title: Bruce Chatwin

text: "The theme of exile, of people living at the margins... is treated in a literal and metaphorical sense throughout Chatwin's work," stated Nicholas Murray. He identified several examples. There were people who were actual exiles, like some of those profiled in "In Patagonia", and the Viceroy of Ouidah, unable to return to Brazil. Murray also cited the main characters in "On the Black Hill": "Although not strictly exiles... [they] were exiles from the major events of their time and its dominant values." Similarly, Murray wrote, Utz is "trapped in a society whose values are not his own but which he cannot bring himself to leave."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Chatwin returned to the subject of art and objects during his career. In his early writing for the "Sunday Times Magazine", he wrote about art and artists, and many of these articles were included in "What Am I Doing Here". The main focus of "Utz" is on the impact the possession of art (in this case porcelain figures) has on a collector. Utz's unwillingness to give up his porcelain collection kept him in Czechoslovakia even though he had the opportunity to live in the West. Chatwin constantly struggled with the conflicting desires to own beautiful items and to live in a space free of unnecessary objects. His distaste for the art world resulted from his days at Sotheby's; some of his final writing focused on this. The topic appears in the final section of "What Am I Doing Here", "Tales from the Art World," which consists of four short stories. At the end of "What Am I Doing Here", Chatwin shares an anecdote of advice he received from Noël Coward: "Never let anything artistic stand in your way." Chatwin stated, "I've always acted on that advice."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: With the publication of "In Patagonia", Chatwin invigorated the genre of travel writing; according to his biographer, Nicholas Murray, he "showed that an inventive writer could breathe new life into an old genre." The combination of his clear, yet vivid prose and an international perspective at a time when many English writers were more focused on home instead of abroad helped to set him apart. Aside from his writing, Chatwin was also good looking, and his image as a dashing traveller added to his appeal and helped make him a celebrity. In the eyes of younger writers such as Rory Stewart, Chatwin "made [travel writing] cool." In "The New York Times", Andrew Harvey wrote,


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: "Nearly every writer of my generation in England has wanted, at some point, to be Bruce Chatwin; wanted, like him, to talk of Fez and Firdausi, Nigeria and Nuristan, with equal authority; wanted to be talked about, as he is, with raucous envy; wanted above all to have written his books."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Chatwin's books also inspired some readers to visit Patagonia and Australia. As a result, Patagonia experienced an increase in tourism, and it became a common sight for tourists to appear in the region, carrying a copy of "In Patagonia". "The Songlines" also inspired readers to travel to Australia and seek out the people on whom Chatwin had based his characters, much to their consternation, as he had failed to disclose such intentions to them.


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Beyond travel, Chatwin influenced other writers, such as Claudio Magris, Luis Sepúlveda, Philip Marsden, and William Dalrymple. Nicholas Shakespeare stated that some of Chatwin's impact came from the difficulty of categorising his work, which helped to "set free other writers...[from] conventional boundaries." Although he was often called a travel writer, he did not identify himself as one, or as a novelist. ("I don't quite know the meaning of the word novel," he said). He preferred to call his writing stories or searches. He was interested in asking big questions about human existence, sharing unusual tales, and making connections between ideas from various sources. His friend and fellow writer Robyn Davidson said, "He posed questions we all want answered and perhaps gave the illusion they were answerable."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: According to his biographer Nicholas Shakespeare, Chatwin's work developed a dedicated following in the years immediately after his death. By 1998 a million copies of his books had been sold. However, his reputation diminished following revelations about his personal life and questions about the accuracy of his work.


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: The accuracy problem had arisen before his death, and Chatwin had admitted to "counting up the lies" in "In Patagonia", though he stated there were not many. While researching Chatwin's life, Nicholas Shakespeare stated he found "few cases of mere invention" in "In Patagonia". Mostly, these tended to be instances of embellishment, such as when Chatwin wrote of a nurse who loved the work of Osip Mandelstam – one of his favorite authors – when in fact she was a fan of Agatha Christie. When Michael Ignatieff asked Chatwin his opinion of what divided fact from fiction, he replied, "I don't think there is [a division]."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Some individuals profiled in "In Patagonia" were unhappy with Chatwin's portrayals of them. They included a man whom Chatwin insinuated was homosexual and a woman who thought her father was unjustly accused of killing Indians. However, Chatwin's biographer found one farmer who was featured in the book who thought Chatwin's depictions of himself and other members of his community were truthful. He stated, "No one likes looking at their own passport photograph, but I found it accurate. It's not flattering, but it's the truth."


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Chatwin's bestseller, "The Songlines", has been the focus of much criticism. Some describe his viewpoint as "colonialist", citing his lack of interviews with Aboriginals and reliance instead on white Australians for information about Aboriginal culture. Other criticism comes from anthropologists and other researchers who spent years studying Aboriginal culture and dismiss Chatwin's work because he visited Australia briefly. Yet others, such as writer Thomas Keneally, believe "The Songlines" should be widely read in Australia, where many people had not previously heard of the songlines.


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: The questions about the veracity of Chatwin's writing are compounded by the revelation of his sexual orientation and the true cause of his death. Once it became known that Chatwin had been bisexual and had died of an AIDS-related illness, some critics viewed him as a liar and dismissed his work. Nicholas Shakespeare said, "His denial [of his AIDS diagnosis] bred a sense that if he lied about his life, he must have lied about his work. Some readers have taken this as a cue to pass judgement on his books – or else not to bother with them." In 2010 "The Guardian's" review of "Under the Sun: The Letters of Bruce Chatwin" opened with the question, "Does anyone read Bruce Chatwin these days?" However, Rory Stewart has stated, "His personality, his learning, his myths, and even his prose are less hypnotizing [than they once were]. And yet he remains a great writer, of deep and enduring importance". In 2008 "The Times" rated Chatwin No. 46 on their list of "50 Greatest British Writers Since 1945".


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: Chatwin's name is used to sell Moleskine notebooks. Chatwin wrote in "The Songlines" of little black oilskin-covered notebooks that he bought in Paris and called "moleskines". The quotes and anecdotes he had compiled in them serve as a major section of "The Songlines", where Chatwin mourned the closure of the last producer of such books. In 1995, Marta Sebregondi read "The Songlines" and proposed to her employer, the Italian design and publishing firm Modo & Modo, that they produce moleskine notebooks. In 1997, the company began to sell them and use Chatwin's name to promote them. Modo & Modo was sold in 2006, and the company became known as Moleskine SpA.


title: Bruce Chatwin

text: In 2014 the clothing label Burberry produced a collection inspired by Chatwin's books. The following year Burberry released a limited edition of Chatwin's books with specially designed covers.


title: Mackerel as food

text: Mackerel is an important food fish that is consumed worldwide. As an oily fish, it is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids. The flesh of mackerel spoils quickly, especially in the tropics, and can cause scombroid food poisoning. Accordingly, it should be eaten on the day of capture, unless properly refrigerated or cured.


title: Mackerel as food

text: Mackerel preservation is not simple. Before the 19th-century development of canning and the widespread availability of refrigeration, salting and smoking were the principal preservation methods available. Historically in England, this fish was not preserved, but was consumed only in its fresh form. However, spoilage was common, leading the authors of "The Cambridge Economic History of Europe" to remark: "There are more references to stinking mackerel in English literature than to any other fish!" In France mackerel was traditionally pickled with large amounts of salt, which allowed it to be sold widely across the country.


title: Mackerel as food

text: In Japan mackerel is commonly cured with salt and vinegar to make a type of sushi known as saba-zushi. Historically saba-zushi originated in Kyoto as a solution for transporting mackerel to the inland city, which otherwise would not have made the journey from the coast still fresh. The road linking Obama bay and Kyoto is now also called "mackerel road" (saba-kaido).


title: Mackerel as food

text: For many years mackerel was regarded as unclean in the UK and elsewhere due to folklore which suggested that the fish fed on the corpses of dead sailors. A 1976 survey of housewives in Britain undertaken by the White Fish Authority indicated a reluctance to departing from buying the traditional staples of cod, haddock or salmon. Less than 10% of the surveys 1,931 respondents had ever bought mackerel and only 3% did so regularly. As a result of this trend many UK fishmongers during the 1970s did not display or even stock mackerel.


title: Mackerel as food

text: There is a large variation in the mercury levels found in mackerel. These levels differ markedly for different species, and even for the same species in different locations; however, the strongest positive correlation seems to be connected to the species' size (the larger species being higher on the food chain). According to the United States Food and Drug Administration, king mackerel is one of four fishes, along with swordfish, shark, and tilefish, that children and pregnant women should avoid due to high levels of methylmercury found in these fish and the consequent risk of mercury poisoning.


title: Ullr

text: In Norse mythology, Ullr (Old Norse: ) is a god associated with archery. Although literary attestations of Ullr are sparse, evidence including relatively ancient place-name evidence from Scandinavia suggests that he was a major god in earlier Germanic paganism. Proto-Germanic *wulþuz ('glory') appears to have been an important concept of which his name is a reflex. The word appears as "owlþu-" on the 3rd-century Thorsberg chape.


title: Ullr

text: The Old Norse theonym "Ullr" derives from a Proto-Germanic (PGmc) form reconstructed as "*Wulþuz" ('Glory'), which is attested in the compound "owlþu-þewaz" (ᛟᚹᛚᚦᚢᚦᛖᚹᚨᛉ), meaning either 'servant of "Owlþuz"' (if interpreted as a theonym), or 'who has glorious servants' (if interpreted as an adjective), found on the Thorsberg chape (3rd c. AD). It is a cognate (linguistic sibling from the same origin) of the Gothic noun "wulþus" ('glory, wealth'). They ultimately derive from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) noun *"wul-tus" ('sight, gaze, appearance'), itself from the root *"wel"- ('to see').


