title: Labour movement

text: The Scottish weavers of Glasgow went on strike around 1805, demanding enforcement of the old Elizabethan laws empowering magistrates to fix wages to meet the costs of living, however after three weeks the strike was ended when the police arrested the strike leaders. A renewed stimulus to organised labour in the United Kingdom can be traced back to 1808 with the failure of the 'Minimum Wage Bill' in parliament which supporters had seen as a needed countermeasure for the endemic poverty among the working classes of industrial Britain. After the failure of the Minimum Wage Bill displayed the British government's commitment to laissez-faire policy, labourers began to express their discontent in the form of the first large scale strikes in the new factory districts. Within days over 15,000 weavers would begin striking in Manchester resulting in one dead striker and mass vandalism of machinery. Agitation was not ended until it was agreed that weavers would receive a 20% increase in wages. In 1813 and 1814 parliament would finally repeal the last of Elizabethan Era laws known as the apprentice laws which had been intended to protect wage rates and employment, but which had also fallen into serious disuse many decades before.


title: Labour movement

text: The United Kingdom saw an increasing number of large-scale strikes, mainly in the north. First in 1810 among the miners in Northumberland and Durham called a general strike, and later, in 1812, a general strike among weavers was called in Scotland after employers refused to institute wage scales. These strikes in the far north of Britain failed due to suppression by the police and the military. In 1811 in Nottinghamshire, a new movement known as the Luddite, or machine-breaker movement, began. In response to declining living standards, workers all over the English Midlands started to sabotage and destroy the machinery used in textile production such as stocking frames. As the industry was still decentralized at the time and the movement was secretive, none of the leadership was ever caught and employers in the Midlands textile industry were forced to raise wages.


title: Labour movement

text: In 1812 the first radical, socialist, pro-labor society, the 'Society of Spencean Philanthropists', named after the radical social agitator Thomas Spence, was formed. Spence, a pamphleteer in London since 1776, believed in the socialized distribution of land and changing England into a federalized government based on democratically elected parish communes. The society was small and had only a limited presence in English politics, and even before Spence's death in 1814 other leaders such Henry Hunt, William Cobbet, and Lord Cochrane, known as Radicals, rose to the head of the labor movement demanding the lowering of taxes, the abolition of pensions and sinecures, and an end to payments of the war debt. This radicalism only increased in the aftermath of the end of the Napoleonic Wars as a general economic downturn in 1815 led to a revival in pro-labour politics. During this time half of each worker's wages was taxed away, unemployment greatly increased, and food prices would not drop from their war time highs.


title: Labour movement

text: After the passage of the Corn Laws which prohibited the importation of cheap grains, to the benefit of the landed elite and detriment of the workers, there was mass rioting throughout Britain. Many working class papers started being published and received by a wide audience. These included Cobbet's ""Weekly Political Register", Thomas Wooler's "The Black Dwarf", and William Hone's "Reformists's Register". In addition, new political clubs focused on reform, called Hampden Clubs, were formed after a model suggested by Major Cartwright. In 1816 Henry Hunt gave a speech to a mass audience in London, dealing with issues such as universal suffrage and the Corn Laws. During his speech a group of Spenceans initiated a series of riots, later known as the Spa Fields riots during which rioters raided gunsmith shops and attempted to overtake the Tower of London. This outbreak of lawlessness led to a government crackdown on agitation in 1817 known as the Gagging Acts, which included the suppression of the Spencean society, a suspension of habeas corpus, and an extension of power to magistrates which gave them the ability to ban public gatherings. In protest of the Gagging Acts, as well as the poor working conditions in the textile industry, workers in Manchester attempted to march on London to deliver petitions in a demonstration known as the Blanketeers march. The Blanketeers, named after the blankets they brought to sleep on the roadside during their journey, were however intercepted, with most participants either arrested or chased off by the British military.


title: Labour movement

text: From this point onward the British government also began using hired spies and agent provocateurs to disrupt the labour movement, entrap radicals, and orchestrate violent incidents that would turn public opinion against the workers. The most infamous early case of government anti-labour espionage was that of Oliver the Spy who, in 1817, incited and encouraged an armed uprising in Derbyshire, known as the Pentrich Rising, which led to the leadership being indicted on treason charges and executed. A similar incident was concocted by the government spy George Edwards in 1820, wherein he convinced various Spenceans to agree to participate in the Cato Street Conspiracy, a supposed plan to murder the current members of the British cabinet.


title: Labour movement

text: In spite of government suppression, the labour movement in Britain continued, and 1818 marked a new round of strikes as well as the first attempt at establishing a single national union that encompassed all trades, led by John Gast and named the "Philanthropic Hercules". Although this enterprise quickly folded, pro-labour political agitation and demonstrations increased in popularity throughout industrial Britain culminating in 1819 with an incident in St. Peter's field, Manchester, known as the Peterloo Massacre. During this event the mounted units of the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry and 15th Hussars attacked the attendees of a crowd composed of about 80,000 people that had gathered to legally demonstrate support of the political reformers and listen to a speech by Henry Hunt. The attack resulted in 18 deaths and up to 500 injuries, all suffered on the part of the demonstrators. The British government responded with another round of draconian measures aimed at putting down the labour movement, known as the Six Acts.


title: Labour movement

text: In 1819 the social reformer Francis Place initiated a reform movement aimed at lobbying parliament into abolishing the anti-union Combination Acts. Unions were legalised in the Combination Acts of 1824 and 1825, however some union actions, such as anti-scab activities were restricted. In 1834 the Tolpuddle Martyrs of Dorset were punished for swearing secret oaths and transported.


title: Labour movement

text: The International Workingmen's Association, the first attempt at international coordination, was founded in London in 1864. The major issues included the right of the workers to organize themselves, and the right to an 8-hour working day. In 1871 workers in France rebelled and the Paris Commune was formed. From the mid-19th century onward the labour movement became increasingly globalised.


title: Labour movement

text: The movement gained major impetus during the late 19th and early 20th centuries from the Catholic Social Teaching tradition which began in 1891 with the publication of Pope Leo XIII's foundational document, "Rerum novarum", also known as "On the Condition of the Working Classes," in which he advocated a series of reforms including limits on the length of the work day, a living wage, the elimination of child labour, the rights of labour to organise, and the duty of the state to regulate labour conditions.


title: Labour movement

text: Throughout the world, action by labourists has resulted in reforms and workers' rights, such as the two-day weekend, minimum wage, paid holidays, and the achievement of the eight-hour day for many workers. There have been many important labour activists in modern history who have caused changes that were revolutionary at the time and are now regarded as basic. For example, Mary Harris Jones, better known as "Mother Jones", and the National Catholic Welfare Council were important in the campaign to end child labour in the United States during the early 20th century.


title: Labour movement

text: Modern labour parties originated from an increase in organising activities in Europe and European colonies during the 19th century, such as the Chartist movement in the United Kingdom during 1838–48.


title: Labour movement

text: In 1891, localised labour parties were formed, by trade union members in British colonies in Australasia. In 1899, the Labour Party for the Colony of Queensland briefly formed the world's first labour government, lasting one week. From 1901, when six colonies federated to form the Commonwealth of Australia, several labour parties amalgamated to form the Australian Labor Party (ALP).


title: Labour movement

text: The British Labour Party was created as the Labour Representation Committee, following an 1899 resolution by the Trade Union Congress.


title: Labour movement

text: While archetypal labour parties are made of direct union representatives, in addition to members of geographical branches, some union federations or individual unions have chosen not to be represented within a labour party and/or have ended association with them.


title: Labour movement

text: Labour festivals have long been a part of the labour movement. Often held outdoors in the summer, the music, talks, food, drink, and film have attracted hundreds of thousands of attendees each year. Labour festival is a yearly feast of all the unionism gathering, to celebrate the fulfillment of their goals, to bring solutions to certain hindrances and to reform unjust actions of their employers or government.


title: Labour movement

text: A degree of strategic bi-racial cooperation existed among black and white dockworkers on the waterfronts of New Orleans, Louisiana during the early 20th century. Although the groups maintained racially separate labour unions, they coordinated efforts to present a united front when making demands of their employers. These pledges included a commitment to the "50-50" or "half-and-half" system wherein a dock crew would consist of 50% black and 50% white workers and agreement on a single wage demand to reduce the risk of ship owners pitting one race against the other. Black and white dockworkers also cooperated during protracted labour strikes, including the general levee strikes in 1892 and 1907 as well as smaller strikes involving skilled workers such as screwmen in the early 1900s.


title: Labour movement

text: Historically labour markets have often been constrained by national borders that have restricted movement of workers. Labour laws are also primarily determined by individual nations or states within those nations. While there have been some efforts to adopt a set of international labour standards through the International Labour Organisation (ILO), international sanctions for failing to meet such standards are very limited. In many countries labour movements have developed independently and represent those national boundaries.


title: Labour movement

text: With ever-increasing levels of international trade and increasing influence of multinational corporations, there has been debate and action among labourists to attempt international co-operation. This has resulted in renewed efforts to organize and collectively bargain internationally. A number of international union organisations have been established in an attempt to facilitate international collective bargaining, to share information and resources and to advance the interests of workers generally.


title: Jazz rap

text: Jazz rap (or jazz hip hop) is a fusion of jazz and hip hop music, as well as an alternative hip hop subgenre, that developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s. AllMusic writes that the genre "was an attempt to fuse African-American music of the past with a newly dominant form of the present, paying tribute to and reinvigorating the former while expanding the horizons of the latter." The rhythm was rooted in hip hop over which were placed repetitive phrases of jazz instrumentation: trumpet, double bass, etc. Groups involved in the formation of jazz rap included A Tribe Called Quest, Digable Planets, De La Soul, Gang Starr, The Roots, Jungle Brothers, and Dream Warriors.


title: Jazz rap

text: During the 1970s, The Last Poets and Gil Scott-Heron placed spoken word and rhymed poetry over jazzy backing tracks. There are also parallels between jazz and the improvised phrasings of freestyle rap. Despite these disparate threads, jazz rap did not coalesce as a genre until the late 1980s.


title: Jazz rap

text: In 1989, Gang Starr released the debut single "Words I Manifest", sampling Dizzy Gillespie's 1952 "Night in Tunisia", and Stetsasonic released "Talkin' All That Jazz", sampling Lonnie Liston Smith. Gang Starr's debut LP, "No More Mr. Nice Guy" (Wild Pitch, 1989), and their track "Jazz Thing" (CBS, 1990) for the soundtrack of "Mo' Better Blues", further popularized the jazz rap style. In 1992 Eric B & Rakim used wood bass on "Don't Sweat the Technique".


