title: Unitary executive theory

text: In other words, the principle of "expressio unius" may be more applicable as a limitation upon congressional power than upon executive power. According to Hamilton, the unenumerated executive powers that are vested solely in the President "flow from the general grant of that power, interpreted in conformity with other parts of the Constitution, and with the principles of free government."


title: Unitary executive theory

text: Those other parts of the Constitution include the extensive powers granted to Congress. Article I of the Constitution gives Congress the exclusive power to make laws, which the President then must execute, provided that those laws are constitutional. Article I, Section 8, clause 18 of the Constitution known as the Necessary and Proper Clause grants Congress the power to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution all Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof". The Constitution also grants Congress power "To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces." The theory of the unitary executive can only be legitimate insofar as it allows Congress to wield its constitutional powers while ensuring that the President can do the same.


title: Unitary executive theory

text: In the 1926 case of "Myers v. United States", the United States Supreme Court decided that the President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body. The Court also wrote:


title: Unitary executive theory

text: The ordinary duties of officers prescribed by statute come under the general administrative control of the President by virtue of the general grant to him of the executive power, and he may properly supervise and guide their construction of the statutes under which they act in order to secure that unitary and uniform execution of the laws which article 2 of the Constitution evidently contemplated in vesting general executive power in the President alone.


title: Unitary executive theory

text: Subsequent cases such as "Humphrey's Executor v. United States" (Presidential removal of certain kinds of officers), "United States v. Nixon" (executive privilege), and "Bowsher v. Synar" (control of executive functions) have flexed the doctrine's reach back and forth. Justice Scalia in his solitary dissent in "Morrison v. Olson" argued for an unlimited presidential removal power of all persons exercising executive branch powers, which he argued included the independent counsel; the court disagreed, but later moved closer to Scalia's position in "Edmond v. United States".


title: Unitary executive theory

text: Loyola Law School professors Karl Manheim and Allan Ides write that "the separation among the branches is not and never was intended to be airtight," and they point to the President's veto power as an example of the executive exercising legislative power. They also cite other examples of quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial power being exercised by the executive branch, as necessary elements of the administrative state, but they contend that ultimately all administrative power belongs to Congress rather than the President, and the only true "executive" powers are those explicitly described in the Constitution. In this understanding, Manheim and Ides follow in the footsteps of Lessig and Sunstein.


title: Unitary executive theory

text: David J. Barron (now a federal judge) and Marty Lederman have also criticized the strong version of the unitary executive theory. They acknowledge that there is a compelling case for a unitary executive within the armed forces. However, they argue that the Constitution does not provide for an equally strong unitary executive outside the military context, and they argue that the would be superfluous if the same kind of unitary presidential authority resulted from the general constitutional provision vesting executive power in the President.


title: Unitary executive theory

text: Unlike the modern constitutions of many other countries, which specify when and how a state of emergency may be declared and which rights may be suspended, the U.S. Constitution itself includes no comprehensive separate regime for emergencies. Some legal scholars believe however that the Constitution gives the president inherent emergency powers by making him commander in chief of the armed forces, or by vesting in him a broad, undefined "executive power." Congress has delegated at least 136 distinct statutory emergency powers to the President, each available upon the declaration of an emergency. Only 13 of these require a declaration from Congress; the remaining 123 are assumed by an executive declaration with no further Congressional input. Congressionally-authorized emergency presidential powers are sweeping and dramatic and range from seizing control of the internet to declaring martial law. This led the American magazine "The Atlantic" to observe that "the misuse of emergency powers is a standard gambit among leaders attempting to consolidate power", because, in the words of Justice Robert H. Jackson's dissent in "Korematsu v. United States", the 1944 Supreme Court decision that upheld the internment of Japanese Americans, each emergency power "lies about like a loaded weapon, ready for the hand of any authority that can bring forward a plausible claim of an urgent need."


title: Unitary executive theory

text: Contrary to claims of some authors, the first administration to make explicit reference to the "Unitary Executive" was not that of President George W. Bush. For example, in 1987, Ronald Reagan issued a signing statement that declared: "If this provision were interpreted otherwise, so as to require the President to follow the orders of a subordinate, it would plainly constitute an unconstitutional infringement of the President's authority as head of a unitary executive branch."


title: Unitary executive theory

text: The George W. Bush administration made the Unitary Executive Theory a common feature of signing statements. For example, Bush once wrote in a signing statement that he would, "construe Title X in Division A of the Act, relating to detainees, in a manner consistent with the constitutional authority of the President to supervise the unitary executive branch and as Commander in Chief and consistent with the constitutional limitations on the judicial power." Critics acknowledge that part of the President's duty is to "interpret what is, and is not constitutional, at least when overseeing the actions of executive agencies," but critics accused Bush of overstepping that duty by his perceived willingness to overrule US courts.


title: Unitary executive theory

text: In the 2018 biographical film "Vice", directed by Adam McKay, the unitary executive theory is explored in some detail and dramatized. Dick Cheney, the film's subject, his lawyer David Addington, Deputy Assistant US Attorney General in the Office of Legal Counsel John Yoo, and Scalia figure prominently in the theory's development and promotion. They brought it to the foreground of modern discussions on the topic of executive power beginning in 2001, continuing throughout the Bush administration and beyond. The application of this legal doctrine has implications for the prosecution of the War on Terror, the subsequent 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the use of enhanced interrogation techniques at sites like Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib, and mass surveillance. These are highlighted in the narrative.


title: New Cairo

text: New Cairo ( "") is an Egyptian city covering an area of about on the southeastern edge of Cairo Governorate, 25 kilometres (15 mi) from Maadi. New Cairo is one of the new cities which have been built in and around Cairo to alleviate the congestion in downtown Cairo. It was established in the year 2000 by presidential decree number 191.


title: New Cairo

text: Located in what was formerly Helwan Governorate, and located to the east of Maadi and Heliopolis, New Cairo ranges in elevation between above sea level.


title: New Cairo

text: The city could eventually host a population of 5 million. When compared to 6th of October, also built with the hopes of alleviating the strain on Cairo, more homes are being rented out in New Cairo than in 6 October.


title: New Cairo

text: On 27 April 2016, President Abdel Fattah Al-Sisi inaugurated the new headquarters of the Ministry of the Interior in New Cairo. The complex covers about .


title: New Cairo

text: Of particular significance to geologists is the Petrified Forest Protected Area, located in the vicinity of New Cairo. It is a protected site.


title: New Cairo

text: There are dozens of factories in New Cairo. GE is working with the American University in New Cairo on energy initiatives. El Sewedy Electric has its headquarters in the Fifth Settlement of New Cairo.


title: New Cairo

text: The city is connected to other cities by a vast network of bus lines, and construction has begun for a monorail line that connects the city with the Cairo suburb of Nasr City to the west, and the New Administrative Capital to the east. The city gets its drinking water from a water plant in Obour City, nearby.


title: New Cairo

text: A branch of Al Ahly SC is currently under construction in the eastern part of the city. There is also a championship golf course with tennis facilities lies in the Kattameya section of New Cairo.


title: New Cairo

text: At the entrance of New Cairo is Cairo Festival City, a 285 hectare (700 acres) real estate development which has parks, games, pools, gardens, walkways, business office space, a large mall and a dancing fountain. In addition to that, there are many other malls in New Cairo including Point 90, Downtown Kattameya, Porto Cairo, Emerald Plaza and Park mall, in addition to numerous other, smaller malls.


title: New Cairo

text: Demand for real estate in New Cairo has been very high, with prices per meter for apartments averaging around , and for villas , and it has continued increasing, especially after the construction of the New Administrative Capital, to which New Cairo is close. The government has also moved many services and administrations to the city, the most notable of which were the Traffic Administration offices of Nasr City, Heliopolis and New Cairo (which was previously located in El Shorouk) in 2020, as they were all moved into one three-floor building in the southern part of the city.


title: New Cairo

text: There are several mosques in New Cairo, but currently only one church, the Virgin Mary and St. Bishoy Coptic Church in the Fifth Settlement. The city is also home to a Coptic monastery, the Patmos Monastery of St. John the Beloved. In September 2016, the president approved the construction of a new Coptic Orthodox church in the city.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Vaalee is a 1999 Indian Tamil-language psychological romantic thriller film written and directed by S. J. Suryah in his directorial debut. The film stars Ajith Kumar in dual roles with Simran and Jyothika (her Tamil debut). Vivek, Rajeev, Pandu and Sujitha appear in important supporting roles. A modern-day adaptation of the legend of Vali from the "Ramayana", it revolves around Shiva and Deva, two identical twin brothers, with Deva being deaf-mute. However, when Shiva marries his sweetheart Priya, Deva becomes obsessed with and lusts for Priya.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Suryah completed the script of "Vaalee" in 60 days, and the project was picked up for production by S. S. Chakravarthy of NIC Arts. The soundtrack was composed by Deva and lyrics were written by Vairamuthu. The cinematography was handled by Jeeva while the editing was done by the duo of B. Lenin and V. T. Vijayan.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: "Vaalee" was released on 30 April 1999 to positive reviews from critics. The film became a commercial success, running for over 270 days in theatres. Ajith won the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil and Jyothika won Best Female Debut – South at the same ceremony. The film was remade in Kannada in 2001 under the same title.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Shiva and Deva are twins. Deva, the elder, is deaf-mute; but he is an expert at lip reading, and the head of a successful advertising company. Shiva loves and trusts his brother. Shiva falls in love with Priya, who wants to marry someone who is an ex-smoker, ex-drunkard, and got ditched by a girl but is pining for her. Learning this, Shiva, with the help of his friend Vicky, invents an old romance between him and a certain Sona, and wins Priya's love. But soon she realises Shiva's trick and breaks up with him. He tries to tell her that he only cheated and lied to her on the old romance but he loved her truly. One day, Priya comes to Shiva's house and slaps him, but eventually she reciprocates his love.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Meanwhile, Deva chances upon Priya and lusts for her. His obsession continues even after his brother marries the girl of his dreams, and he devises various means of getting close to Priya and keeping Shiva and her separated. Some of the methods Deva uses to woo Priya are masochistic (wounding his hand by the running car engine to stop the couple's wedding night) and psychotic (repeated attempts to murder his brother).