title: Ullr

text: The PGmc term "*wulþuz" is an exact cognate of the Latin "vultus", meaning 'facial expression, appearance'; it is further related, in Celtic languages, to the Old Irish "filed" ('seer, poet'), the Middle Welsh "gwelet" ('to see'), and the Middle Breton "guelet" ('sight'), all derived from a Proto-Celtic stem *"wel-ēt-". The development from PIE *"wul-tus" to Gothic "wulþus" shows a semantic shift from 'sight, appearance' to 'glory, wealth', similarly evidenced in Croatian in the relationship between "ugled" ('respect') and "gledati" ('see').


title: Ullr

text: The stem *"wulþ-" can also be found in some Germanic personal names, including Old English "Wuldwine", Old High German "Wuldberth", "Wuldhart", "Wuldrât", and Gothic "Wulþuwulfs", but as a substantive meaning 'glory', rather than as the name of the god. The Old English noun "wuldor" ('glory') stems from a related PGmc term reconstructed as *"wuldraz" (itself from PIE *"wul-trós")"." Although not used as a proper name, "wuldor" occurs frequently in names for the Christian God in Anglo-Saxon literature, such as "wuldres cyning" ('king of glory'), "wuldorfæder" ('glory-father'), and "wuldor alwealda" ('glorious all-ruler').


title: Ullr

text: The related Old Norse form "Ullinn" was most likely originally connected to "Ullr" (as in the doublet "Óðr–Óðinn"), philologist Jan de Vries suggesting that the god of rage Óðr–Óðinn stood in opposition to the god of glorious majesty Ullr–Ullinn in a similar manner to the Vedic contrast between Varuna and Mitra.


title: Ullr

text: In Saxo Grammaticus' 12th-century work "Gesta Danorum", where gods appear euhemerized, Ullr, latinized as "Ollerus", is described as a cunning wizard with magical means of transportation:


title: Ullr

text: When Odin was exiled, Ollerus was chosen to take his place and ruled under the name Odin for ten years until the true Odin was called back.


title: Ullr

text: As winter-god, Uller, or Oller, as he was also called was considered second only to Odin, whose place he usurped during his absence in the winter months of the year. During this period he exercised full sway over Asgard and Midgard. Uller was supposed to endure a yearly banishment thither, during the summer months, when he was forced to resign his sway over earth to Odin, the summer god.


title: Ullr

text: Ullr is mentioned in the poem "Grímnismál" where the homes of individual gods are recounted. The English versions shown here are by Thorpe.


title: Ullr

text: The name "Ýdalir", meaning "yew dales", is not otherwise attested. The yew was an important material in the making of bows, and the word "ýr", "yew", is often used metonymically to refer to bows. It seems likely that the name "Ýdalir" is connected with the idea of Ullr as a bow-god.


title: Ullr

text: The strophe is obscure but may refer to some sort of religious ceremony. It seems to indicate that Ullr was an important god.


title: Ullr

text: Both "Atlakviða" and "Grímnismál" are often considered to be among the oldest extant Eddic poems. It may not be a coincidence that they are the only ones to refer to Ullr. Again Ullr appears to be associated with some sort of ceremony, this time the practice of swearing an oath on a ring; the ring was later associated with Thor in a reference to the Norse settlers in Dublin.


title: Ullr

text: In chapter 31 of "Gylfaginning" in the "Prose Edda", written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Ullr is referred to as a son of Sif (with a father unrecorded in surviving sources) and thus a stepson of Sif's husband, Thor:


title: Ullr

text: In "Skáldskaparmál", the second part of the "Prose Edda", Snorri mentions Ullr again in a list of kennings, informing his readers that Ullr can be called ski-god, bow-god, hunting-god and shield-god. In turn a shield can be called Ullr's ship. Despite these details, he relates no myths about Ullr, potentially as he did not know of any.


title: Ullr

text: Snorri's note that a shield can be called Ullr's ship is borne out by surviving skaldic poetry with kennings such as "askr Ullar", "far Ullar" and "kjóll Ullar" all meaning Ullr's ship and referring to shields. While the origin of this kenning is unknown it could be connected with the identity of Ullr as a ski-god. Early skis, or perhaps sleds, might have been reminiscent of shields. A late Icelandic composition, "Laufás-Edda", offers the prosaic explanation that Ullr's ship was called "Skjöldr", "Shield".


title: Ullr

text: Three skaldic poems, "Haustlöng", Eilífr Goðrúnarson's "Þórsdrápa", and a fragment by Eysteinn Valdason, refer to Thor as Ullr's stepfather, confirming Snorri's information.


title: Ullr

text: Ullr's name appears in several important Norwegian and Swedish place names (but not in Denmark or in Iceland). This indicates that Ullr had at some point a religious importance in Scandinavia that is greater than what is immediately apparent from the scant surviving textual references. It is also probably significant that the placenames referring to this god are often found close to placenames referring to another deity: Njörðr in Sweden and Freyr in Norway. Some of the Norwegian placenames have a variant form, "Ullinn". It has been suggested that this is the remnant of a pair of divine twins and further that there may have been a female Ullin, on the model of divine pairs such as Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn. Probably Ullr's name also can be read in the former Finnish municipality of Ullava in Central Osthrobothnia Region.


title: Ullr

text: Magnus Olsen suggested in addition that the names of some Norwegian places including Ringsaker derive from a nickname *"Ringir" for Ullr based on his association with ring-oaths, but there is no evidence of this.


title: Ullr

text: Icelandic scholar Ólafur Lárusson suggested that some of the Icelandic placenames in "Ullar-", usually interpreted as "wool", might also be named for Ullr, especially those such as "Ullarfoss" and "Ullarklettur" that are close to similar placenames in "Goða-" ("gods").


title: Ullr

text: The place-name evidence and the *"wulþuz" cognates have led many scholars to conclude that Ullr was one of the older Norse gods, whose importance had waned by the time of settlement of northern parts of Norway, well before the medieval Old Norse texts were written down. This is reflected in the lack of literary evidence for the name "Ullinn". Some scholars have suggested that he was an aspect of the ancient Germanic sky-god, perhaps corresponding in northern Scandinavia to Týr in Denmark. Based on the association of "Ullr" and "Ullinn" placenames with Vanir deities, Ernst Alfred Philippson suggested that contrary to his placement in the "Prose Edda" among the Æsir, he was himself one of the Vanir, and the similarity between the "Prose Edda" description of his characteristics and those of Skaði have suggested to some that there was a link between him and Skaði's husband, Njörðr.


title: Ullr

text: Viktor Rydberg speculates in his "Teutonic Mythology" that Ullr was the son of Sif by Egill-Örvandill, half-brother of Svipdagr-Óðr, nephew of Völundr and a cousin of Skaði, and that Ullr followed in the footsteps of Egill, the greatest archer in the mythology, and helped Svipdagr-Eiríkr rescue Freyja from the giants. Rydberg also postulates that Ullr ruled over the Vanir when they held Ásgarðr during the war between the Vanir and the Æsir, but Rudolf Simek has stated that "this has no basis in the sources whatsoever".


title: Ullr

text: Within the winter skiing community of Europe, Ullr is considered the Guardian Patron Saint of Skiers (German "Schutzpatron der Skifahrer"). An Ullr medallion or ski medal depicting the god on skis holding a bow and arrow, is widely worn as a talisman by both recreational and professional skiers as well as ski patrols in Europe and elsewhere.


title: Ullr

text: The town of Breckenridge, Colorado has since 1963 held a week-long "Ullr Fest" each January, featuring events designed to win his favor in an effort to bring snow to the historic ski town.


title: Ullr

text: In the television series "The Almighty Johnsons", Ullr is depicted as having been reincarnated into Mike Johnson, played by Tim Balme.


The 2016 United States Senate election in Wisconsin was held November 8, 2016, to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of Wisconsin, concurrently with the 2016 U.S. presidential election, as well as other elections to the United States Senate in other states and elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections. The primaries were held August 9, 2016.


title: 2016 United States Senate election in Wisconsin

text: Incumbent Republican Senator Ron Johnson was re-elected to a second term in office. Former U.S. Senator Russ Feingold, whom Johnson unseated in the 2010 midterm elections, sought a rematch for a fourth non-consecutive term in office but was again defeated by Johnson, who became the first Republican to win a Senate election in Wisconsin during a presidential election year since Bob Kasten in 1980. Kasten was ultimately unseated by Feingold in 1992. Johnson's victory was considered an upset as most polling had Feingold in the lead, coinciding with Donald Trump's own surprise victory in the state's presidential contest.


text: In 2010, then-incumbent Democratic Senator Russ Feingold ran for re-election to a fourth term in 2010 but was defeated by Republican nominee Ron Johnson.


text: In March 2013, Johnson announced that he had begun fundraising for his campaign. At that time, he had just $1,529 remaining in his campaign account after raising $16.1 million for the 2010 election, over half of which he self-funded. Johnson said in November 2014 that he would not self-finance another campaign, saying: "I made my $9 million investment in this country. I gave it once, I don't think I should do it again." On May 14, 2015, Feingold announced he would run to win back his former Senate seat. Ultimately, Feingold spent over $24 million on the campaign and ended up with more remaining cash than Johnson, who spent only $20 million.