title: Jazz rap

text: Digable Planets' 1993 release "Reachin' (A New Refutation of Time and Space)" was a hit jazz rap record sampling the likes of Don Cherry, Sonny Rollins, Art Blakey, Herbie Mann, Herbie Hancock, Grant Green, and Rahsaan Roland Kirk. It spawned the hit single "Rebirth of Slick (Cool Like Dat)". Also in 1993, Us3 released "Hand on the Torch" on Blue Note Records. All samples were from the Blue Note catalogue. The single "Cantaloop" was Blue Note's first gold record.


title: Jazz rap

text: Post WWII swing and modern jazz had fused with the introduction of Black appeal radio which attracted a younger audience through its reliance on jive idioms, rhyming, and cadence laden rap verses. Dizzy Gillespie had pointed to "The jives of Dr. Hepcat" and rhyming D.J. Daddy-O Daylie as key to popularizing modern jazz. The rise of Top-40 radio on the strength of the rapping DJs in this period of radio's rebirth among black youth led to the wider use of language and syntax popularizing rap. Muhammad Ali's phrasing to the press in the early part of his career was born of listening to black radio of the 1950s, which was often white radio announcers speaking slang "jive" and imitating black announcers while withholding the fact on air of their backgrounds. Pioneering DJs Al Benson, Nat D., and Jack the Rapper all used rhyming, the dozens and jive talk to pepper their broadcasts and were widely copied by white DJs like John Richbourg, Gene Nobles, and Bill Allen during the 1950s, and whose influence on James Brown and other godfathers of rap was formative, bebop was the backing track that modern jazz credits with being the foundation black appeal radio is based on.


title: Jazz rap

text: Groups making up the collective known as the Native Tongues tended toward jazzy releases: these include the Jungle Brothers' debut "Straight Out the Jungle" (Warlock, 1988) and A Tribe Called Quest's "People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm" (Jive, 1990) and "The Low End Theory" (Jive, 1991). "The Low End Theory" has become one of hip hop's most acclaimed albums, and also earned praise from jazz bassist Ron Carter, who played double bass on one track. De La Soul's "Buhloone Mindstate" (Tommy Boy, 1993) featured contributions from Maceo Parker, Fred Wesley, and Pee Wee Ellis, and samples from Eddie Harris, Lou Donaldson, Duke Pearson and Milt Jackson.


title: Jazz rap

text: Also of this period was Toronto-based Dream Warriors' 1991 release "And Now the Legacy Begins" (Island). It produced the hit singles "My Definition of a Boombastic Jazz Style" and "Wash Your Face in My Sink". The first of these was based on a loop taken from Quincy Jones' "Soul Bossa Nova", while the second sampled Count Basie's 1967 rendition of "Hang On Sloopy". Meanwhile, Los Angeles hip hop group Freestyle Fellowship pursued a different route of jazz influence in recordings with unusual time signatures and scat-influenced vocals.


title: Jazz rap

text: Though jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, jazz legend Miles Davis' final album (released posthumously in 1992), "Doo-Bop", featured hip hop beats and collaborations with producer Easy Mo Bee. Jazz musician Branford Marsalis collaborated with Gang Starr's DJ Premier on his Buckshot LeFonque project that same year. Between 1993 and 2000 fellow Gang Starr member Guru released "Jazzmatazz", which featured guest appearances from jazz artists such as Lonnie Liston Smith, Freddie Hubbard and Donald Byrd, amongst others.


title: Jazz rap

text: Musical jazz references became less obvious and less sustained, and lyrical references to jazz certainly more rare. However, jazz had been added to the palette of hip hop producers, and its influence continued throughout the 1990s whether behind the gritty street-tales of Nas ("Illmatic", Columbia, 1994), or backing the more bohemian sensibilities of acts such as The Roots, The Nonce, and Common. Since 2000 it can be detected in the work of producers such as J. Rawls, Nujabes, Fat Jon, Madlib, Kero One, and the English duo The Herbaliser. A project somewhat similar to Buckshot Le Fonque was Brooklyn Funk Essentials, a New York-based collective who also released their first LP in 1994. Prince himself contributed to the genre on some songs from 1991 to 1992, as well as with his New Power Generation album "Gold Nigga", which mixed jazz, funk and hip-hop and was released very confidentially.


title: Jazz rap

text: One hip hop project which continued to maintain a direct connection to jazz was Guru's "Jazzmatazz" series, which used live jazz musicians in the studio. Spanning from 1993 to 2007, its four volumes assembled jazz luminaries like Freddie Hubbard, Donald Byrd, Courtney Pine, Herbie Hancock, Kenny Garrett and Lonnie Liston Smith, and hip hop performers such as Kool Keith, MC Solaar, Common, and Guru's Gang Starr colleague DJ Premier.


title: Jazz rap

text: Madlib's 2003 release "Shades of Blue" paid homage to his Blue Note Records roots, where he samples from Blue Note's archives. The album also contains interpretations of Blue Note classics performed by Yesterdays New Quintet.


title: Jazz rap

text: In 2006, Bay Area producer/rapper Kero One independently released a jazz and funk influenced hiphop album named Windmills of the Soul, which stood out for infusing live saxophone, jazz guitar, electric piano, and other instruments with dusty samples and compelling lyrics, eventually selling over 30,000 copies worldwide and playing heavy rotation on college radio stations worldwide.


title: Jazz rap

text: In September 2014, Statik Selektah released his album "What Goes Around" with a notable jazz rap influence, unique among the actual rap atmosphere. Another recent jazz rap talent producer is Beats by the Pound (also known as The Medicine Men). In February 2015, Canadian jazz band Badbadnotgood released 'Sour Soul' with Wu-Tang Clan rapper Ghostface Killah. A month later, Kendrick Lamar released "To Pimp a Butterfly", which incorporates jazz, funk, and spoken word. In 2015, Irish rapper Kojaque released a series of jazz rap instrumentals on SoundCloud.


title: Injury Reserve

text: Injury Reserve is an American hip hop group formed in 2013 in Tempe, Arizona by rappers Stepa J. Groggs (Jordan Groggs), Ritchie with a T (Nathaniel Ritchie), and producer Parker Corey.


title: Injury Reserve

text: Injury Reserve was formed in 2013 by producer Parker Corey and rappers Stepa J. Groggs, and Ritchie with a T after Groggs was featured on Ritchie's mixtape produced by Corey. Ritchie first met Corey through a mutual friend in high school after looking for producers, and met Groggs in middle school when Groggs was working at a Foot Locker store in Phoenix.


title: Injury Reserve

text: In 2013, the group released "Depth Chart", their 15-track debut concept mixtape. There was a music video released for "Harvey Dent" to promote the project. Most tracks were based on the premise of a basketball player being drafted. It was released through digital platforms such as Audiomack, but was delisted after the subsequent media attention from 2015's "Live from the Dentist Office". It was a relatively unknown release with very little press or media attention, garnering them not much of an audience.


title: Injury Reserve

text: In 2014, the group released "Cooler Colors", a 7-track EP, led by singles, "Black Sheep", "Groundhog Day", and "How Bout You". It was released through digital platforms such as Audiomack, but was delisted in the same fashion as "Depth Chart". The group doesn't refer to these projects as their debuts, and instead refers to "Live from the Dentist Office" as their debut.


title: Injury Reserve

text: In 2015, the group self-released "Live from the Dentist Office", their 11-track breakout mixtape with features from Chuck Inglish, Curtis Williams, Glass Popcorn, and Demi Hughes. The mixtape was released through multiple digital platforms such as SoundCloud, iTunes, Tidal, and Spotify. Physical copies of the project were later sold through Injury Reserve's online store. "Live from the Dentist Office" generally received acclaim from music critics.


title: Injury Reserve

text: On December 15, 2016, Injury Reserve released their second mixtape titled "Floss", released again through a variety of digital platforms to similar acclaim. The mixtape featured Vic Mensa and Cakes da Killa. Both projects were actually recorded in a dental office belonging to producer Parker Corey's grandfather.


title: Injury Reserve

text: On September 29, 2017, the group released an EP titled "Drive It Like It's Stolen", preceded by the singles, "North Pole" (featuring Austin Feinstein), "See You Sweat", and "Boom (X3)". All of the singles were released with accompanying music videos. They joined Ho99o9 and The Underachievers on separate tours in 2017. In 2018, the group embarked on their first headlining tour, accompanied by Baltimore artist Freddie Gibbs for its second half, and were featured on the Aminé single "Campfire".


title: Injury Reserve

text: On September 6, 2018, the group released a statement through their social media, stating they signed a record label with Loma Vista, helmed by A&R, Kyambo "Hip Hop" Joshua, and they'd be releasing their debut album under the label. On May 17, 2019, the group released their self-titled debut album to generally favorable reviews. Following their debut album, the group embarked on a world headlining tour.


title: Injury Reserve

text: Stepa J. Groggs died on June 29, 2020, at age 32. The group announced his death on their Twitter account, mourning "a loving father, life partner and friend." No cause of death has been released. Since Groggs's death, the group has been featured on songs by Dos Monos, Tony Velour and Aminé.


title: Injury Reserve

text: On September 15, 2021, the group self-released their second studio album, "By the Time I Get to Phoenix", led by the singles, "Knees", and "Superman That". The album features Bruiser Brigade rapper ZelooperZ, and was engineered by Zeroh. Shortly following the release, the group embarked on a worldwide tour, alongside Slauson Malone and Colloboh on the US leg. Initially, Zeroh was the supporting act alongside Slauson Malone, but was replaced with Colloboh due to unforeseen circumstances.


title: Injury Reserve

text: In an interview with "Huck Magazine", interviewer Thomas Hobbs asked Ritchie with a T if the group could continue without Stepa J. Groggs, responding that, "I can imagine him joking and saying: 'Y'all better still do this shit!'. But then I can also imagine him saying: 'You better not step on a stage without me!'. We're still figuring it out... We've not had an explicit conversation about continuing the group, but me and Parker will continue to create together [in some capacity]."


