title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: It has been argued that the 'Leave' brand was stronger and more effective than the 'Remain' brand. According to Mike Hind, a marketing professional, "The Britain Stronger In Europe brand was stillborn. On the basis of preparation, presentation and messaging, it deserved the kicking it got." Additionally behavioural practitioner Warren Hatter argues that 'Leave' as a word places a lower cognitive load on observers than 'Remain a member of'.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Economics writer Chris Dillow has argued that, among other factors, Prospect Theory may explain the willingness of many voters to take a path that he sees as the more risky of two (change vs status quo). In his words Prospect Theory 'Tells us that people who feel they've lost want to gamble to break even. This is why they back longshots on the last race of the day or why they hold onto badly performing stocks. People who had lost out from globalization, or felt discomforted by immigration, voted Leave because they felt they had little to lose from doing so.'


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Dominic Cummings, Campaign Director of Vote Leave wrote in "The Spectator" in January 2017 on "how the Brexit referendum was won".


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: He wrote: "Leave won because 1) three big forces [the immigration crisis, the 2008 financial crisis and the euro crisis] created conditions in which the contest was competitive, AND 2) Vote Leave exploited the situation imperfectly but effectively, AND 3) Cameron/Osborne made big mistakes. If just one of these had been different, it is very likely IN would have won."


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: "Pundits and MPs kept saying ‘why isn’t Leave arguing about the economy and living standards’. They did not realise that for millions of people, £350m/NHS was about the economy and living standards – that's why it was so effective. It was clearly the most effective argument not only with the crucial swing fifth but with almost every demographic. Even with UKIP voters it was level-pegging with immigration. Would we have won without immigration? No. Would we have won without £350m/NHS? All our research and the close result strongly suggests No."


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: "If Boris, Gove, and Gisela had not supported us and picked up the baseball bat marked 'Turkey/NHS/£350 million' with five weeks to go, then 650,000 votes might have been lost."


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: The regional economic inequalities are critical to explain the cultural grievances that influenced a ‘leave’ vote. People who live in districts that have suffered from long periods of economic decline have grown to adopt anti-immigrant and Eurosceptic views, which leads to support for Brexit.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Dominic Cummings also has discussed how the Leave campaign that he spearheaded, was able to mobilise as well as appeal to two vast groups of the electorate; the traditional labour industrial voter and the more middle class older conservative-leaning voter. Cummings stated that the campaign that focused on Turkey/NHS mainly appealed to Labour voters living in the north of England. The attention of these issues was at the top of the policies that these voters feared (immigration and the lack of resources). The ability to mobilise these voters appeared to pave the way for a Leave-win in the north.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: The ability and decision making of the leave campaign to choose to hand-pick policies in certain areas of the country resulted in the campaign having vast support in the two ends of the country. This was different from that of remain who campaigned around solely on the economic argument across the country. This worked well with the southern voters, yet the Northern voters who had seen the brunt of de-industrialisation and austerity did not agree with the premise that the European Union was the height of economic prosperity.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Whilst the Leave side may have made good tactical decisions during the campaign, part of its success came from the Remain campaign failing to provide convincing enough counter arguments or arguments of their own. A lot of the Remain's campaign was built around spreading the notion that Brexit would weaken Britain, yet Curtice notes that the campaign offered little explanation as to "how the UK economy might be strengthened further by continued EU membership". He goes on to argue that the Leave campaign were offering such explanations, exemplified by the claim that £350 million a week could be spent on the NHS, regardless of whether or not this was a valid claim.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: One analysis of the Remain campaign has concluded that the campaign did little to counter Vote Leave's arguments surrounding immigration, an area that was considered one of Leave's biggest pulling factors in attracting voters. Furthermore, the official leaflet supplied by the government to make the case for remaining in the EU failed to address the issue of sovereignty, which was another area that Vote Leave was gaining a lot of support. In addition, the remain campaign focused very heavily on the 'risk' posed by Brexit, but analysis in the time since shows this may have been a mistake. Analysis carried out by Harold D. Clarke, Matthew Godwin and Paul Whiteley, appears to show that those who had an unfavourable view of immigration and felt that too much decision making had been taken away from the British government, were much more likely to minimise the risk of Brexit, partially because they perceived they had little to lose.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: It has been claimed that the role of migration as a key factor in driving voting behaviour at the referendum originates from the relatively high levels of net migration into the UK in the last decade. In particular it is claimed that the decision not to impose restrictions on EU migrants after the addition of the 'A8' (Eastern European) countries to the EU in the 2004 enlargement (at a time when other European countries did impose such restrictions) contributed to a spike in migration levels that underpins contemporary voter attitudes.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: In 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump stated that German Chancellor Angela Merkel's decision to open her country's borders for more than a million refugees and illegal immigrants was a "catastrophic mistake" and "the final straw that broke the camel's back", allowing the Leave campaign to win.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Furthermore, Nigel Farage and long-term Eurosceptic party UKIP used images from the refugee crisis during their campaign to increase the anxiety about immigration that the crisis caused, prompting criticism from some "Leave" and "Remain" supporters. Leading Leave campaigner Michael Gove said that it was "the wrong thing to do", whilst then-Chancellor George Osborne of the Remain side stated that the poster "had echoes of literature used in the 1930s" in Germany.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: At the heart of the political debates seen across the British media in the run up to June 2016, we saw two specific subjects dominate; the economy and immigration. As highlighted in a report by the Centre for the Study of Media, Communication and Power, “The economy was the most-covered political issue during the campaign...appearing in 48% of all “4,383 articles [referring] to immigration during the campaign”[explicitly Brexit related] articles"


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: "The Guardian" journalist Jane Martinson noted that many of the UK's biggest selling newspapers, "The Sun" and the "Daily Mail" in particular, but also including "The Daily Telegraph" and "Daily Express", have been Eurosceptic for many years. The implication of this as supported by academic author of 'Media definitely "do" matter: Brexit, immigration, climate change and beyond', 'Neil T. Gavin', is that the political stance of the print media could have shaped the public's opinion before the referendum.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: The Guardian accused the BBC of not supporting remain strongly enough, purporting so-called false balance which helped provide visibility to the leave campaign. This was despite the BBC being strongly criticized by leave voters for its perceived remain bias. Leading up to and during the EU referendum campaign, "Daily Mail, the Daily Telegraph, Daily Express" and "The Sun" were all pro-Leave. Curtice argues that as these were "more popular" newspapers, their support not only provided credibility to the Leave campaign but also meant that there would be "sympathetic coverage" for its pro-Brexit arguments.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Research carried out by Loughborough University found that the Daily Express was the most in favour of leave while the Financial Times was most pro-remain. Moreover, it was discovered that the Guardian provided the most balanced coverage of the referendum while the Daily Express was the least neutral. However, while there was an even split of support for leave and remain in the newspapers analysed when circulation numbers and the strength of their endorsements were factored in, leave had an 82% advantage to remains 18%. The newspaper bias towards pro-Brexit reporting is further evidenced by Levy, Aslan and Bironzo whereby a sample of 1558 articles, from nine national newspapers, found that 41% were in favour of leaving and only 27% in favour of remaining.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Seaton explains that long-term anti-EU reporting, demonisation of foreign nationals and the working class in mainstream media could have made the public more susceptible to pro-Brexit arguments, as well as having "shaped the debate". Seaton also comments on the effect of social media on the referendum, which played a much more prominent role in the campaign and the vote than in previous votes in the UK. Seaton argues that social media was highly influential in shaping voters' opinions as social media enables users to "get more of what you like" whilst being able to "avoid exposure to what you disagree with" on a platform that is "driven by popularity".


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Another element of media which has yet to be mentioned is the role of social media which arguably was the most effective platform. Media democracy is the way journalists were more concerned by the entertainment factor of news content, rather than being informative. Some accused printed media of being too "politically correct", whereas the same limitations were not shared by social media.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: There have been concerns about opinions manipulation by the spread of political misinformation through social media. The degree of message influence is highly dependent on how much the content of the message is consistent with the human priory. M. Ahmadi devised series of metrics on quantitatively evaluating the effectiveness of generated messages by robots. Factors like message polarity, threats to the core values, and causal arguments constitute the main metrics incorporates with the potential of message in changing one's beliefs.


title: Causes of the vote in favour of Brexit

text: Twitter was the most utilised social media platform and the campaigns were led through the use of 'hashtags'. Llewellyn and Cram conducted a study that involved tallying how often certain 'hashtags' were used and concluded by noting that overall there were more ‘leave’ hashtags than ‘stay’ even though ‘stay’ equated to the largest percentage. This referendum also saw the intense use of 'twitter bots'. Gorodnichenko et al. analysed two types of social media agents – real (human users and bots) and social bots (composed of algorithm). Social media platforms such as Twitter supported ideas such as ‘echo chambers’ and therefore enhanced ideological segmentation and made information more fragmented to separate rather than unite people. In turn Twitter became known as the best platform for spreading 'fake news'. On the other hand, others claim that the sentiment results always indicated a likely 'Leave' result but it is not pinned down to bots or any dark loitering propaganda systems, instead it was lack of ‘remainers online mobility’ that caused the outcome. On the day of the referendum, ‘remain’ activity reached an all-time high of 38.5% on Twitter, but also Instagram came into play almost as much as Twitter did but due to it being a less direct platform, was not as noticed.


title: Spaceplane

text: A spaceplane is a vehicle that can fly and glide like an aircraft in Earth's atmosphere and maneuver like a spacecraft in outer space. To do so, spaceplanes must incorporate features of both aircraft and spacecraft. Orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to conventional spacecraft, while sub-orbital spaceplanes tend to be more similar to fixed-wing aircraft. All spaceplanes to date have been rocket-powered but then landed as unpowered gliders.


