.


title: RangiTaranga

text: "RangiTaranga" is set in Kamarottu, a fictional village in the coastal region of Karnataka, at Indu's ancestral village, where she, along with her husband Gautham Suvarna decides to perform a ritual to ward off evil spirits. However, Indu goes missing, where Gautham, along with a reporter named Sandhya leads them to investigate the disappearence of pregnant women and also about his unknown past. Parts of the filming took place in Mysore, Bangalore, Madikeri, Puttur, Sira, Ottapalam, Alappuzha and Ooty. Upon theatrical release on 3 July 2015, the film received overwhelmingly positive reviews from critics and audience. The film made it into the list of productions eligible for the 88th Academy Awards, but it did not make it into the final list of nominations.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Gautham Suvarna is a novelist, leading a reclusive life in Ooty. His latest novel is titled "RangiTaranga", a word which might hold the key to his past. Indu, Gautham's wife, is a soft natured girl, who paints the cover pages of all of Gautham's novels. Sandhya, a self-proclaimed reporter from Bangalore, is in search of an anonymous writer who goes by the pen name "Anashku". She finds out about the writer from a publisher and sets on a journey to find him. A pregnant Indu finds herself in trouble when she repetitively gets nightmares of an accident. She then convinces Gautham to visit her ancestral home in the village of Kamarottu in order to perform some rituals to solve her problems. Upon their arrival in Kamarottu, Gautham befriends the post master Kalinga, and the elderly school head master Shankar.


title: RangiTaranga

text: During their stay in the village, Indu experiences strange occurrences in the house, including an incident where Indu is almost pulled into a well while she is fetching a bucket of water. The incident provokes Gautham to investigate and he learns from Kalinga that the well contains "Brahmarakshasa" (devil) and that the Kamarottu home was haunted by a ghost ("Guddada Bhoota"). Gautham's investigation also irks the powerful men in the village and on one occasion, one of the henchmen of a powerful politician attacks Gautham, leaving him injured. Meanwhile, Sandhya's trail leads her to Kamarottu. Indu goes missing one night and later, the local police declare that she was killed six years ago, in an accident. Confused, Gautham starts searching for her and discovers an illegal sand mafia, led by the corrupt politician Mahabala Hegde, along with the local police, which leads him to conclude that their attack on him was merely to cover up their illegal activity.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Sandhya meets Gautham during the investigation of his wife's disappearance and helps him in discovering a diary, titled "Harini". Through this diary, Gautham discovers that the woman who he believed to be his wife Indu, was actually Harini, a yoga instructor from Bangalore, and that he himself is not Gautham. Indu and her husband Gautham were in reality, Harini's friends. In an impulsive action fueled by fear, Harini killed a man who was abusive to her and threatened her after she spurned his physical advances. Horrified by the realization that she has killed a person and terrified by the prospect of legal repercussions, she confides in Indu and Gautham, who decide to take her to Kamarottu and create an alibi for Harini. It is revealed that Gautham was actually Siddarth, an aspiring writer/singer who was in love with Sandhya.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Telling her that he will be back soon, Siddarth left for a bike trip with his college friends. Under a thick blanket of fog, Siddharth and his friend on a motorbike, collided with the car carrying Indu, Gautham and Harini, near the Kamarottu junction. The accident left Harini and Siddharth, who loses his memory, as the sole survivors of the accident. Harini, reluctant to go back to her previous life, assumed the identity of her dead friend Indu, and informed the authorities and Siddharth that he is her husband Gautham. With nothing else to go on to, Siddharth accepted this as the truth. After learning his past, Gautham and Sandhya infiltrate the police station and search the records where they get to know about a missing persons case, where a woman goes missing on the same day (7 July), every year. When they check with the families of the missing women, they get to know that they were pregnant, similar to Indu and that the "Guddada Bhoota" is responsible for the abductions.


title: RangiTaranga

text: They initially suspect the local doctor, as he is the only person who has access to the pregnancy reports in the village, but he reveals that his girlfriend Anasuya was the first victim of the "Guddada Bhoota". After connecting the dots, Gautham and Sandhya realise that the pregnancy reports are delivered from the hospital to the patient via post and the only person who has access to all the posts is Kalinga. After enquiring from Shankar, they deduce that Kalinga is the "Guddada Bhoota" and is responsible for the abductions. Kalinga's wife Anasuya had an extramarital affair with the local doctor and on July 7, when she got caught, she did not reveal the doctor's identity and Kalinga mistook Angara, a mentally ill guy from the village, to be her lover and beheaded him.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Kalinga tortured his wife, for 11 days in an abandoned house on the hillock, and later killed her. After this incident, Kalinga became mentally tormented and does the killings on the same day (July 18) by donning the "Bhoota Vesha" (devil's getup). After learning that Kalinga is about to kill Harini as it is July 18, Siddharth tracks him down, with the help of Shankar. Upon finding his hideout, Siddharth engages in a brutal fight with Kalinga and eventually kills him, saving Harini. Later, Harini gives birth and Sandhya wishes Siddharth luck. She tells him that he is probably better off being with Harini and his newborn child, and not trying to rake up both of their pasts. She leaves without revealing her relationship with Siddharth or his true identity, nursing a broken heart.


title: RangiTaranga

text: The movie made by debutantes has raised expectations among Kannada audience because of its cinematography by Hollywood D.O.P Lance Kaplan and D.O.P William David.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Rangitaranga has brought Lance — whose recent films include Butterflies of Bill Baker, Trapped Girl, and Do You Believe in the Devil — to India to shoot for a project in a language he hadn’t even heard. "I had a translation of the script, and Anup and I spent weeks on the pre-production," he says. "Anup’s father, Sudhakar patiently taught me many Kannada words and phrases. "This reflects the tradition of lighting that I come from and love, and I think it’s one of the reasons why Anup wanted me to work on his film."


title: RangiTaranga

text: B. Ajaneesh Loknath scored the film's background music and Anup Bhandari composed for its soundtrack, also writing lyrics for all but one track. The soundtrack album consists of 10 tracks, featuring a flute bit of the track "Dennana Dennana", a karaoke of "Akka Pakka" and a dialogue bit "Ashu Kavi Kalinga" mouthed by Saikumar. The track "Dennana Dennana" which has its lyrics in Tulu was the theme song of the Kannada soap opera "Guddada Bhootha" that was first aired on DD Chandana in the 1990s and re-telecast on Zee Kannada between 2013 and 2014. It was used in the film after rights were given to Bhandari by its lyricist Sadananda Suvarna. The album was released on 16 June 2015 in Bangalore.


title: RangiTaranga

text: The critics received the album well and noted for its non-usage of words from the English and Hindi languages in its tracks, which was the hitherto trend.


title: RangiTaranga

text: The film was given the "U/A" (Parental Guidance) certificate by the Regional Censor Board. It was released theatrically in theatres across Karnataka on 3 July 2015. Upon release, the film met with universal critical acclaim, who acclaimed the film's screenplay, film score, cinematography and the acting performance of Saikumar. After a tremendous response at the domestic market, the film was released in Germany on 1 August 2015, followed by the Netherlands and Ireland. Following this it was released in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, Norway, Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland, Malaysia and Denmark among other countries.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Reviewing the film for "The Hindu", Archana Nathan calling the film "well-made thriller" credited the performance of all lead actors and the cinematography, and wrote, "The director also successfully captures the flavour of the region and gets the essence and accent of the language right." A. Sharadhaa of "The New Indian Express" described the film as "beautiful, chilling and bold" and wrote, "The film steeped in the strong ethos of a bygone culture, is beautifully etched and well enacted by newcomers. Anup’s storyline does not differentiate between the shades of good and evil. The journey exposes secrets but does not lose its balance. The director has showcased his understanding of horror, friendship, revenge and forgiveness, well." Writing for "Deccan Herald", S. Viswanath called the film "[a]n eerie romantic thriller". On the cinematography, he wrote, "... Lance Kaplan and William David capture the verdant and scenic vicissitudes of mountainous ravines and quietly flowing rivers of coastal Mangaluru, as also the famous tea gardens and hills of Ooty." He concluded acclaiming the screenplay and the film's music.


