title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: USAID published an open competitive bidding for proposals that address the challenge of developing "... new practical and cost-effective solutions to improve infection treatment and control that can be rapidly deployed; 1) to help health care workers provide better care and 2) transform our ability to combat Ebola". On 12 December 2014, USAID announced the result of the first selection in a press release.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: On 17 December 2014, a team at Johns Hopkins University developed a prototype breakaway hazmat suit, and was awarded a grant from the USAID to develop it. The prototype has a small, battery-powered cooling pack on the worker's belt. "You'll have air blowing out that is room temperature but it's 0% humidity ... the Ebola worker is going to feel cold and will be able to function inside the suit without having to change the suit so frequently", said one source. In March, Google developed a tablet that could be cleaned with chlorine; it is charged wirelessly and can transmit information to servers outside the working area.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The WHO recommends the use of 2 pairs of gloves, with the outer pair worn over the gown. Using 2 pairs may reduce the risk of sharp injuries; however, there is no evidence that using more than the recommended will give additional protection. WHO also recommends the use of a coverall, which is generally appraised in terms of its resistance to non-enveloped DNA virus. When a gown (or coverall) is worn, it should continue beyond the shoe covers. According to guidelines released by the CDC in August 2015, updates were put in place to improve the PAPR doffing method to make the steps easier, and affirm the importance of cleaning the floor where doffing has been done. Additionally, a designated doffing assistant was recommended to help in this process. The order in which boot covers are removed, by these guidelines, indicates their removal "after" the coverall or gown. Finally, a trained observer is to read to the healthcare worker each step in donning and doffing, but must "not" physically assist therein.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In the hardest hit areas there have historically been only one or two doctors available to treat 100,000 people, and these doctors are heavily concentrated in urban areas. Ebola patients' healthcare providers, as well as family and friends, are at highest risk of getting infected because they are more likely to come in direct contact with their blood or body fluids. In some places affected by the outbreak, care may have been provided in clinics with limited resources, and workers could be in these areas for several hours with a number of Ebola infected patients. According to the WHO, the high proportion of infected medical staff could be explained by a lack of adequate manpower to manage such a large outbreak, shortages of protective equipment or improper use of what was available, and "the compassion that causes medical staff to work in isolation wards far beyond the number of hours recommended as safe".