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Nadi is an important concept in Hindu philosophy, mentioned and described in the sources, some as much as 3,000 years old. The number of nadis of the human body is claimed to be up to hundreds-of-thousands and even millions. The "Shiva Samhita" treatise on yoga states, for example, that out of 350,000 nadis 14 are particularly important, and among them, the three just mentioned are the three most vital. The three principal nadis are "ida", "pingala", and "sushumna". "Ida" (इडा, iḍā "comfort") lies to the left of the spine, whereas "pingala" (पिङ्गल, piṅgala "orange", "tawny", "golden", "solar") is to the right side of the spine, mirroring the ida. "Sushumna" (सुषुम्णा, suṣumṇā "very gracious", "kind") runs along the spinal cord in the center, through the seven chakras. When the channels are unblocked by the action of yoga, the energy of kundalini uncoils and rises up the "sushumna" from the base of the spine.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: The nadis play a role in yoga, as many yogic practices, including shatkarmas, mudras and pranayama, are intended to open and unblock the nadis. The ultimate aim of some yogic practices are to direct prana into the sushumna nadi specifically, enabling kundalini to rise, and thus bring about moksha, or liberation.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Several of the ancient Upanishads use the concept of nadis (channels). The nadi system is mentioned in the "Chandogya Upanishad" (8~6 cc. BCE), verse 8.6.6. and in verses 3.6-3.7 of the "Prasna Upanishad" (second half of the 1 millennium BC). As stated in the last,


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: The medieval "Sat-Cakra-Nirupana" (1520s), one of the later and more fully developed classical texts on nadis and chakras, refers to these three main nadis by the names Sasi, Mihira, and Susumna.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: In hatha yoga theory, nadis carry prana, life force energy. In the physical body, the nadis are channels carrying air, water, nutrients, blood and other bodily fluids around and are similar to the arteries, veins, capillaries, bronchioles, nerves, lymph canals and so on. In the subtle and the causal body, the nadis are channels for so-called cosmic, vital, seminal, mental, intellectual, etc. energies (collectively described as "prana") and are important for sensations, consciousness and the spiritual aura.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Yoga texts disagree on the number of nadis in the human body. The "Hatha Yoga Pradipika" and "Goraksha Samhita" quote 72,000 nadis, each branching off into another 72,000 nadis, whereas the "Shiva Samhita" states 350,000 nadis arise from the navel center, and the "Katha Upanishad" (6.16) says that 101 channels radiate from the heart.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: The Ida and Pingala nadis are sometimes in modern readings interpreted as the two hemispheres of the brain. Pingala is the extroverted (Active), solar nadi, and corresponds to the right side of the body and the left side of the brain. Ida is the introverted, lunar nadi, and corresponds to the left side of the body and the right side of the brain.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: "Sushumna" is the central and most important channel. It connects the base chakra to the crown chakra. It is important in Yoga and Tantra.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Ida is associated with lunar energy. The word "ida" means "comfort" in Sanskrit. Idā has a moonlike nature and feminine energy with a cooling effect. It courses from the left testicle to the left nostril and corresponds to the Ganges river.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Pingala is associated with solar energy. The word "pingala" means "orange" or "tawny" in Sanskrit. Pingala has a sunlike nature and masculine energy. Its temperature is heating and courses from the right testicle to the right nostril. It corresponds to the river Yamuna.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: The purpose of yoga is moksha, liberation and hence immortality in the state of samadhi, union, which is the meaning of "yoga" as described in the Patanjalayayogasastra. This is obstructed by blockages in the nadis, which allow the vital air, prana, to languish in the Ida and Pingala channels. The unblocking of the channels is therefore a vital function of yoga. The various practices of yoga, including the preliminary purifications or satkarmas, the yogic seals or mudras, visualisation, breath restraint or pranayama, and the repetition of mantras work together to force the prana to move from the Ida and Pingala into the central Sushumna channel. The mudras in particular close off various openings, thus trapping prana and directing it towards the Sushumna. This allows kundalini to rise up the Sushumna channel, leading to liberation.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Systems based on Traditional Chinese Medicine work with an energy concept called "qi", analogous to "prana". Qi travels through meridians analogous to the nadis. The microcosmic orbit practice has many similarities to certain Indian nadi shuddha (channel clearing) exercises and the practice of Kriya Yoga.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Tibetan medicine borrows many concepts from Yoga through the influence of Tantric Buddhism. One of the Six Yogas of Naropa is a cleansing of the central channel called phowa, preparing the soul to leave the body through the sagittal suture.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: The Vajrayana practice of Trul Khor is another practice used to direct and control the flow of energy within the body's energetic meridians through breath control and physical postures.


title: Nadi (yoga)

text: Sometimes the three main nadis are related to the Caduceus of Hermes: "the two snakes of which symbolize the kundalini or serpent-fire which is presently to be set in motion along those channels, while the wings typify the power of conscious flight through higher planes which the development of that fire confers".


title: Nawab

text: Urdu: ), also spelled Nawaab, Navaab, Navab, Nowab, Nabob, Nawaabshah, Nawabshah or Nobab, is a Royal title indicating a sovereign ruler, often of a South Asian state, in many ways comparable to the western title of Prince. The relationship of a Nawab to the Emperor of India has been compared to that of the Kings of Saxony to the German Emperor. In earlier times the title was ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of subdivisions or princely states in the Indian subcontinent loyal to the Mughal Empire, for example the Nawabs of Bengal. The title is common among Muslim rulers of South Asia as an equivalent to the title Maharaja.


title: Nawab

text: "Nawab" usually refers to males and literally means "Viceroy"; the female equivalent is "Begum" or ""Nawab Begum"". The primary duty of a Nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province.


title: Nawab

text: The title of "nawabi" was also awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similar to a British peerage, to persons and families who ruled a princely state for various services to the government of British India. In some cases, the titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs, or sardars, of large or important tribes were also given the title, in addition to traditional titles already held by virtue of chieftainship.


title: Nawab

text: The term ""Zamindari"" was originally used for the "subahdar" (provincial governor) or viceroy of a "subah" (province) or regions of the Mughal empire.


title: Nawab

text: Nawab is a Hindustani term, used in Urdu, Hindi, Bengali and many other North-Indian languages, borrowed via Persian from the Arabic honorific plural of "naib", or "deputy." In some areas, especially Bengal, the term is pronounced "nobab". This later variation has also entered English and other foreign languages as nabob.


title: Nawab

text: The term "Nawaab" is often used to refer to any Muslim ruler in north or south India while the term "nizam" is preferred for a senior official—it literally means "governor of region". The Nizam of Hyderabad had several nawabs under him: Nawabs of Cuddapah, Sira, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Chicacole, et al. "Nizam" was his personal title, awarded by the Mughal Government and based on the term "Nazim" as meaning "senior officer". "Nazim" is still used for a district collector in many parts of India. The term "nawab" is still technically imprecise, as the title was also awarded to Hindus and Sikhs, as well, and large zamindars and not necessarily to all Muslim rulers. With the decline of that empire, the title, and the powers that went with it, became hereditary in the ruling families in the various provinces.


title: Nawab

text: Under later British rule, nawabs continued to rule various princely states of Amb, Bahawalpur, Balasinor, Baoni, Banganapalle, Bhopal, Cambay, Jaora, Junagadh, Kurnool (the main city of Deccan), Kurwai, Mamdot, Multan, Palanpur, Pataudi, Radhanpur, Rampur, Malerkotla, Sachin, and Tonk. Other former rulers bearing the title, such as the nawabs of Bengal and Awadh, had been deprived by the British or others by the time the Mughal dynasty finally ended in 1857.


title: Nawab

text: Some princes became Nawab by promotion, e.g. the ruler of Palanpur was "diwan" until 1910, then "nawab sahib". Other nawabs were promoted are restyled to another princely style, or to and back, e.g. in Rajgarh a single rawat (rajah) went by nawab.


title: Nawab

text: The style for a nawab's queen is "begum". Most of the nawab dynasties were male primogenitures, although several ruling Begums of Bhopal were a notable exception.


title: Nawab

text: Before the incorporation of the Subcontinent into the British Empire, nawabs ruled the kingdoms of Awadh (or Oudh, encouraged by the British to shed the Mughal suzerainty and assume the imperial style of Badshah), Bengal, Arcot and Bhopal.


title: Nawab

text: All of these states were at some point under the authority of the Nawab of Rohilkhand, later made the Nawab of Rampur. Most of these states were annexed at the close of the First Rohilla War.


title: Nawab

text: The title "nawab" was also awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similarly to a British peerage, to persons and families who never ruled a princely state. For the Muslim elite various Mughal-type titles were introduced, including nawab. Among the noted British creations of this type were Nawab Hashim Ali Khan (1858–1940), Nawab Khwaja Abdul Ghani (1813–1896), Nawab Abdul Latif (1828–1893), Nawab Faizunnesa Choudhurani (1834–1904), Nawab Ali Chowdhury (1863–1929), Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda (1862–1922), Nawab Sirajul Islam (1848–1923), Nawab Alam yar jung Bahadur, M.A, Madras, B.A., B.C.L., Barr-At-Law (1890–1974). There also were the Nawabs of Dhanbari, Nawabs of Ratanpur, Nawabs of Baroda and such others.


title: Nawab

text: "Nawab" was also the rank title—again not an office—of a much lower class of Muslim nobles—in fact retainers—at the court of the Nizam of Hyderabad and Berar State, ranking only above Khan Bahadur and Khan, but under (in ascending order) Jang, Daula, Mulk, Umara and Jah; the equivalent for Hindu courtiers was Raja Bahadur.


title: Nawab

text: This style, adding the Persian suffix "-zada" which means son (or other male descendants; see other cases in prince), etymologically fits a nawab’s sons, but in actual practice various dynasties established other customs.


title: Nawab

text: For example, in Bahawalpur only the nawbab's heir apparent used "nawabzada" before his personal name, then "Khan Abassi", finally "Wali Ahad Bahadur" (an enhancement of Wali Ehed), while the other sons of the ruling nawab used the style sahibzada before the personal name and only Khan Abassi behind. "Nawabzadi" implies daughters of the reigning nawbab.


title: Nawab

text: The word "naib" () has been historically used to refer to any suzerain leader, feudatory, or regent in some parts of the Ottoman Empire, successive early modern Persianate kingdoms (Safavids, etc.), and in the eastern Caucasus (e.g. during Caucasian Imamate). In the Sultanate of Morocco, the Naib was the Sultan's emissary to the foreign legations in Tangier between 1848 and 1923, when the creation of the Tangier International Zone led to its replacement by the office of the Mendoub.


title: Nawab

text: Today, the word is used to refer to directly elected legislators in lower houses of parliament in many Arabic-speaking areas to contrast them against officers of upper houses (or Shura). The term Majlis al-Nuwwab (, literally "council of deputies") has been adopted as the name of several legislative lower houses and unicameral legislatures.