title: RangiTaranga

text: Sunayana Suresh of "The Times of India" rated the film 3/5 and wrote, "[the film is] visually breath-taking and packed with a lot of punch, be it in both the acting and the technical departments." Crediting the acting performance of Saikumar, she added, "The other highlights of the film apart from Anup's writing are his music and lyrics. The songs are catchy, though they seem a tad too many in the second half. B Ajaneesh Lokanath's background score is on par with some of the best global thrillers, as is the cinematography by Lance Kaplan and William David." Having rated the film 3.5/5 Shyam Prasad S. of "Bangalore Mirror" felt that the film was "a very good attempt and packs enough thrills". He, however, felt that it lacked pace with the songs and these few scenes dragging the film through. He concluded writing, "The cinematography makes the film look like a live presentation rather than something happening on the screen. The background music is equally apt and very well ingrained into the film" and highlighted the acting performance of Saikumar. Shashiprasad S. M. of "Deccan Chronicle" rated the film 3/5 and wrote, "the director makes an impressive debut with this good suspense thriller. Anup Bhandari who has penned the script has showcased a realistic and scary experience for the audience." He highlighted the cinematography and songs in the film, and criticized its slow pace and editing.


title: RangiTaranga

text: With medium occupancy at theatres in Karnataka on the first three days after theatrical release, it gradually improved and registered 100% in many theatres following good reviews by audiences and word-of-mouth marketing. Following the first week of release, the film performed very well at the domestic box office. At the end of its 300 days from release, it had collected more than 38 crore in Karnataka alone. The movie completed 365 days run at 2 theatres in Bangalore- INOX Mantri Square in Malleswaram and Cinepolis Royal Meenakshi Mall.


title: RangiTaranga

text: It performed strongly in the US upon release on 14 August in 36 screens. It collected US$200,802 (13.1 million), which trade analyst Taran Adarsh called an "Excellent start". The second day collections of US$75,000 (49 lakh) was more than that of any Indian film there. By the end of the first weekend of the three-day run, it managed to break the lifetime records set by all previous Kannada films in the United States and became the highest grosser. In the process, "RangiTaranga" also became the first Kannada film to make it to the weekend box office list of "The New York Times". By the end of September, it became the first Kannada film to complete a 50 days run in the US, and collected .


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Rorschach () is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language neo-noir psychological thriller film directed by Nissam Basheer and produced by Mammootty under, Mammootty Kampany. It stars Mammootty, Sharafudheen, Jagadish, Grace Antony, Bindu Panicker, Kottayam Nazeer, Sanju Sivram and Asif Ali. The film's music was composed by Midhun Mukundan and cinematography was handled by Nimish Ravi. Principal photography began on 30 March 2022 at Chalakudy. "Rorschach" was released on 7 October 2022.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Luke Anthony is an NRI businessman in Dubai who goes to Kerala with his pregnant wife Sofiya for a vacation. While travelling through the forest they have a road accident. Upon gaining consciousness, he finds Sofiya is missing and reports it to the local police. The cops close the case, as they deduce that Sofiya was killed by a tiger. Luke decides to find her on his own. Luke stumbles upon Balan, who asks him to purchase his house on the outskirts of the forest. He tells Luke that the house was owned by his elder son, Dilip Balan, who died in an accident, a few months ago.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: After selling Luke the house, Balan leaves with the money, intending to leave his wife, Seetha Balan and younger son, Anil Balan for his second family. However, Balan is found murdered and the money missing. When asked by the cops, Seetha and Anil deny knowing anything about the sale of the house or the money. Meanwhile, it is revealed that Sofiya was murdered by Dilip in a Rorschach mask, so with no opportunity for revenge, Luke stays there as a semi-retreat. However, Luke starts feeling Dilip's presence in the house and deduces that Dilip's spirit is alive there, and Dilip's mother's confirmation about the same gives him the vigour for revenge.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Luke meets Balan's son-in-law, Shashankan, and suggests they investigate Balan's murder and the missing money. Shashankan refuses, and it is revealed that he has Balan's money. However, Shashankan finds his storeroom burnt, and the money missing. It is revealed that Luke retrieved the money and set fire to the storeroom. Shashankan reveals his suspicion that Luke was responsible for the incident to Anil, and it is revealed that Anil learnt about Balan's plan to leave, killed him and kept the money in the storeroom, on the advice of Shashankan. That night, Anil and Shashankan break into Luke's house to steal the money. Luke subdues them, but they manage to escape. While escaping, Anil gets into an accident. Luke helps the family, with the medical expenses and convinces Dilip's widow, Sujatha, to agree with transfer of Seetha's shares of the cashew nut processing factory and merge their businesses. She reluctantly agrees.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Meanwhile, Sathisan, gets suspicious that Luke attacked Ammu, Luke's domestic worker, and tries to kill him, as Sathisan has feelings for Ammu. He learns that Ammu left for her village and Luke compensated her for her friendliness with the money he retrieved from Balan. Luke is admitted to the hospital, where he tries to flirt with Sujatha, but she avoids him. Sujatha learns that the skeleton head of Dilip's corpse has been stolen. Luke seeks permission to marry Sujatha, from Seetha, who agrees, despite Sujatha's appeals. After the marriage, Seetha seals down Sujatha's factory, and Luke plays a key role in it. A policeman, Ashraf, starts investigating Luke's past. He learns about Dilip's crime for money and what he did to Luke with his friend Shafi, and deduces Luke came for revenge, but is now staying there to torture Dilip's family, as he cannot get his hands on Dilip.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Learning about the robbery and that Dilip's family might have money left from robbing Luke, Ashraf demands a hefty bribe from Seetha to not tarnish Dilip's reputation. However, she kills him by poisoning his drink and makes Anil and Shashankan bury him in the backyard. Sujatha gets fed up with Luke and leaves him. Later, she learns about Dilip's crimes, which makes her hate Dilip, and she burns down the factory. Seetha visits Luke and reveals that both Dilip and Anil were following her orders to gain more money by committing crimes. Luke realizes Seetha should be killed, as her sons were just following her orders.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Anil and his men go to Luke's house to try and kill him, but Luke kills Anil. Seetha, who witnesses this, manages to escape. Sujatha complains to the police, about Dilip and Anil. Shashankan, reveals Ashraf's murder by the family. Seetha is arrested, while Luke surrenders to the police. In the local jail, Luke learns that Seetha has committed suicide, which makes him happy, knowing that he finally avenged Sofiya's death and extinguished Dilip's spiritual presence by destroying all his physical ties.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Rorschach is the second direction of Nissam Basheer, after "Kettyolaanu Ente Malakha". The film is produced by Mammootty under the banner Mammootty Kampany, with NM Badusha as co-producer. The film is written by Sameer Abdul. Shaji Naduvil is the art director and Prashanth Narayan is the production controller of the film.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Principal photography began on 30 March 2022 at Chalakudy. Mammootty joined the sets from 3 April. After the completion of the shoot in Kerala by mid-June, the team moved to Dubai for the final schedule. On 1 July 2022, the makers announced that filming has been completed.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: The digital rights of the film is acquired by Disney+ Hotstar and will start streaming from 11 November 2022. The satellite rights of the film is owned by Asianet.


title: Rorschach (film)

text: Manoj Kumar R of "The Indian Express" gave the film 4/5, writing that, 'Mammootty magnificently embodies the psychological condition of a man with bottomless vengeance'. "The" "News" "Minute" rated the film 3.5/5, and found the film to be 'dark & interesting', further writing that 'director Nissam puts his powerful women characters in the ordinary garbs of village women, behaving like the typical mother or grieving wife, but exposing their depths when the time comes'. S.R. Praveen of "The Hindu" found the film to be 'an effective psychological thriller that has its imperfections, just like the test that it draws its name from, but it is nevertheless an intriguing experience'. Soundarya Athimuthu of "The Quint" wrote, 'deploying a compelling visual-storytelling and oscillating between the past and the present in a smooth fashion, "Rorschach" promises an immersive experience if you are willing to pay the full-attention it deserves'. Princy Alexander of "Onmanorama" found the film to 'hit all the right notes, except in the end', though she praised Mammootty by writing that 'his movements are swift, the mysterious aura is intact and the dialogues are enough to thrill you thrill you till the end', & adding that his achievement onscreen is 'pure brilliance'. Times of India rated 4 on 5 and praised the layered screenplay and performances of lead actors.