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In August 2014, healthcare workers represented nearly 10 per cent of cases and fatalities—significantly impairing the capacity to respond to an outbreak in an area already facing severe shortages. By 1 July 2015, the WHO reported that a total of 874 health workers had been infected, of which 509 had died.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Among the fatalities was Samuel Brisbane, a former adviser to the Liberian Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, described as "one of Liberia's most high-profile doctors". In July 2014, leading Ebola doctor Sheik Umar Khan from Sierra Leone also died in the outbreak. In August, a well-known Nigerian physician, Ameyo Adadevoh, died. Mbalu Fonnie, a licensed nurse-midwife and nursing supervisor at the Kenema hospital in Sierra Leone, with over 30 years of experience, died after contracting Ebola while caring for a fellow nurse who was pregnant and had the disease. Fonnie was also a co-author of a study that analysed the genetics of the Ebola virus; five others contracted Ebola and died while working on the same study.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Basing their choice on "the person or persons who most affected the news and our lives, for good or ill, and embodied what was important about the year", the editors of "Time" magazine in December 2014 named the Ebola health workers as Person of the Year. Editor Nancy Gibbs said: "The rest of the world can sleep at night because a group of men and women are willing to stand and fight. For tireless acts of courage and mercy, for buying the world time to boost its defences, for risking, for persisting, for sacrificing and saving, the Ebola fighters are Time's 2014 Person of the Year." According to an October 2015 report by the CDC, Guinean healthcare workers had 42.2 times higher Ebola infection rates than non-healthcare workers, and male healthcare workers were more affected than their female counterparts. The report indicated that 27% of Ebola infections among healthcare workers in Guinea occurred among doctors. The CDC report also stated that the Guinea Ministry of Health recorded males as representing 46% of the health workforce, and that 67% of Ebola infections among non-doctor healthcare workers occurred among males. The CDC further indicated that healthcare workers in Guinea were less likely to report contact with an infected individual than non-healthcare workers.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: There is as yet no known confirmed medication or treatment for Ebola virus disease. The director of the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases has stated that the scientific community is still in the early stages of understanding how infection with the Ebola virus can be treated and prevented.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: A number of experimental treatments are undergoing clinical trials. During the epidemic some patients received experimental blood transfusions from Ebola survivors, but a later study found that the treatment did not provide significant benefit.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The effectiveness of potential treatments for any disease is usually assessed in a randomised controlled trial, which compares the outcome of those who received treatment to those who received a placebo (i.e. dummy treatment). However, randomised controlled trials are considered unethical when a disease is frequently fatal, as is the case with Ebola. In December 2015, a study was released that found that the viral load found in a patient's blood in the week after the onset of symptoms is a strong indication of the patient's likelihood to die or survive the disease. The researchers suggested that this information could help to assess the efficacy of proposed treatments more accurately in non-randomised clinical trials.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Ebola control is hindered by the fact that current diagnostic tests require specialised equipment and highly trained personnel. Since there are few suitable testing centres in Western Africa, this delays diagnosis. a number of rapid diagnostic tests were under trial. In September 2015, a new chip-based testing method that can detect Ebola accurately was reported. This new device allows for the use of portable instruments that can provide immediate diagnosis.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Several Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to 2014 and had been shown to protect nonhuman primates against infection, but none had yet been approved for clinical use in humans. According to a 2015 review article, about 15 different vaccines were in preclinical stages of development, including DNA vaccines, virus-like particles and viral vectors and another seven as yet unheard-of vaccines were being developed. Additionally, there were two phase III studies being conducted with two different vaccines.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In July 2015, researchers announced that a vaccine trial in Guinea had been completed that appeared to give protection from the virus. The vaccine, rVSV-ZEBOV, had shown high efficacy in individuals, but more conclusive evidence was needed regarding its capacity to protect populations through "herd immunity" . The vaccine trial employed "ring vaccination", a technique that was also used in the 1970s to eradicate smallpox, in which health workers control an outbreak by vaccinating all suspected infected individuals within the surrounding area.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In December 2016, the results of the two-year Guinea trial were published announcing that rVSV-ZEBOV had been found to protect people who had been exposed to cases of Ebola.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Of the nearly 6,000 people vaccinated, none had contracted Ebola after a ten-day period while in the group not vaccinated 23 cases developed. In addition to showing high efficacy among those vaccinated, the trial also showed that unvaccinated people were indirectly protected from Ebola virus through the ring vaccination approach, termed "herd immunity". The vaccine has not yet had regulatory approval, but it is considered to be so effective that 300,000 doses have already been stockpiled. Researchers have found the results "quite encouraging [but] there is still a lot more work to be done on vaccines for Ebola." Not yet known is the length of time that a vaccination will be effective and whether it will prove effective for the Sudan virus rather than only EBOV, which is responsible for the Western Africa outbreak. In April 2018 rVSV-ZEBOV Ebola vaccine was used to stop an outbreak for the first time, the 2018 Équateur province Democratic Republic of the Congo Ebola virus outbreak, with 3,481 people vaccinated. rVSV-ZEBOV received regulatory approval in 2019.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: From the beginning of the outbreak, there existed considerable difficulty in getting reliable estimates—both of the number of people affected and of its geographical extent. The three most affected countries—Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone—are among the poorest in the world, with extremely low levels of literacy, few hospitals or doctors, low-quality physical infrastructure, and weakly functioning government institutions. One study yielded results of the spatio-temporal evolution of the viral outbreak. With the use of heat maps, it was determined that the outbreak did not uniformly unfold over the affected community areas. Growth in the regions of Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone was very different over time, indicating that monitoring the outbreak at district level was important. Visual inspection of incidence curves alone could not render the needed results or data; growth rates with a two-dimensional heat map were used. Finally, the study showed that accurate predictions of growth were improbable, coupled with knowledge about the disease that was not fully adequate at the time (as there were now cases of sexual transmission).