title: Nawab

text: "Naib" has also been used in the Malay language (especially of the Malaysian variant) to translate the component of "deputy" or "vice" in certain titles (e.g "Vice President" - "Naib Presiden") aside from "timbalan" and "wakil" (latter predominant in the Indonesian variant).


title: Nawab

text: In colloquial usage in English (since 1612), adopted in other Western languages, the transliteration "nabob" refers to commoners: a merchant-leader of high social status and wealth. "Nabob" derives from the Bengali pronunciation of "nawab": "nôbab".


title: Nawab

text: During the 18th century in particular, it was widely used as a disparaging term for British merchants or administrators who, having made a fortune in India, returned to Britain and aspired to be recognised as having the higher social status that their new wealth would enable them to maintain. Jos Sedley in Thackeray's "Vanity Fair" is probably the best known example in fiction.


title: Nawab

text: From this specific usage it came to be sometimes used for ostentatiously rich businesspeople in general.


title: Nawab

text: "Nabob" can also be used metaphorically for people who have a grandiose sense of their own importance, as in the famous alliterative dismissal of the news media as ""nattering nabobs of negativism"" in a speech that was delivered by Nixon's vice president Spiro Agnew and written by William Safire.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union () or Soviet nostalgia is a social phenomenon of nostalgia for the Soviet era (1922–1991), whether for its politics, its society, its culture, its superpower status, or simply its aesthetics. Such nostalgia occurs among people in Russia and other post-Soviet states, as well as among people born in the Soviet Union but long since living abroad, and even among Communists and Soviet sympathizers from elsewhere in the world. It is associated with Soviet patriotism.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: In 2004, the television channel Nostalgiya, its logo featuring stylized hammer-and-sickle imagery, was launched in Russia.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: Ever since the fall of the USSR and the Eastern Bloc, annual polling by the Levada Center has shown that over 50 percent of Russia's population lamented its collapse, with the only exception to this being in the year 2012 when support for the Soviet Union dipped below 50 percent. A 2018 poll showed that 66% of Russians regretted the fall of the Soviet Union, setting a 15-year record, and the majority of these regretting opinions came from people older than 55.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: In Armenia, 12% of respondents said the USSR collapse did good, while 66% said it did harm. In Kyrgyzstan, 16% of respondents said the collapse of the USSR did good, while 61% said it did harm. A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin".


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: A poll conducted in 2019 found that 59% of Russians believe the Soviet government "took care of ordinary people". A poll conducted in 2020 found that 75% of Russians believe the Soviet era was "the greatest time" in the country's history.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: According to polls, what is missed most about the former Soviet Union was its shared economic system, which provided financial stability. Neoliberal economic reforms after the fall of the USSR and the Eastern Bloc resulted in harsh living standards for the general population. Policies associated with privatization allowed much of the country's economy to fall in the hands of a newly established business oligarchy. The sense of belonging to a great superpower was a secondary reason for the nostalgia; many felt humiliated and betrayed by their experiences throughout the 1990s and blamed the upheaval on advisors from Western powers, especially as NATO moved closer into Russia's sphere of influence.


title: Nostalgia for the Soviet Union

text: According to the Levada Center poll (November 2016), the people mainly miss the Soviet Union because of the destruction of the joint economic system of its 15 republics (53%); people lost the feeling of belonging to a great power (43%); mutual distrust and cruelty have increased (31%); the feeling that you are at home in any part of the USSR was lost (30%); and connection with friends, relatives lost (28%). Levada Center sociologist Karina Pipiya says that economic factors played the most significant part in rising nostalgia for the USSR in the 2018 poll, as opposed to loss of prestige or national identity, noting that a strong majority of Russians "regret that there used to be more social justice and that the government worked for the people and that it was better in terms of care for citizens and paternalistic expectations." A June 2019 Levada Center poll found that 59% of Russians felt that the Soviet government "took care of ordinary people". Joseph Stalin's favorability also hit record highs the spring of that year.


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: Tang Jun-sang (; born on August 13, 2003) is a South Korean-born Malaysian actor. He gained recognition for his role in the television series "Crash Landing on You" (2019–20) and leading role in both "Move to Heaven" (2021) and "Racket Boys" (2021).


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: Tang was born in Seoul to a Chinese Malaysian father and a South Korean mother, with Tang holding South Korean citizenship after his mother.


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: Tang made his debut as a musical actor "Billy Elliot" in 2010 at the age of 7, after which he continued playing in musicals such as "Eileigh Seabed", "West Pyeonje", "KinkyBoots" and "Assassin".


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: In 2014, Tang made his drama debut in "Pluto Secret Order" as Lee Seo Jin and continued to play supporting roles in various movies and dramas.


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: He gained recognition for his role as Geum Eun Dong – a young North Korean soldier in "Crash Landing on You" (2019–2020) which became the highest rated tvN drama and the third highest-rated South Korean TV drama in cable television history.


title: Tang Jun-sang

text: In 2021, Tang starred in Netflix original series "Move to Heaven" playing the leading role Han Geu-ru, a young man with Asperger syndrome, alongside Lee Je-hoon. In the same year, he played a leading role in the television series "Racket Boys" for which he received Best Young Actor Award at 2021 SBS Drama Awards.


title: Milarepa

text: Jetsun Milarepa (, 1028/40–1111/23) was a Tibetan siddha, who was famously known as a murderer when he was a young man, before turning to Buddhism and becoming a highly accomplished Buddhist disciple. He is generally considered one of Tibet's most famous yogis and spiritual poets, whose teachings are known among several schools of Tibetan Buddhism. He was a student of Marpa Lotsawa, and a major figure in the history of the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. He is also famous for the feat of climbing Mount Kailash.


title: Milarepa

text: Milarepa's life-story is famous in Tibetan culture, and retold many times. The best-known biography, "The Life of Milarepa", written by Tsangnyön Heruka (1452–1507) in the fifteenth century and drawing from older biographies, is still very popular. Most of the present-day stories on Milarepa come from this single source, with oral lineage predominating as well as relics including his bearskin coat. While "very little [is known] about him as a historical person at all," Milarepa is venerated by all Tibetan schools "as an exemplar of religious dedication and mastery," and his life story established the lineage of the Kagyu sect and its key figures.


title: Milarepa

text: According to "The Life of Milarepa", Milarepa was born in western Tibet to a prosperous family. When his father died, his family was deprived of their wealth by his aunt and uncle. At his mother's request, Milarepa left home and studied sorcery to take revenge, killing many people.


title: Milarepa

text: Later he felt sorrow about his deeds, and became a student of Marpa the Translator. Before Marpa would teach Milarepa, he had him undergo abuse and trials, such as letting him build and then demolish three towers in turn. Milarepa was asked to build one final multi-story tower by Marpa at Lhodrag, which still stands. Eventually, Marpa accepted him, explaining that the trials were a means to purify Milarepa's negative karma. Marpa transmitted Tantric initiations and instructions to Milarepa, including "tummo" ("yogic heat"), the "aural transmissions" (), and "mahamudra". Marpa told Milarepa to practice solitary meditation in caves and mountain retreats, which, according to the biography, after many years of practice resulted in "a deep experiential realization about the true nature of reality." In some other sources, it is said that Milarepa and Marpa both came to India to seek one most important thing for ultimate realisation from Marpa's guru, but even he didn't know about it. Later on he tried for many years and finally attained enlightenment. Thereafter he lived as a fully realized yogi, and eventually even forgave his aunt, who caused his family's misfortune.


title: Milarepa

text: According to Lopez, "The Life of Milarepa" represents "Buddhism as it was understood and practiced in Tibet in the fifteenth century, projected back in time," and contains "many of the key terms and doctrines of Buddhism." Tsangnyön Heruka did his best to establish a lineage of teachers which connects the Kagyu tradition with the Indian "siddha" tradition, portraying Marpa as a student of Naropa, though Naropa had already died when Marpa went to India.


title: Milarepa

text: Lopez notes that Tsangnyön Heruka used stylistic elements from the biography of Gautama Buddha to portray Milarepa effectively as a Tibetan Buddha, "born and enlightened in Tibet, without going to India or receiving the direct instructions of an Indian master." The life story of Milarepa portrays "the rapid method of the Tantric path," in which liberation is gained in one lifetime. It describes how Milarepa practiced the generation stage and completion stage, to achieve "mahamudra", "spontaneous realization of the most profound nature of mind." Yet, in his instructions to his Tibetan audiences, Milarepa refers to the basic Buddhist teachings of "impermanence, the sufferings of "saṃsāra", the certainty of death and the uncertainty of its arrival, the frightful rebirth that is the direct result of our benighted deeds." But, his own life also is an example that even a murderer can transform into a Buddha. Lopez further notes that "The Life of Milarepa" portrays two parallel worlds, a profane world and a sacred world, which are ultimately one, showing that the world itself is sacred.


title: Milarepa

text: Gampopa was Milarepa’s most renowned student. Four of Gampopa’s students founded the four major branches of the Kagyu lineage: Barom Kagyu, Karma Kagyu, Phagdru Kagyu, and Tshalpa Kagyu. Another of Milarepa’s students, the yogi Rechungpa, brought several important transmissions into the Karma Kagyu lineage. Along with Gampopa, Rechungpa was a teacher of the 1st Karmapa Dusum Khyenpa (1110-1193). Upon meeting Dusum Khyenpa, Gampopa told his students, “He is pretending to be a disciple of mine in order to hold my lineage for future sentient beings, but in actuality, he has already accomplished the goal of the path.”


title: Milarepa

text: Previous biographies of Milarepa were enlarged with religious poetry and song cycles, which doubled the volume of biographical information. Collected for publication in English translation by the Oriental Studies Foundation in 1962, in 1999 these songs were re-published in a separate volume entitled "The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa" translated and annotated by Garma C.C. Chang, then in 2017 a new translation by Christopher Stagg of the Nitartha Translation Network, both published by Shambhala. These summarize the various song cycles in chapter eleven of "The Life of Milarepa".