text: After the Republicans took control of the Senate following the 2014 Senate elections, the election in Wisconsin was seen by many as a top target for the Democrats, who hoped to retake their majority in the traditionally blue state. "Politico" pointed to Johnson's "worrisome" favorability ratings as one of the main reasons for his vulnerability. A March 2014 Marquette University Law School poll found that just 29% of voters had a favorable opinion of him.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Plasmapheresis (from the Greek πλάσμα, "plasma", something molded, and ἀφαίρεσις "aphairesis", taking away) is the removal, treatment, and return or exchange of blood plasma or components thereof from and to the blood circulation. It is thus an extracorporeal therapy, a medical procedure performed outside the body.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Plasmapheresis of the autologous and exchange types is used to treat a variety of disorders, including those of the immune system, such as Goodpasture's syndrome, Guillain–Barré syndrome, lupus, myasthenia gravis, and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: During plasmapheresis, blood, which consists of blood cells and a clear liquid called blood plasma, is initially taken out of the body through a needle or previously implanted catheter. Plasma is then removed from the blood by a cell separator. Three procedures are commonly used to separate the plasma from the blood cells, with each method having its own advantages and disadvantages:


title: Plasmapheresis

text: After plasma separation, the blood cells are returned to the person undergoing treatment, while the plasma, which contains the antibodies, is first treated and then returned to the patient in traditional plasmapheresis. Rarely, other replacement fluids, such as hydroxyethyl starch, may be used in individuals who object to blood transfusion but these are rarely used due to severe side-effects. Medication to keep the blood from clotting (an anticoagulant) is given to the patient during the procedure.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Plasmapheresis is used as a therapy in particular diseases. It is an uncommon treatment in the United States, but it is more common in Europe and particularly Japan.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: An important use of plasmapheresis is in the therapy of autoimmune disorders, where the rapid removal of disease-causing autoantibodies from the circulation is required in addition to other medical therapy. It is important to note that plasma exchange therapy in and of itself is useful to temper the disease process, while simultaneous medical and immunosuppressive therapy is required for long-term management. Plasma exchange offers the quickest short-term answer to removing harmful autoantibodies; however, the production of autoantibodies by the immune system must also be suppressed, usually by the use of medications such as cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, mycophenolate mofetil, prednisone, rituximab, or a mixture of these.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Other uses are the removal of blood proteins where these are overly abundant and cause hyperviscosity syndrome.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Though plasmapheresis is helpful in certain medical conditions, like any other therapy, there are potential risks and complications. Insertion of a rather large intravenous catheter can lead to bleeding, lung puncture (depending on the site of catheter insertion), and, if the catheter is left in too long, it can get infected.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Aside from placing the catheter, the procedure itself has complications. When patient blood is outside of the body passing through the plasmapheresis machine, the blood has a tendency to clot. To reduce this tendency, in one common protocol, sodium citrate is infused while the blood is running through the circuit. Citrate binds to calcium in the blood, calcium being essential for blood to clot. Citrate is very effective in preventing blood from clotting; however, its use can lead to life-threateningly low calcium levels. This can be detected using the Chvostek's sign or Trousseau's sign. To prevent this complication, calcium is infused intravenously while the patient is undergoing the plasmapheresis; in addition, calcium supplementation by mouth may also be given.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Donating plasma is similar in many ways to whole blood donation, though the end product is used for different purposes. Most plasmapheresis is for fractionation into other products; other blood donations are transfused with relatively minor modifications. Plasma that is collected solely for further manufacturing is called Source Plasma.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Plasma donors undergo a screening process to ensure both the donor's safety and the safety of the collected product. Factors monitored include blood pressure, pulse, temperature, total protein, protein electrophoresis, health history screening similar to that for whole blood, as well as an annual physical exam with a licensed physician or an approved physician substitute under the supervision of the physician. Donors are screened at each donation for viral diseases that can be transmitted by blood, sometimes by multiple methods. For example, donations are tested for HIV by ELISA, which shows if they have been exposed to the disease, as well as by nucleic acid methods (PCR or similar) to rule out recent infections that the ELISA test might miss and are also screened for hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Industry standards require at least two sets of negative test results before the collected plasma is used for injectable products. The plasma is also treated in processing multiple times to inactivate any virus that was undetected during the screening process.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: In a few countries, plasma (like blood) is donated by unpaid volunteers. In others, including the United States, Austria, Germany and some Canadian facilities plasma donors are paid for their donations. Standards for donating plasma are set by national regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Union, and by a professional organization, the Plasma Protein Therapeutics Association (or PPTA), which audits and accredits collection facilities. A National Donor Deferral Registry (NDDR) is also maintained by the PPTA for use in keeping donors with prior positive viral antibody test results from donating at any facility.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Almost all plasmapheresis in the US is performed by automated methods. In some cases, automated plasmapheresis is used to collect plasma products like fresh frozen plasma for direct transfusion purposes, often at the same time as plateletpheresis. These procedures are performed at facilities such as community blood centers.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Since returning red cells causes the body to replace plasma more rapidly, a donor can provide up to a liter of plasma at a time and can donate with only a few days between donations, unlike the 56-day deferral for blood donation. The amount allowed in a donation varies vastly from country to country, but generally does not exceed two donations, each as much as a liter (one-third of the total plasma volume), per seven-day period. If a significant amount of red blood cells cannot be returned, the donor may not donate for 56 days, just as if they had donated a unit of blood. Depending on the collection system and the operation, the removed plasma may be replaced by saline. The body typically replaces the collected volume within 24 hours, and donors typically donate up to twice a week, though this varies by country.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: The collected plasma is promptly frozen at lower than -20 °C (-4 °F) and is typically shipped to a processing facility for fractionation. This process separates the collected plasma into specific components, such as albumin and immunoglobulins, most of which are made into medications for human use. Sometimes the plasma is thawed and transfused as Fresh Frozen Plasma (FFP), much like the plasma from a normal blood donation.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Plasmapheresis was originally described by doctors Vadim A. Yurevick and Nicolay Rosenberg of the Imperial Medical and Surgical Academy of Saint Petersburg in 1913. and John Abel and Leonard Rowntree of Johns Hopkins Hospital in 1914. Both studies carried out on animals, are considered precedent to subsequent studies held in humans and offered the first description of the technique. The first studies of the effects of plasmapheresis on humans were undertaken during the WWII period, and the results were reported in a study over six plasma donors presented by doctors Co Tui, F.C. Bartter and A.M. Wright in 1944.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Aware of the rising demand for plasma for transfusion, Dr. Josep Antoni Grífols-Lucas conducted the first systematic study of the application of plasmapheresis in a series of plasma donors. Performed in 1951, this was the most exhaustive study to date of the medium-term effects on the human body, and involved more than 320 plasmapheresis procedures. Grifols-Lucas concluded that it was possible for donors to undergo plasmapheresis on a weekly basis without the quality of their plasma suffering, while the method also made it possible to obtain a larger quantity of plasma when compared to the conventional method of whole blood donation. The results of the study were presented at the 4th International Congress of Blood Transfusion in Lisbon (1951), and were published in 1952 in the "British Medical Journal" and Medicina Clínica in Spain.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: At the Lisbon congress, Grifols-Lucas met Edwin Cohn. While Grifols-Lucas was presenting a safe technique for obtaining large quantities of plasma from healthy donors, Cohn presented a plasma fractionator, a device that separated out the proteins contained in plasma. These two major contributions marked the birth of a new industry: plasma fractionation to obtain plasma products. In 1955, further data were presented at the 5th Congress of the European Hematology Society, in Freiburg, Germany, based on the ongoing performance of plasmapheresis over a five-year period. In 1956 Grifols-Lucas presented the results at the 6th Congress of the International Hematology Society in Boston, US.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: Michael Rubinstein was the first to use plasmapheresis to treat an immune-related disorder when he saved the life of an adolescent boy with thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP) at the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital in Los Angeles in 1959. The modern plasmapheresis process itself originated in the U.S. National Cancer Institute between 1963 and 1968, where investigators drew upon an old dairy creamer separation technology first used in 1878 and refined by Edwin Cohn's centrifuge marketed in 1953.


title: Plasmapheresis

text: In 1965, Dr. Víctor Grifols-Lucas, brother of Josep Antoni Grifols-Lucas, patented the device, along with the procedure for performing plasmapheresis "in situ", that is, with the donor present. This replaced a fragmented, manual process with a continuous automatic method which enabled blood components to be extracted, separated and returned to the donor in a single procedure. The new device made plasmapheresis faster and simpler, and also made it safer for donors.


title: General Services Administration

text: The General Services Administration (GSA) is an independent agency of the United States government established in 1949 to help manage and support the basic functioning of federal agencies. GSA supplies products and communications for U.S. government offices, provides transportation and office space to federal employees, and develops government-wide cost-minimizing policies and other management tasks.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA employs about 12,000 federal workers. It has an annual operating budget of roughly $33 billion and oversees $66 billion of procurement annually. It contributes to the management of about $500 billion in U.S. federal property, divided chiefly among 8,700 owned and leased buildings and a 215,000 vehicle motor pool. Among the real estate assets it manages are the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center in Washington, D.C., which is the largest U.S. federal building after the Pentagon.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA's business lines include the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS) and the Public Buildings Service (PBS), as well as several Staff Offices including the Office of Government-wide Policy, the Office of Small Business Utilization, and the Office of Mission Assurance. As part of FAS, GSA's Technology Transformation Services (TTS) helps federal agencies improve the delivery of information and services to the public. Key initiatives include the Presidential Innovation Fellows program, 18F (includes login.gov and cloud.gov), FedRAMP, the USAGov platform (USA.gov, GobiernoUSA.gov), Data.gov, and Challenge.gov, the U.S. Web Design System, and I.T. Modernization Centers of Excellence.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA is a member of the Procurement G6, an informal group leading the use of framework agreements and e-procurement instruments in public procurement.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 1947, President Harry Truman asked former president Herbert Hoover to lead what became known as the Hoover Commission to make recommendations to reorganize the operations of the federal government. One of the commission's recommendations was the establishment of an "Office of the General Services", to combine the responsibilities of the following organizations:


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA became an independent agency on July 1, 1949, after the passage of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act. General Jess Larson, administrator of the War Assets Administration, was named GSA's first administrator.