title: Spaceplane

text: Four types of spaceplanes have successfully launched to orbit, reentered Earth's atmosphere, and landed: the U.S. Space Shuttle, Russian Buran, U.S. X-37, and the Chinese CSSHQ. Another, Dream Chaser, is under development in the U.S. As of 2019 all past, current, and planned orbital vehicles launch vertically on a separate rocket. Orbital spaceflight takes place at high velocities, with orbital kinetic energies typically at least 50 times greater than suborbital trajectories. Consequently, heavy heat shielding is required during reentry as this kinetic energy is shed in the form of heat. Many more spaceplanes have been proposed, but none have reached flight status.


title: Spaceplane

text: At least two suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have been launched horizontally into sub-orbital spaceflight from an airborne carrier aircraft before rocketing beyond the Kármán line: the X-15 and SpaceShipOne.


title: Spaceplane

text: Spaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional spacecraft, but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an aircraft. These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, deadliest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.


title: Spaceplane

text: The flight trajectory required to reach orbit results in significant aerodynamic loads, vibrations, and accelerations, all of which have to be withstood by the vehicle structure.


title: Spaceplane

text: If the launch vehicle suffers a catastrophic malfunction, a conventional capsule spacecraft is propelled to safety by a launch escape system. The Space Shuttle was far too big and heavy for this approach to be viable, resulting in a number of abort modes that may or may not have been survivable. In any case, the Challenger disaster demonstrated that the Space Shuttle lacked survivability on ascent.


title: Spaceplane

text: Once on-orbit, a spaceplane must be supplied with power by solar panels and batteries or fuel cells, maneuvered in space, kept in thermal equilibrium, oriented, and communicated with. On-orbit thermal and radiological environments impose additional stresses. This is in addition to accomplishing the task the spaceplane was launched to complete, such as satellite deployment or science experiments.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Space Shuttle used dedicated engines to accomplish orbital maneuvers. These engines used toxic hypergolic propellants that required special handling precautions. Various gases, including helium for pressurization and nitrogen for life support, were stored under high pressure in composite overwrapped pressure vessels.


title: Spaceplane

text: Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed significant velocity, resulting in extreme heating. For example, the Space Shuttle thermal protection system (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as , well above the melting point of steel. Suborbital spaceplanes fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.


title: Spaceplane

text: Aerodynamic control surfaces must be actuated. Landing gear must be included at the cost of additional mass.


title: Spaceplane

text: An air-breathing orbital spaceplane would have to fly what is known as a 'depressed trajectory,' which places the vehicle in the high-altitude hypersonic flight regime of the atmosphere for an extended period of time. This environment induces high dynamic pressure, high temperature, and high heat flow loads particularly upon the leading edge surfaces of the spaceplane, requiring exterior surfaces to be constructed from advanced materials and/or use active cooling.


title: Spaceplane

text: Two piloted suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have reached space: the North American X-15 and SpaceShipOne; a third, SpaceShipTwo, has crossed the US-defined boundary of space but has "not" reached the higher internationally recognised boundary. None of these crafts were capable of entering orbit, and all were first lifted to high altitude by a carrier aircraft.


title: Spaceplane

text: On 7 December 2009, Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic unveiled SpaceShipTwo, along with its atmospheric mothership "Eve". On 13 December 2018, SpaceShipTwo VSS Unity successfully crossed the US-defined boundary of space (although it has not reached space using the internationally recognised definition of this boundary, which lies at a higher altitude than the US boundary). SpaceShipThree is the new spacecraft of Virgin Galactic, launched on 30 March 2021. It is also known as VSS Imagine. On 11 July 2021 VSS Unity completed its first fully crewed mission including Sir Richard Branson.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 was an atmospheric prototype of an intended orbital spaceplane, with the suborbital BOR-4 subscale heat shield test vehicle successfully reentering the atmosphere before program cancellation.


title: Spaceplane

text: HYFLEX was a miniaturized suborbital demonstrator launched in 1996, flying to 110 km altitude, achieving hypersonic flight, and successfully reentering the atmosphere.


title: Spaceplane

text: Various types of spaceplanes have been suggested since the early twentieth century. Notable early designs include a spaceplane equipped with wings made of combustible alloys that it would burn during its ascent, and the Silbervogel bomber concept. World War II Germany and the postwar US considered winged versions of the V-2 rocket, and in the 1950s and '60s winged rocket designs inspired science fiction artists, filmmakers, and the general public.


title: Spaceplane

text: The U.S. Air Force invested some effort in a paper study of a variety of spaceplane projects under their Aerospaceplane efforts of the late 1950s, but later reduced the scope of the project. The result, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar, was to have been the first orbital spaceplane, but was canceled in the early 1960s in lieu of NASA's Project Gemini and the U.S. Air Force's crewed spaceflight program.


title: Spaceplane

text: In 1961, NASA originally planned to have the Gemini spacecraft land on a runway with a Rogallo wing airfoil, rather than an ocean landing under parachutes. The test vehicle became known as the Paraglider Research Vehicle. Development work on both parachutes and the paraglider began in 1963. By December 1963, the parachute was ready to undergo full-scale deployment testing, while the paraglider had run into technical difficulties. Though attempts to revive the paraglider concept persisted within NASA and North American Aviation, in 1964 development was definitively discontinued due to the expense of overcoming the technical hurdles.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Space Shuttle underwent many variations during its conceptual design phase. Some early concepts are illustrated.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Rockwell X-30 National Aero-Space Plane (NASP), begun in the 1980s, was an attempt to build a scramjet vehicle capable of operating like an aircraft and achieving orbit like the shuttle. Introduced to the public in 1986, the concept was intended to reach Mach 25, enabling flights between Dulles Airport to Tokyo in two hours, while also being capable of low Earth orbit. Six critical technologies were identified, three relating to the propulsion system, which would consist of a hydrogen-fueled scramjet.


title: Spaceplane

text: The NASP program became the Hypersonic Systems Technology Program (HySTP) in late 1994. HySTP was designed to transfer the accomplishments made in hypersonic flight into a technology development program. On 27 January 1995 the Air Force terminated participation in (HySTP).


title: Spaceplane

text: In 1994, a USAF captain proposed an F-16 sized single-stage-to-orbit peroxide/kerosene spaceplane called "Black Horse". It was to take off almost empty and undergo aerial refueling before rocketing to orbit.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Lockheed Martin X-33 was a 1/3 scale prototype made as part of an attempt by NASA to build a SSTO hydrogen-fuelled spaceplane VentureStar that failed when the hydrogen tank design could not be constructed as intended.


title: Spaceplane

text: On 5 March 2006, Aviation Week & Space Technology published a story purporting to be the "outing" of a highly classified U.S. military two-stage-to-orbit spaceplane system with the code name Blackstar.


title: Spaceplane

text: In 2011, Boeing proposed the X-37C, a 165 to 180 percent scale X-37B built to carry up to six passengers to low Earth orbit. The spaceplane was also intended to carry cargo, with both upmass and downmass capacity.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Soviet Union first considered a preliminary design of rocket-launch small spaceplane Lapotok in early 1960s. The Spiral airspace system with small orbital spaceplane and rocket as second stage was developed in the 1960s–1980s. Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 was a crewed test vehicle to explore low-speed handling and landing.


title: Spaceplane

text: In the early 2000s the orbital 'cosmoplane' () was proposed by Russia's Institute of Applied Mechanics as a passenger transport. According to researchers, it could take about 20 minutes to fly from Moscow to Paris, using hydrogen and oxygen-fueled engines.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Multi-Unit Space Transport And Recovery Device (MUSTARD) was a concept explored by the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) around 1968 for launching payloads weighing as much as into orbit. It was never constructed.


title: Spaceplane

text: In the 1980s, British Aerospace began development of HOTOL, an SSTO spaceplane powered by a revolutionary SABRE air-breathing rocket engine, but the project was canceled due to technical and financial uncertainties. The inventor of SABRE set up Reaction Engines to develop SABRE and proposed a twin-engined SSTO spaceplane called Skylon. One NASA analysis showed possible issues with the hot rocket exhaust plumes causing heating of the tail structure at high Mach numbers. although the CEO of Skylon Enterprises Ltd has claimed that reviews by NASA were "quite positive".


title: Spaceplane

text: Bristol Spaceplanes has undertaken design and prototyping of three potential spaceplanes since its founding by David Ashford in 1991. The European Space Agency has endorsed these designs on several occasions.


title: Spaceplane

text: France worked on the Hermes crewed spaceplane launched by Ariane rocket in the late 20th century, and proposed in January 1985 to go through with Hermes development under the auspices of the ESA.


title: Spaceplane

text: In the 1980s, West Germany funded design work on the MBB Sänger II with the Hypersonic Technology Program. Development continued on MBB/Deutsche Aerospace Sänger II/HORUS until the late 1980s when it was canceled. Germany went on to participate in the Ariane rocket, Columbus space station and Hermes spaceplane of ESA, Spacelab of ESA-NASA and "Deutschland" missions (non-U.S. funded Space Shuttle flights with Spacelab). The Sänger II had predicted cost savings of up to 30 percent over expendable rockets.


title: Spaceplane

text: Hopper was one of several proposals for a European reusable launch vehicle (RLV) planned to cheaply ferry satellites into orbit by 2015. One of those was 'Phoenix', a German project which is a one-seventh scale model of the Hopper concept vehicle. The suborbital Hopper was a Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme system study design A test project, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), has demonstrated lifting reentry technologies and will be extended under the PRIDE programme.


title: Spaceplane

text: "HOPE" was a Japanese experimental spaceplane project designed by a partnership between NASDA and NAL (both now part of JAXA), started in the 1980s. It was positioned for most of its lifetime as one of the main Japanese contributions to the International Space Station, the other being the Japanese Experiment Module. The project was eventually cancelled in 2003, by which point test flights of a sub-scale testbed had flown successfully.