The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is a statutory body, and a national-level council for technical education, under the Department of Higher Education. Established in November 1945 first as an advisory body and later on in 1987 given statutory status by an Act of Parliament, AICTE is responsible for proper planning and coordinated development of the technical education and management education system in India.


title: All India Council for Technical Education

text: It is assisted by 10 Statutory Boards of Studies, namely, UG Studies in Eng. & Tech., PG and Research in Eng. and Tech., Management Studies, Vocational Education, Technical Education, Pharmaceutical Education, Architecture, Hotel Management and Catering Technology, Information Technology, Town and Country Planning. The AICTE has its new headquarters building in Delhi on the Nelson Mandela Road, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi, 110 067, which has the offices of the chairman, vice-chairman and the member secretary, plus it has regional offices at Kanpur, Chandigarh, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Bhopal, Vadodara, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai and Thiruvananthapuram.


text: In its 25 April 2013 judgment, the Supreme Court said "as per provisions of the AICTE Act and University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, the council has no authority which empowers it to issue or enforce any sanctions on colleges affiliated with the universities as its role is to provide only guidance and recommendations." Subsequently, AICTE was getting approval from the Supreme court to regulate technical colleges on a year to year basis till January 2016, when AICTE got blanket approval for publishing the Approval Process Handbook and approve technical colleges including management for the session 2016-17 and in all future sessions."


text: According to the "All India Council for Technical Education, 1987", the AICTE is vested with statutory authority for planning, formulation and maintenance of norms and standards, quality assurance through school accreditation, funding in priority areas, monitoring and evaluation, maintaining parity of certification and awards and ensuring coordinated and integrated development and management of technical education in the country. In the words of the Act itself:


text: The AICTE is composed of the e-Governance, Approval, Planning and Coordination, Academic, University, Administration, Finance, and Research, Institutional and Faculty Development Bureaus. There are 10 additional Board Studies dealing with technician, vocational, undergraduate engineering, postgraduate engineering and research, architecture, town and country planning, pharmacy, management, applied arts and crafts, hotel management and catering technology education. For each bureau, adviser is the bureau head who is assisted by technical officers and other supporting staff. The multidiscipline technical officer and staff of the Council are on deputation or on contract from government departments, University Grants Commission, academic institutions, etc.


text: In 2016, three important initiatives were taken up by AICTE. First one was a responsibility given by MHRD to evolve a national MOOCs platform SWAYAM. Second one is that of launching a Smart India Hackathon-2017 challenging the young bright talented students of technical colleges to solve the 598 problems of 29 different Government departments. Third one is that of launching of an AICTE's Student Start up Policy by Hon. President on 16 Nov, during visitors conference from rashtrapati Bhavan. In 2009, the Union Minister of Education formally communicated his intentions of closing down AICTE and related body, the University Grants Commission (UGC). This later led to reforms in the way the AICTE approves institutes, and to establishing the National Board of Accreditation (NBA) as an independent body.


text: On 6 June 2017, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the AICTE along with the University Grants Commission would be scrapped and replaced by a new body called Heera (Higher Education Empowerment Regulation Agency (HEERA). This has been done in a bid to simplify the excessive regulations that exist due to both these bodies. According to the draft of law backed on the ideas of NITI Aayog and the Prime Minister Office, the National Council for Teacher Education was also planned to be subsumed by HEERA.


text: AICTE signs Memorandum of Understanding with Heartfulness Education Trust on making available the students,staff,counsellors and faculties of colleges,institues and universities accredited to former of the programmes and courses offered by HET.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: Nairobi (Ágata Jiménez) is a fictional character in the Netflix series "Money Heist", portrayed by Alba Flores. She serves as the quality manager of the group, in charge of printing money in the Royal Mint of Spain in parts 1 and 2, and overseeing the melting of gold in the Bank of Spain in parts 3 and 4. She is widely considered to be the show's most popular character.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: Before she was recruited by the Professor, Nairobi was an expert counterfeiter and forger, which she learned at an early age due to poverty. She had a son named Axel, of whom she lost custody after serving time in prison for drug trafficking and counterfeiting She has become known for her energetic, charismatic, and motivational persona throughout the show. A born leader, she leads the hostages and her team with joy, passion, and enthusiasm as she uses her popular catchphrase "chikipum chikipum chikipum" (imitating a drum beat) to motivate them to work.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: In a team of hotheads and big egos, Nairobi is level-headed, focused only on accomplishing the job and maintaining peace within the group, and staying alive. She is well liked by the team and even the hostages; Mr. Torres, a hostage assigned to help her print the money in parts 1 and 2, praises her as the best boss he has ever had. With her maternal instincts, she was able to sympathize with some of the hostages, such as motivating Alison Parker to stand up to her bullies and say the famous line "Soy la puta ama" ("I am the fucking boss"). Throughout the show, Nairobi shows disgust over the excessive patriarchy on the team, questioning the leadership of Berlin and Palermo's offensive actions. In part 2, when she overthrows Berlin's leadership and temporarily takes control at the Royal Mint, she proudly declares "Empieza el matriarcado" ("Let the matriarchy begin"), a now iconic line for her character.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: In part three, in order to sow chaos on the team, inspector Alicia Sierra takes Nairobi's son and uses him to lure her out. Nairobi peeks out through the window to see her son and is shot by a sniper in the chest. Nairobi barely survives the opening of part 4, when the police deny the team a surgeon to help her. With the help of a Pakistani surgeon via video call, Tokyo and the rest of the team successfully operate on Nairobi, removing the bullet and extracting part of her lung.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: Soon after, the head of security of the Bank of Spain, an ex-mercenary named Gandia, escapes with the help of Palermo, who had been shunned by his own team of robbers. Nairobi, still recovering from her gunshot and surgery, is taken hostage and tortured by Gandia. After several failed attempts at killing Nairobi, Gandia waits until a truce is called between the robbers and the police, at which point he kills her by shooting her point blank to the head. Her body is placed in a makeshift coffin with the label "Nairobi, La Puta Ama" and carried outside by the governor's bodyguards. In the season finale of part 4, after the Professor and the team managed to get Lisbon into the Bank of Spain, they all chant "Por Nairobi!" (For Nairobi!) in their memory and as an affirmation that they would be victorious in the heist.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: Throughout the series Nairobi is shown to be in love with her partner Helsinki, however, both never get to anything in particular because he is gay, although they end up being very good friends. Their friendship becomes very close, to the point of deciding to travel together around the world after the robbery of the Royal Mint, in addition to nickname him "osito" (little teddy) as a sign of affection. Helsinki is severely affected when she is murdered, but with the help of Palermo, he manages to appease the anger and sadness that triggers in him after her death.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: In the fourth part of the series, her partner Bogotá falls in love with her and they begin a brief romance before her murder. In the Colombian city for which Bogotá is named, in 2021 Netflix placed a statue of both characters for a limited time in the well-known "Parque de los Novios" (Boyfriend's park), this as a tribute to the series and to be visited by the followers of the same.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: In an interview, Alba Flores revealed that Nairobi did not exist in the original script. Show creator Álex Pina was writing the script and realized that the team only had one female character in Tokyo, so he called Flores, with whom he had previously worked on the series "Locked Up" and offered to create a role for her if she enjoyed the scripts of the first two episodes.