title: Milarepa

text: Milarepa lived during the so-called second dissemination of Buddhism in Tibet (10th–12th century), when Buddhism was re-introduced. Three pivotal figures in this Tibetan Renaissance were Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055), who translated sutras, tantras and commentaries; Atiśa (982–1054), whose student Dromtön founded the Kadam school of Tibetan Buddhism; and Marpa the Translator, the teacher of Milarepa, and himself regarded as student of Naropa. Marpa introduced tantric texts and oral instructions from the Bengali siddha tradition into Tibet, and Marpa's purported connection with Naropa established the lineage of the Kagyu school, thereby reaching back to the Buddha himself.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Anglia (German and Low German: "Angeln"; Danish and South Jutlandic: "Angel"; ) is a small peninsula on the eastern coast of Jutland (the Cimbric Peninsula). Jutland consists of the mainland of Denmark and the northernmost German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Anglia belongs to the region of Southern Schleswig, which constitutes the northern part of Schleswig-Holstein, and protrudes into the Bay of Kiel of the Baltic Sea.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: To the south, Anglia is separated from the neighbouring peninsula of Swania (Ger. "Schwansen", Dan. "Svans" or "Svansø") by the Sly Firth (Ger. "Schlei", Dan. "Sli"), and to the north from the Danish peninsula of Sundeved (Ger. "Sundewitt") and the Danish island of Als (Ger. "Alsen") by the Flensburg Firth (Ger. "Flensburger Förde", Dan. "Flensborg Fjord"). The landscape is hilly, dotted with numerous lakes. Whether ancient Anglia conformed to the borders of the Anglian Peninsula is uncertain. It may have been somewhat larger; however, the ancient sources mainly concur that it also included the peninsula's territory.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Anglia has a significance far beyond its current small area and country terrain, in that it is believed to have been the original home of the Angles, Germanic settlers in East Anglia, Central and Northern England, and the Eastern Scottish Lowlands. Their migration led to their new homeland being named after them, from which the name "England" derives. England, East, Mid and West Anglia as well as the English language, thus, ultimately derive at least their names from Anglia.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Glücksburg Castle in Glücksburg in the north of Anglia, is the seat of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, of which the future kings of the United Kingdom are patrilineal members.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The German word "Angeln" has been hypothesised to originate from the Germanic Proto-Indo-European root ', meaning "narrow", meaning here "the Narrow [Water]", i.e. the Sly Firth; the root would be ', "tight" (compare Ger. and Dutch "eng" = "narrow", "England" = Ger. "England", "narrow land" = Ger. "enges Land").


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The "-n"-ending is the most common ending for geographical regions in German, comparable to the English endings "-ia" and "-y": "Croatia" = "Kroatien", "Italy" = "Italien".


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: In German, the word "Angeln" has three other meanings: as a verb, "angeln" means "to angle". It is written with a capitalized initial letter in its nominalized form: "das Angeln" (n) = "(the) angling" (compare "(the) fishing" = "das Fischen" (n) or "die Fischerei" (f)).


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: When used with the plural article, "Angeln" means "fishing rods": "die Angel" (long form: "die Angelrute") (f) = "the fishing rod", "die Angeln" ("die Angelruten") (p) = "the fishing rods".


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Finally, the term "Angeln" also refers to the people of the Angles: "die Angeln" (p) = "the Angles", while Eng. "the angel" = Ger. "der Engel" (m), "the angle" = "der Winkel" (m), "the angler" = "der Angler" (m), and "the fisherman" = "der Fischer" (m).


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: There is also a theory that "Angeln" meant "hook" (as in angling for fish), in reference to the shape of the peninsula. Compare Old Norse "ǫngull" and Modern Nynorsk "angel" or "ongel", with the meaning (fish) hook, cognate with English "angle".


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: It is also possible that the Angles may have been called such because they were a fishing people or were originally descended from such.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Together with Swania (Ger. "Schwansen", Dan. "Svans" or "Svansø"), Danish Wahld (Ger. "Dänischer Wohld", Dan. "Jernved") and Wagria (Ger. "Wagrien", Dan. "Vagrien"), Anglia is one of four peninsulas along the Baltic Sea coast of the northernmost German federal state of Schleswig-Holstein.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: As part of the Schleswig-Holstein Morainic Uplands (Ger. "Schleswig-Holsteinisches Moränenhügelland"), that were formed during the Weichselian glaciation, these peninsulas are hilly and dotted with several glacial lakes. The Anglian glacial lakes form the North Anglian Lake Group (Ger. "Nordangeliter Seengruppe"). The River Treene (Dan. "Trenen") with its main headstream Bondenau (Dan. "Bondeåen") rises in Anglia. Although rising on the Anglian Peninsula in the Baltic Sea, the Treene flows towards the North Sea, being the main tributary of the River Eider (Dan. "Ejderen"), the river that constituted the Southern border of the Danish Realm for a very long time. The northernmost part of Anglia is formed by the Holnis (Dan. "Holnæs") Peninsula that protrudes into the Flensburg Firth.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Apart from Flensburg, which is an independent town, the Anglian Peninsula belongs to the district of Schleswig-Flensburg (Dan. "Slesvig-Flensborg"), Germany's northeasternmost district (seat: Schleswig (Slesvig). This comparatively rural district has approximately 200 025 inhabitants (as of 31 December 2018).


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The main language of Anglia is German. The peninsula is, however, also part of the language area of Low German (Low Saxon), which is more closely related to English than German is, since it was not affected by the High German consonant shift.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Danish was the main language of Anglia from the 9th century to the 19th century. The Danish variety indigenous to Anglia was (Dan. "Angeldansk" or "Angelbomål", Ger. "Angeldänisch"), a dialect of South Jutlandic ("Synnejysk", Dan. "Sønderjysk", Ger. "Südjütisch" or "Südjütländisch"), the southernmost variety of Danish spoken on the Jutland Peninsula, once spoken as far south as Eckernförde- (Dan. " or Egernfjord-") on the Eckernförde Bay (Ger. "", Dan. ""). In the 19th century, however, a language shift towards Low German occurred.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Danish is still spoken in Anglia by a minority, but in Southern Schleswig Danish dialects, which are not dialects of South Jutlandic, but German-influenced dialects of Standard Danish. The cities with the largest Danish-speaking minorities are Flensburg (Flensborg), Schleswig (Slesvig) and Glücksburg (Lyksborg).


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Many Anglian placenames are of Danish origin, including placenames ending in "-" ("city"), such as Brodersby-Goltoft, Flensburg- (Flensborg-Engelsby), Flensburg- (Flensborg-Jørgensby), Nieby (Nyby); and placenames ending in "-rup" ("village"), such as Sörup (Sørup), Sterup, Tastrup (Tostrup). There are many placenames of Danish origin in England as well, such as Derby, Rugby or Whitby), but in Danish, German and Swedish "-by" is pronounced , not as in England.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: North Frisian, one of the Frisian languages that form the group of Anglo-Frisian languages together with English, is spoken in many dialectal variants in neighbouring North Frisia along the North Sea coast of Schleswig-Holstein and on the North Frisian Islands.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The region was home to the Germanic people, the Angles, some of whom, together with Saxons and Jutes, left their homeland to migrate to the island of Great Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. For the years 449–455, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", written around 890, describes how King Vortigern, a British king, invited the Angles to come and receive land in return for helping him defend his realm against marauding Picts. Those successful Angles sent word back that good land was available and that the British were "worthless". A wholesale emigration of Angles and kindred German peoples followed.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The "Chronicle", commissioned by King Alfred the Great, drew on earlier oral traditions and on the few written fragments available. The best of these, written around 730, was by the monk Bede, whose history of English Christianity contains the following brief account of the origin and distribution of the Angles:


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: The phrase "north of the Humber" refers to the northern kingdom of Northumbria, which included most of northern England and part of southern Scotland. Mercia was located in central England and broadly corresponds to the English Midlands.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: This account can be related to the evidence of archaeology, notably the distribution of types of "fibulae", or brooches, worn by both men and women in antiquity. Eastern and northern Britain were settled by groups wearing cruciform brooches, of the style in fashion at the time in coastal Scandinavia, Denmark, and Schleswig-Holstein south to the lower Elbe and east to the Oder, as well as a pocket in coastal Friesland.


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: After the Angles departed from Anglia, by the 8th century the region was occupied by Danes. This is reflected in the large number of place names ending in "-by" (meaning "city") in the region today. In the 10th century, the chronicler Æthelweard reports that the most important town in Anglia was Hedeby (Ger. "Haithabu").


title: Anglia (peninsula)

text: Later Anglia's history is subsumed in that of the larger surrounding region, which came to be known as Southern Jutland or Schleswig (Dan. "Slesvig"). Until the 19th century the area belonged to Denmark. In terms of ethnic and linguistic heritage the countryside spoke a Danish dialect until the early 1800s after which Low German spread northwards, whereas the towns spoke Low German from the late medieval era. Denmark lost Schleswig to Austria and Prussia in 1864 as a result of the Second Schleswig War. In 1920, following Germany's defeat in the First World War, a plebiscite was held to determine which areas should return to Danish control. As a result of the plebiscite, the northern part of Schleswig returned to Denmark, but Anglia remained in Germany. See Schleswig-Holstein Question for a detailed history.


title: UMTAS

text: UMTAS or Mizrak-U "(Uzun Menzilli Tanksavar Sistemi)" is a modern long range air-to-surface anti-tank guided missile developed by Turkish armor and missile manufacturer Roketsan.


title: UMTAS

text: The UMTAS program was begun in late 2003 by Turkey's Undersecretariat for Defence Industries (SSM), specifically to provide TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK combat helicopters with an indigenous guided missile.


title: UMTAS

text: The UMTAS has been designed to engage tanks and heavily armoured vehicles. It can be integrated in various platforms, including helicopters, UAVs, land vehicles, stationary platforms, light assault aircraft, ships.


title: UMTAS

text: The UMTAS missile has "fire and forget" and "fire and update" infrared guidance with a tandem anti-tank warfare warhead. The laser guided version is marketed as the L-UMTAS. İsmail Demir, the Head of Defence Industry of Turkiye stated that it can engage targets at 16 kilometers.


title: UMTAS

text: The L-UMTAS and UMTAS version have been integrated and fired successfully from helicopters: a Turkish TAI/AgustaWestland T129 ATAK against land targets, and a US Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk against sea targets.


title: UMTAS

text: A UMTAS was test dropped successfully from a Baykar Bayraktar TB2 unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV). The missile was released at an altitude of 16,000 ft to hit a 2×2 meter target self laser designated from the drone, from 8 kilometres away. These missile tests may be a step in a related program to use MAM weapons with Bayraktar drones.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: "" (, ) is the national anthem of Bangladesh. An ode to Mother Bengal, the lyrics were written by Bengali polymath Rabindranath Tagore in 1905, while the melody of the hymn was adopted from the Baul singer Gagan Harkara's song "Ami Kothay Pabo Tare" () set to Dadra Tala. The modern instrumental rendition was arranged by Bangladeshi musician Samar Das.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The word literally means "made of gold", with meaning gold, and showing possession. It is used as a term of endearment meaning "beloved", but in the song the words may be interpreted to express the preciousness of Bengal.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The song was written in 1905 during the first partition of Bengal, when the ruling British Empire had an undivided province of Bengal Presidency split into two parts; the decision was announced on 20 July by the then-Viceroy of India Lord Curzon, taking effect on 16 October. This divide of Bengal, being along communal lines–East Bengal and Assam having a majority of Muslims and West Bengal having a majority of Hindus–is claimed to have undermined India's national movement against the UK's imperialism and to have been politically motivated. Along with a host of others, songs such as this were meant to rekindle the unified spirit of Bengal, to raise public consciousness against the communal political divide. The lyrics first appeared in the September issues of "Bongodorshon" and "Baul" simultaneously, in 1905. The song along with the musical notation (referred to as in Bengali), first appeared in the periodical musical journal "Shongeet Biggnan Probeshika" in the same month and year. Indira Devi, Tagore's niece, Satyendranath Tagore's daughter, jotted down the musical notation hearing it from Tagore himself (this was the common norm, Tagore singing the song, and someone formally jotting down the musical notations).