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Calculating the "case fatality rate" (CFR) accurately is difficult in an ongoing epidemic due to differences in testing policies, the inclusion of probable and suspected cases, and the inclusion of new cases that have not run their course. In August 2014, the WHO made an initial CFR estimate of 53%, though this included suspected cases. In September and December 2014, the WHO released revised and more accurate CFR figures of 70.8% and 71% respectively, using data from patients with definitive clinical outcomes. The CFR among hospitalised patients, based on the three intense-transmission countries, was between 57% and 59% in January 2015.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: "Mortality" is measured by number of deaths in a population per the proportion of the population per unit of time.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The "basic reproduction number", "R", is a statistical measure of the average number of people infected by a single infectious individual in a population with no prior immunity. If the basic reproduction number is less than 1, the epidemic will die out; if it is greater than 1, the epidemic will continues to spread—with exponential growth in the number of cases. In September 2014, the estimated values of "R" were 1.71 (95% CI, 1.44 to 2.01) for Guinea, 1.83 (95% CI, 1.72 to 1.94) for Liberia, and 2.02 (95% CI, 1.79 to 2.26) for Sierra Leone.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In October 2014, the WHO noted that exponential increase of cases continued in the three countries with the most intense transmission.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: On 28 August 2014, the WHO released its first estimate of the possible total cases from the outbreak as part of its road map for stopping the transmission of the virus. It stated that "this Roadmap assumes that in many areas of intense transmission the actual number of cases may be two- to fourfold higher than that currently reported. It acknowledges that the aggregate case load of Ebola could exceed 20,000 over the course of this emergency. The Roadmap assumes that a rapid escalation of the complementary strategies in intense transmission, resource-constrained areas will allow the comprehensive application of more standard containment strategies within three months." The report included an assumption that some country or countries would pay the required cost of their plan, estimated at half a billion US dollars.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: When the WHO released these estimates, a number of epidemiologists presented data to show that the WHO projection of a total of 20,000 cases was likely an underestimate. On 9 September, Jonas Schmidt-Chanasit of the Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine in Germany, controversially announced that the containment fight in Sierra Leone and Liberia had already been "lost" and that the disease would "burn itself out".