title: Nairobi (Money Heist)

text: Nairobi's quirky yet level-headed bossy character quickly became one of the favorites of the show. After the character's death in part 4, fans mourned another fan favorite being killed. Some grieved saying that Nairobi did not deserve a brutal death, especially since her character was so full of dreams and promises. A behind-the-scene video of Flores tearfully saying goodbye to her character and castmates was included in the 2020 documentary "Money Heist: The Phenomenon". For her work as Nairobi, Flores won a Best Actress Award in , as well as three Best Actress nominations on Actors and Actresses Union Awards and two Best Supporting Actress nominations for Feroz Awards.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: Fred Hampton Jr. (born Alfred Johnson; December 29, 1969) is an American political activist, based in Chicago. He is the president and chairman of the Prisoners of Conscience Committee and the Black Panther Party Cubs. He is the only child of Fred Hampton, the Black Panther Party leader assassinated by police in Chicago on December 4, with his fiancée, now known as Akua Njeri.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: Born in Chicago, Hampton is the son of Black Panther Party leader Fred Hampton and his fiancée, Deborah Johnson. He was born 25 days after his father, at age 21, was assassinated by the Chicago police in a 1969 raid.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: His mother named him Alfred Johnson at birth. When he was ten years old, she had his name legally changed to "Fred Hampton Jr." She had already changed her own name to Akua Njeri, as she increasingly had identified with Africa in the years after Hampton Sr's death. She wanted to drop what she and many in the Black Power movement considered "slave names".


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: Hampton graduated from Tilden High School and sporadically studied journalism at Olive–Harvey College.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: During the late 1980s, Hampton worked part-time as an auto mechanic while speaking at rallies and working as an organizer for the National People's Democratic Uhuru Movement (NPDUM), an interracial group. He also sold "The Burning Spear", the newspaper associated with the affiliated African Socialist Party.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: He now serves as president and chairman of the Prisoners of Conscience Committee (POCC) and the Black Panther Party Cubs (BPPC), made up of descendants of Black Panthers. He continues to organize to bring people together across racial and class lines. He also is a spoken word artist and poet, and draws from his experiences with police and incarceration.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: During his early adulthood, Hampton was tried and acquitted on charges of armed robbery and murder. He and his supporters say that he was framed.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: In 1993, he was convicted of aggravated arson. The case involved the 1992 firebombing of a Korean menswear store and a Korean jewelry store in Chicago on Halsted Street. No persons were injured. The arson occurred in 1992, during the 1992 Los Angeles riots, a six-day period of protests and outrage in many African-American communities after the acquittal of four Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) officers who were charged with excessive force in the beating of African-American motorist Rodney King during an arrest. The incident had been videotaped and widely viewed in television broadcasts.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: Hampton and his supporters maintain his innocence, claiming he was framed in both cases. During the trial, fire officials testified that the bottles that held the gasoline never broke, preventing more widescale damage. According to Hampton's supporters, the fingerprint expert for the Chicago Police Department Crime Lab testified that none of Hampton's fingerprints was found on the bottles. But photographs of his hands showed blisters that were evident when he was arrested.


title: Fred Hampton Jr.

text: Hampton and his mother both worked as consultants on the film "Judas and the Black Messiah" (2021), a biopic about his father co-written and directed by Shaka King. It stars Daniel Kaluuya as Hampton Sr. and Lakeith Stanfield as William O'Neal, a young FBI informant who infiltrated the Panthers. With nearly equal screen time in the film, both men were nominated for Academy Awards as Best Supporting Actor; Kaluuya won.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: The Liechtenstein national football team () is the national football team of the Principality of Liechtenstein and is controlled by the Liechtenstein Football Association. The organisation is known as the "Liechtensteiner Fussballverband" in German. The team's first match was an unofficial match against Malta in Seoul, a 1–1 draw in 1981. Their first official match came two years later, a 0–1 defeat from Switzerland. Liechtenstein's largest win, a 4–0 win over Luxembourg in a 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifier on 13 October 2004, was both its first ever away win and its first win in any FIFA World Cup qualifier. Conversely, Liechtenstein is the only country that lost an official match against San Marino, albeit in a friendly match. Liechtenstein suffered its biggest ever loss in 1996, during qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, losing 1–11 to Macedonia, the result also being Macedonia's largest ever win to date.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: Liechtenstein are only a relatively recent affiliate to FIFA, and did not participate in any qualifying series until the UEFA Euro 1996 qualifiers. There they managed to surprise the Republic of Ireland by holding them to a 0–0 draw on 3 June 1995. On 14 October 1998, they managed their first victory in a qualifying campaign after winning 2–1 against Azerbaijan in a Euro 2000 qualifying match.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: Since then, the presence of Liechtenstein clubs in the Swiss league system and of a handful of professional players (most notably Mario Frick) has seen the side's competitiveness improve slightly. The Euro 2004 qualifiers saw Liechtenstein improve to the extent they restricted England to 2–0 wins. The 2006 World Cup qualifiers, however, brought even better results as two wins over Luxembourg and draws against both Slovakia and Portugal meant that Liechtenstein finished with 8 points.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: In the Euro 2008 qualifiers, Liechtenstein beat Latvia through a solitary goal from Mario Frick. The result caused the Latvian manager to resign after the match. They repeated their heroics against Iceland managing to beat them 3–0 on 17 October 2007 for their second qualifying group win. On the 26 March 2008 Liechtenstein had an embarrassing 7–1 loss to fellow small nation in Europe, Malta. This was recorded as Malta's largest win.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: The Liechtensteiner Fussballverbund voted Rainer Hasler to be their "Golden Player" — their best player over the last 50 years — to mark UEFA's golden jubilee.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: In the 2010 World Cup qualifiers, Liechtenstein secured a scoreless draw against Azerbaijan and a 1–1 draw against Finland, finishing bottom of Group 4 on two points.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: In the Euro 2012 qualifiers, Liechtenstein were narrowly beaten 2–1 by Scotland in Hampden Park thanks to a goal by Stephen McManus in the seventh minute of additional time. They produced a shock 2–0 win at home against Lithuania; their goals were scored by Philippe Erne and Michele Polverino. In the following qualifying game, they managed a scoreless draw away to Lithuania.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: In 2018, Liechtenstein entered the first ever UEFA Nations League, in group 4 of league D. Their first Nations League match saw Armenia beat them 2–1 away. Liechtenstein were able to claim their first Nations League victory, beating Gibraltar 2–0.


title: Liechtenstein national football team

text: Prompted by the team's poor record in competitive games, British writer Charlie Connelly followed the entire qualifying campaign for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. As recorded in the subsequent book "Stamping Grounds: Liechtenstein's Quest for the World Cup", Liechtenstein lost all eight games without scoring a goal.


title: Water caltrop

text: The water caltrop is any of three extant species of the genus "Trapa": Trapa natans, Trapa bicornis and the endangered Trapa rossica. It is also known as buffalo nut, bat nut, devil pod, ling gok (Chinese: 菱角), ling nut, lin kok, ling jow, ling kio nut, mustache nut, singhara or water chestnut.


title: Water caltrop

text: The species are floating annual aquatic plants, growing in slow-moving freshwater up to deep, native to warm temperate parts of Eurasia and Africa. They bear ornately shaped fruits, which in the case of "T. bicornis" resemble the head of a bull or the silhouette of a flying bat. Each fruit contains a single very large, starchy seed. "T. natans" and "T. bicornis" have been cultivated in China and the Indian subcontinent for the edible seeds for at least 3,000 years.


title: Water caltrop

text: The water caltrop's submerged stem reaches in length, anchored into the mud by very fine roots. It has two types of leaves: finely divided, feather-like submerged leaves borne along the length of the stem, and undivided floating leaves borne in a rosette at the water's surface. The floating leaves have saw-tooth edges and are ovoid or triangular in shape, long, on inflated petioles long, which provide added buoyancy for the leafy portion. Four-petalled white flowers form in early summer and are insect-pollinated. The fruit is a nut with four barbed spines. Seeds can remain viable up to 12 years, although most germinate within the first two years.