title: Spaceplane

text: AVATAR (Aerobic Vehicle for Hypersonic Aerospace Transportation; ) was a concept study for an uncrewed single-stage reusable spaceplane capable of horizontal takeoff and landing, presented to India's Defence Research and Development Organisation. The mission concept was for low cost military and commercial satellite launches. No further studies or development have taken place since 2001.


title: Spaceplane

text: Shenlong () is a proposed Chinese robotic spaceplane that is similar to the Boeing X-37. Only a few images have been released since late 2007.


title: Spaceplane

text: A test project, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV), has demonstrated lifting reentry technologies and will be extended under the PRIDE programme.


title: Spaceplane

text: The FAST20XX Future High-Altitude High Speed Transport 20XX aims to establish sound technological foundations for the introduction of advanced concepts in suborbital high-speed transportation with air-launch-to-orbit ALPHA vehicle.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace RLV is a small reusable spaceplane prototype for the ESA Future Launchers Preparatory Programme/FLTP program. SpaceLiner is the most recent project.


title: Spaceplane

text: , the Indian Space Research Organisation is developing a launch system named the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV). It is India's first step towards realizing a two-stage-to-orbit reusable launch system. A space plane serves as the second stage. The plane is expected to have air-breathing scramjet engines as well as rocket engines. Tests with miniature spaceplanes and a working scramjet have been conducted by ISRO in 2016.


title: Spaceplane

text: As of 2018, Japan is developing the Winged Reusable Sounding rocket (WIRES), which if successful, may be used as a recoverable first-stage or as a crewed sub-orbital spaceplane.


title: Spaceplane

text: The Dawn Mk-II Aurora is a suborbital spaceplane being developed by Dawn Aerospace to demonstrate multiple suborbital flights per day. Dawn is based in the Netherlands and New Zealand, and is working closely with the American CAA. On December 9, 2020, the Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand, working alongside the New Zealand Space Agency, issued a license allowing the vehicle to fly from a conventional airport. On August 25, 2021, the first test-flight campaign of five successful flights using surrogate jet engines was announced. As of August 15, 2022, 35 test flights have been complete, validating the vehicles aerodynamics, avionics, rapid deployment and various piloting modes. A qualified 2.5 kN.s pump-fed HTP/kerosene engine is being installed for high-performance high-altitude flights. Dawn Aerospace previously demonstrated multiple low-altitude rocket-powered flights per day on their Mk-I vehicle.


title: Summer Palace

text: The Summer Palace () is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing. It was an imperial garden in the Qing dynasty. Inside includes Longevity Hill () Kunming Lake and Seventeen Hole Bridge. It covers an expanse of , three-quarters of which is water.


title: Summer Palace

text: Longevity Hill is about high and has many buildings positioned in sequence. The front hill is rich with splendid halls and pavilions, while the back hill, in sharp contrast, is quiet with natural beauty. The central Kunming Lake, covering , was entirely man-made and the excavated soil was used to build Longevity Hill.


title: Summer Palace

text: Inspired by the gardens in South China, in the Summer Palace there are over 3,000 various Chinese ancient buildings that house a collection of over 40,000 kinds of valuable historical relics from each dynasty.


title: Summer Palace

text: In December 1998, UNESCO included the Summer Palace on its World Heritage List. It declared the Summer Palace "a masterpiece of Chinese landscape garden design. The natural landscape of hills and open water is combined with artificial features such as pavilions, halls, palaces, temples and bridges to form a harmonious ensemble of outstanding aesthetic value".


title: Summer Palace

text: Notably in Chinese history, it is also the Central Route terminus of the South-North Water Transfer Project having traversed from Danjiangkou Reservoir, Hubei, making it Beijing's main water supply.


title: Summer Palace

text: The origins of the Summer Palace date back to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in 1153, when the fourth ruler, Wanyan Liang (r. 1150–1161), moved the Jin capital from Huining Prefecture (in present-day Acheng District, Harbin, Heilongjiang) to Yanjing (present-day Beijing). He ordered the construction of a palace in the Fragrant Hills and Jade Spring Hill in the northwest of Beijing.


title: Summer Palace

text: Around 1271, after the Yuan dynasty established its capital in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), the engineer Guo Shoujing initiated a waterworks project to direct the water from Shenshan Spring () in Baifu Village (), Changping into the Western Lake (), which would later become Kunming Lake. Guo's aim was to create a water reservoir that would ensure a stable water supply for the palace.


title: Summer Palace

text: In 1494, the Hongzhi Emperor (r. 1487–1505) of the Ming dynasty had a Yuanjing Temple () built for his wet nurse, Lady Luo, in front of Jar Hill (), which was later renamed Longevity Hill. The temple fell into disrepair over the years and was abandoned, and the area around the hill became lush with vegetation. The Zhengde Emperor (r. 1505–21), who succeeded the Hongzhi Emperor, built a palace on the banks of the Western Lake and turned the area into an imperial garden. He renamed Jar Hill to "Golden Hill" () and named the lake "Golden Sea" (). Both the Zhengde Emperor and the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) enjoyed taking boat rides on the lake. During the reign of the Tianqi Emperor (r. 1620–27), the court eunuch Wei Zhongxian took the imperial garden as his personal property.


title: Summer Palace

text: In the early Qing dynasty, Jar Hill served as the site for horse stables in the imperial palace. Eunuchs who committed offences were sent there to weed and cut grass.


title: Summer Palace

text: In the beginning of the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735-1796), many imperial gardens were built in the area around present-day Beijing's Haidian District and accordingly, water consumption increased tremendously. At the time, much of the water stored in the Western Lake came from the freshwater spring on Jade Spring Hill, while a fraction came from the Wanquan River (). Any disruption of the water flow from Jade Spring Hill would affect the capital's water transport and water supply systems.


title: Summer Palace

text: Around 1749, the Qianlong Emperor decided to build a palace in the vicinity of Jar Hill and the Western Lake to celebrate the 60th birthday of his mother, Empress Dowager Chongqing. In the name of improving the capital's waterworks system, he ordered the Western Lake to be expanded further west to create two more lakes, Gaoshui Lake () and Yangshui Lake (). The three lakes served not only as a reservoir for the imperial gardens, but also a source of water for the surrounding agricultural areas. The Qianlong Emperor collectively named the three lakes "Kunming Lake" after the Kunming Pool () constructed by Emperor Wu (r. 141–187 BCE) in the Han dynasty for the training of his navy. The earth excavated from the expansion of Kunming Lake was used to enlarge Jar Hill, which was renamed "Longevity Hill". The Summer Palace, whose construction was completed in 1764 at a cost of over 4.8 million silver taels, was first named "Qingyiyuan" ().


title: Summer Palace

text: The design of the Summer Palace was based on a legend in Chinese mythology about three divine mountains in the East Sea, namely Penglai, Fangzhang () and Yingzhou (). The three islands in Kunming Lake – Nanhu Island (), Tuancheng Island () and Zaojiantang Island () – were built to represent the three mountains, while the lake itself was based on a blueprint of the West Lake in Hangzhou. Besides, many architectural features in the palace were also built to resemble or imitate various attractions around China. For example: the Phoenix Pier () represented Lake Tai; the Jingming Tower () resembled Yueyang Tower, Hunan; the Wangchan Pavilion () resembled Yellow Crane Tower; the shopping streets were designed to imitate those in Suzhou and Yangzhou. The centrepiece of the Summer Palace was the "Great Temple of Gratitude and Longevity" (). There was also a Long Corridor more than long which was furnished with artistic decorations. As the palace was not equipped with facilities for long-term staying and daily administration of state affairs, the Qianlong Emperor hardly lived there and only remained there for the day whenever he visited it.


title: Summer Palace

text: As the Qing Empire started declining after the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850), the Summer Palace gradually became more neglected and the architectural features on the three islands were ordered to be dismantled because the costs of maintenance were too high.


title: Summer Palace

text: In 1860, Eight-Nation Alliance looted the Summer Palace at the end of the Second Opium War and on October 18, 1860 the British burned down the nearby Old Summer Palace (called the Yuanmingyuan in Chinese). The destruction of the palace was ordered by Lord Elgin, the British High Commissioner to China, and was undertaken in response to the torture and imprisonment of two British envoys, a journalist for "The Times", and their escorts. The destruction of large parts of the Summer Palace still evokes anger in China.


title: Summer Palace

text: Between 1884–95, during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor (r. 1875–1908), Empress Dowager Cixi may have ordered up to 22 million silver taels, originally designated for upgrading the Qing navy (the Beiyang Fleet), to be used for reconstructing and enlarging the Summer Palace to celebrate her 60th birthday; however some other sources state that a maximum of six million taels were allotted, of which none came from the Navy's capital budget, but only the accrued bank interest paid. As the funds were limited, the construction works were concentrated on the buildings in front of Longevity Hill and the dams around Kunming Lake. The Summer Palace was also given its present-day Chinese name, "Yiheyuan" (), in 1888.


title: Summer Palace

text: In 1900, towards the end of the Boxer Rebellion, the Summer Palace suffered damage again when the forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance destroyed the imperial gardens and seized many artifacts stored in the palace. The palace was restored two years later.


title: Summer Palace

text: In 1912, following the abdication of the Puyi, the Last Emperor, the Summer Palace became the private property of the former imperial family of the Qing Empire. Two years later, the Summer Palace was opened to the public and entry tickets were sold. In 1924, after Puyi was expelled from the Forbidden City by the warlord Feng Yuxiang, the Beijing municipal government took charge of administering the Summer Palace and turned it into a public park.


title: Summer Palace

text: After 1949, the Summer Palace briefly housed the Central Party School of the Communist Party of China. Many of Mao Zedong's friends and key figures in the Communist Party, such as Liu Yazi and Jiang Qing, also lived there. Since 1953, many major restoration and renovation works have been done on the Summer Palace, which is now open to the public as a tourist attraction and park.


title: Summer Palace

text: In November 1998, the Summer Palace was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Towards the end of 2006, the Chinese government also started distributing commemorative coins to celebrate the Summer Palace as a cultural relic of the world.