title: General Services Administration

text: The first job awaiting Administrator Larson and the newly formed GSA was a complete renovation of the White House. The structure had fallen into such a state of disrepair by 1949 that one inspector said it was standing "purely from habit". Larson later explained the total renovation in depth by saying, "In order to make the White House structurally sound, it was necessary to completely dismantle, and I mean completely dismantle, everything from the White House except the four walls, which were constructed of stone. Everything, except the four walls without a roof, was finally stripped down, and that's where the work started." GSA worked closely with President Truman and First Lady Bess Truman to ensure that the new agency's first major project would be a success. GSA completed the renovation in 1952.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 1960, GSA created the Federal Telecommunications System, a government-wide intercity telephone system. In 1962 the Ad Hoc Committee on Federal Office Space created a new building program to address obsolete office buildings in Washington, D.C., resulting in the construction of many of the offices that now line Independence Avenue.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 1970, the Nixon administration created the Consumer Product Information Coordinating Center, now part of USAGov. In 1974 the Federal Buildings Fund was initiated, allowing GSA to issue rent bills to federal agencies. In 1972 GSA established the Automated Data and Telecommunications Service, which later became the Office of Information Resources Management. In 1973 GSA created the Office of Federal Management Policy. GSA's Office of Acquisition Policy centralized procurement policy in 1978. GSA was initially responsible for emergency preparedness and stockpiling strategic materials to be used in wartime until those functions were transferred to the newly-created Federal Emergency Management Agency in 1979.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 1984, GSA introduced the federal government to the use of charge cards, known as the GSA SmartPay system. The National Archives and Records Administration was spun off into an independent agency in 1985. The same year, GSA began providing government-wide policy oversight and guidance for federal real property management as a result of an executive order signed by President Ronald Reagan.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 1986, GSA headquarters, U.S. General Services Administration Building, located at Eighteenth and F Streets, NW, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, at the time serving as Interior Department offices.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 2003, the Federal Protective Service, which secures GSA-managed (and other) buildings, was moved to the United States Department of Homeland Security. In 2005, GSA reorganized to merge the Federal Supply Service (FSS) and Federal Technology Service (FTS) business lines into the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS).<ref name="GSA Releases Draft FTS/FSS Reorganization Plan"></ref>


title: General Services Administration

text: On April 3, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Martha N. Johnson to serve as GSA Administrator. After a nine-month delay, the United States Senate confirmed her nomination on February 4, 2010. On April 2, 2012, Johnson resigned in the wake of a management-deficiency report that detailed improper payments for a 2010 "Western Regions" training conference held by the Public Buildings Service in Las Vegas.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 2013, a result of the Open Government Initiative's instruction for federal agencies to open their activities to the public, GSA developed Data.gov to foster transparency and information sharing. That same year GSA also launched the Total Workplace initiative to modernize the workplace of federal agencies and increase efficiency, alongside the Presidential Innovation Fellows and the 18F programs. In 2016, the Acquisition Gateway and Making It Easier programs were launched to assist buyers from federal agencies in acquisitions, and to assist new companies in doing business with the government. Improvements were also made in the deliverance of digital government services with the creation of the Technology Transformation Services.


title: General Services Administration

text: In July 1991, GSA contractors began the excavation of what is now the Ted Weiss Federal Building in New York City. The planning for that building did not take into account the possibility of encountering the historic cemetery for colonial-era African New Yorkers located beneath the footprint of the $276 million office building. When initial excavation disturbed burials, destroying skeletons and artifacts, GSA sent archaeologists to excavate—but hid their findings from the public. Revelation of the discoveries led to 18 months of activism by African-descendant community members, public officials, academics, and concerned citizens. Ultimately, GSA made public amends by funding extensive scientific research under the auspices of Michael Blakey; creating a new subagency, the Office of Public Education and Interpretation; truncating the building plan; and funding public reports on the story of the African Burial Ground. The efforts led to the creation of a new unit of the National Park Service, The African Burial Ground National Monument, at the facility. GSA fully funded that portion of the National Park Service until 2010, when GSA's formal involvement with the African Burial Ground ceased.


title: General Services Administration

text: During President George W. Bush's Administration GSA Administrator, Lurita Doan, was forced to resign after GSA had awarded a sole source contract for $20,000 to her friend. Doan appeared to have violated the Hatch Act and was criticized for political activity while on the job. The investigating team recommended she be punished to the fullest extent, and she resigned soon after.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 2012, U.S. Representative John Mica, chairman of the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, called for a congressional investigation into the misuse of federal money by GSA. Lawmakers accused GSA of "lavish spending" following the 2010 Western Regions Training Conference at the M Resort in Las Vegas.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA spent $823,000 in taxpayer money toward the October 2010 convention, including $100,405.37 spent on employee travel costs for a total of eight pre-planning meetings, scouting trips, and a "dry run". The report also found excessive spending for event planners, gifts for participants, and lavish meals.


title: General Services Administration

text: The conference had been the most recent in a series of similar lavish conferences organized by regions of GSA's Public Buildings Service. In May 2010 GSA treated 120 interns to a five-day conference at a Palm Springs, California, resort. An additional investigation led by Inspector General Brian D. Miller found 115 missing Apple iPods meant for an employee rewards program.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA Administrator Martha N. Johnson resigned in the wake of the controversy. Before turning in her own resignation, Johnson fired two other GSA senior executives, Public Buildings Service head Robert Peck and senior advisor Stephen Leeds. Four PBS Regional Commissioners, who had been responsible for planning the conference, were placed on administrative leave.


title: General Services Administration

text: After Joe Biden was called by media outlets as the President-Elect of the United States – defeating Donald Trump in the November 2020 election – Emily W. Murphy, the chief executive of the General Services Administration, initially refused to sign a letter authorizing Biden's transition team to begin work and access federal agencies and transition funds, according to "The Washington Post". This came as Trump refused to concede Biden's presumptive – but not yet certified – victory and follow the norm of facilitating a peaceful transition of power to the presumptive winner. There are no firm rules on how the GSA determines the president-elect. Typically, the GSA chief might make the decision after reliable news organizations have declared the winner or following a concession by the loser. On November 23, 2020, Murphy issued the letter of ascertainment that meant the Trump administration was ready to begin the formal transition.


title: General Services Administration

text: The administrator is a presidential political appointee and the chief executive of the General Services Administration. On April 12, 2021, President Joe Biden nominated Robin Carnahan to serve as administrator. She was confirmed by the US Senate on June 23, 2021.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA consists of two major services: the Federal Acquisition Service (FAS), and the Public Buildings Service (PBS). In addition to these two major services, the agency also consists of twelve staff offices and two independent offices. The FAS provides both strategic and operational support for acquisition of goods and services for other federal departments.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA conducts its business activities through 11 offices (known as GSA Regions) throughout the United States. These regional offices are located in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Fort Worth, Kansas City (Missouri), New York City, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle (Auburn), and Washington, D.C.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Federal Acquisition Service (FAS) provides products and services across the government. GSA assists with procurement work for other government agencies. As part of this effort, it maintains the large GSA Schedules, which other agencies can use to buy goods and services. The GSA Schedule can be thought of as a collection of pre-negotiated contracts. Procurement managers from government agencies can view these agreements and make purchases from the GSA Schedule knowing that all legal obligations have been taken care of by GSA.


title: General Services Administration

text: The GSA Schedule is awarded as a prime contract entered into by the federal government and a vendor that has submitted an acceptable proposal. At the core of the GSA Schedule contract lie two key concepts: 1) Basis of Award customer or group of customers and 2) Price Reduction Clause. The two concepts are applied in concert to achieve the government's pricing objectives for the GSA Schedule program. Namely, the government wants to ensure that when the vendor experiences competitive pressures to reduce its pricing, then the government can benefit from these and be extended reduced pricing as well.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Basis of Award customer or group of customers represents the customer or group of customers whose sales are affected on the same terms and conditions as those with GSA, and whose pricing is used: 1) as the baseline during negotiations to establish discounts offered to GSA, and 2) as a price floor that, when breached, constitutes additional discounting that triggers the Price Reduction Clause.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Price Reduction Clause ensures that vendor discounting practices and GSA Schedule prices maintain a fixed relationship. The vendor specifies in its GSA proposal, and during negotiations of GSA Schedule contract prices, the discounts to be given to Basis of Award customer(s). If the vendor then provides a larger discount to a Basis of Award customer than what was agreed upon in the GSA Schedule contract (i.e., if the price floor is breached), then the vendor's GSA price will be reduced proportionately and retroactively.


title: General Services Administration

text: Effective Price Reduction Clause compliance procedures will protect vendors if their discounting practices are fully and accurately disclosed in their original proposals to GSA, and then are used as a basis for compliance over the term of the contract. Although not ideal, a compliance system implemented after a contract has been awarded can bring a contract into compliance, although sometimes at the expense of profits. If implementing a system in the middle of a contract period, inaccuracies that turn up should be corrected immediately, and the GSA contracting officer should be made aware of them. Price Reduction Clause compliance systems and procedures can range from simple to complex. A simple, manual system would be appropriate for a service contractor with standard labor rates that are not discounted. A complex system would be required for a reseller with thousands of products and discounting policies that differ among product groups.