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: On 23 September 2014, the WHO revised their previous projection, stating that they expected the number of Ebola cases in Western Africa to be in excess of 20,000 by 2 November 2014. They further stated, that if the disease was not adequately contained it could become native in Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia, "spreading as routinely as malaria or the flu", and according to an editorial in the New England Journal of Medicine, eventually to other parts of Africa and beyond.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In a report released on 23 September 2014, the CDC analysed the impact of under-reporting, which required correction of case numbers by a factor of up to 2.5. With this correction factor, approximately 21,000 total cases were estimated for the end of September 2014 in Liberia and Sierra Leone alone. The same report predicted that total cases, including unreported cases, could reach 1.4 million in Liberia and Sierra Leone by the end of January 2015 if no improvement in intervention or community behaviour occurred. However, at a congressional hearing on 19 November, the Director of the CDC said that the number of Ebola cases was no longer expected to exceed 1 million, moving away from the worst-case scenario that had been previously predicted.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: A study published in December 2014 found that transmission of the Ebola virus occurs principally within families, in hospitals and at funerals. The data, gathered during three weeks of contact tracing in August, showed that the third person in any transmission chain often knew both the first and second person. The authors estimated that between 17% and 70% of cases in Western Africa were unreported—far fewer than had been estimated in prior projections. The study concluded that the epidemic would not be as difficult to control as feared, if rapid, vigorous contact tracing and quarantines were employed.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Projections of future cases should also reflect the possibility that deforestation might have a hand in terms of the more recent Ebola outbreaks. It has been suggested that due to the clearing of forest for commercial use, various types of bats namely " fruit bats" may be taken out of their natural habitat and therefore into closer and potential contact with civilisation.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In addition to the loss of life, the outbreak had a number of significant economic impacts. In March 2015, the United Nations Development Group reported that due to a decrease in trade, closing of borders, flight cancellations, and drop in foreign investment and tourism activity fuelled by stigma, the epidemic resulted in vast economic consequences both in the affected areas and throughout Africa. A September 2014 report in the "Financial Times" suggested that the economic impact of the Ebola outbreak could kill more people than the disease itself.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: With regard to Ebola and economic activity in the country of Liberia, a study found that 8% of automotive firms, 8% of construction firms, 15% of food businesses and 30% of restaurants had closed due to the Ebola outbreak. Montserrado county experienced up to 20% firm closure. This indicated a decline in the Liberian national economy during the outbreak, as well as an indication that the county of Montserrado was hardest hit economically. The capital city Monrovia suffered construction and restaurant unemployment the most, while outside the capital, the food and beverage sectors suffered economically. A recuperation in the economy, at the end of the outbreak, was expected to be more rapid in some sectors than in others. Also, if the massive decline in economic activity persisted, the authors suggested a focus on economic recovery in addition to support for the healthcare system. The World Bank had projected an estimated loss of $1.6 billion in productivity for all three affected Western African countries combined for 2015. In Liberian counties that were less affected by the outbreak, the number of individuals employed fell by 24%. Montserrado saw a 47% decline in employment per firm in contrast to what was obtained prior to the Ebola outbreak.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: Another study showed that the economic effect of the Ebola outbreak would be felt for years due to preexisting social vulnerability. The economic effects were being felt nationwide in Liberia, such as the termination of expansions in the mining business. Initial scenarios had placed expected economic losses at $25 billion; however subsequent World Bank estimates were much lower, at about 12% of the combined GDP of the 3 worst hit countries. The authors went on to state that social vulnerability has multiple factors and proposed a classification based on multiple variables instead of single indicators such as food insecurity or lack of hospitals, which were problems faced by rural Liberians. In spite of the end of civil violence since 2003 and inflows from international donors, the reconstruction of Liberia had been very slow and non-productive—water delivery systems, sanitation facilities and centralised electricity were practically non-existent, even in Monrovia. Even before the outbreak, medical facilities did not have potable water, lighting or refrigeration. The authors indicated that lack of food and other economic effects would probably continue in the rural population long after the Ebola outbreak had ended.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In January 2015, Oxfam, a UK-based disaster relief organisation, indicated that a "Marshall Plan" (a reference to the massive plan to rebuild Europe after World War II) was needed so that countries could begin to financially assist those that had been worst hit by the virus. The call was repeated in April 2015 when the most-affected Western African countries asked for an $8 billion "Marshall Plan" to rebuild their economies. Speaking at the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Liberian president Ellen Johnson Sirleaf said the amount was needed because "[o]ur health systems collapsed, investors left our countries, revenues declined and spending increased."