title: Summer Palace

text: The entire Summer Palace is centered around Longevity Hill and Kunming Lake, with the latter covering about three quarters of the area. Most of the important buildings were built along the north–south axis of Longevity Hill, which is divided into the front hill and the back hill. There are three small islands within Kunming Lake: Nanhu Island, Zaojiantang Island and Zhijingge Island. The West Dam of Kunming Lake divides the lake into two. The East Dam was constructed during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor. The attractions in the Summer Palace may be divided into six different sections or scenic areas: the Halls, Longevity Hill, Kunming Lake, the Farming and Weaving Picture Scenic Area, the Long Corridor, and the Central Axis area. Summer Palace is among the most-visited destinations in China, ranking in the top five, and attracts about 10 million tourists annually.


title: Honda Beat

text: The Honda Beat is a rear wheel drive, mid-engined two-seat roadster kei car produced from May 1991 until February 1996. The Beat was the last car to be approved by Soichiro Honda before he died in 1991. The total number of cars produced was around 33,600. Most of the production (around two-thirds) occurred in the first year, and then production and sales fell drastically. The design of the car originated from Pininfarina, who then sold the design plan to Honda. The Beat was one of many cars designed to take advantage of Japan's tax-efficient kei car class.


title: Honda Beat

text: There were two mainstream models of the Beat (the PP1–100 and the PP1–110) and a couple of limited edition versions. Variations on the first model were just cosmetic updates. Only the second model had any real mechanical differences. All cars were offered with the option of a driver's side airbag. The car was sold exclusively in Japan at "Honda Primo" dealership sales channels.


title: Honda Beat

text: In typical Honda fashion, the Beat's engine did not utilize a turbocharger or supercharger. The engine was modified with the MTREC (Multi Throttle Responsive Engine Control) system, with individual throttle bodies for each of the three cylinders, to produce at 8100 rpm with an electronically limited top speed of 135 km/h (84 mph). Only a manual transmission was available. The MTREC design would filter down to the 1993 Honda Today kei car.


title: Honda Beat

text: The Beat was part of a wave of kei car-sized sports cars in the early 1990s; its competitors included the Suzuki Cappuccino and Mazda's Autozam AZ-1. Together they anticipated the arrival of the Smart Roadster over a decade later, while Japan would not see a new model of the genre until the 2002 Daihatsu Copen.


title: Honda Beat

text: On May 9, 2010, a parade was held in the Twin Ring Motegi circuit as a part of an annual Beat owners meeting. 569 Honda Beats participated in the parade, which is certified by Guinness World Records as the largest parade of Honda cars. The record was shown in the 2011 edition of Guinness World Records.


title: Honda Beat

text: air conditioning, power windows, 3-point seat belt, sun visor, front stabilizer, front laminated glass, side-toughened glass, halogen head lamps, soft top, steel wheels.


title: Honda Beat

text: 1993.05: The Beat Version Z features the Blade Silver Metallic color or Evergrade Green Metallic color, three black gauges, mud guards, a rear spoiler, exhaust pipe finisher, and alloy wheels.


title: Honda Beat

text: In 2015, the Honda S660 was released. It is a spiritual successor to the Beat, sharing the Beat's 2 door roadster body style, Kei car classification and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout.


title: Honda Beat

text: The car has been featured on the popular British television program Top Gear together with the Daihatsu Mira and the Mitsubishi Minica Dangan where it was praised by Jeremy Clarkson also on the American television program MotorWeek where it was driven through Southern California. In late 2019, the car was reviewed by the comedic automotive review channel RegularCars on YouTube.


title: Honda Beat

text: The car is also featured in Gran Turismo 2 (Mugen tuned), Sega GT, Gran Turismo 4, Enthusia Professional Racing, Gran Turismo PSP, Gran Turismo 5, Gran Turismo 6, Gran Turismo Sport, Gran Turismo 7, and alongside many of its kei sports car contemporaries in for the Super Famicom.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: Rosa Luisa DeLauro (; born March 2, 1943) is an American politician who has been the U.S. representative for since 1991. She is a member of the Democratic Party. The district is based in New Haven and includes most of its suburbs. DeLauro is the dean of Connecticut's congressional delegation.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In 2020, DeLauro was selected as chair of the House Appropriations Committee for the 117th Congress, succeeding Nita Lowey and becoming the second woman to hold the position. She co-chaired the House Democratic Steering Committee from 2003 to 2021.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was born in New Haven, Connecticut to an Italian-American family, the daughter of Luisa "Louise" (née Canestri), a New Haven alderwoman, and Theodore J. "Ted" DeLauro, an Italian immigrant. She earned her high school diploma from The Academy of Our Lady of Mercy, Lauralton Hall in Milford, Connecticut. She earned a bachelor's degree from Marymount College in Tarrytown, New York, attended the London School of Economics and earned a master's degree in international politics from Columbia University. Before entering the House, DeLauro worked as Senator Chris Dodd's chief of staff and campaign manager, was the executive director of EMILY's List, and coordinated 1988 Democratic presidential nominee Michael Dukakis's tristate area campaign.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In 1990, four-term incumbent U.S. Representative Bruce Morrison of Connecticut's 3rd congressional district retired in order to run for governor of Connecticut. DeLauro sought the open seat and quickly consolidated Democratic support behind her, earning Morrison's endorsement and prompting State Representative Mike Lawlor's withdrawal from the campaign. DeLauro defeated Republican State Senator Thomas Scott 52%–48% in a particularly brutal general election, in which Scott said that DeLauro had kept her maiden name only to appeal to the region's Italian voters, and state Republican chair Richard Foley called DeLauro "Walter Mondale in drag". The campaign was equally combative over policy matters, with both candidates' microphones cut off during a radio debate after repeated attacks over abortion and capital punishment.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: The district has since reverted to form, and DeLauro has never faced another contest nearly as close as her first. She has been reelected 16 times, never with less than 56% of the vote.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In 2006, DeLauro was reelected to a ninth term, defeating Republican nominee Joseph Vollano with 76% of the vote.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was reelected to an 11th term with 65% of the vote against Connecticut Republican Party treasurer Jerry Labriola Jr.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was reelected to a 12th term with 74.6% of the vote against Republican nominee Wayne Winsley, a former member of the Navy.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was reelected to a 13th term with 67.1% of the vote against Republican nominee James Brown, a high school math teacher.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was reelected to a 14th term with 69% of the vote against Republican nominee Angel Cadena, a former candidate for Connecticut State Comptroller.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro is part of the progressive wing of the Democratic Party and one of the Congressional Progressive Caucus's founding members.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro is interested in health policy issues, particularly women's health. She has introduced bills aimed at improving cancer treatment and research and women's health policies. As chair of the appropriations subcommittee that funds the Food and Drug Administration, she has criticized the FDA's failures to protect the public from unsafe foods and medical products.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: On October 3, 2008, DeLauro voted a second time for the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. She worked to pass the Paycheck Fairness Act. She has urged politicians to be "big thinkers" on universal health care.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: On December 17, 2008, the "Wall Street Journal" reported that DeLauro was "a top contender" for Labor Secretary in the Obama administration. Obama nominated Hilda Solis for the position.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was critical of the Stupak-Pitts Amendment, which places limits on taxpayer-funded abortions in the context of the November 2009 Affordable Health Care for America Act.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was a supporter of David Bonior in his race against Steny Hoyer for House Majority Whip in 1991, seconding his nomination at a meeting of the Democratic caucus. DeLauro cited their work together during the Iran-Contra scandal, and said that Bonior's "position as whip will not impact the momentum the choice issue has in Congress right now."


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro has spoken about child care, arguing, "It is time to build a permanent child care infrastructure that respects and values women in the workforce" in a July 2021 article published in "The American Prospect" and on her official website.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro supports abortion rights. As chair of the Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies Appropriations Subcommittee, she has opposed the Hyde Amendment based on evidence of its discriminatory impact.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro has voted for stronger regulation of firearms. In 2006 she voted against the Trigger Lock Amendment that ends the use of funds from the Commerce Department FY2007 Appropriation bill to enforce laws requiring guns to be sold with locks. In 1999 DeLauro voted to increase the amount of time given to perform background checks from 24 hours to 72 hours. In 1998 she voted to increase the minimum gun crime sentence. On January 14, 2013, she introduced a bill allowing for the voluntary surrender of assault-type weapons with compensation in the form of tax credits. She has an F rating from the NRA.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In 2010, DeLauro voted for a bill mandating new disclosure requirements for political advertising. She voted against the 527 Reform Act of 2005, an act that put an end to party spending limits for candidates during general elections, and against the 527 Reform Act of 2006. DeLauro also helped to pass the Lobbying and Donation Regulations bill that put in place new regulations on lobbyists and donations to Congress members.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In 2002 DeLauro voted for the Help America Vote Act of 2002. This act provided $3.9 billion to modernize technology and create new programs to reach a higher standard and to make voting an easier process for disabled citizens, military personnel, citizens living abroad, and first-time voters without valid identification. In 2006 DeLauro voted against the Federal Election Integrity Act of 2006, which required voters to show a government-issued photo ID before voting.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro sponsored the Birth Defects Prevention, Risk Reduction, and Awareness Act of 2010 (H.R. 5462). This bill allows the Secretary of Health and Human Services to create a birth defects prevention, risk reduction, and awareness program. The program aims to increase awareness of pregnancy and breastfeeding by starting a nationwide media campaign and provides grants for research on certain exposures that affect pregnancy and breastfed infants. In November 2010, it was received by the Senate and referred to the Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions. It was not voted on by the Senate.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro introduced HR 875, the Food Safety Modernization Act of 2009. This legislation is aimed at reforming the food safety responsibilities handled by the FDA. The introduction of this bill represents a potential conflict of interest because of her husband Stanley Greenberg's connection to agricultural biotechnology corporation Monsanto.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In August 2011, the 3rd district suffered extreme damage when Hurricane Irene made landfall along the Connecticut coastline. Many homes were destroyed in East Haven and other shore communities and many Connecticut residents lost power for days. When Irene hit the state and during the immediate aftermath, DeLauro was vacationing along Italy's Amalfi Coast and was not anticipated to return until five days after the storm had passed. A "Hartford Courant" column rated DeLauro's storm response an "F". DeLauro told the "New Haven Register" she had "no apology for taking a vacation" and being out of state during the storm.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: In July 2014, DeLauro introduced the "Sugar-Sweetened Beverages Tax Act", also known as the "SWEET Act", which would impose a one-cent excise tax per teaspoon of caloric sweetener in soda, energy drinks, sports drinks, and sweet teas (roughly nine cents on a 12-ounce soda). "This act is intended to discourage excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages by increasing the price of these products", according to the text of the legislation. DeLauro and other supporters of the act argued that it could help address the national epidemics of obesity and diabetes by discouraging consumers from consuming the products and also raise money to fund prevention, treatment programs, research and dietary education to help reduce the costs of related health problems. The bill was co-sponsored by several House members and progressed on to the House Energy and Commerce committee for Health and the House Ways and Means committee, but went no further. It was opposed by the American Beverage Association and the National Automatic Merchandising Association (NAMA), which said, "People don't support taxes and bans on common grocery items, like soft drinks" and that sweetened beverages "are not the main source of added sugars for children and teens and that a tax on sugary drinks unfairly singles out the industry."