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: While Shiva is away on work as a substitute for his injured brother, Priya has to take care of Deva. Priya soon realises the intentions Deva has towards her, but Shiva refuses to believe her and has full faith in his brother. He even goes as far as to take Priya to a psychiatrist. To get away from it all, Shiva and Priya go on a long-delayed honeymoon, but Deva shows up there, too. Shiva watches Deva touching Priya's dress and kissing her photo and he realises that she was right all along. Deva beats up Shiva, packs him in a gunny bag, and throws him in a lorry.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Deva disguises himself as Shiva and tries to seduce Priya. Shiva calls her to tell that Deva is there but Deva picks the call. She thinks that Shiva told Deva where they are and the one in the phone is Deva's assistant Sudha who called her to tell that Deva might wounded his hand or leg to stop their honeymoon in the same way how he stopped their wedding night. She takes off the phone's wire so that he will not call them back. Shiva then goes faster to the home to save Priya from Deva.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Soon, Priya learns that he is Deva and escapes from him, then shoots him with a revolver. Deva falls into the pool unconscious, and when Shiva comes, she narrates the whole incident to him. He hugs and apologises to her for not believing her, taking her to the psychiatrist without knowing the truth and for trusting Deva without knowing his intentions towards her. Suddenly, Deva regains consciousness, but Shiva immediately kills him with the revolver. In the afterlife, Deva talks about his inability to express his feelings for Priya as he was mute.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: S. J. Suryah had worked as an assistant director in Vasanth's "Aasai" (1995) which featured Ajith Kumar as well as working with him during the making of "Ullaasam" (1997). Ajith asked Suryah to prepare a good script and promised he would give him a chance to make his directorial debut. After Suryah completed the script of "Vaalee" in 60 days, the pair approached S. S. Chakravarthy to produce the film. The film is a modern-day adaptation of the legend of Vali from the "Ramayana".


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Keerthi Reddy was announced to be the lead actress in the film in December 1997, though she was replaced by Simran before filming began. Roja and Meena also was approached to play the female lead but both of them could not allocate the dates. Jyothika, sister of actress Nagma, made her Tamil debut in the film as an imaginary character, Sona. This is the first film where Ajith played two characters. Ajith mentioned that "Vaalee" "was very close to my heart and I gave it everything I had", adding that he had initially received widespread negative publicity and scepticism for doing a dual role too early in his career. Simran's voice was dubbed by Savitha Radhakrishnan.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: The soundtrack was composed by Deva and lyrics were written by Vairamuthu. The song "Oh Sona" is based on "Susanna" by VOF de Kunst, and "Where Do I Begin?", the theme to "Love Story" composed by Francis Lai. "April Maathathil" took the beat of "Strange Kind of Woman" by Deep Purple.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: "Vaalee" was released on 30 April 1999. The film became a huge commercial success, running for 270 days in theatres in Tamil Nadu, and 100 days in Kerala. It provided a major breakthrough for Ajith, Simran and Jyothika's careers.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: "Deccan Herald" described "Vaalee" as "definitely worth seeing", saying it "has something for all tastes – a pleasant love angle, some suspense, complex psychological nuances, good acting, pleasing songs" while praising Ajith's performance. The reviewer from "Indolink" labelled the film as "a classic in its own right", praising the performances of Ajith and Simran while describing Suryah as "a new young director to the cine field who can make Tamil Cinema be proud once again". "The New Indian Express" labelled Simran's portrayal as "outstanding" while mentioning Suryah does a "fairly good job and succeeds". K. P. S. of "Kalki" appreciated Deva's music, the performances of Ajith and Simran, and Jeeva's cinematography, adding that Suryah's future as a director seemed bright.


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: Tamil magazine "Ananda Vikatan" dated 16 May 1999 appreciated the film by giving 45 marks and mentioned "Director SJ Suryah established his stamp of film-making in his very first film by taking up a straight line story with an engaging screenplay and realistic dialogues. Ajith Kumar has done a fantastic job in dual role and Simran also proved that she can act". K. N. Vijiyin of "New Straits Times" wrote, "It is amazing what fresh ideas new directors can come out with [...] Using a simple story, Suryah has come out with a winner". "The Hindu" wrote "Rich production values, fine performances by Ajit Kumar (playing the dual role of brothers) and Simran, bold and powerful dialogue by S. J. Surya, who has directed the movie based on his story and screenplay, are the major contributing factors in NIC Arts' "Vaalee"."


title: Vaalee (1999 film)

text: "Vaalee" was remade in Kannada under the same title (2001). Boney Kapoor entered negotiations with Chakravarthy to acquire the remake rights for Hindi and other languages. In response, Suryah attempted to block Chakravarthy from selling the remake rights by filing a case to the Madras High Court, but his plea was rejected. Kapoor and Chakravarthy's deal was closed around July/August 2020. In November 2021, Suryah appealed to the Supreme Court of India, using a 2017 verdict by the Madras High Court that only the screenwriter holds the remake rights to his own film, but on 25 April 2022, the Supreme Court rejected his plea: "There can be no dispute that in respect of a cinematograph film, it is the producer of the film who is the owner of the copyright in the cinematograph film itself...Insofar as the copyright in the original story or the original screenplay or dialogue is concerned, to the extent the same is used in the film upon due consideration therefor being tendered by the producer, the producer is also deemed to be the owner of the copyright therein".


title: Apple TV app

text: The Apple TV app (also known as Apple TV, TV, and the TV app) is a line of media player software programs developed by Apple Inc. for viewing television shows and films delivered by Apple to consumer electronic devices. It can stream content from the iTunes Store, the Apple TV Channels a la carte video on demand service, and the Apple TV+ original content subscription service. On iPhones, iPads, iPod Touches, and Apple TVs it can also index and access content from linked apps of other video on demand services.


title: Apple TV app

text: The app was released in the United States in December 2016 for iOS and tvOS Apple devices and was rolled out to other countries starting in late 2017. During the course of 2019 and 2020, it was brought to Mac and the third generation Apple TV and gradually, with certain feature omissions, to non-Apple devices: post-2015 Roku and Amazon Fire TV models and some newer television models on the Roku TV, Fire TV Edition, Samsung Tizen, LG webOS, and Vizio SmartCast smart TV platforms, with select new Sony Android TV models gaining access in October 2020.


title: Apple TV app

text: Content from the TV app may also be streamed via Apple's AirPlay 2 protocol from a device supporting the TV app to particular smart television sets from Sony, Vizio, LG, and Samsung.


title: Apple TV app

text: TV was announced at an Apple media event on October 27, 2016, and was released in the United States on December 12, 2016, with iOS 10.2 and tvOS 10.1, replacing the "Videos" application in earlier versions of iOS. It aggregates television shows and movies from the iTunes Store with content from installed partner apps, and can track progress across devices using the same Apple ID. Only content from Apple's services opens inside the TV app; other content is opened in the linked app.


title: Apple TV app

text: The app originally contained five sections: "Watch Now", "Sports", "Library", "Store" and "Search". Push notifications for sports scores can be enabled.


title: Apple TV app

text: TV received a major redesign following Apple's March 2019 media event, which refocused it as a hub for Apple-distributed video streaming. The new version added support for Apple TV Channels and debuted a new icon similar to the Apple TV hardware icon, replacing the previous icon resembling a television.


title: Apple TV app

text: TV was added to the pre-tvOS 3rd generation Apple TV in March 2019, though this version lacks the ability to link with other video on demand apps. Picture-in-picture and switching between multiple Apple IDs was added in tvOS 13 to fourth generation and newer Apple TVs.


title: Apple TV app

text: TV supports 4K, Dolby Atmos, Dolby Vision, and HDR10 on the Apple TV 4K. Dolby Vision and HDR10 are supported on iPad Pro and iPhone models released in 2017 or later, and Dolby Atmos on 2018 iPad Pro models and iPhones.


title: Apple TV app

text: TV was released with macOS Catalina on October 7, 2019, as one of three applications created to replace iTunes. It supports Dolby Atmos, Dolby Vision, and HDR10 on MacBooks released in 2018 or later, while 4K HDR playback is supported on the iMac Pro and other Macs released in 2018 or later when connected to a compatible display.


title: Apple TV app

text: Apple announced in January 2019 that the TV app would be made available on non-Apple platforms for the first time. The decision to expand to other platforms was cited as part Apple's efforts to expand its service revenues by making video content available widely to the public.


title: Apple TV app

text: It launched on Roku on October 15, 2019, on models with a 3800 model number or higher, and on the Roku TV platform. It became available on Amazon Fire TV on October 24, 2019, though limited to Fire TV devices released in 2016 or later, and on the Fire TV Edition platform.


title: Apple TV app

text: The app launched on Samsung TVs on their customized version of the Tizen OS platform on May 13, 2019. It became available on the LG webOS platform on February 3, 2020. It was added to the Vizio SmartCast platform on September 8, 2020.