title: Water caltrop

text: The plant spreads by the rosettes and fruits detaching from the stem and floating to another area on currents or by fruits clinging to objects, and animals.


title: Water caltrop

text: The unrelated "Eleocharis dulcis" is also called a water chestnut. "Eleocharis" is also an aquatic plant raised for food since ancient times in China. "E. dulcis" is a sedge, whose round, crisp-fleshed corms are common in Chinese food.


title: Water caltrop

text: The genus has an extensive fossil record, with numerous, distinctive species. Undisputed fossilized seeds have been found in Cenozoic strata starting from the Eocene throughout Europe, China and North America (though, the genus became extinct in North America prior to the Pleistocene). The oldest known fossils attributed to the genus, however, are of leaves from Cretaceous Alaska, referred to the species, "T. borealis".


title: Water caltrop

text: The generic name "Trapa" is derived from the Latin word for "thistle", "calcitrappa", as also is another common name for the water caltrop.


title: Water caltrop

text: The plant's name in Japanese is "hishi", a word that is also used to mean "a diamond or lozenge shape, a rhombus". The manufacturing group Mitsubishi takes its name and logo from the water caltrop.


title: Water caltrop

text: It is called "Shringataka" in Sanskrit, which is shortened to "Shingara" in Hindi language. In Eastern India, the samosa a fried or baked pastry is also called Shingara because its shape resembles that of the Shingara fruit.


title: Water caltrop

text: Investigations of archaeological material from southern Germany indicate that the prehistoric population of that region may well have relied significantly upon wild water caltrops to supplement their normal diet and, in times of cultivated cereal crop failure, water caltrops may even have been the main dietary component. Today, water caltrop is so rare in Germany that it is listed as an endangered species.


title: Water caltrop

text: Water caltrop has been an important food for worship as prayer offerings since the Chinese Zhou Dynasty. The Rites of Zhou (second century BC) mentioned that a worshipper "should use a bamboo basket containing dried water caltrops, the seeds of "Euryale ferox" and caltrops" (加籩之實，菱芡栗脯). The "Chinese Herbal Medicine Summary" (本草備要 published in 1694, written by Wang Ang 汪昂) indicates that water caltrop can help fever and drunkenness.


title: Water caltrop

text: In India and Pakistan, it is known as "singhara" or "paniphal" (eastern India) and is widely cultivated in freshwater lakes. The fruits are eaten raw or boiled. When the fruit has been dried, it is ground to a flour called "singhare ka atta", used in many religious rituals, and can be consumed as a "phalahar" (fruit diet) on the Hindu fasting days, the navratas.


title: Water caltrop

text: It was possible to buy water caltrops in markets all over Europe until 1880. In northern Italy, the nuts were offered roasted, much as sweet chestnuts ("Castanea sativa") are still sold today. In many parts of Europe, water caltrops were known and used for human food until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, however, it is a rare plant in Europe. Several reasons for its near extinction exist, such as climate fluctuations, changes in the nutrient content of water bodies, and the drainage of many wetlands, ponds, and oxbow lakes.


title: Water caltrop

text: "T. natans" was, however, introduced to the US State of Massachusetts around 1874, as a planting in the Harvard University Botanic Garden. Staff gardener Louis Guerineau took it upon himself to throw seeds into Fresh Pond and other Cambridge waterways. This came to the attention of Medford-based botanist George E. Davenport, who decided to bring seeds and live plants to his friend Minor Pratt, in Concord. He and Pratt seeded a pond near the Sudbury River, and he suspected Pratt of conducting additional distributions. As early as 1879, concern was voiced by botanist Charles Sprague Sargent, director of Boston's Arnold Arboretum, that this non-native species threatened to become a nuisance, based on dense growths reported in Cambridge. Davenport confessed in an entry in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 6, page 352: "I have several times had plants of "Trapa natans" that were collected in the vicinity of Boston, during the present year, brought to me for identification, and I have entertained no doubt as to the manner of its introduction into waters outside Cambridge Botanic Garden. But that so fine a plant as this, with its handsome leafy rosettes and edible nuts, which would, if common, be as attractive to boys as hickory nuts now are, can ever become a 'nuisance' I can scarcely believe."


title: Water caltrop

text: Water caltrop has been declared an invasive species from Vermont to Virginia, and is classified as a noxious weed in Florida, North Carolina, and Washington. As of 2020, both "T. natans" and "T. bicornis" have been reported growing wild in the waterways of the United States.


title: Water caltrop

text: In 1956 "T. natans" was banned for sale or shipment in the United States, subject to a fine and/or imprisonment. This law was repealed by HR133 (116th United States Congress (2019–2020)) on December 27, 2020.


title: Water caltrop

text: Fasciolopsiasis is an ailment resulting from infection by the trematode "Fasciolopsis buski", an intestinal fluke of humans, endemic in China, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and India; this fluke can be transmitted via the surfaces of these and other water plants.


title: Water caltrop

text: During the metacercarial stage in their lifecycle, the larval flukes leave their water snail hosts, and swim away to form cysts on the surfaces of water plants, including the leaves and fruit of water caltrops. If infected water plants are consumed raw or undercooked, the flukes can infect pigs, humans, and other animals.


title: Water caltrop

text: The fruits are edible raw or cooked, and the seeds can be eaten as well. It is also eaten on the occasion of Mid-Autumn Festival in the Sinosphere.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marxian economics, or the Marxian school of economics, is a heterodox school of political economic thought. Its foundations can be traced back to Karl Marx's critique of political economy. However, unlike critics of political economy, Marxian economists tend to accept the concept of the economy prima facie. Marxian economics comprises several different theories and includes multiple schools of thought, which are sometimes opposed to each other; in many cases Marxian analysis is used to complement, or to supplement, other economic approaches. Because one does not necessarily have to be politically Marxist to be economically Marxian, the two adjectives coexist in usage, rather than being synonymous: They share a semantic field, while also allowing both connotative and denotative differences.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marxian economics concerns itself variously with the analysis of crisis in capitalism, the role and distribution of the surplus product and surplus value in various types of economic systems, the nature and origin of economic value, the impact of class and class struggle on economic and political processes, and the process of economic evolution.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marxian economics—particularly in academia—is distinguished from Marxism as a political ideology, as well as from the normative aspects of Marxist thought: this reflects the view that Marx's original approach to understanding economics and economic development is intellectually independent from his own advocacy of revolutionary socialism. Marxian economists do not lean entirely upon the works of Marx and other widely known Marxists, but draw from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources.


title: Marxian economics

text: Although the Marxian school is considered heterodox, ideas that have come out of Marxian economics have contributed to mainstream understanding of the global economy. Certain concepts developed in Marxian economics, especially those related to capital accumulation and the business cycle, have been fitted for use in capitalist systems; one such example is Joseph Schumpeter's notion of creative destruction.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx's magnum opus on critique of political economy was "Das Kapital" ("Capital: A Critique of Political Economy") in three volumes, of which only the first volume was published in his lifetime (1867); the others were published by Friedrich Engels from Marx's notes. One of Marx's early works, "Critique of Political Economy", was mostly incorporated into "Das Kapital", especially the beginning of volume 1. Marx's notes made in preparation for writing "Das Kapital" were published in 1939 under the title "Grundrisse."