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The IMF has been criticised for its lack of assistance in the efforts to combat the epidemic. In December 2014, a Cambridge University study linked IMF policies with the financial difficulties that prevented a strong Ebola response in the three most heavily affected countries, and they were urged by both the UN and NGOs who had worked in the affected countries to grant debt relief rather than low-interest loans. According to one advocacy group, "... yet the IMF, which has made a $9 billion surplus from its lending over the last three years, is considering offering loans, not debt relief and grants, in response". On 30 January 2015, the IMF reported it was close to reaching a deal on debt forgiveness. On 22 December, it was reported that the IMF had given Liberia an additional $10 million due to the economic impact of the Ebola virus outbreak.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In October 2014, a World Bank report estimated overall economic impacts of between $3.8 billion and $32.6 billion, depending on the extent of the outbreak and speed of containment. It expected the most severe losses in the three affected countries, with a wider impact across the broader Western African region. On 13 April 2015, the World Bank said that they would soon announce a major new effort to rebuild the economies of the three hardest-hit countries. On 23 July, a World Bank poll warned that "we are not ready for another Ebola outbreak". On 15 December, the World Bank indicated that by 1 December 2015, it had marshalled $1.62 billion in financing for the Ebola outbreak response.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: On 6 July 2015, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon announced that he would host an Ebola recovery conference to raise funds for reconstruction, stating that the three countries hardest hit by Ebola needed about $700 million to rebuild their health services over a two-year period. On 10 July, it was announced that the countries most affected by the Ebola epidemic would receive $3.4 billion to rebuild their economies. On 29 September, the leaders of both Sierra Leone and Liberia indicated at the UN General Assembly the launch of a "Post-Ebola Economic Stabilization and Recovery Plan". On 24 November, it was reported that due to the decrease in commodity prices and the Western African Ebola epidemic, China's investment in the continent had declined 43% in the first 6 months of 2015. On 25 January, the IMF projected a GDP growth of 0.3% for Liberia, that country indicating it would cut spending by 11 per cent due to a stagnation in the mining sector, which would cause a domestic revenues drop of $57 million.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In July 2014, the WHO convened an emergency meeting of health ministers from eleven countries and announced collaboration on a strategy to co-ordinate technical support to combat the epidemic. In August they published a road map to guide and coordinate the international response to the outbreak, aiming to stop ongoing Ebola transmission worldwide within 6–9 months, and formally designated the outbreak as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. This is a legal designation used only twice before (for the 2009 H1N1 (swine flu) pandemic and the 2014 resurgence of poliomyelitis) that invokes legal measures on disease prevention, surveillance, control, and response, by 194 signatory countries.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In September 2014, the United Nations Security Council declared the Ebola virus outbreak in Western Africa "a threat to international peace and security" and unanimously adopted a resolution urging UN member states to provide more resources to fight the outbreak. In October, WHO and the UN Mission for Ebola Emergency Response announced a comprehensive 90-day plan to control and reverse the Ebola epidemic. The ultimate goal was to have capacity in place for the isolation of 100% of Ebola cases and the safe burial of 100% of casualties by 1 January 2015 (the 90-day target). Many nations and charitable organisations cooperated to realise the plan, and a WHO situation report published mid-December indicated that the international community was on track to meet the 90-day target.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In May 2015, Dr Margaret Chan indicated, "demands on WHO were more than ten times greater than ever experienced in the almost 70-year history of this Organization" and on 23 March, she stated that "the world remains woefully ill-prepared to respond to outbreaks that are both severe and sustained."