title: Apple TV app

text: The app also launched on select 2020 Sony Bravia Android TV models on October 14, 2020. On December 16, 2020, Google announced that the Android TV version of the app would be widely made available to other devices running Android TV, beginning with the Chromecast with Google TV in early 2021. It became available on nearly all Android TV models and devices running on Android TV 8.0 on June 1, 2021.


title: Apple TV app

text: The app became available on the PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 in November 2020, as well as the Xbox One, and the Xbox Series X/S on November 10, 2020.


title: Apple TV app

text: The features available through the software on non-Apple devices are more limited than those on Apple devices, such as a lack of Dolby Atmos and Dolby Vision support, but additional updates have lessened the differences over time.


title: Apple TV app

text: On June 14, 2022, Major League Soccer announced that it had signed a 10-year broadcasting deal with Apple that would take effect with the 2023 MLS season, under which Apple would hold the global over-the-top streaming rights to all MLS and Leagues Cup matches, and selected MLS Next and MLS Next Pro matches through a new streaming service on the Apple TV app. The service, known as MLS Season Pass, is currently set to launch on February 1, 2023. In addition to offering a discounted rate to Apple TV+ subscribers, Apple would also agree to make a package of MLS and Leagues Cup matches available for Apple TV+ subscribers, with a subset of these matches to also be made available for free.


title: Apple TV app

text: Apple TV Channels is a service that aggregates content from popular video on demand a la carte subscription services and is accessed from the TV app. Announced in March 2019, it is designed to simplify subscriptions by making them purchasable and accessible in one video content hub, so the consumer need not use each service's own sign-up mechanism or view the content through each service's own app or website. It is designed to compete with similar services such as Amazon Channels and Hulu Add-Ons, which similarly make multiple subscription premium networks available in one location. The payment method can also be centralized through Apple's own billing service. Because the content is from paid subscription services, it will be ad-free. Content can also be downloaded to the device for offline viewing, and there is an option to share accounts within families.


title: Apple TV app

text: Partners include Cinemax, Boomerang, Discovery Channel, Tastemade, Starz, Pantaya, Epix, Showtime, BET+, Paramount+, Nick+, Noggin, Curiosity Stream, Mubi, Globoplay, BBC Select, BritBox, AMC+, Allblk, Shudder, and Acorn TV. HBO was a launch partner but deprecated their channel following the launch of HBO Max, discontinuing new subscriptions and retaining existing ones for Apple users who registered for the channel before the May 2020 launch of HBO Max (while granting access to HBO Max at no extra charge) until July 22, 2021, when it was discontinued for existing subscriptions. The broad reach of the 1.4 billion Apple devices in use globally induced major services, some of which already have their own content distribution systems, to make deals with Apple.


title: Apple TV app

text: Netflix declined to be involved with the service, with CEO Reed Hastings saying that they chose not to integrate its service's programming into Apple TV Channels because "we prefer to have our customers watch our content in our service." Netflix would have received little or no data about viewers from Apple TV Channels. AT&T CEO Randall Stephenson, during an on-stage discussion with CNBC's Andrew Ross Sorkin at a fintech event, pushed back on the suggestion that content providers like AT&T's HBO would "not have the same level of access to the data" captured from Apple TV Channels that they currently receive through their own apps and websites to "see what everybody's really watching and be able to make certain decisions", instead insisting that AT&T's digital distribution deals provide it "access to data ... critical to advertising delivery, [ ] critical to marketing".


title: Apple TV app

text: The versions of the TV app on iOS, iPadOS, and tvOS can integrate and curate content from supported video on demand apps installed on the same device, and can track progress across devices using the same Apple ID. Only content from Apple's services opens inside the TV app, for other content it will open the linked app. Support from apps varies by country. Support for Netflix is limited; their television shows and films will appear in search results and play, but other features like curation and progress tracking are unavailable.


title: Severance (novel)

text: Severance is a 2018 science fiction novel by Chinese-American author Ling Ma. It follows Candace Chen, an unfulfilled Bible product coordinator, before and after an incurable infection slowly obliterates global civilization. "Severance" explores themes of nostalgia, modern office culture, monotony, and intimate relationships. The novel, Ma's debut, won the 2018 Kirkus Prize for Fiction and was included on many prominent Best Books of 2018 lists.


title: Severance (novel)

text: "Severance" takes place in an alternate history of the United States up to the end of 2011, before and during a pandemic of the fictional Shen Fever, a fictional fungal infection caused by "Sheniodioides" originating in Shenzhen, China. Real world events such as Occupy Wall Street unfold differently due to the Shen Fever pandemic.


title: Severance (novel)

text: People infected with Shen Fever repeat old routines compulsively, without consciousness and until death. There is no cure for the fever, and its spread eventually leads to total societal collapse in the United States. Some people are inexplicably immune to the fever and try to survive during the slow apocalypse.


title: Severance (novel)

text: The narrative follows Candace Chen after societal collapse due to the Shen Fever pandemic and in flashbacks to her earlier life. Candace and her parents emigrate from Fuzhou, China to Salt Lake City in her youth. In her twenties, Candace drifts through New York City, living on her inheritance from her parents following their deaths, before getting an unfulfilling job at a publishing company called Spectra, overseeing the production of elaborate design variations of the Bible. In the early days of the pandemic in 2011, Candace discovers she is pregnant after splitting with her boyfriend, Jonathan. As businesses shut down as the pandemic worsens, Candace accepts a lucrative contract with Spectra to be one of the few to continue to work in the office until a certain date, because having a workplace open is good for the company's image. Having no living family to be with in the US, Candace feels little drive to flee the city as most others do. Eventually she is the only employee left and is no longer contacted by her superiors. Per Jonathan's parting suggestion to revive her old pursuits in photography, she documents the final days of a deserted New York City's collapsing infrastructure on a blog called "NY Ghost". When shocked by the realization that she has fulfilled her work contract, Candace is one of the final survivors to escape the city in late 2011.


title: Severance (novel)

text: In the present, a group of other immune survivors finds Candace near death in a New York taxi cab on the shoulder of a highway in Pennsylvania. The quasi-religious group, under the domineering leadership of Bob, is traveling towards "the Facility," which he promises to be safe. On the way there, they follow Bob's rituals to "stalk" houses for supplies, killing the "fevered" people inside. A member of the group who was seemingly healthy succumbs to Shen Fever while visiting her childhood home, leading Candace to theorize that nostalgia is somehow related to the mindless routines of the fevered. The survivors arrive to find that the Facility is an abandoned shopping mall in suburban Illinois, which Bob co-owns and spent much of his youth in, and begin to make a new home there. As punishment for rebellion and due to the discovery of Candace's pregnancy, Bob has her imprisoned. Candace begins to hallucinate the presence of her dead mother, who helps her realize that her safety is only ensured until the birth of her baby. When Candace finds Bob in his nightly routine of walking around the mall, now fevered, she is able to steal his keys and escape. Candace takes a car and heads for Chicago, planning for the future.


title: Severance (novel)

text: "The New York Times"' review stated that "Severance", "offers blatant commentary on 'dizzying abundance' and unrelenting consumption, evolving into a semi-surreal sendup of a workplace and its utopia of rules." Ling Ma began the novel while working as a fact checker for "Playboy", a job she held from 2009 to 2012. It began as a short story, written in her office during her last few months there; after her layoff, it became a novel which she wrote while living on severance pay. She took four years to write it, and finished the novel at Cornell as part of the work in her MFA program. She said that she watched George Romero films while working on "Severance", and also "The Walking Dead".


title: Severance (novel)

text: Ma said she "felt pressured to write a traditional immigration novel" while in the MFA program at Cornell, but instead decided to write about otherness and alienation via the trope of zombie apocalypse. Ma's main character is, like her, a first generation immigrant. The "New York Times" review states that "laced within its dystopian narrative is an encapsulation of a first-generation immigrant’s nostalgia for New York."


title: Severance (novel)

text: It was a New York Times Notable Book of 2018. NPR's Michael Schaub said, "A fierce debut from a writer with seemingly boundless imagination" and "A stunning, audacious book with a fresh take on both office politics and what the apocalypse might bring." "The Chicago Tribune" called it, "a gripping bildungsroman in the midst of an apocalypse."


title: Severance (novel)

text: It was included on annual Best Book lists at "Elle," "Marie Claire," "Refinery29," "Buzzfeed," "BookPage," "Bookish," "Mental Floss," "Huffington Post," "A.V. Club," "Jezebel," "and Vulture." "Electric Literature" included it on a list of possible winners for the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction.


title: Severance (novel)

text: "BookPage" called it, "astounding debut novel." "Refinery29" included it on a list of Post-Apocalyptic Books Will Freak You Out, saying, "Ma creates a convincing portrait of a woman slightly disconnected from the world, even before the virus."


title: Severance (novel)

text: According to the review aggregator Book Marks, "Severance" received "rave" reviews, based on 19 reviews.