title: General Services Administration

text: In response to increased mandates and standards required by the Federal Government of its agencies and in a push to plan for federal sustainability, GSA offers online tools to aid in the building and management of government offices that are subject to these requirements.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA has delegated authority to the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) to procure medical supplies under the VA Federal Supply Schedules Program.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Public Buildings Service (PBS) acquires and manages thousands of federal properties. In accordance with Title 40 of the United States Code, GSA is charged with promulgating regulations governing the acquisition, use, and disposal of real property (real estate and land) and personal property (essentially all other property). This activity is centered in GSA's Office of Governmentwide Policy. Policies promulgated by GSA are developed in collaboration with federal agencies and are typically published for public comment in the Federal Register before publication as a Final Rule.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Public Buildings Service provides workplaces for federal customer agencies, and United States courthouses at good economies to the American taxpayer. PBS is funded primarily through the Federal Buildings Fund, which is supported by the rent from federal customer agencies.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Office of Property Disposal within the Public Buildings Service manages the disposal of surplus real property. The Office is responsible for property which includes land, office buildings, warehouses, former post offices, farms, family residences, commercial facilities, or airfields located in the United States, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, or the U.S. Pacific Territories. Surplus property is made available to both government and private bidders and, in some cases, land sold for public purposes (such as parks or welfare) may be made available for a discount of up to 100% of the fair market value.


title: General Services Administration

text: GSA has earned a LEED rating for 24 green buildings. Some of green offerings at new buildings includes green roofs (planted roofs that can substantially reduce rainwater run-off during storms and provide significant insulation for the buildings), underfloor air distribution (that delivers cooling and heating air at floor level instead of from the ceiling), purchasing and using renewable power from utility companies, and light shelves (located outside of the building that reduce the amount of heat radiating into the building from the sun while increasing the amount of natural light and high ceilings that help direct daylight deep into the work environment). The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 made available not less than $4.5 billion for measures necessary to convert GSA facilities to High-Performance Green Buildings, as defined in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Public Law 110-140).


title: General Services Administration

text: The Department of Energy's Federal Energy Management Program facilitates to GSA the implementation, through project transaction services, applied technology services, and decision support services, to deploy renewable energy technologies and cultivate change to embrace energy efficiency.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 2004, GSA was presented with the Honor Award from the National Building Museum for "success in creating and maintaining innovative environments for the federal community as well as providing a positive federal presence for the public".


title: General Services Administration

text: The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (stimulus bill) included $300 million to acquire energy-efficient motor vehicles for the federal fleet. President Barack Obama announced that GSA was to support the U.S. auto industry with orders for about 17,600 new fuel-efficient vehicles by June 1, 2009, on an accelerated schedule, with money from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. GSA was to pay $285 million to General Motors Corporation, Chrysler LLC, and Ford Motor Company. It was to include 2,500 hybrid sedans—the largest one-time purchase yet of hybrid vehicles for the federal government—and each new vehicle was claimed to yield at least a 10% fuel economy improvement over its predecessor. GSA was to spend $15 million more that year on a pilot fleet of advanced-technology vehicles, including all-electric vehicles and hybrid buses.


title: General Services Administration

text: Hybrids accounted for about 10 percent of the 145,473 vehicles the U.S. General Services Administration bought during the fiscal years 2009 and 2010, after making up less than 1 percent of government vehicle purchases in 2008. As for specific models, Obama took a buy-American stance. The U.S. government bought about two-thirds of the Chevrolet Malibu Hybrids sold during the past two years, and almost a third of the Ford Fusion Hybrids, but only 17 Toyota Prius hybrids and five Honda Civic Hybrids. Ground Force One, so designated when transporting the POTUS, is one of two armored buses procured in 2010 for the transportation of dignitaries under protection of the Secret Service, at a cost of $1.1 million each. The coaches were assembled in Tennessee on frames made in Canada.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Interagency Resources Management Conference (IRMCO) was a federal executive conference of the General Services Administration, hosting about 300 federal and industry leaders each year. The Interagency Resources Management Conference began in 1961 as the ADPCO conference. In 1979, the Department of Commerce, GSA, and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) jointly sponsored a conference for Senior Executive Service (SES) officials at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. At the same time, the National Archives hosted a small records management conference for senior executives, also located in Gettysburg. These two conferences merged with ADPCO and became The Interagency Resources Management Conference. Over the years, the conference has evolved its focus from highly specialized to integrated. In 1996, when U.S. Congress mandated the role of chief information officer (CIO), these new federal executives were invited to attend The Interagency Resources Management Conference.


title: General Services Administration

text: The Interagency Resources Management Conference was the government's primary senior executive conference when it was held as an offsite retreat for leaders from across the government. Originally, industry participation was managed by a division of "The Washington Post", Post-Newsweek Tech Media, and from 1999 to 2008, Post-Newsweek, with the assistance of a small, woman-owned business, Hosky Communications Inc., developed a strong following from the SES community for the event, on average generating 300–400 attendees with a 3:1 government to industry ratio.


title: General Services Administration

text: In 2008, Hosky was awarded a competitive contract to continue to manage and develop the forum. From 2008 to 2010, IRMCO drew attendees from about 65 federal agencies and diverse disciplines, including information technology, human resources, acquisition, management, and finance.


title: General Services Administration

text: Once travel restrictions and budget concerns surfaced in late 2010, IRMCO was moved to a local venue under the management services of A-S-K Associates, where primary attendance by industry was established as a means to inform commercial firms on GSA policies. IRMCO 2011 was held in Washington, D.C., at the Kellogg Conference Center and Hotel on the campus of Gallaudet University.


title: General Services Administration

text: Shortly after IRMCO 2011, GSA's Associate Administrator for Governmentwide Policy, Kathleen Turco, announced to the media that she and other GSA officials felt that IRMCO had lost its spark and retired from the event.


title: General Services Administration

text: Beginning with the Federal Citizen Information Center in 1970, GSA has had a long history of connecting the public to government information and services. In 2009, a new Office of Citizen Services and Innovative Technologies (now the Office of Products and Programs) was created to expand the effort to serve the public through technology. GSA began managing the Presidential Innovation Fellows program the same year it launched 18F with a team focused on improving the federal government's digital services. The Centers of Excellence, introduced in October 2017, are working to accelerate the modernization of IT infrastructure and reduce legacy IT spending across the government.


title: General Services Administration

text: Now all of those offices have joined forces under the Technology Transformation Services sub-unit of the Federal Acquisition Service. Its mission is to improve the lives of the public and public servants by transforming how the government uses technology. TTS aims to meet the government's technology needs: acquisition, omnichannel experience, intelligent process automation, infrastructure optimization and cloud, accelerators and innovation, data and analytics, and identity management.


title: General Services Administration

text: Section 1122 of the 1994 National Defense Authorization Act enabled state and local government agencies to purchase defense and other federal equipment to support drug enforcement activity. In 2009, the reauthorization bill expanded the program to purchases for use in homeland security and emergency response operations. The program is owned and managed by the Department of Defense (DOD), and equipment is made available by the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) and GSA, as is also done under the 1033 program.


title: Talabat

text: Talabat (Arabic: , "Ṭalabāt") is an online food ordering company founded in Kuwait in 2004. As of April 2021, Talabat operates in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, Oman, Qatar, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq. A subsidiary of Delivery Hero since 2016, Talabat became the largest online food ordering company in the Middle East.


title: Talabat

text: In 2004, Talabat General Trading and Contracting Company was founded by Abdulaziz Al Loughani and Khaled Al Otaibi in Kuwait. The name "Talabat" derives from the Arabic language and it means "orders" or "requests".


title: Talabat

text: As Talabat’s popularity grew locally, it won the "Best E-Business Award" repeatedly in 2008 and 2009 with special recognition from the Emir of Kuwait, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah.


title: Talabat

text: In 2010, the business was operating out of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia with an average of 1,250 daily transactions. Talabat then underwent key changes such as the re-branding from 6alabat.com to Talabat.com, a shift from a hybrid form of Arabic and English spelling to a pure English spelling.


title: Talabat

text: In 2011, a revamp of the platform took place with a new website layout and improvement in user interface.


title: Talabat

text: In 2012, Talabat expanded to Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, and Oman. On 19 January 2012, Talabat released its mobile application for Android devices. An app for iOS devices was also released.


title: Talabat

text: In 2015, Talabat was acquired by the global German e-commerce group Rocket Internet for US$170 million. It became part of Rocket Internet's business unit Global Online Takeaway Group.


title: Talabat

text: In 2016, Rocket Internet's food delivery business, including Talabat, was taken over by online food marketplace Delivery Hero. In line with this acquisition, Abdulhamid Alomar took over as the CEO of the company.


title: Talabat

text: In 2019, former Grab executive Tomaso Rodriguez was appointed as CEO, after the stepping down of Abdulhamid Alomar.


title: Talabat

text: Lawsuits were filed against the company after they were found violating fair competition rules in Kuwait. A settlement plea made by Talabat was also turned down.


title: Talabat

text: In January 2020, food delivery company Carriage, also owned by Delivery Hero, was absorbed by Talabat.


title: Talabat

text: In August 2020, it has been confirmed the Egyptian food delivery service Otlob, which was in operation since 1999 and became a Delivery Hero subsidiary in 2016, is getting rebranded as Talabat. As of September 2020, Talabat operates in Egypt.


title: Talabat

text: In October 2020, Talabat announced they will expand into Iraq in early 2021, initially operating in Erbil before gradually expanding into more cities in the rest of the country. Talabat Iraq's online operation is separate from other countries, however. For example, cash-on-delivery is currently the only accepted method of payment in Iraq.


title: Talabat

text: In December 2020, Talabat and Huawei signed a partnership to list Talabat App in the Huawei marketplace.


title: Talabat

text: In August 2021, Talabat was selected as the official food delivery provider for Expo 2020, and their pavilion would display technological innovations for food delivery, such the cloud kitchen concept, whilst representing multiple food brands. In September 2021, Talabat partnered with Terminus Group, who is also an official premier partner for Expo 2020, to launch ten autonomous, last mile food-delivery robots for Expo visitors. Expo 2020 itself launched on 1 October 2021 following a year-long delay due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: South African Navy

text: The South African Navy (SA Navy) is the naval warfare branch of the South African National Defence Force.