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The first ten (10) lines of this song constitute Bangladesh's national anthem, adopted in 1971 during its liberation war. Only those lines are given in the following section. The instrumental orchestra rendition was composed by Samar Das.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The following provides the lyrics of the "" as written by Rabindranath Tagore. Only the first ten lines of this song currently constitute Bangladesh's national anthem.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The following are the lyrics of the national anthem as sung, which differ slightly from the original poem.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The Ministry of Cultural Affairs planned to stage an event on Bangladesh's 44th independence day, in a bid to have the world record of the most people singing a national anthem simultaneously. Consequently, on 2 March, the ministry launched a program titled ""Lakho Konthe Sonar Bangla"" whose main objective was to hold an event with the cooperation of Bangladesh Armed Forces where approximately 300,000 people would sing the national anthem. Several popular Bangladeshi musicians and cultural groups later joined the program.


title: Amar Sonar Bangla

text: The record was broken at 11:20 on 26 March 2014 by 254,537 participants at Dhaka's National Parade Ground. The event was attended by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh, Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, and all the members of the cabinet. After receiving the required evidence, the Guinness Book of World Records approved the record on 9 April 2014. The record was broken by India on 21 January 2017.


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: In sociology, a dyad is a group of two people, the smallest possible social group. As an adjective, "dyadic" describes their interaction.


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: The pair of individuals in a dyad can be linked via romantic interest, family relation, interests, work, partners in crime, and so on. The relation can be based on equality, but may be based on an asymmetrical or hierarchical relationship (master–servant).


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: The strength of the relationship is evaluated on the basis of time the individuals spend together, as well as on the emotional intensity of their relationship. The term dyad is from .


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: A dyad can be unstable because both persons must cooperate to make it work. If one of the two fails to complete their duties, the group would fall apart. Because of the significance of marriages in society, their stability is very important. For this reason marital dyads are often enforced through legal, economic, and religious laws.


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: Dyadic friendships refer to the most immediate and concrete level of peer interaction, which is expanded to include new forms of relationships in adolescence – most notably, romantic and sexual relationships. Already Ferdinand Tönnies treated it as a special pattern of "gemeinschaft", 1887, as "community of spirit".


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: Dyad means two things of similar kind or nature or group and dyadic communication means the inter-relationship between the two. In practice, this relationship refers to dialogic relations or face-to-face verbal communication between two people involving their mutual ideas, thought, behavior, ideals, liking, disliking, and the queries and answers concerning life and living in nature. A sudden communication between two strangers in the street and not continued afterwards or not having lasting aftereffect on each other can not be termed as dyadic communication. Examples of dyadic communication occur between Jesus and Peter, the Buddha and Ananda, or between Socrates and Plato, where dialog is not only outward, superficial, or mechanical, but instead brings the two people into a sphere where each person influences the other.


title: Dyad (sociology)

text: A lasting communication of ideas between two people for long duration of time or of any intensive duration of deeper impact may be called dyadic communication.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: Stefan Ortega Moreno (born 6 November 1992) is a German professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Premier League club Manchester City.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: Ortega began his career at the north Hessian club TSV Jahn Calden before transferring to KSV Baunatal, then to KSV Hessen Kassel. In 2007, he transferred to Arminia Bielefeld and became a part of their youth setup. In the 2010–11 Season he had six appearances for the B team competing in the Regionalliga West. One year later the first team called him, and he made his senior debut for Arminia on 1 October 2011 against 1. FC Heidenheim replacing the injured Patrick Platins. After a bad performance against rivals Preußen Münster, Ortega lost his place to the Platins, instead appearing primarily in the regional Westfalenpokal. Nevertheless, Ortega was part of the Arminia squad that achieved promotion to the 2. Bundesliga at the end of the 2012–13 season, subsequently agreeing to a two-year contract extension.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: In June 2014 Ortega joined TSV 1860 Munich on a free transfer. He made his Münchner Lions debut in the 1st round of the 2014–15 DFB-Pokal, winning 2–1 over Holstein Kiel. After Gábor Király departed for Fulham F.C. in August 2014, Ortega established himself as first-choice goalkeeper.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: 1860 Munich were relegated at the end of the 2016–17 season; Ortega left the club, transferring back to Arminia on a three-year contract, succeeding the outgoing Wolfgang Hesl. In January 2020, Ortega extended his contract until June 2022 following transfer interest from Bundesliga club Bayer 04 Leverkusen. With Arminia Bielefeld, Ortega was promoted to the Bundesliga in 2020. At his first season in the Bundesliga, the club secured 15th-place finish and avoided relegation after a 2–0 win in the away match against VfB Stuttgart on the final matchday. The German football magazine "Kicker" rated Ortega as the second best goalkeeper in the league. Arminia Bielefeld were relegated from the Bundesliga the following season.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: In July 2022, Ortega signed with Premier League champions Manchester City on a free transfer. Ortega started the season on the bench for City's 1–3 defeat to Liverpool in the FA Community Shield on 30 July.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: He played his first match in a UEFA Champions League group stage match against Borussia Dortmund, which finished 0–0. He also played the next Champions League group stage match against Sevilla, which they won 3–1 and in the third round of the Carabao Cup against Chelsea, which City won 2-0 on 9th November at the Etihad Stadium.


title: Stefan Ortega

text: In fall 2010, Ortega was called up to the German U19 national team, but remained an unused substitute. On 21 May 2021, Stefan Ortega was nominated as a potential reserve for the Germany national team for UEFA Euro 2020. His call-up for the squad was contingent if Manuel Neuer, Bernd Leno or Kevin Trapp had to withdraw due to injury.


title: School Babysitters

text: After the sudden death of their parents on a plane crash, two young brothers named Ryūichi Kashima (a freshman in high school) and his younger brother Kotarō (a preschooler) are left orphaned and having no place to call home. The chairwoman of the prestigious Morinomiya Academy offers to take the boys into her care, giving them a new house and free tuition, on the condition that Ryuichi helps out with the school's daycare center while also attending normal classes during school hours.


title: School Babysitters

text: The manga has been published by Hakusensha, and in LaLa's magazine since 2008, and as of 2022, 22 volumes have been released in Japan. The series has also been released in French by Glénat Editions and in Chinese by Tong Li Publishing.


title: School Babysitters

text: A 12-episode anime television series adaptation by Brain's Base aired between January 7, 2018, to March 25, 2018, on Tokyo MX, Sun TV and BS11. First announced on March 21, 2017, the series is directed by Shūsei Morishita with scripts written by Yuuko Kakihara and music by Ruka Kawada. Crunchyroll streamed the series. An OVA episode was announced in June 2018 and was bundled with the 7th DVD and Blu-Ray release.


title: IP camera

text: An Internet Protocol camera, or IP camera, is a type of digital video camera that receives control data and sends image data via an IP network. They are commonly used for surveillance, but, unlike analog closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras, they require no local recording device, only a local area network. Most IP cameras are webcams, but the term "IP camera" or netcam usually applies only to those that can be directly accessed over a network connection.


title: IP camera

text: Some IP cameras require support of a central network video recorder (NVR) to handle the recording, video and alarm management. Others are able to operate in a decentralized manner with no NVR needed, as the camera is able to record directly to any local or remote storage media. The first IP Camera was invented by Axis Communications in 1996.


title: IP camera

text: The first centralized IP camera, the "AXIS Neteye 200", was released in 1996 by Axis Communications. Although the product was advertised to be accessible from anywhere with an internet connection, the camera was not capable of streaming real-time video, and was limited to returning a single image for each request in the Common Intermediate Format (CIF). This limitation can be attributed to the lack of powerful integrated circuits capable of handling image processing at the time of release. As a result, the camera was aimed primarily at the tourism industry, and not intended to replace traditional analog CCTV systems.


title: IP camera

text: The first decentralized IP camera was released in 1999 by Mobotix. The camera's Linux system contained video, alarm, and recording management functions. In 2005, the first IP camera with onboard video content analytics (VCA) was released by Intellio. This camera was able to detect a number of different events, such as if an object was stolen, a human crossed a line, a human entered a predefined zone, or if a car moved in the wrong direction.


title: IP camera

text: With advancements in cloud infrastructure, Ring (owned by Amazon, U.S.), released its first IP Camera doorbell targeted for home use in 2014. The device offered quick setup, cloud-based recording, and motion detection. The device retailed for $199 USD. As of 2021, Ring has sold millions of units. With the success of IP Cameras, other companies such as Nest (owned by Google, U.S.) released similar cloud-based devices.


title: IP camera

text: Previous generations of analog CCTV cameras use established broadcast television formats (e.g. CIF, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM). Since 2000, there has been a shift in the consumer TV business towards high-definition (HD) resolutions (e.g. 1080P (Full-HD), 4K resolution (Ultra-HD) and widescreen format).


title: IP camera

text: IP cameras may differ from one another in resolution, features, video encoding schemes, available network protocols, and the API for video management software.


title: IP camera

text: To address IP video surveillance standardization issues, two industry groups formed in 2008: the Open Network Video Interface Forum (ONVIF) and the Physical Security Interoperability Alliance (PSIA). PSIA was founded by 20 member companies including Honeywell, GE Security, and Cisco. ONVIF was founded by Axis Communications, Bosch and Sony. Each group now has numerous additional members, thus cameras and recording hardware that operate under the same standard are compatible with each other.