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: There was significant criticism of the WHO from some aid agencies because its response was perceived as slow and insufficient, especially during the early stages of the outbreak. In October 2014, the Associated Press reported in an internal draft document that the WHO admitted "nearly everyone" involved in the Ebola response failed to notice factors that turned the outbreak into the largest on record, and that they had missed chances to stop the spread of Ebola due to "incompetent staff, bureaucracy and a lack of reliable information". Peter Piot, co-discoverer of the Ebola virus, called the WHO regional office in Africa "really not competent." In April 2015, the WHO admitted very serious failings in handling the crisis and indicated reforms for any future crises; "we did not work effectively in coordination with other partners, there were shortcomings in risk communications and there was confusion of roles and responsibilities". The Ebola crisis was discussed at the June 2015 G7 meeting. The leaders pledged to assist in carrying out WHO regulations. Critics criticised the G7 leaders, saying they were not committed enough in the fight against the possibility of future pandemics.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: In 2015 a panel of experts looked at the ways of preventing small outbreaks from becoming large epidemics. Their recommendations were published in the November issue of "The Lancet". According to the panel, the epidemic had exposed problems in the national (and international) institutions responsible for protecting the public from the human consequences of infectious disease outbreaks such as the Ebola epidemic. The panel was highly critical of the WHO's management of the Ebola crisis noting that it took them months to respond and when they did they were slow to act, poorly co-ordinated and inadequately informed. The report pointed out that the committee responsible for checking the WHO's actions during the outbreak (i.e. the WHO Ebola Interim Assessment Panel) had delayed responses due to worries about political resistance from the Western African leaders, economic consequences, and a system within the WHO that discouraged open debate about issues such as emergency declarations. The WHO may also have hesitated because it was criticised for creating panic by declaring a public health emergency during the relatively mild 2009 H1N1 pandemic. This, the report states, showed the risks in having such consequential decision-making power in one individual—a risk made worse when there was no mechanism of responsibility for such leadership failure.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The panel outlined 10 recommendations for the prevention and handling of future infectious disease outbreaks. Included in the recommendations of the changes needed to fight future outbreaks is the creation of a U.N. Security Council health committee to expedite political attention to health issues and the establishment of a global fund to finance and accelerate the development of outbreak-relevant drugs and treatment. The report also noted that competent governance of the global system demanded political leadership and a WHO that is more focused and appropriately financed and whose integrity is restored through the application of adequate reforms and leadership.


title: Western African Ebola virus epidemic

text: The WHO also came under fire for refusing to send Dr. Olivet Buck to Germany for experimental treatment after she contracted Ebola per the government of Sierra Leone's request. WHO claimed they could only evacuate medical professionals they had deployed to the region, not locals. Dr. Olivet Buck was the Medical Superintendent at Lumley Government Hospital in Freetown, Sierra Leone. It's believed that she contracted the virus while continuing to treat patients even during a shortage of personal protective equipment. Her loyalty and dedication to her community never wavered.


title: Greg Ham

text: Gregory Norman Ham (27 September 1953 – 19 April 2012) was an Australian musician, songwriter, and actor, best known as a member of the 1980s band Men at Work. He played saxophone, flute, organ, piano, and synthesizer.


title: Greg Ham

text: Ham was born in Melbourne and attended Camberwell Grammar School from 1964 to 1971. According to the school's year books, he was remembered for his acting talent in school plays, particularly "The World We Live In" (the insect comedy) in 1969 where he played the "parasite". In 1970 he played Mr Seekamp, editor of the "Ballarat Time"s, in "Lola Montez" and, in 1971, Puff in "The Critic". In 1967 Ham was photographed airborne by J. Jones in a still photo which won first prize in the Ilford Competition.


title: Greg Ham

text: In 1972, Ham met Colin Hay via mutual friend Kym Gyngell. In 1979, he joined the original lineup of Men at Work with Hay, Ron Strykert, and Jerry Speiser. Ham and Hay formed the core of the band from 1979 until 1985 when Ham left, and the band broke up shortly afterward. Ham returned to Men at Work when they reformed in 1996 to tour the United States.


title: Greg Ham

text: Ham played saxophone, keyboards, flute, and harmonica for the group, as well as performing backing vocals. He sang lead vocals on songs such as "Helpless Automaton" and "I Like To." Ham also performed the saxophone solo in the song "Who Can It Be Now?" (a rehearsal take was used in the final mix) and improvised the flute riff in the song "Down Under".


title: Greg Ham

text: Larrikin Music bought the rights to the 1930s children's song "Kookaburra" in 1990 for $6,100. In 2009, music publisher Larrikin Music, then headed by Norman Lurie (now retired), sued Men at Work and their record label EMI for plagiarism, alleging that the flute riff copied the 1934 nursery rhyme "Kookaburra", to which they owned the publishing rights. The Federal Court of Australia ruled that "Down Under" did infringe the copyright of "Kookaburra" and awarded Larrikin 5% of the song's royalties backdated to 2002. Several appeals by EMI and Men at Work were unsuccessful. In an interview with "The Age" newspaper, Ham said he was deeply affected by the judgment and felt it tarnished his reputation, saying: "I'm terribly disappointed that that's the way I'm going to be remembered—for copying something." Colin Hay, Ham's childhood friend and bandmate chooses, however, to remember Ham as “a great, great friend and a great guy” who was a "very inspired and instinctive" musician."