title: Severance (novel)

text: "Severance" was awarded the 2018 Kirkus Prize for Fiction and the 2019 NYPL Young Lions Fiction Award. It was a finalist for 2019 the PEN/Hemingway award.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The Kellogg–Briand Pact or Pact of Paris – officially the General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy – is a 1928 international agreement on peace in which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them". The pact was signed by Germany, France, and the United States on 27 August 1928, and by most other states soon after. Sponsored by France and the U.S., the Pact is named after its authors, United States Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The pact was concluded outside the League of Nations and remains in effect.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: A common criticism is that the Kellogg–Briand Pact did not live up to all of its aims but has arguably had some success. It was unable to prevent the Second World War but was the base for trial and execution of Nazi leaders in 1946. Furthermore, declared wars became very rare after 1945. It has been ridiculed for its moralism, legalism, and lack of influence on foreign policy. The pact had no mechanism for enforcement, and many historians and political scientists see it as mostly irrelevant and ineffective. Nevertheless, the pact served as the legal basis for the concept of a crime against peace, for which the Nuremberg Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal tried and executed the top leaders responsible for starting World War II.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: With the signing of the Litvinov Protocol in Moscow on February 9, 1929, the Soviet Union and its western neighbors, including Romania, agreed to put the Kellogg–Briand Pact in effect without waiting for other western signatories to ratify. The Bessarabian question had made agreement between Romania and the Soviet Union challenging and dispute between the nations over Bessarabia continued.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: Similar provisions to those in the Kellogg–Briand Pact were later incorporated into the Charter of the United Nations and other treaties, which gave rise to a more activist American foreign policy which began with the signing of the pact.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The High Contracting Parties solemnly declare in the names of their respective peoples that they condemn recourse to war for the solution of international controversies and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The High Contracting Parties agree that the settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be, which may arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: After negotiations, the pact was signed in Paris at the French Foreign Ministry by the representatives from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Great Britain, India, the Irish Free State, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Poland, South Africa, and the United States. It took effect on 24 July 1929.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: 12 additional parties joined after that date: Persia, Greece, Honduras, Chile, Luxembourg, Danzig, Costa Rica, Mexico, Venezuela, Paraguay, Switzerland and the Dominican Republic for a total of 57 state parties by 1929. Six states joined between 1930 and 1934: Haiti, Colombia, Saudi Arabia, Ecuador, Iraq and Brazil. After the Second World War, Barbados declared its accession to the treaty, followed by Fiji (1973), Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica (both 1988), the Czech Republic and Slovakia (after Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1993), and, as a result of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Slovenia (1992), Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia (both in 1994). The Free City of Danzig, which had joined the Pact in 1929, ceased to exist in 1939 and became a regular part of Poland after World War II.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: In the United States, the Senate approved the treaty 85–1, with only Wisconsin Republican John J. Blaine voting against over concerns with British imperialism. While the U.S. Senate did not add any reservations to the treaty, it did pass a measure which interpreted the treaty as not infringing upon the United States' right of self-defense and not obliging the nation to enforce it by taking action against those who violated it.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact was concluded outside the League of Nations and remains in effect. One month following its conclusion, a similar agreement, the General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, was concluded in Geneva, which obliged its signatory parties to establish conciliation commissions in any case of dispute. The pact's central provisions renouncing the use of war, and promoting peaceful settlement of disputes and the use of collective force to prevent aggression, were incorporated into the United Nations Charter and other treaties. Although civil wars continued, wars between established states have been rare since 1945, with a few exceptions such as the Russo-Ukrainian war and various conflicts in the Middle East.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: As a practical matter, the Kellogg–Briand Pact did not live up to its primary aims, but has arguably had some success. It did not end war or stop the rise of militarism, and was unable to keep the international peace in succeeding years. Its legacy remains as a statement of the idealism expressed by advocates for peace in the interwar period. However, it also helped to erase the legal distinction between war and peace, because the signatories, having renounced the use of war, began to wage wars without declaring them, as in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935, the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German and Soviet invasions of Poland.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The popular perception of the Kellogg–Briand Pact was best summarized by Eric Sevareid who, in a nationally televised series on American diplomacy between the two world wars, referred to the pact as a "worthless piece of paper". In his history of Europe from 1914 to 1948, historian Ian Kershaw referred to the Pact as "vacuous" and said that it was "a dead letter from the moment it was signed."


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: While the Pact has been ridiculed for its moralism and legalism and lack of influence on foreign policy, it did lead to a more activist American foreign policy. Legal scholars Scott J. Shapiro and Oona A. Hathaway have argued that the Pact inaugurated "a new era of human history" characterized by the decline of inter-state war as a structuring dynamic of the international system. According to Shapiro and Hathaway one reason for the historical insignificance of the pact was the absence of an enforcement mechanism to compel compliance from signatories, since the pact only calls for violators to "be denied of the benefits furnished by [the] treaty". They also said that the Pact appealed to the West because it promised to secure and protect previous conquests, thus securing their place at the head of the international legal order indefinitely.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: In their book, "The Internationalists," Hathaway and Shapiro explain how the Kellog-Briand Pact marked the start of the transition from the Old World Order and the New World Order. In this treaty, the signing nations expressed the wish to leave the custom of international war behind, which was the main motor for the architects of the ideas that would lead to the Pact.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: These intellectuals tell us about the Old World Order, one in which states reserved the right to wage war as a legitimate method of solving problems with other states. In the West, this was the case for centuries, but a group of people whom the authors call the internationalists would undertake an enterprise to outlaw war, thus changing the world forever. From then on, there would be a tendency to reject war on the part of the States, which would stop recognizing as legal what was obtained by means of war. This would mark the beginning of the New World Order, one characterised by global trade and international institutions and treaties.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The Old World Order that preached the legality of war was based on the writings of the Dutch philosopher Hugo Grotius, who took the ideas of the social contract and international anarchy to conceptualize just war. In his extensive treatises, Grotius asserts that in a state of nature, individuals must be able to wage war to right wrongs done to them. However, the individual renounces this right in pursuit of belonging to a State, which monopolizes violence and is responsible both for judging who is the victim and who is the aggressor, as well as for administering the corresponding punishment. For their part, the States, which coexist with each other in a state of anarchy, have no higher authority to appeal to, so they retain their right to wage war. A just war, one that is waged to defend oneself or correct an injustice, gave the one who fought the right to keep what he captured in battle. This represented a fundamental problem, since without international institutions to mediate between the parties, the decision of whether an object had been obtained through a just or unjust war fell to the merchants. In turn, the risk factor that this would bring to the table would increase costs for merchants, and depress the economy in general. This problem would be solved by Grotius in a radical way: war would decide who the law should favor, both in terms of ownership and conquest. This principle is often called the "might makes right" principle, and would be the foundation of the international law of the Old World Order. In addition, this legal principle was widely reinforced by the then-dominant economic doctrine of mercantilism. Based on the notion that the total resources of the world are distributed through a zero-sum game, to say that in order for one to win, the other has to lose, “mercantilism encouraged states to wage war to expand territorial control and market size, while the war, by expanding markets under unified sovereign control, helped sustain mercantilism.” This plunged the Western world into a vicious cycle of international aggression for centuries.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: After the First World War, the Treaties of Paris would propose the League of Nations as a mechanism to avoid war. However, "[t]o solve the problem of war, the League's response seems to have been... more war." According to Article 16, in the case of observing an unjust war, the majority of the states in the Council of the League were to order the member states to take up arms in defense of the Pact. Observing this, people like Salmon Levinson or Philander Knox would begin to propose as a solution a revolutionary idea: the illegality of war. His efforts over the years would bear fruit with the Kellogg-Briand Pact. Despite being largely ignored during his time and during the following years, it would provide a fundamental model for the Charter of the United Nations, in addition to many other consequences that would manifest themselves over time. On the other hand, this vision of war would see an intensification of its momentum due to World War II. Among such consequences are: the low profitability of war, the inability to maintain long-term territorial gains obtained through conquest, the increase of the total number of States in the world, the increased survival capacity of smaller states, etc.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: In the New World Order, war is no longer socially accepted by the community of states, and although there is still a long way to go before international institutions dedicated to the resolution of disputes become fully effective, immense progress has been made. Moreover, economic sanctions have gained popularity as a means of punishment against unilateral aggression by a State, avoiding falling into the same problem as the League of Nations. Despite the above, these premises are being called into question at this very moment, with the war in Ukraine by Putin's Russia. As this conflict progresses and develops, the effectiveness of sanctions is tested, as is the strength of the UN Security Council to prevent large-scale conflict.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The New World Order also introduced us to a new use of weapons, where we see how nuclear weapons of mass destruction are used as deterrents, where international wars have almost completely disappeared, but that still has not prevented violence from proliferating. The reason for this that Hathaway and Shapiro give us is varied. On the one hand, there are conflicts that are generated because two or more States claim the same territory. Others occur within the same territory as civil wars. Nevertheless, although the Paris Peace Pact did not eliminate violence in the world, it did transform it into one where war was emptied of its legitimate foundation, where it is seen as something to be avoided, and where cooperation pays States better than confrontation with each other. Even though there is still a long way to go, with the Kellog-Briand Pact and the audacity of its rchitects and inspirations, we can ovserve how actively militating and knowing with whom and how to act the mentality of the world can be changed even in matters in which it seems silly to propose a paradigm shift because they have been taken for granted for millennia


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: Hathaway and Shapiro also show that between 1816 and 1928 there was on average one military conquest every ten months. After 1945, in very sharp contrast, the number of such conflicts declined to one in every four years.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: The pact, in addition to binding the particular nations that signed it, has also served as one of the legal bases establishing the international norms that the threat or use of military force in contravention of international law, as well as the territorial acquisitions resulting from it, are unlawful. The interdiction of aggressive war was confirmed and broadened by the United Nations Charter, which provides in article 2, paragraph 4, that "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations." One legal consequence is that it is unlawful to annex territory by force, although other forms of annexation have not been prevented. More broadly, there is now a strong presumption against the legality of using, or threatening, military force against another country. Nations that have resorted to the use of force since the Charter came into effect have typically invoked self-defense or the right of collective defense.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: Notably, the pact also served as the legal basis for the concept of a crime against peace. It was for committing this crime that the Nuremberg Tribunal and Tokyo Tribunal tried and executed the top leaders responsible for starting World War II.