title: IP camera

text: Network Cameras are developed for both enterprise and consumer use. Consumer IP cameras used for home security typically send live video to a companion app on a user's device. They generally connect to the internet through Wi-Fi or an Ethernet cable. Unlike consumer IP Cameras, Enterprise IP Cameras often offer higher video resolution, video analytics, and are mostly accessed though HTTP and real time streaming protocol (RTSP).


title: IP camera

text: IP cameras used to be more common in businesses rather than in homes, but that is no longer the case. A 2016 survey of 2,000 Americans revealed 20% of them owned home security cameras. This crossover to IP cameras in home use is partly due to the device's self-installation. IP cameras typically don't require professional installation saving time for home and business owners.


title: IP camera

text: One of the most popular abilities that consumer-level home security cameras have is to view their footage via a mobile app. Many cameras offer features such as a wide-angle lens, low-light or night vision capabilities, and motion detection. Most are developed to send out notifications via an application such as when motion is detected. Video clips can be stored in a local device such as a micro-SD Card or through a cloud service.


title: IP camera

text: The market size of home security systems reached $4.8 billion in 2018. It had a compound annual growth rate of 22.4% between 2011 and 2018. People in countries that suffer from high crime rates, particularly robbery and theft, are keen to adopt home security cameras. The US and China have a high implementation rate of residential security cameras.


title: IP camera

text: Major key players in the home security market are Nest (owned by Google, U.S.), Ring (owned by Amazon, U.S.), and Arlo (owned by Netgear, U.S.). In the alarm security industry key players are ADT (U.S.), Vivint (U.S.), and SimpliSafe (U.S.). The largest IP Camera manufactures are Hikvision Digital Technology (China), Axis Communications (Sweden), and Dahua (China)


title: IP camera

text: Depending on their functionality, IP Cameras are generally classified as fixed, varifocal, or pan–tilt–zoom (PTZ camera). Fixed cameras feature an immobile perspective on the subject, whereas varifocal cameras have the ability to remotely adjust the zoom of the image. In addition, PTZ cameras have the ability to direct the camera assembly in any direction remotely. This can be used to track motion or manually adjust the monitoring area. IP Cameras can be designed for indoor or outdoor use. Outdoor cameras are often rated IP65/IP67 in order to withstand outdoor conditions.


title: IP camera

text: IP Cameras can offer a variety of digital imaging technologies such as multi-sensor cameras, panoramic cameras, and thermal imaging cameras.


title: IP camera

text: Some camera manufacturers offer cloud subscriptions where users may remotely view and download recent video clips by paying recurring subscription fees. Cloud subscription plans typically come with several days of looping storage, and the videos will be overwritten beyond this duration.


title: IP camera

text: Some cameras include a micro SD card slot so users can store videos locally. Most IP Cameras can be programmed to overwrite old video once the storage medium is full. Accessing the video on the camera can normally be done via a direct network connection to the device.


title: IP camera

text: Previous generation cameras transmitted analog video signals. IP cameras send images digitally using the transmission and security features of the TCP/IP protocol. Advantages to this approach include:


title: IP camera

text: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has expressed privacy concerns if AI is widely practiced. AI is capable of tracking movements and studying behaviors; moreover, AI can also recognize emotions, and further predict patterns of movement.


title: IP camera

text: Facial recognition identifies a human face by analyzing facial features from a picture or video, an example of biometrics. If a camera allows users to set up a database that includes family members and close friends, the system may distinguish whether someone exists in the database. If the camera is capable of providing accurate facial recognition, it can tell if the person it detects is authorized (in the database). The detection of unauthorized persons may prompt the owner to call law enforcement. The footage can be used as a means of identifying and apprehending offenders.


title: IP camera

text: If video is transmitted over the public internet rather than a private network or intranet, CCTV devices potentially becomes open to a wider audience including hackers. Malicious actors can access private CCTV systems to disable, manipulate, or observe security measures– as well as gain further access to the private network it's connected to, often referred to colloquially as pivoting. This risk can be mitigated by securing the network via Firewall rules designed to restrict access to the device, and by keeping software and firmware up to date.


title: IP camera

text: In 2012, users of 4chan hacked into thousands of streaming personal IP cameras by exploiting a vulnerability in some models of TRENDnet home security cameras. In 2014, it was reported that a site indexed 73,011 locations worldwide with security cameras that used default usernames and passwords, and were therefore, unprotected. Automated services like Shodan.io constantly scan residential and commercial IP blocks to automatically detect and catalog open ports and services, including those commonly used for IP cameras.


title: Colombian peso

text: The Colombian peso (sign: $; code: COP) is the currency of Colombia. Its ISO 4217 code is "COP". The official peso symbol is $, with "Col$". also being used to distinguish it from other peso- and dollar-denominated currencies.


title: Colombian peso

text: One peso is theoretically subdivided into one hundred "centavos"; however, because of high inflation in the 1970s and 1980s, all centavo coins minting was stopped in 1984. The 5, 10, 20 and 50 peso coins are still legal tender, but due to their low value and circulation, most cash transactions are rounded to the nearest 100 pesos.


title: Colombian peso

text: Colombia used "Spanish colonial real" until 1820, after independence from Spain was achieved. It was replaced by the "Colombian real". In 1837, the Colombian real was replaced by the current peso at a rate of 1 peso = 8 reales and was initially subdivided into 8 reales. In 1847, Colombia decimalized the currency and the peso was subdivided into ten reales, each of 10 "décimos de reales", later "centavos". The real was renamed the "décimo" in 1853, although the last reales were struck in 1880. The current system of 100 centavos to the peso was first used in 1819 on early banknotes but did not reappear until the early 1860s on banknotes and was not used on the coinage until 1872.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1871, Colombia adopted on the gold standard, pegging the peso to the French franc at a rate of 1 peso = 5 francs. This peg only lasted until 1886. From 1888, printing press inflation caused Colombia's paper money (pegged to the British pound at a rate of 5 pesos = 1 pound) to depreciate and the exchange rate between coins and paper money was fixed at 100 peso moneda corriente = 1 coinage peso. Between 1907 and 1914, coins were issued denominated in "peso "p/m"", equal to paper pesos. In 1910, the Conversion Board began issuing banknotes in the form of "peso oro". In 1931, the United Kingdom left the gold standard and the peso shifted its peg to the United States dollar, at a rate of 1.05 pesos = 1 dollar, a slight devaluation from its previous peg, this until 1949. Nevertheless, Peso banknotes continued to be issued expressed as peso oro until 1993.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 2018, the Congress of Colombia debated whether to redenominate the peso at a rate of 1,000 pesos = 1 "new" peso, removing three zeroes from its face value, in order to make accounting and banking operations easier. A new series of banknotes was introduced in 2016 with the last three zeroes of the denomination replaced by the word "mil" (thousand), this would enable the printing of the same banknotes with the word "mil" replaced by the word "nuevos" (new). The proposal was supported by then President Juan Manuel Santos, but faced opposition due to the high cost it would have and the minimal benefits it would bring, also confusion in a mostly cash-based economy, contracts made, and the possibility of future inflation rending the changes meaningless, though reduction of inflation was not one of the expected outcomes of the redenomination. President Iván Duque did not support the change, and the proposal is currently not considered by the Government.


title: Colombian peso

text: Between 1837 and 1839, silver , , 1, 2, and 8 real coins were introduced, along with gold 1, 2, and 16 pesos. These were mostly continuations of coins issued before 1837 in the name of the Republic of Colombia but with the escudo denominations replaced by pesos. In 1847, the currency was decimalized and coins were introduced in denominations of and 1 décimo de real in copper and 1, 2, 8 and 10 reales in silver. and real coins followed in 1849 and 1850. In 1853, silver and 1 décimo, and gold 10 peso coins were introduced, followed by 2 décimos in 1854 and 1 peso in 1855, both in silver. In 1856, gold 5 peso coins were added.


title: Colombian peso

text: Between 1859 and 1862, coins were issued by the Grenadine Confederation in silver for , and 2 reales, , and 1 décimo, and 1 peso, and in gold for 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 pesos. The United States of New Grenada issued silver 1 décimo and 1 peso in 1861.


title: Colombian peso

text: Beginning in 1862, coins were issued by the United States of Colombia. Silver coins were struck in denominations of , , 1, 2, and 5 décimos, and 1 peso, together with gold 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 pesos. With the introduction of the centavo in 1872, silver , 5, 10, 20, and 50 centavos were issued, followed by cupro-nickel centavos in 1874 and cupro-nickel centavos in 1881.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1886, the country's name reverted to the Republic of Colombia. The first issues were cupro-nickel 5 centavos. Except for silver 50 centavos (also denominated 5 décimos) issued between 1887 and 1889, no other denominations were issued until 1897, when silver 10 and 20 centavos were introduced. Silver 5 centavos were issued in 1902


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1907, following the stabilization of the paper money, cupro-nickel 1, 2 and 5 pesos "p/m" were introduced and issued until 1916. In 1913, after the pegging of the peso to sterling, gold and 5 peso coins were introduced which were of the same weight and composition as the half sovereign and sovereign. Gold 10 pesos were also issued in 1919 and 1924, with the and 5 pesos issued until 1929 and 1930, respectively.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1918, the 1, 2 and 5 pesos "p/m" coins were replaced by 1, 2 and 5 centavo coins of the same size and composition. In 1942, bronze 1 and 5 centavo coins were introduced, followed by bronze 2 centavos in 1948. Between 1952 and 1958, cupro-nickel replaced silver in the 10, 20 and 50 centavos.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1967, copper-clad-steel 1 and 5 centavos were introduced, together with nickel-clad-steel 10, 20 and 50 centavos and cupro-nickel 1 peso coins, the 2 centavos having ceased production in 1960. In 1977, bronze 2 pesos were introduced. In 1984, production of all coins below 1 peso ended. Higher denominations were introduced in the following years of high inflation. 5 peso coins were introduced in 1980, followed by 10 pesos in 1981, 20 pesos in 1982, 50 pesos in 1986, 100 pesos in 1992, 200 pesos in 1994, 500 pesos in 1993 and 1000 pesos in 1996. However, due to massive counterfeiting problems, the 1000 pesos was withdrawn by stages. By 2002, the coin was out of circulation.


title: Colombian peso

text: In February 2009, the central bank stopped the minting of 5, 10, 20 peso coins. They were still legal tender, but due to their low value and circulation, most cash transactions were rounded to the nearest 100 pesos.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 2012, the Bank of the Republic of Colombia issued a new series of coins with the 500 and 1000 peso coins now struck as Bi-metallic coins.