title: Greg Ham

text: Ham played brass and keyboard with the R&B band Relax with Max, with frontman Max Vella, girlfriend Linda "Toots" Wostry, on saxophone, James Black on keyboard, David Adam and Ross Hannaford on guitar and John James "JJ" Hackett on drums. Relax with Max played at the Metropol in Fitzroy and on ABC's television comedy "While You're Down There" and at the Falls Creek music festival. They supported Australian artists including Kylie Minogue and American soul singers James Brown and Bo Diddley. Ham also performed regularly with jazzy ensemble Miss Dorothy and His Fools in Love. Later in life, Ham taught guitar at Carlton North Primary School and assessed music students for the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE).


title: Greg Ham

text: Ham was found dead on 19 April 2012 at his home in Carlton North, Melbourne. Several newspapers listed the cause as a heart attack. There have been allegations that Ham had a long battle with heroin addiction, and the cause of death is still being debated. It is known that he was depressed and suffering anxiety over the copyright lawsuit filed against him and the members of Men At Work for the alleged similarities between "Kookaburra" and the flute riff in "Down Under".


title: Greg Ham

text: Ham's private funeral was held at the Fitzroy Town Hall in Melbourne on 2 May 2012. Ham was survived by his two children.


title: 4Minute

text: 4Minute (, often stylized as 4MINUTE) was a South Korean girl group formed in 2009 by Cube Entertainment. The members of the group were Nam Ji-hyun, Heo Ga-yoon, Jeon Ji-yoon, Kim Hyuna and Kwon So-hyun. The group was known for its edgy dance-pop style and "girl crush" image that attracted a large female fan base.


title: 4Minute

text: The group debuted in June 2009 with the single, "Hot Issue." They ultimately released one full-length Japanese album, "Diamond" (2010), one full-length Korean album, "4Minutes Left" (2011), seven Korean extended plays, and multiple singles.


title: 4Minute

text: The group received several major awards, including the Rookie Award at the 2009 Golden Disc Awards, the K-pop New Artist Award at the 2010 Billboard Japan Music Awards, and the Bonsang Award at the 2011, 2012, and 2014 Seoul Music Awards. 4Minute disbanded in June 2016 after unsuccessful contract renewal negotiations between Cube Entertainment and the majority of the group members.


title: 4Minute

text: On May 14, Cube Entertainment announced the formation of a five-member girl group, called 4Minute, and revealed that its first member would be former Wonder Girls member Kim Hyuna. Prior to the official announcement, the group was unofficially called the "Hyuna group". The next member, Nam Ji-hyun, was revealed on May 22. The remaining members were announced the following day. 4Minute released its first single, "Hot Issue", on June 15, and had their first television performance on MNet Countdown on June 18. On June 21, the group's van was raided by fans, who stole clothing and other items. Cube Entertainment said, "It was very unfortunate that such an ordeal occurred."


title: 4Minute

text: On August 20, the group released its first mini-album called "For Muzik" along with its second single, "Muzik". The song won an Inkigayo Mutizen award. On August 27, South Korean radio and television network KBS banned the playing of "Won't Give You ()" for what they considered to be overly sexual lyrical content. The lyrics in question, in the style of a first-person narrative, express an unwillingness on the part of the subject to "give" herself or her heart to her partner. Cube Entertainment responded to the ban by stating that the song was intended to be "about the pure feelings of a girl to a guy" and that they were very disappointed by the decision. On October 15, the single "What a Girl Wants" was released. On December 2, 4Minute, with Korean singers Mario and Amen, released the Christmas song "Jingle Jingle". The group recorded a remix with American artist Amerie for her song "Heard 'em All" which was part of the Asian version of her fourth album. The song featured Korean rapper Yong Jun-hyung of label mate Beast.