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: After Nita Lowey announced her retirement, DeLauro, Marcy Kaptur and Debbie Wasserman-Schultz were candidates for chair of the Appropriations Committee. DeLauro's caucus chose her to lead the committee in a 148-79 vote in December 2020.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: DeLauro was treated for ovarian cancer in 1985. She continues to support biomedical research, including efforts to develop a reliable screening test for ovarian cancer.


title: Rosa DeLauro

text: She is an honorary board member of the National Organization of Italian American Women. She is a leader in the group Catholic Democrats.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-3:2007, Codes for the representation of names of languages – Part 3: Alpha-3 code for comprehensive coverage of languages, is an international standard for language codes in the ISO 639 series. It defines three-letter codes for identifying languages. The standard was published by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) on 1 February 2007.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-3 extends the ISO 639-2 alpha-3 codes with an aim to cover all known natural languages. The extended language coverage was based primarily on the language codes used in the "Ethnologue" (volumes 10–14) published by SIL International, which is now the registration authority for ISO 639-3. It provides an enumeration of languages as complete as possible, including living and extinct, ancient and constructed, major and minor, written and unwritten. However, it does not include reconstructed languages such as Proto-Indo-European.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-3 is intended for use as metadata codes in a wide range of applications. It is widely used in computer and information systems, such as the Internet, in which many languages need to be supported. In archives and other information storage, it is used in cataloging systems, indicating what language a resource is in or about. The codes are also frequently used in the linguistic literature and elsewhere to compensate for the fact that language names may be obscure or ambiguous.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-3 includes all languages in ISO 639-1 and all individual languages in ISO 639-2. ISO 639-1 and ISO 639-2 focused on major languages, most frequently represented in the total body of the world's literature. Since ISO 639-2 also includes language collections and Part 3 does not, ISO 639-3 is not a superset of ISO 639-2. Where B and T codes exist in ISO 639-2, ISO 639-3 uses the T-codes.


title: ISO 639-3

text: , the standard contains 7,893 entries. The inventory of languages is based on a number of sources including: the individual languages contained in 639–2, modern languages from the Ethnologue, historic varieties, ancient languages and artificial languages from the Linguist List, as well as languages recommended within the annual public commenting period.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Machine-readable data files are provided by the registration authority. Mappings from ISO 639-1 or ISO 639–2 to ISO 639-3 can be done using these data files.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-3 is intended to assume distinctions based on criteria that are not entirely objective. It is not intended to document or provide identifiers for dialects or other sub-language variations. Nevertheless, judgments regarding distinctions between languages may be subjective, particularly in the case of language varieties without established literary traditions, usage in education or media, or other factors that contribute to language conventionalization. Therefore, the standard should not be regarded as an authoritative statement of what distinct languages exist in the world (about which there may be substantial disagreement in some cases), but rather simply one useful way for identifying different language varieties precisely.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Since the code is three-letter alphabetic, one upper bound for the number of languages that can be represented is 26 × 26 × 26 = 17,576. Since ISO 639-2 defines special codes (4), a reserved range (520) and B-only codes (22), 546 codes cannot be used in part 3. Therefore, a stricter upper bound is 17,576 − 546 = 17,030.


title: ISO 639-3

text: The upper bound gets even stricter if one subtracts the language collections defined in 639-2 and the ones yet to be defined in ISO 639-5.


title: ISO 639-3

text: There are 58 languages in ISO 639-2 which are considered, for the purposes of the standard, to be "macrolanguages" in ISO 639-3.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Some of these macrolanguages had no individual language as defined by ISO 639–3 in the code set of ISO 639-2, e.g. 'ara' (Generic Arabic). Others like 'nor' (Norwegian) had their two individual parts ('nno' (Nynorsk), 'nob' (Bokmål)) already in ISO 639-2.


title: ISO 639-3

text: That means some languages (e.g. 'arb', Standard Arabic) that were considered by ISO 639–2 to be dialects of one language ('ara') are now in ISO 639–3 in certain contexts considered to be individual languages themselves.


title: ISO 639-3

text: This is an attempt to deal with varieties that may be linguistically distinct from each other, but are treated by their speakers as two forms of the same language, e.g. in cases of diglossia.


title: ISO 639-3

text: "A collective language code element is an identifier that represents a group of individual languages that are not deemed to be one language in any usage context." These codes do not precisely represent a particular language or macrolanguage.


title: ISO 639-3

text: While ISO 639-2 includes three-letter identifiers for collective languages, these codes are excluded from ISO 639-3. Hence ISO 639-3 is not a superset of ISO 639-2.


title: ISO 639-3

text: ISO 639-5 defines 3-letter collective codes for language families and groups, including the collective language codes from ISO 639-2.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Four codes are set aside in ISO 639-2 and ISO 639-3 for cases where none of the specific codes are appropriate. These are intended primarily for applications like databases where an ISO code is required regardless of whether one exists.


title: ISO 639-3

text: In addition, 520 codes in the range – are 'reserved for local use'. For example, Rebecca Bettencourt assigns a code to constructed languages, and new assignments are made upon request. The Linguist List uses them for extinct languages. Linguist List has assigned one of them a generic value: , unnamed proto-language. This is used for proposed intermediate nodes in a family tree that have no name.


title: ISO 639-3

text: The code table for ISO 639-3 is open to changes. In order to protect stability of existing usage, the changes permitted are limited to:


title: ISO 639-3

text: Changes are made on an annual cycle. Every request is given a minimum period of three months for public review.


title: ISO 639-3

text: The ISO 639-3 Web site has pages that describe "scopes of denotation" (languoid types) and types of languages, which explain what concepts are in scope for encoding and certain criteria that need to be met. For example, constructed languages can be encoded, but only if they are designed for human communication and have a body of literature, preventing requests for idiosyncratic inventions.


title: ISO 639-3

text: The registration authority documents on its Web site instructions made in the text of the ISO 639-3 standard regarding how the code tables are to be maintained. It also documents the processes used for receiving and processing change requests.


title: ISO 639-3

text: A change request form is provided, and there is a second form for collecting information about proposed additions. Any party can submit change requests. When submitted, requests are initially reviewed by the registration authority for completeness.


title: ISO 639-3

text: When a fully documented request is received, it is added to a published Change Request Index. Also, announcements are sent to the general LINGUIST discussion list at Linguist List and other lists the registration authority may consider relevant, inviting public review and input on the requested change. Any list owner or individual is able to request notifications of change requests for particular regions or language families. Comments that are received are published for other parties to review. Based on consensus in comments received, a change request may be withdrawn or promoted to "candidate status".


title: ISO 639-3

text: Three months prior to the end of an annual review cycle (typically in September), an announcement is set to the LINGUIST discussion list and other lists regarding Candidate Status Change Requests. All requests remain open for review and comment through the end of the annual review cycle.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Decisions are announced at the end of the annual review cycle (typically in January). At that time, requests may be adopted in whole or in part, amended and carried forward into the next review cycle, or rejected. Rejections often include suggestions on how to modify proposals for resubmission. A public archive of every change request is maintained along with the decisions taken and the rationale for the decisions.


title: ISO 639-3

text: Martin Haspelmath agrees with four of these points, but not the point about language change. He disagrees because any account of a language requires identifying it, and we can easily identify different stages of a language. He suggests that linguists may prefer to use a codification that is made at the languoid level since "it rarely matters to linguists whether what they are talking about is a language, a dialect or a close-knit family of languages." He also questions whether an ISO standard for language identification is appropriate since ISO is an industrial organization, while he views language documentation and nomenclature as a scientific endeavor. He cites the original need for standardized language identifiers as having been "the economic significance of translation and software localization," for which purposes the ISO 639-1 and 639-2 standards were established. But he raises doubts about industry need for the comprehensive coverage provided by ISO 639-3, including as it does "little-known languages of small communities that are never or hardly used in writing and that are often in danger of extinction".