title: Kellogg–Briand Pact

text: an important early venture in multilateralism. ... [I]nternational law evolved to circumscribe the use of armed force with legal restrictions. The forcible acquisition of territory by conquest became illegitimate and individual criminal liability might attach to those who pursued it. In criminalizing war Kellogg–Briand played a role in the development of a new norm of behavior in international relations, a norm that continues to play a role in our current international order.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Kyiv Metro (, ) is a rapid transit system in Kyiv that is owned by the Kyiv City Council and operated by the city-owned company Kyivsky Metropoliten"." It was initially opened on November 6th, 1960, as a single line with five stations. It was the first rapid transit system in Ukraine and the third in the Soviet Union, after the Moscow and St. Petersburg metros.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Today, the system consists of three lines and 52 stations, located throughout Kyiv's ten raion (districts), and operates of routes, with used for revenue service and for non-revenue service. At below ground level, Arsenalna station on the Sviatoshynsko-Brovarska Line is the deepest train station in the world.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 2016, annual ridership for the metro was 484.56 million passengers, or about 1.32 million passengers daily. The metro accounted for 46.7% of Kyiv's public transport load in 2014.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The first idea for an underground railway appeared in 1884. The project, which was given for analysis to the city council by the director of the Southwestern railways, Dmytro Andrievskiy, planned to create tunnels from Kyiv-Pasazhyrskyi railway station. The tunnel was expected to start near Poshtova square and finish near Bessarabka. A new railway station was to be built there, while the old railway station was to be converted into a freight railway station. The project was long discussed but eventually turned down by the city council.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Kyiv was a pioneering city for Imperial Russian rapid transit, opening the first Russian tram system. In September 1916, businessmen of the Russo-American trading corporation attempted to collect funds to sponsor the construction of a metro in Kyiv. As a reason to construct it, the trading corporation wrote:


title: Kyiv Metro

text: After the downfall of the Tsarist government, Hetman Skoropadsky was also interested in the building of a metro system, somewhere near the district of Zvirynets, where the government center was planned to be built. Skoropadsky argued:


title: Kyiv Metro

text: However, the project lost its support after the downfall of the Hetmanate in the autumn of 1918 and the change of the Ukrainian government towards the Directorate. Then, in 1919–1920, during the Russian Civil War (in which Ukraine was involved), the project was shelved for good.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Following the Bolsheviks' victory in the Russian Civil War, Kyiv became only a provincial city, and no large-scale proposals to improve the city were made.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved from Kharkiv to Kyiv. On July 9, 1936, the Presidium of the Kyiv City Council assessed the diploma project by Papazov (Papazian), an Armenian graduate of the Moscow University of Transport Engineering, called, "The Project of the Kyiv Metro." The meeting minutes stated that "the author successfully resolved one of the problems of reconstruction of the city of Kyiv and establishment of intra-city transportation and also answered various practical questions about the Metro plan (the routes of the underground, the position of stations)." The engineer Papazov (Papazian) received a bonus of 1,000 Soviet rubles for this project from the City of Kyiv. However, it is unknown if his proposals were taken into account in the plan. A few days before, on July 5, the Kyiv newspaper "Bil'shovyk" published an article that featured a project of underground, prepared by engineers from the Transport Devices Institute in Ukraine's Soviet Socialist Republic's Academy of Sciences. The project promised to drill three lines of a subway approximately 50 km long.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Rumors started spreading that the construction of the Metro would begin soon. At first, the city council denied these rumors, amid letters from the specialists in the drilling and mining sectors offering their services. But in 1938, officials started preparatory work. However, this stopped abruptly in 1941 with the start of the Great Patriotic War (World War II). By the end of the war, Kyiv was destroyed. Being the third largest city in the USSR, a massive reconstruction process was ordered. This time, the Metro was taken into account.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Work continued in 1944, after Kyiv's liberation. On 5 August 1944, a resolution from the Soviet Union's Government was proclaimed. The resolution planned for underground construction, thus the government ordered the appropriate organizations to continue preparatory works, create a technical project, and estimate total costs. To finance this initial work, the USSR's National Commissariat of Finances allocated 1 million Soviet rubles from the Reserve Fund of the USSR's government. On 22 February 1945, another resolution was proclaimed, which definitively ordered the underground to be constructed.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: To determine where the underground construction was most suitable, experts from the Kyiv Office of Metrogiprotrans analyzed the flow of passengers in the streets of Kyiv, both in the city center and in the outskirts. The analysis revealed three suitable directions to construct the underground: Sviatoshyn–Brovary, Kurenivka–Demiyivka, and Syrets–Pechersk. The former two were chosen to be built. It was decided that the first section of underground openings along these two directions— in length—would be constructed by 1950.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: This plan, however, did not come to life. The final preparations were not conducted until 1949. By the decision of the Ministry of Communication, the Kyivmetrobud enterprise was established on 14 April. Only then did the underground construction finally begin.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction of the first line (M1) of the Kyiv Metro began in August 1949. The initial plan had seven stations, and a project design competition for the stations was announced in 1952. The competition commission wanted all seven stations to have a Stalinist style: richly decorated and adorned with Communist symbols and national (Ukrainian) motifs. However, the competition was cancelled, partly due to the cancellation of the two westernmost stations and partly due to Khrushchev Thaw, which made the Stalinist style inappropriate.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Tunnel drilling is frequently met with unanticipated difficulties—such as unexpected drilling terrain and underground water sources—causing the construction to fall severely behind schedule. In December 1951, the first connection between separate tunnels was made between Dnipro and Arsenalna stations, while the last was created between the Vokzalna and Universytet stations, in May 1959.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Various difficulties arose during the construction of the underground. For example, Arsenalna station was constantly flooded by underground waters despite its exceptional depth, which was originally intended to prevent flooding. Moreover, the project came to a standstill in 1954 when funding was instead allocated to the development of unused land fit for agriculture. Nevertheless, work progressed.At the beginning of 1958, a competition for the best design of stations was announced. A commission analyzing the works was created, consisting of activists, engineering and architecture experts from both the Ukrainian SSR and the USSR, sculptors, artists, writers, and the heads of the organizations Glavtunelstroy, Metrogiprotrans, and Kyivmetrobud. In July, an exhibition of 80 works was organized. The best five designs were used for the first five stations of the Kyiv Metro: Vokzalna, Universytet, Khreshchatyk, Arsenalna, and Dnipro.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: During this construction, of concrete was poured, and of granite and marble were used to decorate the stations.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 22 October 1960, a test run was made by Alexey Semagin, a motorman of the Moscow Metro, and Ivan Vynogradov, the former train operator from the central railway station of Kyiv-Pasazhyrskyi. Semagin drove, with Vynogradov acting as an assistant.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 6 November 1960, the anniversary of the October Revolution, the five-station, 5.24 km Vokzalna–Dnipro portion of the east-west line (today known as the Sviatoshynsko-Brovarska Line) was opened. That day, the motormen changed their places, and thus Ivan Vynogragov has now been deemed the first motorman of the Kyiv Metro.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The underground was not available to the public the same day the line was declared open. During the first week, special passes had to be shown to ride the newly opened section. True public service only started on 13 November. At the time, the stations had no turnstiles; the tickets were shown to the inspector.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Immediately after the Kyiv Metro's opening, the need for a train depot became a problem. It was not feasible to construct a permanent on-ground depot as the stations were deep underground. Yet the creation of an underground depot was costly. At first, it was solved by creating a temporary depot next to Dnipro station, where Kyivmetrobud had its headquarters at the time. There were some warehouses constructed as well so that necessary items could be substituted if needed. Unfortunately, this temporary depot was not connected to the main underground line. To move trains to the depot, an overhead crane was used.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Simultaneously, another logistics problem appeared: there was no connection between the underground and the railway. At the time, the metro line was served by type Д underground trains (produced by Metrowagonmash). To deliver them to the underground, the trains had to be placed on a special carriage at Darnytsia railway station. The carriage was then transported by trams (via the now non-existing tram line along the Dnieper river) to the temporary depot, where the trains were then lifted onto the railway turntable. Since the procedure was uncomfortable and tedious, most trains rested overnight in the tunnels and arrived at the depot only to be checked for repairs and repaired.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: At the time, the Kyiv Metro was under the jurisdiction of the USSR's Ministry of Communication, and not of Kyiv's city council. Until 1962, the motormen were mostly from Moscow, as no institution provided appropriate education in Ukraine. Some Kyiv railway engineers were employed (such as Vynogragov), but they had to qualify for motormen in Moscow.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The second stage of construction of the first line started in 1960, and finished on 5 November 1963, with the opening of a section with two stations: Politekhnichnyi Instytut and Zavod Bilshovyk (now Shuliavska station). A year later, new type E underground trains were introduced.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 1965, the line crossed the Dnieper river on the newly constructed Kyiv Metro Bridge and Rusanivskyi Metropolitan Bridge and was extended to the large residential areas being built along the east bank of the river. Like the Dnipro station, Hydropark, Livoberezhna, and Darnytsia stations all were built on-ground. Additionally, to resolve the question of a temporary depot, a permanent depot (Darnytsia Metro Depot) was built between Livoberezhna and Darnytsia stations; importantly, it had access to Kyiv-Dniprovskyi railway station. New trains could now be easily transported immediately into the depot, which, having a connection with the metro line, could also easily host trains.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: A few developments were made to the old stations. Since Khreshchatyk station was opened with only one exit, a second one was built and opened on 4 September 1965. A third exit was finished in May 1970. While being modernized, the station was lengthened by 40 meters.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Further extension of the first line to the east was made in 1968, when Komsomolska station (now Chenihivska station) was opened, along with another facility where the trains could be repaired.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: When it was discovered that Leningrad's Metro E-type underground trains were not suitable for the platform screen doors of new stations under construction, they were delivered to Kyiv in 1969; meanwhile, Kyiv's older D-type trains, which did not have any problems with these new stations, were transported to Leningrad.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 1970, an additional carriage was added to every train, for a total of four. A fifth was added two years later. Since 1972, the number of carriages has remained constant (as of 4 July 2017).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 5 November 1971, Kyiv's then-westernmost neighborhoods were connected to the underground. Three new stations were opened: Zhovtneva (now Beresteiska), Nyvky, and Sviatoshyno (now with the "o" removed). Thus, the underground was extended to 14 stations and a length of .