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx's critique of political economy took as its starting point the work of the best-known economists of his day, the British moral philosopher turned economist Adam Smith as well as David Ricardo.


title: Marxian economics

text: In "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), Smith argued that the most important characteristic of a market economy was that it permitted a rapid growth in productive abilities. Smith claimed that a growing market stimulated a greater "division of labor" (i.e. specialization of businesses and/or workers) and in turn this led to greater productivity. Although Smith generally said little about laborers, he did note that an increased division of labor could at some point cause harm to those whose jobs became narrower and narrower as the division of labor expanded. Smith maintained that a "laissez-faire" economy would naturally correct itself over time.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx followed Smith by claiming that the most important beneficial economic consequence of capitalism was a rapid growth in productivity abilities. Marx also expanded greatly on the notion that laborers could come to harm as capitalism became more productive. Additionally, Marx noted in "Theories of Surplus Value": "We see the great advance made by Adam Smith beyond the Physiocrats in the analysis of surplus-value and hence of capital. In their view, it is only one definite kind of concrete labour—agricultural labour—that creates surplus-value... But to Adam Smith, it is general social labour — no matter in what use-values it manifests itself — the mere quantity of necessary labour, which creates value. Surplus-value, whether it takes the form of profit, rent, or the secondary form of interest, is nothing but a part of this labour, appropriated by the owners of the material conditions of labour in the exchange with living labour".


title: Marxian economics

text: Malthus' claim in "An Essay on the Principle of Population" (1798) that population growth was the primary cause of subsistence level wages for laborers provoked Marx to develop an alternative theory of wage determination. Whereas Malthus presented a historical theory of population growth, Marx offered a theory of how a relative surplus population in capitalism tended to push wages to subsistence levels. Marx saw this relative surplus population as coming from economic causes and not from biological causes (as in Malthus). This economic-based theory of surplus population is often labeled as Marx's theory of the reserve army of labour.


title: Marxian economics

text: Ricardo developed a theory of distribution within capitalism—that is, a theory of how the output of society is distributed to classes within society. The most mature version of this theory, presented in "On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817), was based on a labour theory of value in which the value of any produced object is equal to the labor embodied in the object and Smith too presented a labor theory of value, but it was only incompletely realized. Also notable in Ricardo's economic theory was that profit was a deduction from society's output and that wages and profit were inversely related: an increase in profit came at the expense of a reduction in wages. Marx built much of the formal economic analysis found in "Capital" on Ricardo's theory of the economy.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx also criticized two features of "bourgeois economy" he perceived as main factors preventing full realization of society's production power: ownership of the means of production, and allegedly irrational operation of the economy, which leads to "disturbances" and surplus.


title: Marxian economics

text: According to some, Marx employed a labour theory of value, which holds that the value of a commodity is the socially necessary labour time invested in it. In this model, capitalists do not pay workers the full value of the commodities they produce; rather, they compensate the worker for the necessary labor only (the worker's wage, which cover only the necessary means of subsistence in order to maintain him working in the present and his family in the future as a group). This necessary labor is necessarily only a fraction of a full working day - the rest, surplus-labor, would be pocketed by the capitalist as profit.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx theorized that the gap between the value a worker produces and his wage is a form of unpaid labour, known as surplus value. Moreover, Marx argues that markets tend to obscure the social relationships and processes of production; he called this commodity fetishism. People are highly aware of commodities, and usually don't think about the relationships and labor they represent.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx's analysis leads to the consideration of economic crisis. "A propensity to crisis—what we would call "business cycles"—was not recognised as an inherent feature of capitalism by any other economist of Marx's time," observed Robert Heilbroner in "The Worldly Philosophers", "although future events have certainly indicated his prediction of successive boom and crash." Marx's theory of economic cycles was formalised by Richard Goodwin in "A Growth Cycle" (1967), a paper published during the centenary year of "Capital, Volume I".


title: Marxian economics

text: To resolve the bourgeois contradiction between the ownership of the means of production and the "social act" of production itself, Marx proposed socialization of the means of production. To remove the "disturbances" of capitalist economy, Marx postulated "rational management" of the economy, which would replace the "chaotic" market forces driven by a "sum of individual preferences".


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx used dialectics, a method that he adapted from the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Dialectics focuses on relation and change, and tries to avoid seeing the universe as composed of separate objects, each with essentially stable unchanging characteristics. One component of dialectics is abstraction; out of an undifferentiated mass of data or system conceived of as an organic whole, one abstracts portions to think about or to refer to. One may abstract objects, but also—and more typically—relations, and processes of change. An abstraction may be extensive or narrow, may focus on generalities or specifics, and may be made from various points of view. For example, a sale may be abstracted from a buyer's or a seller's point of view, and one may abstract a particular sale or sales in general. Another component is the dialectical deduction of categories. Marx uses Hegel's notion of "categories", which are "forms", for economics: The commodity "form", the money "form", the capital "form" etc. have to be systematically deduced instead of being grasped in an outward way as done by the bourgeois economists. This corresponds to Hegel's critique of Kant's transcendental philosophy.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx regarded history as having passed through several stages. The details of his periodisation vary somewhat through his works, but it essentially is: Primitive Communism – Slave societies – Feudalism – Capitalism – Socialism – Communism (capitalism being the present stage and communism the future). Marx occupied himself primarily with describing capitalism. Historians place the beginning of capitalism some time between about 1450 (Sombart) and some time in the 17th century (Hobsbawm).


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx defines a commodity as a product of human labour that is produced for sale in a market, and many products of human labour are commodities. Marx began his major work on economics, "Capital", with a discussion of commodities; Chapter One is called "Commodities".


title: Marxian economics

text: The worth of a commodity can be conceived of in two different ways, which Marx calls use-value and value. A commodity's use-value is its usefulness for fulfilling some practical purpose; for example, the use-value of a piece of food is that it provides nourishment and pleasurable taste; the use value of a hammer, that it can drive nails.


title: Marxian economics

text: Value is, on the other hand, a measure of a commodity's worth in comparison to other commodities. It is closely related to exchange-value, the ratio at which commodities should be traded for one another, but not identical: value is at a more general level of abstraction; exchange-value is a realisation or form of it.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx argued that if value is a property common to all commodities, then whatever it is derived from, whatever determines it, must be common to all commodities. The only relevant thing that is, in Marx's view, common to all commodities is human labour: they are all produced by human labour.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx concluded that the value of a commodity is simply the amount of human labour required to produce it. Thus Marx adopted a labour theory of value, as had his predecessors Ricardo and MacCulloch; Marx himself traced the existence of the theory at least as far back as an anonymous work, "Some Thoughts on the Interest of Money in General, and Particularly the Publick Funds, &c.", published in London around 1739 or 1740.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx placed some restrictions on the validity of his value theory: he said that in order for it to hold, the commodity must not be a useless item; and it is not the actual amount of labour that went into producing a particular individual commodity that determines its value, but the amount of labour that a worker of average energy and ability, working with average intensity, using the prevailing techniques of the day, would need to produce it. A formal statement of the law is: the value of a commodity is equal to the average socially necessary labour time required for its production. (Capital, I, Chap I – p. 39 in Progress Publishers, Moscow, ed'n.)