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The serotonin 1A receptor (or 5-HT receptor) is a subtype of serotonin receptor, or 5-HT receptor, that binds serotonin, also known as 5-HT, a neurotransmitter. 5-HT1A is expressed in the brain, spleen, and neonatal kidney. It is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), coupled to the Gi protein, and its activation in the brain mediates hyperpolarisation and reduction of firing rate of the postsynaptic neuron. In humans, the serotonin 1A receptor is encoded by the HTR1A gene.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The 5-HT receptor is the most widespread of all the 5-HT receptors. In the central nervous system, 5-HT receptors exist in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, septum, amygdala, and raphe nucleus in high densities, while low amounts also exist in the basal ganglia and thalamus. The 5-HT receptors in the raphe nucleus are largely somatodendritic autoreceptors, whereas those in other areas such as the hippocampus are postsynaptic receptors.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptor agonists are involved in neuromodulation. They decrease blood pressure and heart rate via a central mechanism, by inducing peripheral vasodilation, and by stimulating the vagus nerve. These effects are the result of activation of 5-HT receptors within the rostral ventrolateral medulla. The sympatholytic antihypertensive drug urapidil is an α-adrenergic receptor antagonist and 5-HT receptor agonist, and it has been demonstrated that the latter property contributes to its overall therapeutic effects. Vasodilation of the blood vessels in the skin via central 5-HT activation increases heat dissipation from the organism out into the environment, causing a decrease in body temperature.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: Activation of central 5-HT receptors triggers the release or inhibition of norepinephrine depending on species, presumably from the locus coeruleus, which then reduces or increases neuronal tone to the iris sphincter muscle by modulation of postsynaptic α-adrenergic receptors within the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, resulting in pupil dilation in rodents, and pupil constriction in primates including humans.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptor agonists like buspirone and flesinoxan show efficacy in relieving anxiety and depression, and buspirone and tandospirone are currently approved for these indications in various parts of the world. Others such as gepirone, flesinoxan, flibanserin, and naluzotan have also been investigated, though none have been fully developed and approved yet. Some of the atypical antipsychotics like lurasidone and aripiprazole are also partial agonists at the 5-HT receptor and are sometimes used in low doses as augmentations to standard antidepressants like the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Mice lacking 5-HT receptors altogether (knockout) show increased anxiety but lower depressive-like behaviour.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT autoreceptor desensitization and increased 5-HT receptor postsynaptic activation via general increases in serotonin levels by serotonin precursor supplementation, serotonin reuptake inhibition, or inhibition of monoamine oxidase has been shown to be a major mediator in the therapeutic benefits of most mainstream antidepressant supplements and pharmaceuticals, including serotonin precursors like L-tryptophan and 5-HTP, SSRIs, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants (TeCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). 5-HT receptor activation likely plays a significant role in the positive effects of serotonin releasing agents (SRAs) like MDMA (commonly known as ecstasy) as well.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus are co-localized with neurokinin 1 (NK) receptors and have been shown to inhibit the release of substance P, their endogenous ligand. In addition to being antidepressant and anxiolytic in effect, 5-HT receptor activation has also been demonstrated to be antiemetic and analgesic, and all of these properties may be mediated in part or full, depending on the property in question, by NK receptor inhibition. Consequently, novel NK receptor antagonists are now in use for the treatment of nausea and emesis, and are also being investigated for the treatment of anxiety and depression.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptor activation has been shown to increase dopamine release in the medial prefrontal cortex, striatum, and hippocampus, and may be useful for improving the symptoms of schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. As mentioned above, some of the atypical antipsychotics are 5-HT receptor partial agonists, and this property has been shown to enhance their clinical efficacy. Enhancement of dopamine release in these areas may also play a major role in the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects seen upon postsynaptic activation of the 5-HT receptor.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The activation of 5-HT receptors has been demonstrated to impair certain aspects of memory (affecting declarative and non-declarative memory functions) and learning (due to interference with memory-encoding mechanisms), by inhibiting the release of glutamate and acetylcholine in various areas of the brain. 5-HT activation is known to improve cognitive functions associated with the prefrontal cortex, possibly via inducing prefrontal cortex dopamine and acetylcholine release. Conversely, the 5-HT antagonist, WAY100635, alleviated learning and memory impairments induced by glutamate blockade (with dizocilpine) or hippocampal cholinergic denervation (by fornix transection) in primates. Furthermore, 5-HT receptor antagonists such as lecozotan have been shown to facilitate certain types of learning and memory in rodents, and as a result, are being developed as novel treatments for Alzheimer's disease.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptor activation induces the secretion of various hormones including cortisol, corticosterone, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), oxytocin, prolactin, growth hormone, and β-endorphin. The receptor does not affect vasopressin or renin secretion, unlike the 5-HT receptors. It has been suggested that oxytocin release may contribute to the prosocial, antiaggressive, and anxiolytic properties observed upon activation of the receptor. β-Endorphin secretion may contribute to antidepressant, anxiolytic, and analgesic effects.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: 5-HT receptors can be located on the cell body, dendrites, axons, and both presynaptically and postsynaptically in nerve terminals or synapses. Those located on the soma and dendrites are referred to as somatodendritic, and those located presynaptically in the synapse are simply referred to as presynaptic. As a group, receptors that are sensitive to the neurotransmitter that is released by the neuron on which the receptors are located are known as autoreceptors; they typically constitute the key component of an ultra-short negative feedback loop whereby the neuron's release of neurotransmitter inhibits its further release of neurotransmitter. Stimulation of 5-HT autoreceptors inhibits the release of serotonin in nerve terminals. For this reason, 5-HT receptor agonists tend to exert a biphasic mode of action; they decrease serotonin release and postsynaptic 5-HT receptor activity in low doses, and further decrease serotonin release but increase postsynaptic 5-HT receptor activity at higher doses by directly stimulating the receptors in place of serotonin.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: This autoreceptor-mediated inhibition of serotonin release has been theorized to be a major factor in the therapeutic lag that is seen with serotonergic antidepressants such as the SSRIs. The autoreceptors must first desensitize before the concentration of extracellular serotonin in the synapse can become elevated appreciably. Though the responsiveness of the autoreceptors is somewhat reduced with chronic treatment, they still remain effective at constraining large increases in extracellular serotonin concentrations. For this reason, serotonin reuptake inhibitors that also have 5-HT receptor antagonistic or partial agonistic properties, such as vilazodone and SB-649,915, are being investigated and introduced as novel antidepressants with the potential for a faster onset of action and improved effectiveness compared to those currently available.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: Unlike most drugs that elevate extracellular serotonin levels like the SSRIs and MAOIs, SRAs such as fenfluramine and MDMA bypass serotonin autoreceptors such as 5-HT. They do this by directly acting on the release mechanisms of serotonin neurons and forcing release to occur regardless of autoreceptor-mediated inhibition. As such, SRAs induce immediate and much greater increases in extracellular serotonin concentrations compared to other serotonin-elevating agents such as the SSRIs. [Note: This is questionable as the level of serotonin output from SRAs is still dose dependant and, while SRAs will initially bypass autoreceptors, the increase in serotonin they induce will then agonise autoreceptors.] In contrast to SRAs, SSRIs may decrease serotonin levels initially (especially at lower dosages due to the biphasic mode of action mentioned above) and require several weeks of chronic dosing before serotonin concentrations reach their maximal elevation (due to 1A autoreceptor desensitization) and full clinical benefits for conditions such as depression and anxiety are seen (although other studies show an acute increase in 5-HT which may account for initial worsening of symptoms in sensitive individuals). For these reasons, selective serotonin releasing agents (SSRAs) such as MDAI and MMAI have been proposed as novel antidepressants with a putatively faster onset of action and improved effectiveness compared to current treatments.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: Similarly to SRAs, sufficiently high doses of 5-HT receptor agonists also bypass the 5-HT autoreceptor-mediated inhibition of serotonin release and therefore increase 5-HT postsynaptic receptor activation by directly agonizing the postsynaptic receptors in lieu of serotonin.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The distribution of 5-HT receptors in the human brain may be imaged with the positron emission tomography using the radioligand [C] WAY-100,635.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: For example, one study has found increased 5-HT binding in type 2 diabetes. Another PET study found a negative correlation between the amount of 5-HT binding in the raphe nuclei, hippocampus and neocortex and a self-reported tendency to have spiritual experiences. Labeled with tritium, WAY-100,635 may also be used in autoradiography.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The 5-HT receptor is coded by the "HTR1A" gene. There are several human polymorphisms associated with this gene. A 2007 review listed 27 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). The most investigated SNPs are C-1019G (rs6295), C-1018G, Ile28Val (rs1799921), Arg219Leu (rs1800044), and Gly22Ser (rs1799920). Some of the other SNPs are Pro16Leu, Gly272Asp, and the synonymous polymorphism G294A (rs6294). These gene variants have been studied in relation to psychiatric disorders with no definitive results.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The 5-HT receptor has been shown to interact with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which may play a major role in its regulation of mood and anxiety.