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 23 August 1972, the billionth passenger of the Kyiv underground entered the Arsenalna station. The worker of the "Arsenal" factory was given a yearly ticket in the underground as a present on such an occasion.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Finally, in 1973–1974, another modernization of the underground was made, the third to the rolling stock. New type Eм underground trains from Leningrad's train building facility were delivered to Kyiv.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Further extensions on this line occurred in 1978 (with Pionerska station, now Lisova) and 2003 (with Zhytomyrska and Akademmistechko stations).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction of the second line (M2) began in 1971. The line became known as "Kurenivsko-Chervonoarmiyska"; however, the name did not completely correspond to the actual route, as it does not pass via Kurenivka. In mid-1960, when plans for the line were made, the construction was expected to go towards Kurenivka and Priorka, connecting Zavodska station (instead of today's Tarasa Shevchenka), Petropavlivska station near Kurenivskyi park, and Shevhenka Square station under the square. However, as the decision to create the Obolon residential district was made, these plans changed.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The new line was constructed in the open and its stations were not constructed deep underground. Because of this, historical buildings were demolished in the Podil neighborhood. During construction, archaeologists discovered a house dated from Kyivs'ka Rus' (879–1240) under the Red Square (now Kontraktova Square). The discovery helped historians understand the life of Podil inhabitants in the Middle Ages at a much more profound scale. This archaeological research was one of the reasons the underground construction was suspended, which is why the small stretch was opened only on 17 December 1976. It contained three stations: Kalinina Square (later renamed to Ploshcha Zhovtnevoi Revolutsii () on 17 October 1977 for the upcoming 60th anniversary of the October Revolution; now Maidan Nezalezhnosti), Poshtova Ploshcha, and Chervona Ploshcha. Additionally, there was a repair facility near Chervona Ploshcha and a transfer corridor to the older (M1) line, separate for trains and passengers. This corridor allowed the exchange of rolling stock, and more importantly, allowed trains on the new line to access the Darnytsia depot until a new one appeared in 1988.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Simultaneously, an extension on the first line was made eastward. In 1978, Pionerska station was opened, which might have been the next step towards the realization of Stalin times projects (the line was planned to be extended to Brovary, the satellite town of Kyiv).Nevertheless, construction on the first line came to a halt, and, as of 4 July 2017, there were no plans yet to extend the line eastwards beyond Lisova station, so construction efforts were shifted to the second line.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The second line—which became known as the Kurenivsko-Chervonoarmiyska line (today the Obolonsko–Teremkivska line)—continued expanding. On 19 December 1980, three new stations—Tarasa Shevchenka, Petrivka (now Pochaina station), and Prospekt Korniychuka (now Obolon station)—were opened on the northern part of the line. After another two years, the Minska and Heroiv Dnipra stations were added to the second line, on the 55th anniversary of the October Revolution. This connected the then-largest residential district of Kyiv to the rapid transit network.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction did not stop at the southern end of the line. Ploshcha Lva Tolstoho and Respublikanskyi Stadion (now Olimpiiska station) were opened on 19 December 1981, followed by Chervonoarmiiska (now Palats "Ukrayina" station) and Dzerzhynska (now Lybidska station) on 30 December 1984. Construction then started to the southwest of the newly opened terminus but was soon interrupted by an accident while workers were drilling through the difficult terrain under the Lybid river. Further work only continued 21 years later, in the summer of 2005.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 1980, while the construction of the M2 line was at its height, the new rolling stock from Metrowagonmash (81-717/714) started to be used.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 1985, a new train repair plant was built, first called ОМ-2. Additionally, once it appeared that the corridor between October Revolution Square and Khreshchatyk was not able to cope with the stream of passengers, a second corridor was built (informally called the "long" corridor), opening on 3 December 1986. The same year, disambiguation to the Darnytsia depot was made (three tracks were made, of which two are for passenger traffic, while the third was supposed to let the trains exit the depot).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 30 December 1987, the second (eastern) exit from the Hydropark station was built and opened only in summer.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The first event connected with the construction of the third line (M3) was the creation of a new tunnel on the M1 line between the Vokzalna and Khreshchatyk stations. In the middle of it, a new station, Leninska, was to arise, specially designed as a transfer hub to the future M3 line. When the new tunnel was ready to be connected to the rest of the line, service in the old M1 tunnel between Vokzalna and Khreshchatyk was interrupted from 31 March to 1 October 1987. During this time, two shuttle trains carried passengers from Vokzalna to Universytet stations, and the tunnel between Universytet and Khreshchatyk was closed. To manage passengers, additional temporary lines of buses and trolleybuses were created. The Leninska station itself was inaugurated on the 70th anniversary of the October Revolution, on 6 November 1987, and is now known as Teatralna station.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The older tunnels, over each, partially cut by the ceiling of the Zoloti Vorota station, still exist and are now accessible only for maintenance by staff.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction of the third line (called the Syretsko-Pecherska Line, the northwest-southeast axis) started in 1981. The initial segment was finished on 31 December 1989 and featured three stations: Zoloti Vorota, Palats Sportu, and Mechnikova (now Klovska). The first two were transfer hubs to other lines; the third was the start of a technical tunnel between lines M2 and M3, which allowed trains from the M3 line to use the Obolon depot on the M2 line. Until 30 April 1990, the exit from Zoloti Vorota station (the then-northern terminus of M3) was only possible via Leninska station. An exit from Zoloti Vorota onto Volodymyrska Street was only opened on 1 May 1990.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: A total of 31 stations and of passenger tunnels were constructed during the first 31 years of the subway system in the Ukrainian SSR.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Despite severe economic problems at the dawn of Ukrainian independence, momentum on the Kyiv Metro construction was not lost. On 30 December 1991, Druzhby Narodiv and Vydubychi stations were opened (Pecherska station was opened six years later, on 27 December 1997, since its construction had to be frozen due to hydrotechnical problems). In 1992, the line crossed the Dnieper river to Slavutych and Osokorky stations via the Pivdennyi Bridge. Initially, this bridge (which was open from the sides) was intended to be covered by an aluminium construction, but this was found to be ineffective protection against snow and rain.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: While the construction of the bridge segment was in progress, Telychka station was also under construction. However, due to factory closures in the surrounding heavily industrialized area, the station construction site was abandoned. What remains of it now is a platform and a ventilation shaft, so the station can be used in emergency cases (e.g. a fire or train breakdown).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Two years later (on 28 December 1994), the M3 line was further extended to the east, when Pozniaky and Kharkivska stations were revealed to the public. Pozniaky station was the first distinctly three-floor underground station in Kyiv; the lower floor was used by the underground, while the middle and the top floors were used by small market stalls. This structure later enabled the station to easily become a transfer hub for the upcoming Livoberezhna line (M5) by replacing the stalls with passenger transfer areas. The opening of these stations was crucial for the rapidly developing Poznyaky and Kharkivskyi residential districts.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In the mid-1990s, construction of a northwestern expansion to the older Syrets' district began, with the first extension made on 30 December 1996. Then, Lukyanivska station became the new terminus of the line. Lvivska Brama station was also built (between Zoloti Vorota and Lukyanivska), but its construction came to a halt in 1997 due to a lack of money and disagreement on how Lvivska Square should be reconstructed.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: On 30 March 2000, the next station on the line, Dorohozhychi, was opened. Another station, Hertsena station (situated between Lukyanivska and Dorohozhychi stations), was also planned—even potentially under initial construction—but ultimately abandoned. Neither the current official scheme (see below) nor the earlier one indicates this station.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Four years later, on 14 October 2004, the M3 line was further extended to the northwest, ending at Syrets station (still the current terminus of the line).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: At the same time, works were done on the southeastern stretch of the line, with Boryspilska station opening on 23 August 2005 and Vyrlytsia opening on 7 March 2006. At first, Vyrlytsia was only an emergency exit, and the station was not planned to be built. However, the City Council later decided, in November 2005, to convert the exit into a full station, which is the reason why this station has side platforms.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In September 2005, construction began on Chervonyi Khutir station, the last station on the M3 line. In April 2007, the Mayor of Kyiv, Leonid Chernovetskyi, fearing the station will have low ridership, claimed the station would be subject to conservation, as "animals do not ride in the underground" (he meant that the station was situated literally in the forest, with not many buildings nearby, so there were no people to use the station). Nevertheless, the works continued, and, after a few months' delay, the station opened on 23 May 2008, for the Kyiv Day celebration. The timing coincided with the upcoming mayoral elections on 25 May 2008. This station still has the lowest ridership in the Kyiv Metro.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Until the 2000s, the M1 line terminated at Sviatoshyn station (renamed in 1993 from Sviatoshyno station) at the western end. However, new apartments had emerged since 1971, mostly in Bilychi and western Sviatoshyn, which created a need for an extension of the line to the housing facilities.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction of the final section of today's M1 line started in the fall of 2000. Zhytomyrska station and Akademmistechko station were built, with delays due to irregular financing. Peremohy Avenue was partially closed from 14 January 2001 to 25 December 2002, to construct the tunnels beneath the street. This final extension of the M1 line was opened on 24 May 2003.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Construction of the southwestern segment of the M2 line restarted in the summer of 2005, 21 years after the Lybid river accident. Difficult terrain made the work fall behind the schedule, partly due to accidents (such as one on January 2006 during the construction of the Demiivska station). On 15 December 2010, Demiivska, Holosiivska, and Vasylkivska stations were opened.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The 50th station, Vystavkovyi Tsentr, was unveiled a year later, on 27 December 2011. Ipodrom followed suit on 25 October 2012. Initially, Ipodrom was planned to be opened together with Teremky station in November 2012, but, with the lack of financing and lagging behind the schedule, only Ipodrom was opened by then (ahead of schedule, partly thanks to funds reallocation, and partly because of the 2012 parliamentary elections due for 28 October). The Ipodrom–Teremky section would wait for underground construction funds until 2013. As there was no turnaround option for trains there, a shuttle train drove between Vystavkovyi Tsentr and Ipodrom stations until Teremky station was opened on 6 November 2013, to commemorate the 70th anniversary of Kyiv's liberation. As of 2019, this was the last extension or opening of any underground-connected facility (not taking into account the opening of the second exit from Osokorky station, which was built together with the station but opened only in 2014).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In the 1990s, the Kyiv Metro authority was mostly concerned with new underground construction, rather than old infrastructure modernization. This changed in March 2001, when an experimental modification of 81-717/714 trains, the Slavutych 81-553.1/554.1/555.1 wagon, was launched from Obolon depot. It included an increased number of electronic devices and induction motors (instead of synchronous motors in earlier series). The train model, however, was not released into mass production, so the test train remained the only one from its series. This experimental 81-553.1 train is still operated on the Obolonsko–Teremkivska line between 7-10 a.m. on weekdays.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The modification of 81-717/714 (81-717.5М/714.5М) trains arrived three years later at the Darnytsia depot.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Another modification of the 81-717/714 series, the , made by the Kryukiv wagon-manufacturing plant (KVBZ), would be the first underground train made in Ukraine in the Kyiv Metro. This new model was first unveiled to the then-President of Ukraine, Viktor Yushchenko, at the opening of the Boryspilska station. Five months later, a sample was sent to the Darnytsia depot for trials, where an error was detected. Further tests were conducted from 17 June 2006 in the Obolon depot. Finally, in July 2008, the trains were accepted by the governmental commission and were given a special license allowing them to be mass-produced (following Ukrainian technical standards). They started carrying passengers in 2009. 81-7021–7022 trains were supposed to substitute the older 81-717/714 trains, but, as of 5 July 2017, there was only one train of such a model.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The next modified trains, 81-540.2К/81-714.5М, made by Wagonmash (St. Peterburg) and Metrowagonmash, are another modification of 81-717/714, arrived in 2010, with additional trains set on rails in 2013.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Finally, in 2014–2016, new 81-7080 trains were transported from KVBZ to the Kyiv Metro, which is now actively used on the M1 line.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In October 2005, new escalators were installed in Lisova and Syrets stations, as a movement for modernization in the former case, and the latter as part of a pylon station's equipment.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The following year, Darnytsia station was modernized, and a second exit (towards Popudrenka Street) was built.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In March-May 2017, a ₴24.84 million hryven' (USD$ 915,900) refurbishment of Livoberezhna station was made due to the second Eurovision session in Kyiv.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Metro was built in the wake of World War II. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the metro stations doubled as bomb shelters, as residents took shelter from Russian bombs. Like other former Soviet metro systems, the Kyiv metro was designed with this purpose in mind, and 47 of the city's 52 stations were designated for this purpose. During the invasion, on February 24, regular service on the metro was suspended. A reduced schedule was adopted with limited services running between 8:00 and 19:00. All underground stations remain open 24 hours a day to provide shelter. According to Kyiv's mayor Vitali Klitschko, on 2 March 2022, as many as 150,000 residents of Kyiv sought shelter in the city's Metro facilities.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: As of 2019, 3 lines are operational, with a total length of . The additional that appear in the table account for technical tunnels, used by trains to switch from one line to another.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The lines' names are derived from the terminal stations proposed in the original 1945 construction plan, which is why the M1 line is called "Sviatoshynsko–Brovarska", despite finishing 11 kilometers short of Brovary's city center (the official Metro site says "the extension to Brovary is possible in far future"). Similarly, the M2 line's route does not pass through Kurenivka. In February 2018, the Kyiv City Council renamed the M2 line from "Kurenivsko–Chervonoarmiyska" to "Obolonsko–Teremkivska".