title: South African Navy

text: The Navy is primarily engaged in maintaining a conventional military deterrent, participating in counter-piracy operations, fishery protection, search and rescue, and upholding maritime law enforcement for the benefit of South Africa and its international partners.


title: South African Navy

text: Today the South African Navy is one of the most capable naval forces in the African region, operating a mixed force of sophisticated warships, submarines, patrol craft, and auxiliary vessels, with over 7,000 personnel; including a marine force.


title: South African Navy

text: With formerly deep historical and political connections to the United Kingdom, the first emergence of a naval organisation was the creation of the South African Division of the British Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve in 1913, before becoming an nominally independent naval service for the Union of South Africa in 1922.


title: South African Navy

text: In its history, South African naval vessels and personnel have participated in the First and Second World Wars, as well as the South African Border War. In the apartheid post-war era, the South African Navy was extensively aligned with NATO and other Western nations against the Soviet Bloc.


title: South African Navy

text: Officially, the South African Navy can trace its origins back to the creation of the South African Naval Service on 1 April 1922. Unofficially, however, the Navy has an unbroken association with the Natal Naval Volunteers, formed in Durban on 30 April 1885, and the Cape Naval Volunteers, formed in Cape Town in 1905. Loosely, and indirectly however, the earliest naval establishment was the Port Elizabeth Naval Volunteer Brigade, founded in 1861. On 1 July 1913, following the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, the South African Division of the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve (RNVR[SA]) was established, although with complete organisational and operational control being directed by the Royal Navy.


title: South African Navy

text: As part of the British Empire, South Africa went to war against the Central Powers on 4 August 1914, despite significant Afrikaner opposition. A total of 412 South Africans served in the RNVR[SA] during the war, with 164 members volunteering for the Royal Navy directly. One officer and eight ratings died during the course of the war.  South Africans would see service on warships in European waters and the Mediterranean, as well as participate in the land campaigns in German South West Africa and German East Africa. Under Royal Navy jurisdiction, the RNVR (SA) patrolled South African waters in converted fishing vessels, helping in mine clearance in response to the operations of the German raider Wolf in 1917, as well as protecting the strategically important Royal Navy naval base at Simon’s Town.


title: South African Navy

text: On 1 April 1922, the South African Naval Service (SANS) was formed and, alongside the RNVR (SA), tasked with the protection of territorial waters, minesweeping and hydrography. In the same year, the SANS commissioned the small hydrographic survey ship HMSAS (His/Her Majesty’s South African Ship) Protea, two minesweeping converted trawlers HMSAS Immortelle and HMSAS Sonneblom, and the Training Ship General Botha - all formerly in Royal Navy service. As a result of the Great Depression in 1929, coupled with lack of government investment, the SANS by 1939 had been forced to return all vessels to the Royal Navy. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the service had only three officers and three ratings in its ranks.


title: South African Navy

text: The British declaration of war against Germany on 3 September 1939 threw South Africa into a constitutional dilemma due to her status as an autonomous Dominion within the Commonwealth. Prime Minister J.B.M. Hertzog and other anti-British factions of the coalition United Party called for strict neutrality, whilst the more anglophile Deputy Prime Minister Jan Smuts advocated that South Africa was constitutionality, and morally, obliged to support Britain and fight fascism. Two days later, after a close parliamentary vote of 80 to 67 in favour of Smuts, South Africa followed Britain and declared war on Germany.


title: South African Navy

text: During October 1939, Rear-Admiral Guy Halifax, a retired Royal Navy officer living in South Africa, was appointed Director of the South African Naval Service, later renamed Seaward Defence Force (SDF) in January 1940. Overseeing a large industrial program of converting civilian whalers and fishing trawlers into military vessels, despite being highly primitive, over 80 such craft would go on to be the backbone of the South African naval forces.


title: South African Navy

text: In South African waters, the SDF, in partnership with the Royal Navy, ensured maritime control around the strategic Cape Sea route and was primarily involved in coastal patrol, mine clearance, and significant anti-submarine operations between 1942 and 1945 due to a sustained U-Boat offensive, with over 100 merchant ships being sunk off the South African coast.South African naval vessels similarly contributed to the Mediterranean theatre, and later the Far East. From 1941, South Africa assisted in escorting convoys along the North African coast, including the resupply and eventual evacuation of Tobruk, embarked on mine clearance operations, successfully engaged enemy submarines and undertook harbour salvage tasks. In 1942, a unified national naval service emerged following the successful amalgamation of the SDF and RNVR(SA), creating the South African Naval Forces (SANF). As the war came to its end, South Africa received its first purpose-built warships, three Loch-class frigates from the Royal Navy. Deployed to the Far East under British command, South Africa later contributed to operations to liberate Japanese held territory.


title: South African Navy

text: In total, over 10,000 service personnel volunteered for service in the SANF, and its predecessors, with 324 losing their lives and 26 battle honours gained.


title: South African Navy

text: A year after the end of hostilities, on 1 May 1946 South African Naval Forces were reconstituted as part of the Union Defence Force before undertaking its final name change in July 1951, when the SANF officially became known as the South African Navy. The year 1948 was a turning point, not only for South Africa as a country following the National Party's electoral victory, but also the direction of the Navy. British influence became increasingly diminished and curtailed across the service. In 1952, the previously used ship prefix of HMSAS (His/Her Majesty's South African Ship) changed to just SAS (South African Ship), in 1957, the Royal Navy transferred control of Simon's Town naval base to the SA Navy after 70 years of occupancy and later, in 1959, the St Edward's Crown, which had featured in the Navy cap badge and other insignia, was replaced by the Lion of Nassau from South Africa's coat of arms.


title: South African Navy

text: In the immediate post-war years the South African Navy underwent significant levels of qualitative, and quantitative, expansion as the Royal Navy disposed of its surplus war materiel. In 1947, two surplus s, were acquired from the United Kingdom, and , as well as a which was converted into the hydrographic survey ship . In 1950, South Africa further expanded her naval capability and purchased the first of two former British W-class destroyers, , in 1952 , and later, the Type 15 anti-submarine frigate (formerly HMS "Wrangler").


title: South African Navy

text: By the early 1960s, the South African Navy was fast reaching its highpoint of international inclusion and is generally considered to be the golden age of a well balanced, modern, and effective service optimised for conventional naval engagement alongside friendly Western international partners.


title: South African Navy

text: From 1962 to 1964, the South African Navy received three Type 12 President-class frigates: , and respectively. These were first rate, ocean going fast fleet anti-submarine escorts that propelled the South African Navy into the age of a modern warship operator on equal footing with the West. The order of three from France in 1968—to operate submarines for the first time—again catapulted the service further. The early 1970s would see the South African Navy operating at the height of its blue-water power projection ability with the first of the Daphné-class submarines, , being commissioned in 1970, with and entering service the following year.


title: South African Navy

text: The second half of the 1970s however saw South Africa facing severe amounts of international isolation and criticism. In 1973 the UN labelled the policy of apartheid a "Crime against Humanity", magnified further by the brutal state repression and subsequent mass incarcerations and deaths following the Soweto uprising in 1976 and the death of prominent anti-apartheid activist Steve Biko in 1977. The following year a UN arms embargo, loosely in place since 1962, became mandatory. The ensuing international economic disinvestment from South Africa was stepped up, placing huge strains on the economy. Coupled with these severe problems, the cornerstones of the country's regional foreign policy faced collapse and complete transformation with the end of Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique in 1975, and the negotiated settlement in Ian Smith's Rhodesia to the end of white minority rule in 1979. As South Africa became increasingly involved in the Border War in South West Africa (modern day Namibia) and Angola, the Navy began to readjust its previous international outlook and organisation. The then Minister of Defence, P. W. Botha successfully sought military connections with Israel and nine "Reshef"— in South African service—missile strike craft were ordered in 1974. Following the Soweto uprising and subsequent mandatory arms embargo, South Africa had been forced to accept the cancellation of another significant naval procurement of two new Type-69A light frigates and two s from France.


title: South African Navy

text: In 1987, South Africa commissioned the locally designed and built Fleet Replenishment ship . Constructed in Durban, it remains the largest and most sophisticated warship to ever have built in South Africa. Three years earlier, the Navy's other support ship, , had undergone a refit that greatly increased her amphibious capabilities. A real boost for the Navy's influence, "Tafelberg" could deploy a company strength landing force, six landing craft, two medium helicopters and be equipped with a small hospital. Throughout the decade, the South African Navy continued to participate in the Border War and coastal protection. For 23 years (1976–1989) the South African Navy maintained determined sea control around Southern Africa and provided valuable support to land operations. By the end of the 1980s, as white minority rule was coming to a negotiated end, the Navy had lost all of its major surface warships, had a drastically reduced anti-submarine/anti-aircraft capability across the board, and almost complete international isolation. As South Africa disentangled itself from external and internal security operations, the South African Defence Force underwent severe budgetary cuts. The Navy endured a reduction of personnel by 23%, the disbandment of the Marines, the closure of two Naval Commands (Naval Command East and Naval Command West), two Naval Bases at Cape Town and Walvis Bay, and the termination of the relatively advanced program to domestically build replacement submarines. A positive for the Navy during this period however was the acquisition of the multipurpose sealift/replenishment ship , a former Soviet-built Arctic supply vessel, in September 1992 as a replacement for the 35 year old "Tafelberg".


title: South African Navy

text: Despite the austere cutbacks, the Navy was leading the way for a South Africa that was slowly being welcomed back into the international community, even before the landmark elections of 1994. In 1990, the survey vessel became the first South African naval vessel to visit Europe since 1972, and in the same year and two , and , sailed for Taiwan in what would be the first time South African vessels had been in the Far East since 1945. Other international visits in the following years included Zaire, Kenya, Bangladesh, Turkey, France, Portugal, and Uruguay. As the "Rainbow nation" was lauded following the ANC victory in the first free democratic elections in 1994, one of the starkest symbols of this new era was the explosion of foreign warships and dignitaries visiting South African ports, often from countries that did not have a previous connection, such as Russia, Poland and Japan. In 1994, 21 foreign vessels from eight countries called at South African ports, with 26 visits from 12 countries in 1995, and 27 from ten countries in 1996. In 1997 the navy celebrated 75 years, with 15 countries sending ships for the festivities.