title: 5-HT1A receptor

text: The 5-HT receptor forms heterodimers with the following receptors: 5-HT, 5-HT, 5-HT, GABA, LPA (GPCR26), LPA, S1P, S1P.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Phosphatidylserine (abbreviated Ptd-L-Ser or PS) is a phospholipid and is a component of the cell membrane. It plays a key role in cell cycle signaling, specifically in relation to apoptosis. It is a key pathway for viruses to enter cells via apoptotic mimicry. Its exposure on the outer surface of a membrane marks the cell for destruction via apoptosis.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Phosphatidylserine is a phospholipid—more specifically a glycerophospholipid—which consists of two fatty acids attached in ester linkage to the first and second carbon of glycerol and serine attached through a phosphodiester linkage to the third carbon of the glycerol.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Phosphatidylserine sourced from plants differs in fatty acid composition from that sourced from animals. It is commonly found in the inner (cytoplasmic) leaflet of biological membranes. It is almost entirely found in the inner monolayer of the membrane with only less than 10% of it in the outer monolayer.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Phosphatidylserine (PS) is the major acidic phospholipid class that accounts for 13–15% of the phospholipids in the human cerebral cortex. In the plasma membrane, PS is localized exclusively in the cytoplasmic leaflet where it forms part of protein docking sites necessary for the activation of several key signaling pathways. These include the Akt, protein kinase C (PKC) and Raf-1 signaling that is known to stimulate neuronal survival, neurite growth, and synaptogenesis. Modulation of the PS level in the plasma membrane of neurons has a significant impact on these signaling processes.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Phosphatidylserine is formed in bacteria (such as "E. coli") through a displacement of cytidine monophosphate (CMP) through a nucleophilic attack by the hydroxyl functional group of serine. CMP is formed from CDP-diacylglycerol by PS synthase. Phosphatidylserine can eventually become phosphatidylethanolamine by the enzyme PS decarboxylase (forming carbon dioxide as a byproduct). Similar to bacteria, yeast can form phosphatidylserine in an identical pathway.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: In mammals, phosphatidylserine is instead derived from phosphatidylethanolamine or phosphatidylcholine through one of two Ca-dependent head-group exchange reactions in the endoplasmic reticulum. Both reactions require a serine but product an ethanolamine or choline, respectively. These are promoted by phosphatidylserine synthase 1 (PSS1) or 2 (PSS2). Conversely, phosphatidylserine can also give rise to phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine, although in animals the pathway to generate phosphatidylcholine from phosphatidylserine only operates in the liver.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: The average daily phosphatidylserine intake in a Western diet is estimated to be 130mg. Phosphatidylserine may be found in meat and fish. Only small amounts are found in dairy products and vegetables, with the exception of white beans and soy lecithin. Phosphatidylserine is found in soy lecithin at about 3% of total phospholipids.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: A panel of the European Food Safety Authority concluded that a cause and effect relationship cannot be established between the consumption of phosphatidylserine and "memory and cognitive functioning in the elderly", "mental health/cognitive function" and "stress reduction and enhanced memory function". This conclusion follows because bovine brain cortex- and soy-based phosphatidylserine are different substances and might, therefore, have different biological activities. Therefore, the results of studies using phosphatidylserine from different sources cannot be generalized.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: In May, 2003 the Food and Drug Administration gave "qualified health claim" status to phosphatidylserine thus allowing labels to state "consumption of phosphatidylserine may reduce the risk of dementia and cognitive dysfunction in the elderly" along with the disclaimer "very limited and preliminary scientific research suggests that phosphatidylserine may reduce the risk of cognitive dysfunction in the elderly." According to the FDA, there is a lack of scientific agreement amongst qualified experts that a relationship exists between phosphatidylserine and cognitive function.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: More recent reviews have suggested that the relationship may be more robust, though the mechanism remains unclear. A 2020 review of three clinical trials found that phosphatidylserine is likely effective for enhancing cognitive function in older people with mild cognitive impairment. Some studies have suggested that whether the phosphatidylserine is plant- or animal-derived may have significance, with the FDA's statement applying specifically to soy-derived products.


title: Phosphatidylserine

text: Initially, phosphatidylserine supplements were derived from bovine cortex. However, due to the risk of potential transfer of infectious diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (or "mad cow disease"), soy-derived supplements became an alternative. A 2002 safety report determined supplementation in elderly people at a dosage of 200mg three times daily to be safe. Concerns about the safety of soy products persist, and some manufacturers of phosphatidylserine use sunflower lecithin instead of soy lecithin as a source of raw material production.


title: Wilhelm Burgdorf

text: Wilhelm Emanuel Burgdorf (15 February 1895 – 2 May 1945) was a German general during World War II, who served as a commander and staff officer in the German Army. In October 1944, Burgdorf assumed the role of the chief of the Army Personnel Office and chief adjutant to Adolf Hitler. In this capacity, he played a role in the forced suicide of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Burgdorf committed suicide in the "Führerbunker" on 2 May 1945 at the conclusion of the Battle of Berlin.


title: Wilhelm Burgdorf

text: Burgdorf joined the Prussian Army at the outbreak of World War I as an officer cadet and was commissioned as an infantry officer in Grenadier Regiment 12 in 1915. After the war he served in the Reichswehr and was promoted to captain in 1930. In the Wehrmacht, he became an instructor in tactics at the military academy in Dresden with the rank of major in 1935 and was appointed an adjutant on the staff of the IX corps in 1937. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1938 and served as the commander of the 529th Infantry Regiment from May 1940 to April 1942. In May 1942, he became Chief of Department 2 of the Army Personnel Office. Burgdorf became the Deputy Chief in October 1942, when he was promoted to "Generalmajor".


title: Wilhelm Burgdorf

text: Burgdorf was promoted to chief of the Army Personnel Office and chief adjutant to Adolf Hitler in October 1944. At that time, he was further promoted in rank to "Generalleutnant", and one month later (on 1 November 1944) to the rank of "General der Infanterie". Burgdorf retained that rank and position until his death. Burgdorf decreed: Every officer and every judge of the Wehrmacht have to act with strongest measures against doubters in the German final victory. "An officer who expresses himself disparaging about the state leadership is intolerable in the National Socialist state."


title: Wilhelm Burgdorf

text: Burgdorf, as part of his function as Hitler's chief adjutant, played a key role in the death of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Rommel had been implicated as having a peripheral role in the 20 July plot, an attempt to assassinate Hitler. Instead of bringing the most popular general in Germany before the People's Court, the dictator opted to give Rommel a choice of suicide.


title: Wilhelm Burgdorf

text: On 14 October 1944, Burgdorf, with General Ernst Maisel, arrived at the Rommel household. Burgdorf informed Rommel of the charges and, following the instructions of Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, offered him three choices – report to Hitler to plead not guilty,<ref>"Two generals from Hitler's headquarters, Burgdorf and Ernst Maisel, visited Rommel at his home on 14 October 1944. Burgdorf informed him of the charges and offered him three options: he could choose to defend himself personally to Hitler in Berlin,


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: Hysteria is a 2011 British period biographical romantic comedy film directed by Tanya Wexler. It stars Hugh Dancy and Maggie Gyllenhaal, with Felicity Jones, Jonathan Pryce, and Rupert Everett appearing in key supporting roles. The film, set in the Victorian era, shows how the medical management of hysteria led to the invention of the vibrator.


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: Set at the end of 1880, the film depicts the invention of the vibrator. Dr. Mortimer Granville (Hugh Dancy) is a young physician who has difficulty with his occupation due to constant arguments over modern medicine. He gets a job assisting Dr. Dalrymple (Jonathan Pryce), whose practice specializes in the treatment of "hysteria", a popular diagnosis for women of that time. Medical practitioners like Dr. Dalrymple tried to manage hysteria by massaging the genital area, decently covered under a curtain, to elicit "paroxysmal convulsions", without recognizing that they were inducing orgasms. Granville meets Dr. Dalrymple's daughters, Emily (Felicity Jones), and her older sister Charlotte (Maggie Gyllenhaal), a premodern feminist who runs a settlement house in a poor section of London.


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: Granville seems to be good at massaging, getting a sizeable following, while at the same time Dr. Dalrymple suggests he might eventually take over the business and marry Emily. One night after work, Charlotte comes in with her friend Fannie (Ashley Jensen), who has broken her ankle. After he helps treat her, Dalrymple forbids Granville from offering any future assistance to Charlotte, hoping to dissuade her from her work in the slums. Meanwhile, the increased clientele at the practice is hard on Granville, and his hand musculature is unable to keep up with the task; an attack of cramp results in his dismissal. Fortunately, his friend, Lord Edmund St. John-Smythe (Rupert Everett), has developed an electrical feather duster, and its vibrations give Dr. Granville the idea of modifying the gadget for use as an electric massager. After successfully using it on the Dalrymple's maid Molly (Sheridan Smith), he persuades Dr. Dalrymple to try the device on his patients, resulting in massive success. Mortimer and Emily then become engaged, while Charlotte struggles with supporting the welfare house.


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: At the engagement party, Charlotte is arrested while protecting Fannie from a police officer. Emily and Dr. Dalrymple urge Granville to testify at her trial that she is hysterical in order to prevent her from being sent to prison. During the trial, the prosecutor recommends that Charlotte be sent to a sanatorium and be forced to undergo a hysterectomy. As Mortimer speaks, he explains that the symptoms for hysteria are too common to be regarded as a mental illness, and that he himself believes that Charlotte is the most generous and caring person he knows. The judge agrees with Mortimer's argument, and Charlotte is sentenced to just thirty days in prison for her assault on the policeman.


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: Emily decides to end her engagement to Granville, after realising her only motive was to please her father. The vibrator now enters the stage as a medical device for the treatment of the condition, reducing treatment time while greatly increasing customer satisfaction. The royalties from its sale result in independent wealth for Granville, who has fallen in love with Charlotte. Pledging to use some of his wealth to establish a clinic at her settlement house, he proposes marriage to Charlotte and she accepts.


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: The film is based on historian Rachel Maines's 1999 book "The Technology of Orgasm", which includes the claim that manual genital massage of women had been a common medical remedy since antiquity. In 2010, however, Maine’s thesis was rebutted by Helen King, and a 2018 paper by Hallie Lieberman and Eric Schatzberg dismisses this idea as false, with no more than "circumstantial evidence that a few physicians and midwives may have practiced genital massage before the 20th century".


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: Hysteria was a recognized malady until the American Psychiatric Association discontinued this term in 1952. Dr. Joseph Mortimer Granville filed the first patent for an electromechanical vibrator termed "Granville's Hammer" in about 1883. Granville, however, did not apply his invention in the treatment of hysteria; rather, he used it to treat muscular disorders. Some believe that other physicians started to apply the vibrator for the treatment of hysteria, but this claim is under dispute, with Lieberman and Schatzberg writing that Maines "fails to cite a single source that openly describes use of the vibrator to massage the clitoral area".


title: Hysteria (2011 film)

text: The film received mixed reviews, garnering a score of 53 out of 100 (based on 33 reviews) at Metacritic. Rotten Tomatoes reported a score of 58% based on 118 reviews and a consensus of "Hysteria has an amusing subject but its winking, vaguely sarcastic tone doesn't do the movie any favors."