title: Colombian peso

text: Between 1857 and 1880, five of Colombia's then provinces, Bolívar, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Panama and Santander issued their own paper money. Denominations included 10¢ and 50¢, 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50 and 100 pesos.


title: Colombian peso

text: In the early 1860s, banknotes were issued in denominations of 20¢ and 1, 2, 3, 10, 20 and 100 pesos, with all denominations also given in reales. In 1881, the "Banco Nacional" introduced notes for 20¢, and 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 pesos. These were followed by 50¢ notes in 1882 and 10¢ in 1885. 1,000 peso notes were introduced in 1895 and 500 peso notes in 1900. In 1904, the Treasury took over paper money production, issuing 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 peso notes, followed by 1,000 pesos in 1908. In 1910, the Conversion Board introduced 50 and 100 peso notes, followed by 1, 2, 5 and 10 pesos in 1915.


title: Colombian peso

text: More than sixty retail banks issued banknotes between 1865 and 1923. Denominations issued included 10¢, 20¢, 25¢, 50¢, and 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, 100 and 500 pesos.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1923, the "Banco de la República" monopolized paper money production and introduced notes denominated in peso oro. The first were provisional issues, overprinted on earlier notes of the "Casa de Moneda de Medellín", in denominations of , 5, 10 and 20 pesos. Regular issues followed for 1, 2, 5, 10, 50, 100, and 500 pesos oro. Twenty peso notes were introduced in 1927.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 1932 and 1941, silver certificates were issued for 1 and 5 pesos plata, although 1 and 5 peso oro notes continued to be produced. Treasury notes for 5 and 10 pesos oro were issued in 1938, followed by peso oro between 1948 and 1953. Half peso oro notes were also produced by the Banco de la República in 1943 by cutting in half 1 peso notes.


title: Colombian peso

text: The Banco de la República introduced 200 and 1,000 peso oro notes in 1974 and 1979, respectively, whilst 1 and 2 peso oro notes ceased production in 1977, followed by 10 pesos oro in 1980, 5 pesos oro in 1981, 20 pesos in 1983 and 50 pesos in 1986. 500 pesos oro notes were introduced in 1986 with 10,000 pesos oro in 1992. Production of 100 peso oro notes ended in 1991, followed by that of the 200 pesos oro in 1992 and 500 pesos oro in 1993. In 1993, the word "oro" was dropped. 20,000 peso notes were introduced in 1996, followed by 50,000 pesos in 2000.


title: Colombian peso

text: In November 2006, the 1,000 and 2,000 peso notes were reduced in size from 140 × 70 mm to 130 × 65 mm, because these notes are frequently replaced due to heavy use.


title: Colombian peso

text: In December 2010, the Banco de la República issued a 2,000 peso note that now includes the number "2" expressed in Braille in the watermark area.


title: Colombian peso

text: In 2016, the Banco de la Republica issued a new series of banknotes in denominations of 2,000, 5,000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000 and 100,000 pesos, with the latter being a new and the highest denomination. These banknotes give continuity of biodiversity present in the new series of coins that began circulating in 2012, while highlighting a group of cultural elements and landscapes of Colombia's geography. Additionally, the notes pay tribute to major personalities of culture, science and politics, and reinforces recognition of women's important role in Colombian society. The new 100,000 pesos banknote was introduced on 31 March 2016, followed by the 20,000 pesos note on 30 June 2016, the 50,000 pesos note on 19 August 2016, the 5,000 pesos note on 9 November 2016, and the 2,000 pesos note on 29 November 2016. The 10,000 pesos note was issued on 7 December 2016, completing the new banknote series.


title: Colombian peso

text: The crisis in Venezuela has caused an economic crisis in which the value of the bolívar declined rapidly, resulting in hyperinflation. Some areas in Venezuela informally accept the peso for transactions, alongside the United States dollar.


title: Colombian peso

text: The ("real value unit", UVR, ISO 4217 code ) is a unit of currency, maintained by the Banco de la Republíca, that reflects inflation and purchase power.


title: Max Steiner

text: Maximilian Raoul Steiner (May 10, 1888 – December 28, 1971) was an Austrian composer and conductor who emigrated to America and went on to become Hollywood's greatest musical composer.


title: Max Steiner

text: Steiner was a child prodigy who conducted his first operetta when he was twelve and became a full-time professional, proficient at composing, arranging, and conducting, by the time he was fifteen. Threatened with internment in Germany during World War I, he fled to England, then Broadway, and in 1929, he moved to Hollywood, where he became one of the first composers to write music scores for films. He is often referred to as "the father of film music", as Steiner played a major part in creating the tradition of writing music for films, along with composers Dimitri Tiomkin, Franz Waxman, Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Alfred Newman, Bernard Herrmann, and Miklós Rózsa.


title: Max Steiner

text: Steiner composed over 300 film scores with RKO Pictures and Warner Bros., and was nominated for 24 Academy Awards, winning three: "The Informer" (1935); "Now, Voyager" (1942); and "Since You Went Away" (1944). Besides his Oscar-winning scores, some of Steiner's popular works include "King Kong" (1933), "Little Women" (1933), "Jezebel" (1938), and "Casablanca" (1942), though he did not compose its love theme, "As Time Goes By". In addition, Steiner scored "The Searchers" (1956), "A Summer Place" (1959), and "Gone with the Wind" (1939), which ranked second on the AFI's list of best American film scores, and is the film score for which he is best known.


title: Max Steiner

text: He was also the first recipient of the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score, which he won for his score for "Life with Father". Steiner was a frequent collaborator with some of the best known film directors in history, including Michael Curtiz, John Ford, and William Wyler, and scored many of the films with Errol Flynn, Bette Davis, Humphrey Bogart, and Fred Astaire. Many of his film scores are available as separate soundtrack recordings.


title: Max Steiner

text: Max Steiner was born on May 10, 1888, in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, as the only child in a wealthy business and theatrical family of Jewish heritage. He was named after his paternal grandfather, Maximilian Steiner (1839–1880), who was credited with first persuading Johann Strauss II to write for the theater, and was the influential manager of Vienna's historic Theater an der Wien. His parents were Marie Josefine/Mirjam (Hasiba) and Hungarian-Jewish (1858–1944, born in Temesvár, Kingdom of Hungary, Austrian Empire), a Viennese impresario, carnival exposition manager, and inventor, responsible for building the Wiener Riesenrad. His father encouraged Steiner's musical talent, and allowed him to conduct an American operetta at the age of twelve, "The Belle of New York", which allowed Steiner to gain early recognition by the operetta's author, Gustave Kerker. Steiner's mother Marie was a dancer in stage productions put on by his grandfather when she was young, but later became involved in the restaurant business. His godfather was the composer Richard Strauss who strongly influenced Steiner's future work. Steiner often credited his family for inspiring his early musical abilities. As early as six years old, Steiner was taking three or four piano lessons a week, yet often became bored of the lessons. Because of this, he would practice improvising on his own, his father encouraging him to write his music down. Steiner cited his early improvisation as an influence of his taste in music, particularly his interest in the music of Claude Debussy which was "avant garde" for the time. In his youth, he began his composing career through his work on marches for regimental bands and hit songs for a show put on by his father.


title: Max Steiner

text: Steiner's parents sent him to the Vienna University of Technology, but he expressed little interest in scholastic subjects. He enrolled in the Imperial Academy of Music in 1904, where, due to his precocious musical talents and private tutoring by Robert Fuchs, and Gustav Mahler, he completed a four-year course in only one year, winning himself a gold medal from the academy at the age of fifteen. He studied various instruments including piano, organ, violin, double bass, and trumpet. His preferred and best instrument was the piano, but he acknowledged the importance of being familiar with what the other instruments could do. He also had courses in harmony, counterpoint, and composition. Along with Mahler and Fuchs, he cited his teachers as Felix Weingartner and Edmund Eysler.


title: Max Steiner

text: The music of Edmund Eysler was an early influence in the pieces of Max Steiner; however, one of his first introductions to operettas was by Franz Lehár who worked for a time as a military bandmaster for Steiner's father's theatre. Steiner paid tribute to Lehár through an operetta modeled after Lehár's "Die lustige Witwe" which Steiner staged in 1907 in Vienna. Eysler was well known for his operettas though as critiqued by Richard Traubner, the libretti were poor, with a fairly simple style, the music often relying too heavily on the Viennese waltz style. As a result, when Steiner started writing pieces for the theater, he was interested in writing libretto as his teacher had, but had minimal success. However, many of his future film scores such as "Dark Victory" (1939), "In This Our Life" (1941), and "Now, Voyager" (1942) had frequent waltz melodies as influenced by Eysler. According to author of "Max Steiner's "Now, Voyager"" Kate Daubney, Steiner may also have been influenced by Felix Weingartner who conducted the Vienna Opera from 1908 to 1911. Although he took composition classes from Weingartner, as a young boy, Steiner always wanted to be a great conductor.


title: Max Steiner

text: Between 1907 and 1914, Steiner traveled between Britain and Europe to work on theatrical productions. Steiner first entered the world of professional music when he was fifteen. He wrote and conducted the operetta "The Beautiful Greek Girl", but his father refused to stage it saying it was not good enough. Steiner took the composition to competing impresario Carl Tuschl who offered to produce it. Much to Steiner's pleasure, it ran in the Orpheum Theatre for a year. This led to opportunities to conduct other shows in various cities around the world, including Moscow and Hamburg. Upon returning to Vienna, Steiner found his father in bankruptcy. Having difficulties finding work, he moved to London (in part to follow an English showgirl he had met in Vienna). In London, he was invited to conduct Lehar's "The Merry Widow". He stayed in London for eight years conducting musicals at Daly's Theatre, the Adelphi, the Hippodrome, the London Pavilion, and the Blackpool Winter Gardens. Steiner married Beatrice Tilt on September 12, 1912. The exact date of their divorce is unknown.


title: Max Steiner

text: In England, Steiner wrote and conducted theater productions and symphonies. But the beginning of World War I in 1914 led him to be interned as an enemy alien. Fortunately, he was befriended by the Duke of Westminster, who was a fan of his work, and was given exit papers to go to America, although his money was impounded. He arrived in New York City in December 1914, with only $32. Unable to find work, he resorted to menial jobs such as a copyist for Harms Music Publishing, which quickly led him to jobs orchestrating stage musicals.