title: South African Navy

text: The acute need to re-equip the navy, including the wider Armed Forces after the lifting of apartheid-era sanctions, was addressed by the Strategic Defence Package of 1999. Better known as the infamous "Arms Deal", the acquisitions in the package, and those persons involved, have been repeatedly subject to substantive allegations of corruption, fraud and bribery. A total of R30 billion (US$4.8 billion in 1999) was pledged to the purchase of modern military equipment. For the navy, its share led to a total transformation from a "brown-water" force of ageing missile patrol craft and short-range submarines, to a force with significant “green-water” combat capability once again. In 2001, with an initial request of five vessels, later reduced to four, the German Meko A200SAN general purpose corvette design was procured (designated frigates in South Africa), along with four British Super Lynx naval helicopters, and three German Type 209/1400 diesel-powered submarines. Also under construction from 1991 were three locally built T-Craft inshore patrol boats. As South Africa approached the millennium, and beyond, the ANC government gradually returned the Navy to a level of maritime power last seen in the 1960s and 1970s, and successfully reintegrated the service back into maritime operations with regional and international partners.


title: South African Navy

text: Commissioned into service from 2006, at a total cost of R9.65 billion, the four Meko A200SANs, the in South African service, became "easily the most powerful surface combatants in sub-Saharan Africa, and...restored South African naval pre-eminence." Constructed with principles of stealthy design, the class has a 50% smaller radar signature of similar vessel size, 75% less infrared emissions, 20% lower life-cycle cost, 25% lower displacement and 30% fewer crew members. Specifically designed to conduct sustained operations in the sea conditions found off the South African coast, the four frigates are able to undertake a range of tasks from maritime law enforcement, to civil support, and military operations such as area denial, gunfire support and intelligence collection. The embarked SuperLynx helicopters significantly improve and extend surveillance, as well as all-round operational capabilities. With a return to operating general-purpose, multi-mission warships, the Valour class have been hailed as modern, impressive and major regional anti-surface, anti-air, and anti-submarine platforms. , , , and possess two four-cell launchers for eight Exocet surface to surface missiles, 16 to 32-cell domestically built Umkhonto VLS missiles for air defence, a single OTO Melara main gun, a twin Denel Dual Purpose Gun, two Oerlikon cannon, and two remotely operated guns.


title: South African Navy

text: As the SA Navy has a strength of only four primary surface warships, in an effort to improve asset availability in more routine littoral patrol operations and ease the stress on sophisticated, but ill-suited, warships, three previously decommissioned were modernised and recommissioned as offshore patrol vessels (OPVs) between 2012 and 2014 - , and . has since been officially placed in reserve.


title: South African Navy

text: Primarily, the Warrior class undertake the more traditional naval task of patrolling South Africa's exclusive economic zone and upholding maritime law enforcement. Ordinary tasks include anti-smuggling, monitoring against illegal immigration, search and rescue, fishery inspection, and routine border protection. With the ability to operate far out into the Cape and handle the often rough seas, the OPVs are also expected to complement the navies combat ability, particularly when undertaking anti-piracy patrols in the Mozambique Channel.


title: South African Navy

text: Reflecting their new policing role, the Warriors' old Skerpioen missile launchers and the rear 76 mm gun was removed. In replacement, the craft have gained the capacity to support a small rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB) and a limited contingent of Naval Infantry for boarding suspect vessels, as well as maintaining their original 20 mm cannon and 12.7 mm heavy machine guns.


title: South African Navy

text: As of 2020, two coastal mine countermeasures vessels are still in service with the SA Navy, however, they are believed to have lost their mine-hunting capabilities due to the retirement of the antiquated PAP104 autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). Whilst still maintaining a decompression chamber for operational diving, the River class are now deployed on general coastal defence duties, and are equipped with a single Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, two 12.7 mm machine guns, and a RHIB.


title: South African Navy

text: Alongside the Warrior and River classes are the more modern , with three entering service from 1992. Constructed with twin-hulled catamarans of glass-reinforced plastic sandwich construction, three have also been built for Israel in 1997. The T Craft, with their far lighter construction and smaller size, undertake maritime security patrols considerably closer to the shore and inspect various inlets and bays. SAS "Tobie", SAS "Tern", and SAS "Tekwane" are equipped with a single 12.7 mm Browning machine gun and have the capacity to embark a RHIB with a small complement of Naval Infantry to inspect vessels.


title: South African Navy

text: Between 2004 and 2008, three German built Type 209/1400 submarines were delivered as a like for like replacement for the obsolescent submarines. The represents a significant upgrade of the navy's sub-surface force due to considerable advancement in underwater performance and endurance.As of 2020, South Africa is one of only three states on the African continent, along with Algeria and Egypt, that currently operate submarine assets, and the only state in the sub-Saharan region. With near subsurface supremacy, the SA Navy operates a strong conventional underwater naval deterrent against any theoretical continental state actor. At the same time, this capability was at risk of eroding. As of 2019, two of the submarines were reported to be in need of "urgent and complete" refits. The recommended approach was to move to a contracting phase in 2020. The Armscor annual report to parliament indicated that should the refits not take place, the submarine capability would not available after FY2022/23. As of March 2021, the contracting phase had still not been initiated and no dates had been announced for any upgrades of the submarines.


title: South African Navy

text: In August 2021 it was reported that "Charlotte Maxeke" was being refitted at the Armscor Dockyard. Funding in the amount of R189 million had reportedly been made available to ensure the completion of the refit during the 2023/24 financial year. Funding for the refit of "Queen Modjadji" was not available, though the reported focus of the Navy was to prioritise essential maintenance and repair of SAS "Manthatisi" (which had been last refitted during 2013/14) to ensure "expedited operational availability."


title: South African Navy

text: Highly sophisticated vessels, the Heroine class' utility, aside from traditional anti-ship engagement and area denial, is its intelligence collection via special forces deployment. A series of modifications have been made to the class so as to undertake these clandestine operations.


title: South African Navy

text: Currently fitted only with regular torpedo tubes, the Heroines do have optional UGM-84 Harpoon integration capacity for further anti-ship potential, however, as of 2020, this has not been utilised. Similarly, whilst currently not able to deploy any land attack armaments, Germany is developing a medium-range missile, the IDAS, for their own Type 209s which would primarily be targeted against air threats, but also small surface vessels and coastal land targets.


title: South African Navy

text: With the retirement of in 2004, is the sole fleet replenishment ship with the primary role of supporting combat vessels at sea. "Drakensberg" is also modified to carry two RHIBs, as well as two landing craft utility (LCU) for limited amphibious use. Since the end of minority rule, "Drakensberg" has undertaken numerous humanitarian and anti-piracy operations, consistently shown the ‘rainbow flag’ on global voyages of goodwill, and reintegrated South Africa back into international naval exercises.


title: South African Navy

text: The SA Navy continues to operate the specialist hydrographic survey vessel , which was commissioned in 1972.


title: South African Navy

text: The South Africa Marine Corps was first established as a sub-branch of the Navy in 1951 until 1955 and then reformed in 1979 until 1990, both times with the primary purpose of protecting the country's harbours. The Marines also acted as regular infantry during the war until 1988, as well as performing counter-insurgency operations inside South Africa. The Marines had an amphibious landing capability by operating from and SAS "Drakensberg", with an elite company, named the Marine Amphibious Company (MAC), being formed to ensure beach-head capability for landing large task forces, along with a small elite reconnaissance detachment between 1983 and 1989. The Marines were disbanded on 18 January 1990, following a major restructuring of the Navy at the end of the South African Border War.


title: South African Navy

text: In 2005, the decision was taken to create a Naval Rapid Deployment Force so that South Africa could commit more to peacekeeping operations across the continent, particularly in the Great Lakes region. In 2006, this force became the Maritime Reaction Squadron. The Maritime Reaction Squadron provides an amphibious, diving and small boat capability to the Navy, deploying infantry-trained South African Navy personnel in various peacekeeping roles within the African continent, as well as assisting in boarding operations at sea, and humanitarian and disaster relief.


title: South African Navy

text: The SA Navy maintains the traditional role of providing a credible military deterrent, protecting South African interests against possible enemy attack, and participating in African Union peacekeeping missions. As the likelihood of a naval engagement against a conventional enemy is extremely unlikely, the South African Navy today is primarily engaged in counter-piracy, fishery protection, and anti-smuggling operations.


title: South African Navy

text: Deploying at least a single Valour-class frigate or one Heroine-class submarine, along with aircraft from the South African Air Force, the SA Navy undergoes exercises with others, such as the United States Navy (Exercise Shared Accord/Southern Accord), NATO naval battlegroups (Exercise Amazolo), the French Navy (the annual Exercise Oxide), the German Navy (the biennial Exercise Good Hope), the Royal Navy (ad hoc exercises when visiting South African waters), the Indian Navy (the biennial Exercise IBSAMAR), and the navies of Uruguay and Brazil (Exercises Atlasur and IBSAMAR)


title: South African Navy

text: The navy also provided air and sea security for the 2010 FIFA World Cup by deploying three frigates as guard ships off the cities of Durban, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town.


title: South African Navy

text: Since 2011, one of the SA Navy's major and long-standing focuses has been that of the anti-piracy initiative, Operation Copper. After increased pirate activity in the Mozambique Channel (a crucial import/export sea lane for South Africa), and subsequent requests for help from fellow Southern African Development Community (SADC) members (Mozambique and Tanzania), the navy has routinely deployed assets in an effort to provide maritime security in the region.