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Colloquially, lines are rarely referred to by their full names, but rather by their numbers or colors (e.g. the "Syretsko–Pecherska line" is usually referred to as "The Third line" or "The Green line").


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Sviatoshynsko–Brovarska line is the first line of the Kyiv Metro, with a length of . All of its stations on the eastern bank of the Dnieper river are either at or above ground level, this is attributed to a similar experiment to Moscow's Filyovskaya Line. The milder Ukrainian climate, however, prevented these stations from severely deteriorating, which was why extensions in 1968 and 1979 were kept from going underground. The five original stations on this line managed to survive Nikita Khrushchev's struggle with decorative "extras", although more pompous projects were proposed in Stalin's time. These five stations are recognized as architectural monuments and thus are protected by the state. The M1 line is colored red on maps and carries about 550,000 passengers daily, making it the busiest line.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Obolonsko–Teremkivska line was the second line of the Kyiv Metro, with a length of . Initially, it extends southwards along the right bank of the Dnieper river but deviates from the river towards the southwest beyond Lybidska station. Most of this line's stations were built in the 1970s and 1980s. Architecturally, the line shows some of the best examples of late-Soviet architectural features (with Lybidska station being an architectural monument protected by the state). The line's newest stations, built-in 2010–2013, are a good example of modern stations with national decoration motifs (such as at Teremky station) and have access for disabled persons. The M2 line is colored blue on maps and carries more than 460,000 passengers daily.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Syretsko-Pecherska Line is the third and longest line in the Kyiv Metro, with a length of . It is a major northwest-southeast axis of the Kyiv rapid transit system. It starts on the western side of the Dnieper river before crossing it on a partially covered bridge and then going on to the southeastern residential districts of Kyiv. The line is the newest and shows some post-independence decorative motifs. Technically, it is also a great development, with most of the platforms longer and wider than older sections and with some stations having access for disabled persons. The Vydubychi–Slavutych tunnel is the longest in the Kyiv Metro, as separates the two stations. This is partial because several stations were not completed—two stations had construction suspended (and never finished) while another station was only planned. The M3 line is colored green on maps and carries more than 300,000 passengers daily.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Kyiv Metro follows a standard Soviet design: a triangular layout of three lines that intersect in the city center, making six radii, and stations that are built very deep underground and could potentially double as bomb shelters.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Currently, there are 52 stations. There are 20 deep-lying stations, of which 17 are of pylon type (including Arsenalna station, the only "London style" station in the former USSR still in existence) and 3 are of column type. Of the 26 sub-surface stations, 13 stations are of pillar-trispan type, 3 are side-platform pillar bi-spans, 8 are single-vaults, and 3 are asymmetrical double-deck bi-spans. In addition, 6 stations are located above ground; of these, four are surface level and two are flyover. Most of the stations have large vestibules, some on the surface level whilst others are underground and interlinked via subways. Access for disabled persons, previously overlooked, has become an important issue, and all new stations have been constructed with the necessary provisions.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Arsenalna station is distinguished as the deepest station in the world, at 105.5 m below ground (considering the distance between the surface above the station and the station itself). Dnipro, the next station proceeding towards Dnieper, is overground, which gives the Dnipro–Arsenalna tunnel the largest elevation difference between metro stations in the world, considering the surface's relative height.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: There are three unfinished stations: Lvivska Brama, Telychka, and Hertsena, all of which are on the green M3 line. Hertsena had only the initial stages of construction completed, while the former two are more advanced in construction (about 30–70% completed) but lack conventional exits.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Kyiv Metro is poorly adapted for handicapped persons. Only stations constructed after 2005 are better adapted for handicapped people; for example, they have elevators and turnstiles wide enough for a wheelchair to pass.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Like all the Metro systems of the former Soviet Union, the Kyiv Metro is known for its vivid and colorful decorations. The original stations from the first stage of construction are elaborately decorated, showing the postwar Stalinist architecture blended with traditional Ukrainian motifs. Many first projects for stations offered at the beginning of the 1950s were full of rich decorative elements such as mosaics, ornaments, bas-reliefs, sculptures, and marble.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Each station was to have its original shape. These stations were to be constructed in a monumental style like those stations built throughout the 1950s in Moscow and Leningrad. For example, Arsenalna station, instead of a small central hall, should have had a wide hall with sculptures of warriors of the civil and great patriotic wars; Vokzalna station was to be decorated with ornaments and bas-reliefs on columns and a big decorative map of the Ukrainian SSR; and, based on its first project drawings, Politeckhnichniy Institut station was to have large mosaic panels depicting aspects of the natural sciences.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: By the end of the 1950s, a period of functionality and struggle against architectural extravagances had begun in Soviet architecture. This action, propagated by Khrushchev, resulted in the loss of many unique projects, with the resulting stations being finished with few decorations, compared to the 1952 projects. Universytet station, however, was less simplified than many others and retained its many pylons adorned with the busts of famous scientists and writers. The next stations which opened in 1963 had an ascetic and strict appearance. Open-air stations of the 1960s and the underground stations of 1971 were built to a standard primitive design called "sorokonozhka" (), named for the many thin supports on both sides of the platform. Functionality became the most important factor in newer designs, and stations built at that time were almost identical in appearance, save the design of tile patterns and pillar covering material. Only in the 1970s did decorative architecture start to make a recovery. The stations built from the 1980s onwards show more innovative designs when compared with stations of the same era in other cities of the former USSR.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Some older stations have undergone upgrades to lighting and renovation of some decorative materials. After the declaration of Ukrainian independence following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the Soviet symbols originally incorporated into decor were adapted to modern times or removed altogether by altering the station's architecture. Most remaining (if not all) Soviet symbols were later removed due to 2015 decommunization laws.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: As of 2015, Lisova was the busiest station in the Kyiv Metro, passing an average of 58,500 passengers per day, with Vokzalna following second with 55,900. The congestion at Vokzalna station, especially during rush hours, is particularly problematic due to the station having only 3 escalators and only one access point for entering and exiting the station. Akademmistechko is third at 51,100. These are the only stations that handle more than 50,000 passengers per day. The next busiest, Livoberezhna, passes 48,100 passengers per day. All four of these busiest stations are on the red M1 line.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The fifth busiest station is Pochaina with 46,200 passengers per day (on the blue M2 line), with Minska not far behind at 45,500. On the Syretsko-Pecherska line, the busiest station is Lukyanivska, with just under 40,000.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In contrast, the least busy station in the system is the Dnipro station (M1), with only 2,800 passengers per day. Chervonyi Khutir (M3) is another station with a daily passenger flow of less than 5,000. The emptiest station on the M2 line is Poshtova Ploshcha, with 8,900 passengers per day.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Vokzalna station is one of the most important transport hubs in the Kyiv Metro. It gives direct access to the Kyiv-Pasazhyrskyi railway station, the largest train station in Ukraine, as well as to the Kyiv Light Rail line to Borshchahivka and the Kyiv Urban Electric Train ring.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Additional important transport hubs include Demiivska station (to the Kyiv Central bus station); Vystavkovyi Tsentr and Lisova stations (mostly to suburban buses, but to the Pivdenna and Darnytsia bus stations as well, respectively); and Livoberezhna, Darnytsia, and Pochaina stations, used by commuting passengers from Troieshchyna (the largest residential district in Kyiv).