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx's contention was that commodities tend, at a fairly general level of abstraction, to exchange at value; that is, if Commodity A, whose value is "V", is traded for Commodity B, it will tend to fetch an amount of Commodity B whose value is the same, "V". Particular circumstances will cause divergence from this rule, however.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx held that metallic money, such as gold, is a commodity, and its value is the labour time necessary to produce it (mine it, smelt it, etc.). Marx argued that gold and silver are conventionally used as money because they embody a large amount of labour in a small, durable, form, which is convenient. Paper money is, in this model, a representation of gold or silver, almost without value of its own but held in circulation by state decree.


title: Marxian economics

text: Some subjects of labour are available directly from Nature: uncaught fish, unmined coal, etc. Others are results of a previous stage of production; these are known as raw materials, such as flour or yarn. Workshops, canals, and roads are considered instruments of labour. ("Capital", I, VII, 1.)


title: Marxian economics

text: Coal for boilers, oil for wheels, and hay for draft horses is considered raw material, not instruments of labour.


title: Marxian economics

text: The subjects of labour and instruments of labour together are called the means of production.  Relations of production are the relations human beings adopt toward each other as part of the production process. In capitalism, wage labour and private property are part of the relations of production.


title: Marxian economics

text: Karl Marx subscribed to the labor theory of value. The labor theory of value was initially introduced by the classical economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo, but was furthered developed in Marx’s work "Capital." In this theory, value is determined by the amount of labor, measured by the time, in a certain good.


title: Marxian economics

text: In this theory, the value of commodities is divided into two categories: use-value and exchange-value. Use-value is the usefulness of the thing. It is intrinsic to the good. Exchange-value, in contrast, is the proportion by which use-values of one kind are exchanged for use-values of other kinds. The exchange-value is a relational number. However, since the exchange-values are not arbitrary, there must be a common unit by which the goods can be equated. In order for goods to be equated, their unique characteristics need to be stripped away or abstracted. When the unique use-values of the goods are removed, the only value left is the labor time put into the good.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marx's theory of value differs from the classical view in his definition of labor. Marx separates it into two different types: concrete and abstract labor. Concrete labor can be thought of as the unique characteristics of labor such as the work of a farmer versus a tailor. Abstract labor, on the other hand, is the general conceptualization of human labor. It represents the expenditure of simple human labor power. Concrete labor produces qualitatively different commodities; however, in order to equalize and compare the values of qualitatively different commodities quantitatively, their value must be measured in terms of abstract labor. Abstract labor is the basic unit of value and is basis for Marx's labor theory of value.


title: Marxian economics

text: According to Marx, in capitalism, workers own their labor-power, but do not own the means of production through which they can actualize their labor power and generate use-values. As a result, the workers must sell their labor and are alienated from it. The capitalist takes the use-values created by the workers. However, the capitalist does not want these goods for their use-values, rather, he or she wants them for their exchange-values. According to Marx, capitalists desire profit or surplus-value. However, no surplus value can be created naturally. The labor process simply transforms value from one form into another. Thus, according to Marx, the only way for the capitalist to gain surplus-value is by paying the workers' exchange-value, not their use-value. The difference between these two values is the surplus-value generated.


title: Marxian economics

text: According to Marx, the amount of actual product (i.e. use-value) that a typical worker produces in a given amount of time is the productivity of labour. It has tended to increase under capitalism. This is due to increase in the scale of enterprise, to specialisation of labour, and to the introduction of machinery. The immediate result of this is that the value of a given item tends to decrease, because the labour time necessary to produce it becomes less.


title: Marxian economics

text: In a given amount of time, labour produces more items, but each unit has less value; the total value created per time remains the same. This means that the means of subsistence become cheaper; therefore the value of labour power or necessary labour time becomes less. If the length of the working day remains the same, this results in an increase in the surplus labour time and the rate of surplus value.


title: Marxian economics

text: Technological advancement tends to increase the amount of capital needed to start a business, and it tends to result in an increasing preponderance of capital being spent on means of production (constant capital) as opposed to labour (variable capital). Marx called the ratio of these two kinds of capital the composition of capital.


title: Marxian economics

text: Marxian economics has been built upon by many others, beginning almost at the moment of Marx's death. The second and third volumes of "Das Kapital" were edited by his close associate Friedrich Engels, based on Marx's notes. Marx's "Theories of Surplus Value" was edited by Karl Kautsky. The Marxian value theory and the Perron–Frobenius theorem on the positive eigenvector of a positive matrix are fundamental to mathematical treatments of Marxian economics. The relation between exploitation (surplus labour) and profit has been modeled with increased sophistication.


title: Marxian economics

text: The Universities offering one or more courses in Marxian economics, or teach one or more economics courses on other topics from a perspective that they designate as Marxian or Marxist, include Colorado State University, The New School for Social Research, School of Oriental and African Studies, Maastricht University, University of Bremen, University of California, Riverside, University of Leeds, University of Maine, University of Manchester, University of Massachusetts Amherst, University of Massachusetts Boston, University of Missouri–Kansas City, University of Sheffield, University of Utah, and York University (Toronto).


title: Marxian economics

text: English-language journals include "Capital & Class", "Historical Materialism", "Monthly Review", "Rethinking Marxism", "Review of Radical Political Economics", and "Studies in Political Economy."


title: Marxian economics

text: Much of the critique of classical Marxian economics came from Marxian economists that revised Marx's original theory, or by the Austrian School of economics. V. K. Dmitriev, writing in 1898, Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, writing in 1906–07, and subsequent critics claimed that Marx's labor theory of value and law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx drew conclusions that actually do not follow from his theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and profit are determined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole source of profit.


title: Marxian economics

text: Whether the rate of profit in capitalism has, as Marx predicted, tended to fall is a subject of debate. N. Okishio, in 1961, devised a theorem (Okishio's theorem) showing that if capitalists pursue cost-cutting techniques and if the real wage does not rise, the rate of profit must rise.


title: Marxian economics

text: The inconsistency allegations have been a prominent feature of Marxian economics and the debate surrounding it since the 1970s.


title: Marxian economics

text: Much of the criticism of the Marxian economics comes from contradictions observed in countries declaring allegiance to the Marxist economical and political doctrine in the 20th century. Analysis of the widespread scarcity of goods in these countries and the prevalence of second economies (black markets) for very basic goods, led to coining the term "shortage economy". Dembinski pointed out Marx's inconsistent determination of "labor value", a central concept in the labor theory of value, and which if accurately assessed in these economies helps explain their decline.


title: Marxian economics

text: According to economists such as George Stigler and Robert Solow, Marxist economics are not relevant to modern economics, having "virtually no impact", only "represent a small minority of modern economists" and are "an irrelevant dead end."


title: Marxian economics

text: The terms "neo-Marxian", "post-Marxian", and "radical political economics" were first used to refer to a distinct tradition of economic theory in the 1970s and 1980s that stems from Marxian economic thought. Many of the leading figures were associated with the leftist "Monthly Review" School. The neo-Marxist approach to development economics is connected with dependency and world systems theories. In these cases, the 'exploitation' that classifies it as Marxist is an external one, rather than the normal 'internal' exploitation of classical Marxism.


title: Marxian economics

text: In industrial economics, the neo-Marxian approach stresses the monopolistic and oligarchical rather than the competitive nature of capitalism. This approach is associated with Michał Kalecki, Josef Steindl, Paul A. Baran and Paul Sweezy.


title: Marxian economics

text: Such theorists as Marc Fleurbaey, Samuel Bowles, David Gordon, John Roemer, Herbert Gintis, Jon Elster, and Adam Przeworski have adopted the techniques of neoclassical economics, including game theory and mathematical modeling, to demonstrate Marxian concepts such as exploitation and class conflict.


title: Marxian economics

text: The neo-Marxian approach integrated non-Marxist or "bourgeois" economics from the post-Keynesians like Joan Robinson and the neo-Ricardian school of Piero Sraffa. Polish economists Michał Kalecki, Rosa Luxemburg, Henryk Grossman, Adam Przeworski, and Oskar Lange were influential in this school, particularly in developing theories of underconsumption. While most official communist parties denounced neo-Marxian theories as "bourgeois economics," some neo-Marxians served as advisers to socialist or Third World developing governments. Neo-marxist theories were also influential in the study of Imperialism.


title: Marxian economics

text: Among the critics pointing out internal inconsistencies are former and current Marxian and/or Sraffian economists, such as Paul Sweezy, Nobuo Okishio, Ian Steedman, John Roemer, Gary Mongiovi, and David Laibman, who propose that the field be grounded in their correct versions of Marxian economics instead of in Marx's critique of political economy in the original form in which he presented and developed it in "Capital".


title: Marxian economics

text: Proponents of the temporal single-system interpretation (TSSI) of Marx's value theory claim that the supposed inconsistencies are actually the result of misinterpretation; they argue that when Marx's theory is understood as "temporal" and "single-system," the alleged internal inconsistencies disappear. In a recent survey of the debate, a proponent of the TSSI concludes that "the "proofs" of inconsistency are no longer defended; the entire case against Marx has been reduced to the "interpretive" issue."