title: South African Navy

text: Since the operation first began, every Valour-class frigate has been deployed to the region on rotation, with the refurbished Warrior-class OPVs also being utilised. In 2012, the replenishment ship SAS "Drakensberg" was likewise deployed to the region, and alongside European warships, successfully captured seven Somail pirates. Elements of the Navy's Maritime Reaction Squadron (MRS) are routinely embarked on deployed warships so as to give the ability to board suspect vessels.


title: South African Navy

text: Gaps in deployment have previously occurred as a result of mechanical issues, as well as the South African Air Force withdrawing C-47TP maritime patrol aircraft in 2016 from Mozambique due to maintenance problems and lack of sufficient aircrew. In 2018 the SA Navy notably deployed two warships simultaneously for Operation Copper, and were independent of foreign support.


title: South African Navy

text: Piracy, and other maritime crime, has fallen substantially in the Mozambique Channel since the SADC operation began in 2011. Due to the success of the operation, expenditure for the future 2021/22 deployment is estimated to be R38.9 million, down from R154 million the previous year.


title: South African Navy

text: Operation Copper's mandate could be subject to official change as a result of increasing Islamist violence in the Cabo Delgado province of Mozambique. On 9 August 2021, the SADC formally announced the deployment of troops into the troubled province. Alongside regional partners such as Botswana, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, the South African government has informed parliament that it intends to deploy 1,495 personnel to Mozambique. SAS "Makhanda", a modernised Warrior-class patrol OPV, has reportedly been seen in Pemba, the capital of Cabo Delgado province.


title: South African Navy

text: For the continued safeguarding of South Africa's borders, Operation Corona aims to combat illegal fishing, poaching, and smuggling within its territorial waters. The SA Navy plans to carry out five maritime patrols in line with Operation Corona, with 84 days of surface and 22 days of subsurface patrols allocated for the financial year 2020/21. Deploying to known hotspot areas, the SA Navy works alongside other Government departments such as the SA Police Service and Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries, in an effort to deter rather than arrest.


title: South African Navy

text: As the SA Navy enters the 2020s, the service faces significant challenges if it is to arrest its current decline. At the opening of the South African Maritime Security Conference on 31 May 2018 in Cape Town, Chief of the Navy Vice Admiral Hlogwane warned that:‘the navy sits at the crossroads where its very existence is threatened... Some of the countries in the SADC are injecting financial resources to build their military capacity through acquisition programmes. Conversely, South Africa is on a path of reduced defence expenditure.”At a speech a year later on 12 July 2019, Hlongwane, recognising the struggling economy, again reminded his audience that:“in the absence of a clear and present military threat, the government will find it difficult to justify spending large sums of money on defence. The platforms acquired under the Strategic Defence Packages (four frigates and three submarines) are beginning to suffer from lack of funds for support and maintenance, [and] urgently require refits in order to keep them operational to the end of their 30-year design lives...while the new hydrographic survey vessel and IPVs are modern robust ships fully suited to perform their missions, they will not significantly improve the combat capability of the SAN which is required to defend our country and national interests in terms of our constitutional mandate...the naval balance of power is shifting on our continent.”


title: South African Navy

text: The South African defence budget has been on a downward trajectory since 1994 when expenditure was 2.56% of GDP. In 2010, that level was 1.12%, and in 2020, expenditure is expected to fall to around 0.95%, its lowest level since 1960. For 2020/21, the Defence Budget totals R52.4 billion (£2.4 billion), with the SA Navy being allocated R4.9 billion (£226 million), roughly 9%. South African defence spending however has not matched recent inflation levels, an average of 5% annually, which has pushed the Department of Defence deeper into financial difficulties and operational consequences.


title: South African Navy

text: As a whole, the Defence Budget for 2020/21 has been given 87% of its required funding, a shortfall of R9.4 billion (£433 million). The SA Navy for 2020/21 has been allocated only 65% of what is reportedly required, a shortfall of R2.8 billion (£130 million). As a result of the declining financial situation, the Navy has warned that it will seriously struggle to maintain its current capabilities, levels of investment, and international commitments. As a result of Covid-19, as well as ongoing problems within the South African economy, GDP is expected to fall by 5.6% in 2020/21, with significant ramifications for the country and the South African Navy.


title: South African Navy

text: In 2013/14, the SA Navy operated with an annual target of 22,000 hours at sea. By 2018/19 this number had been lowered to 12,000 hours, with a further reduction to 10,000 hours annually from 2019/20. By its own admission, the Navy requires a minimum of 12,000 hours (500 days) at sea per year to sufficiently train personnel, with an absolute minimum of 7,800 hours dedicated annually to fulfil its Force Employment obligations of border protection, maritime security, and anti-piracy operations. Despite these requirements, by 2019/20 the SA Navy is financially resourced for only 6,000 hours at sea, and only 4,320 hours allocated for Force Employment operations. Vice Admiral Hlongwane has warned: “Should sea hours be reduced below 10 000 per year, the SA Navy will decline rapidly and...any further reduction in sea hours will impact severely on individual and team training at sea, maintaining safety at sea and the safe navigation of all SA Navy vessels.”


title: South African Navy

text: In addition, the SA Navy is facing an acute skills shortage which is severely frustrating vessel availability. Vice Admiral Hlongwane stated that "the Navy Engineering capability is now extremely limited, which will increasingly impact on the safety and seaworthiness of ships and submarines and their ability to deploy." It is currently a cause for concern whether or not the SA Navy has the required skills to fully crew multiple highly sophisticated warships and submarines simultaneously.


title: South African Navy

text: Despite the current budgetary crisis within South African defence spending, the purchase of the three new inshore patrol vessels (IPVs), termed Project Biro and also the procurement of a new hydrographic survey vessel, Project Hotel have been approved in recent years. These acquisitions have been linked to the Government's broader aims of development of the ocean economy - Operation Phakisa. With 90% of imports and exports dependent on the sea, South Africa's exclusive economic zone which is reportedly rich in natural resources, and the estimated loss of nearly $23bn annually to illegal and unregulated fishing, the SA Navy has successfully argued that maritime security is crucial to the national interest and economic development.


title: South African Navy

text: Since 2013, the ambition for the SA Navy was the domestic construction of three offshore, and a minimum of six (later reduced to three) inshore patrol vessels as a replacement for the increasingly aged Warrior-class OPVs and River-class OPV/IPVs, as part of Project Biro. However, in 2018 it was confirmed that only the three MMIPVs (multi-mission inshore patrol vessel) would be constructed, with the OPVs being cancelled as a cost-saving measure. The new vessels will also be named the Warrior-class, and cost R3.6 billion.


title: South African Navy

text: Whilst the introduction of these three modern IPVs will immediately play a crucial role in maritime law enforcement, it has been regretted by analysts that the offshore craft option was not also financially feasible. It had been hoped that the OPVs, with their helicopter carrying abilities, would have played a much more effective role in policing South Africa's extensive exclusive economic zone (1.5 million km), particularly in the rough seas of the Cape. It was even reported in 2011 that nine OPVs could be constructed, without any IPVs, due to the rough sea state off the coast and the practical experience gained which favoured larger vessels.


title: South African Navy

text: In 2021, it was announced that the aging Warrior-class OPVs would undergo phased decommissioning as the new Warrior-class IPVs come online.


title: South African Navy

text: First laid down in February 2019 at Damen Shipyards Cape Town (DSCT), the timeline of delivery to the SA Navy of all three vessels is March 2022, June 2023 and September 2024 respectively. Armscor, the state acquisition agency, has an option from DSCT to purchase additional inshore patrol vessels at the same price the original three were bought for.


title: South African Navy

text: The second future acquisition programme for the SA Navy falls under Project Hotel, the replacement of the sole hydrographic survey vessel . The construction of this new vessel, currently being built by Durban based Sandock Austral Shipyard, will represent a major upgrade in capability for the Navy. Whilst SAS "Protea" was built in 1972, her replacement will be based on Vard Marine's VARD 9 105 science vessel, specifically adapted for South African service and ‘incorporates the latest hydrographic and oceanographic sensor suite’. The ship will be an evolution from the Vard Marine designed and which have been in Royal Navy service since 2002.


title: South African Navy

text: Also as part of Project Hotel, the SA Navy will receive two next-generation survey motor boats, one sea boat, and another inshore survey motor boat to be kept ashore in reserve, as well as upgrading shore-based hydrographic infrastructure. The project has a current completion date target of August 2023, with the first of the motor boats being launched in September 2020.


title: South African Navy

text: As of 2020, the SA Navy's main projects are under serious threat from years of underfunding, as well as recent budget cuts. Allocation of funding for Projects Biro (modern inshore patrol vessels) and Hotel (replacement hydrographic survey vessel), as well as the Army's Project Hoefyster (new infantry combat vehicles), amounts to R2.8 billion (£129 million), however the required level of funding needed is expected to be R13.7 billion (£633 million), nearly a R11 billion shortfall (£508 million). It is currently unclear how these projects will be financed if they continue to proceed.


title: South African Navy

text: Similarly, Project Syne and Project Napoleon, the planned and urgently required midlife overhauls for the and respectively, are both currently on hold due to lack of adequate funding. According to a 2021 Department of Defence (DoD) progress report, the full repair cost requirement of R1.470 billion is only 53.4% funded, with R786 million allocated. The SA Navy is currently finding it difficult to effectively resource the growing backlog of refits, maintenance periods, and repair projects that are needed. With each delay due to financial insufficiency and every vessel that continues to operate without adequate maintenance, the SA Navy is pulled deeper into a vicious cycle of exacerbating known issues and escalating longer-term costs, until a point of forced reduced vessel availability.