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Metro stations cover all 10 subdivisions of Kyiv; however, their spread is uneven. Shevchenkivskyi district has the most, at 13 stations; Pecherskyi and Holosiivskyi "raions" both boast 11 stops; Darnytskyi district has 7; Obolonskyi, Sviatoshynskyi, and Dniprovskyi districts each feature 4; Podilskyi district offers 3; and Desnyanskyi "raion", despite being the most populous district in Kyiv, is relatively deprived of Metro connections, with only 2 stations.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: This distribution reveals that the western side of Kyiv contains the majority of stations (including the M2 line, which does not cross to the eastern side of the Dnieper). Only 12 stations reside in the eastern part of the city, compared to 40 on the western side.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: As of 2016, there were 824 wagons in operation, with another 5 spares. Most of the wagons are from the Soviet era, largely from the 81-717/714 series and some trains from the D-type and E-type series. The stock, however, is refreshed. The "Slavutych" trains began to replace the old trains of predominantly 81/7021-7022, 81-540.2К/81-714.5М, and 81–7080 series. The metro's first line was served by carriages of D-type since its opening. In 1969, all these carriages were given to Saint Petersburg Metro. In exchange, the line received carriages of series E-type, and later carriages of series Em-501, Ema-502, and Ezh (Ezh1). In 2014, most carriages of types E and Ezh were modernized with new engines, interiors, and exteriors, converting them into a type similar to type 81-7021–7022; these are known as type 81-7080–7081 or E-KM.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: All of the trains contain an audio system, which announces the stations and transfer opportunities to other Metro lines. At Arsenalna station, there is an announcement for museums in the area. In addition, most of the older trains are fitted with an overhead video information system, which provides visual information to passengers regarding the current and the next stations and transfer opportunities between lines. While the train is in transit between stations, the system displays advertising (both in video and ticker forms), recreational video content, and local time.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In December 2016, the Kyiv City Council announced that intended to buy 709 new trains by 2025 for ₴14.96 billion (USD$572.6 million at the time). Of these, 276 would replace older trains whose operation terms have expired, 62 would be added to the Syretsko-Pecherska line to ensure regular scheduling, and 371 would be introduced across newer sections of the metro system.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The Kyiv Metro is managed by the city-owned municipal company "Kyivsky Metropoliten" (formally formerly known as "Kyivsky ordena Trudovoho chernovoho prapora Metropoliten imeni V.I. Lenina") which was transferred in the early 1990s from the Ministry of Transportation. The Metro employs several thousand workers in tunnel, track, station, and rolling stock management. In addition to being state sponsored for operation, income comes from ticket sales and from advertisements in stations (controlled by a daughter company "Metroreklama"). Metro lines are being constructed by "Kyivmetrobud" public company which allocates segments of construction to individual brigades that are responsible for tunnel and station construction. Kyivmetrobud is directly funded by the profits of the Kyiv Metro and from the city and state budgets. Most of the state funding comes from Kyiv's municipality, while additional subventions are directly received from the state budget, since the fares do not correspond to the optimal price which will give the possibility for the Kyiv underground to develop itself.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 2016, the Kyiv Metro received ₴76.1 million of net income (about USD$2.85 million), compared with its ₴119 million loss a year earlier.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: A single ride costs ₴8.00 ($0.29) regardless of destination and number of transits within the metro. The ride is paid by paper QR tickets or contactless cards.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: For many decades, plastic tokens were used for turnstiles; one token per person could be bought from station cashiers or automatic exchange machines. In recent decades, green tokens were used in 2000-2010 and 2015-2018; blue tokens were used in 2010-2015 and since 2018. Initially, the green (old) tokens were to be substituted by QR-code tickets (introduced August 2017) and RFID cards.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Use of these tokens was gradually phased out. On 15 July 2019, Nyvky and Ipodrom stations became the first to stop selling and accepting tokens. Tokens were scheduled to be sold until 30 October 2019 and accepted until 3 November 2019; however, tokens were still being sold and used on 15 November 2019. In April 2020, tokens finally went out of circulation.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Contactless (RFID-based, MIFARE Classic and Ultralight) cards are used to enter the metro. A card can be purchased for a small fee (₴15 ($0.54); refundable should one want to return the card) from cashiers and loaded for up to 50 trips at once (so that not to exceed the 100-ride limit). There is a special gradual scale of prices, such that the every tenth purchased access (bought once) makes every previous one cheaper by ₴0.30. To clarify, the first 9 ride accesses cost the standard amount, whereas for 10-19 rides, the price for each one is ₴7.70; for 20-29 rides, ₴7.40; and so on. Thus, loading the card with 50 rides costs only ₴6.50 ($0.23) per ride.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The passenger can also pay for the fare using a bank card. MasterCard PayPass and Visa PayWave cards are accepted. Google Pay and Apple Pay can also be used.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The cards can be recharged either by a cashier, or by using a terminal. The terminals accept hryvnia paper bills in denominations of 1 to 50 UAH, but do not return change; instead, they refill the card for the maximum possible number of rides given the sum of money deposited into the machine, and store the remainder in the system, to be used at next refill.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Also, another type of card can be purchased for unlimited rides within one or half a month (₴380 ($13.46) per month), or for a limited number of them (62 or 46 rides per month, or half of it for 15 days, with the fare of ₴3.87 and ₴4.13 per ride, respectively). A seven-minute second-use lockout is imposed for all unlimited cards to prevent abuse. Quarterly and yearly tickets were used until December 2009, when they stopped being released because they generated an estimated ₴115.6 million (about $14.5 million) of losses annually.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: From the late 1990s until the early 2000s (over a decade), monthly unlimited metro passes with a magnetic strip were used. However, due to reliability and counterfeiting issues, these were phased out in favor of RFID cards.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: Originally the Metro ride cost was 50 kopecks; however, in 1961, following a revaluation of the Soviet ruble, and for the next 30 years, the ride was fixed at 5 kopecks. Since 1991, as Ukraine suffered from hyperinflation, the price gradually rose to 20,000 karbovanets in 1996. Following the 1996 denomination, 20,000 karbovanets became ₴0.20 (20 kopiyok), although karbovanets sum was still payable up to 16 September that year. Since then, the price has risen to ₴0.50 in 2000 and to ₴2.00 in 2008. In November 2008, when the price was increased to ₴2.00, public protests took place and the Antitrust Committee of Ukraine ordered to decrease the price to ₴1.70. In September 2010, the price was increased back to ₴2.00. In February 2015, the price was further increased. The last increase occurred on 15 July 2017.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The fares are set by the Kyiv City State Administration subject to approval of Ministry of Infrastructure.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: A proposal to set prices according to the distance traveled, or time spent in the metro, is being discussed. For this purpose, specially built "long" exit turnstiles with card readers at the far end have already been installed at some station exits.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: In 2012, plans for the Kyiv Metro aimed to nearly double its length by 2025. Whilst completion of this plan is not considered to be feasible, a number of new stations have opened since the turn of the millennium.


title: Kyiv Metro

text: The fourth line of the Kyiv Metro (also known as Podilsko-Voskresenska line) will connect the northern Troieschyna districts in the east with the future business center of Rybalskiy Island on the Dnieper river, and from there arc around the Podil neighborhood. The line will continue westwards along the northern slope of the Starokyivska Hora and into the northwestern part of central Kyiv, where it will turn south and reach the Kyiv Passenger Railway Station. In doing so, it will offer transfers to all three other Metro lines and thus relieve the over-congested transfer points in the center. The last planned stage will connect the line to Kyiv's Zhuliany airport and the residential districts along the way.