title: Marxian economics

text: Big business can maintain selling prices at high levels while still competing to cut costs, advertise and market their products. However, competition is generally limited with a few large capital formations sharing various markets, with the exception of a few actual monopolies (such as the Bell System at the time). The economic surpluses that result cannot be absorbed through consumers spending more. The concentration of the surplus in the hands of the business elite must therefore be geared towards imperialistic and militaristic government tendencies, which is the easiest and surest way to utilise surplus productive capacity.


title: Marxian economics

text: Exploitation focuses on low wage workers and groups at home, especially minorities. Average earners see the pressures in drive for production destroy their human relationships, leading to wider alienation and hostility. The whole system is largely irrational since though individuals may make rational decisions, the ultimate systemic goals are not. The system continues to function so long as Keynesian full employment policies are pursued, but there is the continued threat to stability from less-developed countries throwing off the restraints of neo-colonial domination.


title: Marxian economics

text: Paul A. Baran introduced the concept of potential "economic surplus" to deal with novel complexities raised by the dominance of monopoly capital, in particular the theoretical prediction that monopoly capitalism would be associated with low capacity utilization, and hence potential surplus would typically be much larger than the realized surplus. With Paul Sweezy, Baran elaborated the importance of this innovation, its consistency with Marx's labor concept of value and supplementary relation to Marx's category of surplus value.


title: Marxian economics

text: Baran also introduced the concept of planned surplus—a category that could only be operationalized in a rationally planned socialist society. This was defined as "the difference between society's 'optimum' output available in a historically given natural and technological environment under conditions of planned 'optimal' utilization of all available productive resources, and some chosen 'optimal' volume of consumption."


title: Marxian economics

text: Baran used the surplus concept to analyze underdeveloped economies (or what are now more optimistically called "developing economies") in his "Political Economy of Growth".


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: Antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), sometimes less precisely called immune enhancement or disease enhancement, is a phenomenon in which binding of a virus to suboptimal antibodies enhances its entry into host cells, followed by its replication. The suboptimal antibodies can result from natural infection or from vaccination. ADE may cause enhanced respiratory disease, but is not limited to respiratory disease. It has been observed in HIV, RSV virus and Dengue virus and is monitored for in vaccine development.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: In ADE, antiviral antibodies promote viral infection of target immune cells by exploiting the phagocytic FcγR or complement pathway. After interaction with a virus, the antibodies bind Fc receptors (FcR) expressed on certain immune cells or complement proteins. FcγRs bind antibodies via their fragment crystallizable region (Fc).


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: The process of phagocytosis is accompanied by virus degradation, but if the virus is not neutralized (either due to low affinity binding or targeting to a non-neutralizing epitope), antibody binding may result in virus escape and, therefore, more severe infection. Thus, phagocytosis can cause viral replication and the subsequent death of immune cells. Essentially, the virus “deceives” the process of phagocytosis of immune cells and uses the host's antibodies as a Trojan horse.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: ADE may occur because of the non-neutralizing characteristic of an antibody, which binds viral epitopes other than those involved in host-cell attachment and entry. It may also happen when antibodies are present at sub-neutralizing concentrations (yielding occupancies on viral epitopes below the threshold for neutralization), or when the strength of antibody-antigen interaction is below a certain threshold. This phenomenon can lead to increased viral infectivity and virulence.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: ADE can occur during the development of a primary or secondary viral infection, as well as with a virus challenge after vaccination. It has been observed mainly with positive-strand RNA viruses, including flaviviruses such as dengue, yellow fever, and Zika; alpha- and betacoronaviruses; orthomyxoviruses such as influenza; retroviruses such as HIV; and orthopneumoviruses such as RSV. The viruses that cause it frequently share common features such as antigenic diversity, replication ability, or ability to establish persistence in immune cells.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: The mechanism that involves phagocytosis of immune complexes via the FcγRII/CD32 receptor is better understood compared to the complement receptor pathway. Cells that express this receptor are represented by monocytes, macrophages, and some categories of dendritic cells and B-cells. ADE is mainly mediated by IgG antibodies, but IgM and IgA antibodies have also been shown to trigger it.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: Prior to the pandemic, ADE was observed in animal studies of laboratory rodents with vaccines for SARS-CoV, the virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). However, there have been no observed incidents with vaccines for COVID-19 in trials with nonhuman primates, in clinical trials with humans, or following the widespread use of approved vaccines.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: Prior receipt of 2008–09 TIV (Trivalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine) was associated with an increased risk of medically attended pH1N1 illness during the spring-summer 2009 in Canada. The occurrence of bias (selection, information) or confounding cannot be ruled out. Further experimental and epidemiological assessment is warranted. Possible biological mechanisms and immunoepidemiologic implications are considered.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: Natural infection and the attenuated vaccine induce antibodies that enhance the update of the homologous virus and H1N1 virus isolated several years later, demonstrating that a primary influenza A virus infection results in the induction of infection enhancing antibodies.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: The most widely known ADE example occurs with dengue virus. Dengue is a single-stranded positive-polarity RNA virus of the family "Flaviviridae". It causes disease of varying severity in humans, from dengue fever (DF), which is usually self-limited, to dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome, either of which may be life-threatening. It is estimated that as many as 390 million individuals contract dengue annually.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: ADE may follow when a person who has previously been infected with one serotype becomes infected months or years later with a different serotype, producing higher viremia than in first-time infections. Accordingly, while primary (first) infections cause mostly minor disease (dengue fever) in children, re-infection is more likely to be associated with dengue hemorrhagic fever and/or dengue shock syndrome in both children and adults.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: Dengue encompasses four antigenically different serotypes (dengue virus 1–4). In 2013 a fifth serotype was reported. Infection induces the production of neutralizing homotypic immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies that provide lifelong immunity against the infecting serotype. Infection with dengue virus also produces some degree of cross-protective immunity against the other three serotypes. Neutralizing heterotypic (cross-reactive) IgG antibodies are responsible for this cross-protective immunity, which typically persists for a period of months to a few years. These heterotypic titers decrease over long time periods (4 to 20 years). While heterotypic titers decrease, homotypic IgG antibody titers increase over long time periods. This could be due to the preferential survival of long-lived memory B cells producing homotypic antibodies.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: In addition to neutralizing heterotypic antibodies, an infection can also induce heterotypic antibodies that neutralize the virus only partially or not at all. The production of such cross-reactive, but non-neutralizing antibodies could enable severe secondary infections. By binding to but not neutralizing the virus, these antibodies cause it to behave as a "trojan horse", where it is delivered into the wrong compartment of dendritic cells that have ingested the virus for destruction. Once inside the white blood cell, the virus replicates undetected, eventually generating high virus titers and severe disease.


title: Antibody-dependent enhancement

text: A study conducted by Modhiran et al. attempted to explain how non-neutralizing antibodies down-regulate the immune response in the host cell through the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway. Toll-like receptors are known to recognize extra- and intracellular viral particles and to be a major basis of the cytokines' production. In vitro experiments showed that the inflammatory cytokines and type 1 interferon production were reduced when the ADE-dengue virus complex bound to the Fc receptor of THP-1 cells. This can be explained by both a decrease of Toll-like receptor production and a modification of its signaling pathway. On the one hand, an unknown protein induced by the stimulated Fc receptor reduces Toll-like receptor transcription and translation, which reduces the capacity of the cell to detect viral proteins. On the other hand, many proteins (TRIF, TRAF6, TRAM, TIRAP, IKKα, TAB1, TAB2, NF-κB complex) involved in the Toll-like receptor signaling pathway are down-regulated, which led to a decrease in cytokine production. Two of them, TRIF and TRAF6, are respectively down-regulated by 2 proteins SARM and TANK up-regulated by the stimulated Fc receptors.