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino was born in the Ikuno-ku ward of the city of Osaka in Osaka Prefecture. The logographic letters that make up the family name were initially read as "Tono", but Keigo's father changed the reading to "Higashino".


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Growing up in a working class area, Higashino's childhood was challenging because of the lower class to which his family belonged. He attended Koji Elementary School, Higashi Ikuno Junior High School, and Hannan High School. During his high school years he started reading mystery fiction.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino studied Electrical Engineering at Osaka Prefecture University, where he became captain of the archery club. He graduated with a Bachelor of Engineering degree.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: In 1981 he began working as an engineer at Nippon Denso Co"." (presently DENSO), and married a high school teacher. He continued to write in the evenings and on weekends, submitting unpublished mystery novels for consideration for the annual Edogawa Rampo Prize in 1983. In 1984 his submission, which drew on his wife's occupation, reached the final round. In 1985, at the age of 27, he won the Rampo Prize for best unpublished mystery for "Hōkago" (放課後, "After School"), drawing on experiences of the archery club at his former university. He resigned from DENSO in 1986 to start a career in Tokyo as a full-time writer.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: In 1998 Higashino published "Himitsu" (秘密, "Secret"), which was converted into a feature film and won the 52nd Mystery Writers of Japan Award for feature films in 1999. "Secret" was later translated into English by Kerim Yasar and published as "Naoko" in 2004, with a limited print run. Higashino was inspired to write the story by reading a book in which a young child possessed the memories of someone who died nearby. He tried writing a short story featuring the implications of what would happen in such an instance, "but the ideas didn’t fully materialize. Finally I presented it as a novel and it got picked up." A 1999 Japanese film, "Himitsu," was based on the book, as was a 2007 English-language French remake,"The Secret," starring David Duchovny.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: In 2006 Higashino won the 134th Naoki Prize for "Yōgisha Ekkusu no Kenshin" ("容疑者Xの献身, The Devotion of Suspect X)", an award for which he'd been nominated five times previously. "Suspect X" also won the 6th Honkaku Mystery Award and was ranked the number-one novel by "Kono Mystery ga Sugoi! 2006" and "2006 Honkaku Mystery Best 10", annual mystery fiction guide books published in Japan. The English edition of "Suspect X", translated by Alexander O. Smith, was nominated for the 2012 Edgar Award for Best Novel and the 2012 Barry Award for Best First Novel.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino received the Eiji Yoshikawa Literary Prize in 2014 for , "When the Curtain of Prayer Descends"), the 10th book to feature Detective Kyoichiro Kaga. He thought that the book was the end of the Kaga series, as he had done what he wanted to do with it.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino is one of the most popular authors in Asia and, reportedly, the most popular novelist in China. Translation rights for his books, like "Suspect X," were sold as far afield as China, Thailand, France, Russia and Spain. Both his "The Devotion of Suspect X" and "Salvation of a Saint" were published in 6 languages. His popularity has drawn the attention of Asian academics, with papers and master's theses on his work published in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Taiwan, for example, but has also stimulated United States scholars.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino was elected president of the Mystery Writers of Japan in 2009, and served until 2013. From 2002 to 2007 he served on various MWJ selection committees, and fulfilled a similar role for the Edogawa Rampo Award from 2008 to 2013. In 2014 he became a selection member for the Naoki Prize.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: After the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, Higashino donated the royalties of 100,000 copies of the reprint of "Kirin no Tsubasa" (麒麟の翼, "The Wings of the Kirin)," the sequel to "Newcomer", to relief efforts in affected areas.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: Higashino admitted in 2015 that his content and style had changed from his earlier writings, in which he treated motivation as the most important element. In a 2011 interview he stated that he wants his "readers to be continually surprised by my ideas.”


title: Keigo Higashino

text: In addition to mystery novels, Higashino writes essays and story books for children. His style of writing the latter differs from his novels, and he does not use as many characters as in his novels. Higashino's works often include scientific elements, such as nuclear power generation and brain transplantation. Sports references, such as archery and kendo, ski jumping, and snowboarding, also occur often.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: As can be expected, Japanese elements suffuse his novels; for example, in "Suspect X" a major character works at a bento lunch shop, while a murder is committed with the electrical cord from a kotatsu. "Suspect X" inverts the classical whodunit structure, as the reader learns early on who the murderer is. Andrew Joyce writes in "The Wall Street Journal" that Higashino explores how "feelings of loyalty and the oppressive weight of human relations" are "catalysts for murder and dark pacts between neighbors or co-workers to dispose of bodies." Higashino claims that Japanese people prefer this format, in which the effects of characters' actions and intentions, in terms of emotions such as guilt and anguish, become clearer only towards the end of the story.


title: Keigo Higashino

text: While Higashino admits to liking Western writers, he feels most strongly influenced by Japanese authors such as Edogawa Rampo and Seicho Matsumoto. And "so my work naturally has that Japanese sense of old-fashioned loyalty and concern for human feeling.” With regards his Western readers, Higashino wants them "to read my work and come to understand how Japanese people think, love and hate. I want them to be impressed that there is a Japanese person who came up with such unusual stories."


title: Keigo Higashino

text: By 2018 Higashino had published 66 novels, 20 short story collections, and one picture book. In all, there were 715 works in 8 languages by Higashino worldwide in 2020, excluding 20 which were about him.


title: Davey Allison

text: David Carl Allison (February 25, 1961 – July 13, 1993) was an American NASCAR driver. He was best known for driving the No. 28 Texaco-Havoline Ford for Robert Yates Racing in the NASCAR Cup Series. Born in Hollywood, Florida, he was the oldest of four children born to Bobby and Judy Allison. The family moved to Hueytown, Alabama, and along with Bobby Allison's brother, Donnie, Red Farmer and Neil Bonnett, became known as the Alabama Gang.


title: Davey Allison

text: Growing up, Allison participated in athletics, preferring football, but settled upon automobile racing. He began working for his father's NASCAR Winston Cup Series team after graduating high school, and built a race car of his own, a Chevy Nova, with friends known as the "Peach Fuzz Gang". He began his career in 1979 at Birmingham International Raceway and won his first race in his sixth start. He became a regular winner at BIR, and by 1983 was racing in the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA) series. Allison won two ARCA events at his home track, Talladega Superspeedway, in 1983, and was named ARCA Rookie of the Year in 1984, placing second in the series title. That same year he married his first wife, Deborah.


title: Davey Allison

text: Allison continued racing in the ARCA series in 1985, winning eight races in the series, four at Talladega Superspeedway. He competed in some of NASCAR's lower divisions. In the Busch series, his crew chief was Red Farmer. In July 1985, car owner Hoss Ellington gave Allison an opportunity to drive a NASCAR Winston Cup Series car in the Talladega 500. Allison qualified 22nd In Ellington's Chevrolet and finished 10th in his first Winston Cup start. The wins earned Allison more NASCAR Cup Series opportunities in 1986, when he made 4 starts in the No. 95 Sadler Racing Chevrolet entry with Tom Pistone serving as crew chief. Davey later substituted for injured racer Neil Bonnett in Junior Johnson's No. 12 Budweiser Chevy, starting and finishing 7th in the Talladega 500.


title: Davey Allison

text: Prior to the 1987 season, car owner Harry Ranier tapped Davey to replace veteran driver Cale Yarborough in the Ranier-Lundy No. 28 Ford Thunderbird. Yarborough was leaving the Ranier-Lundy team to start his own operation along with the team's sponsor, Hardee's. Ranier negotiated a sponsorship deal with Texaco's Havoline motor oil brand, a deal that was signed during the NASCAR edition of Speedweeks at Daytona International Speedway. On qualifying day, Davey signalled that he was in Winston Cup to stay when he qualified an unmarked, but Texaco-Havoline painted No. 28 Thunderbird second for the 1987 Daytona 500, becoming the first rookie ever to start on the front row for NASCAR's most prestigious event. A pit miscue which allowed a rear tire to fall off on the track ended his hopes of a good finish in the race, but success for Davey Allison would be just around the corner.


title: Davey Allison

text: May 3, 1987 would become an infamous day in NASCAR history. Earlier in the week, Bill Elliott had qualified his No. 9 Coors-Melling Ford Thunderbird at a record 212.809 mph (a record which still stands today) for the Winston 500 at the unlighted Talladega Superspeedway. Davey Allison would qualify third, while father Bobby would start second alongside Elliott in the Stavola Brothers No. 22 Miller Buick. On lap 22 of the event, Bobby Allison ran over a piece of debris, cutting his right-rear tire. The car turned sideways, lifted into the air, became airborne, and crashed vertically into the frontstretch spectator fence near the start finish line. The car landed back on the track and collected a number of other competitors. Davey was ahead of his father at the time and saw the crash unfold in his mirror. Bobby Allison was not injured, but the crash slightly injured several spectators and the race was red-flagged for two hours and thirty-eight minutes. It was this event that triggered the requirement of smaller carburetors, and later, carburetor restrictor plates on engines at Daytona and Talladega to reduce the top speeds.


title: Davey Allison

text: When the race resumed, Allison continued to run up front and when Elliott exited the race with engine failure, his toughest competition was eliminated. With darkness falling during a late caution flag, the decision was made to end the race 10 laps short of its 188 lap distance. Running second on the restart, Allison passed leader Dale Earnhardt on the backstretch and pulled away for his first Winston Cup win. In winning the race, Allison became the first rookie since Ron Bouchard in 1981 to win a Winston Cup event.


title: Davey Allison

text: Allison would better that feat just 28 days later by winning the Budweiser 500 at Dover International Speedway (then the Dover Downs International Speedway), becoming, at the time, the only rookie to win two Winston Cup events. In all, Allison started 22 of the 29 Winston Cup races in 1987, winning twice, and scoring nine top-five and 10 top-ten finishes. He also won five poles in his rookie season.