title: 4Minute

text: On January 5, 2010, it was announced that the Universal Music Group would be assisting 4Minute with an international launch of its album. The group toured Taiwan, Philippines, Thailand, and Hong Kong. On May 5, the group debuted "Muzik" as a Japanese single, and on May 8, held its first concert in Japan. The single reached number 21 on the Oricon weekly singles chart. On May 19, 4Minute released a mini-album entitled "Hit Your Heart", and its title track "HuH". The single featured fellow label mates Beast, who rapped during song "Who's Next?." "HuH" peaked at number 3 on the Gaon Singles Chart. On May 24, South Korean FM station "Voice of Freedom" included the "Huh" song in its propaganda broadcasts to North Korea.


title: 4Minute

text: On July 5, the group released the music video for "I My Me Mine", which was the second single from "Hit Your Heart". On July 19, the song "Superstar" was digitally released for the Korean TV show Superstar K2. The group performed for Celebration at Marina, one of the line-up activities for the Singapore Youth Olympic Games 2010. On July 30, the Japanese version of "I My Me Mine" was released. On October 12, the third Japanese single and first double single, titled "First/Dreams Come True" was released on YouTube. On October 27, the song was released. In December, 4Minute held Japanese concerts "4Minute Energy Live Volume 2: Diamond" in Tokyo and Osaka. Its Japanese album "Diamond" was released on December 15 and debuted at the number 18 on the Oricon chart.


title: 4Minute

text: On January 13, the group performed at the DiGi Live K-Pop Party 2011 in Malaysia at Stadium Negara with Beast and G.NA. On January 20, the group received a Bonsang Award at the 20th Seoul Music Awards. In February 2011, the group received the Kpop New Artist Award for 2010 at the Billboard Japan Music Awards. On February 23, the group modeled for bridal designer Yumi Katsura at her 2011 Paris Grand Collection Tokyo Fashion Show held in Tokyo's Ryōgoku Kokugikan, where the group performed songs "Muzik" and "Why". On March 12, the group performed at the 50th Anniversary Music Wave Concert in Thailand.


title: 4Minute

text: Its fourth Japanese single, "Why" was released as the theme song to the TV Asahi drama, "Akutō: Jūhanzai Sōsahan".The music video was released in February, followed by a single release on March 9. "Heart to Heart" was released as a music video on March 29, and starred CN Blue's Jungshin. On March 29, the digital-only mini-album "Heart to Heart" was released. On April 5, 4Minute released the Korean album, "4Minutes Left". The music video for "Mirror Mirror" was released on the same day. The album includes "Mirror Mirror", and songs from "Heart to Heart" and "Diamond". Because of the song's provocative spread leg choreography; music producers demanded that "Mirror Mirror" be changed or the group could not perform the song on their shows. As a response, 4Minute changed the song's choreography, starting with the performance on "M! Countdown" on April 14. The song reached number two on the Gaon Chart.


title: 4Minute

text: 4Minute collaborated with Japanese singer Thelma Aoyama for her single, "Without U", which has both Japanese and English versions. Hyuna was featured in SS501's Heo Young-saeng's title track from his first solo mini album, "Let It Go". On July 5, Hyuna released a solo mini album, "Bubble Pop!" and the music video for the title track, "Bubble Pop". Although the performances for "Bubble Pop" the song was concluded prematurely due to Korea Communications Commission review committee, the music video was a viral hit, gaining 10 million views on YouTube as of August 2011. On August 3, the music video "Freestyle" was released as an endorsement track for the video game company "JCE".


title: 4Minute

text: On August 15, 4Minute posted the music video for the Japanese version "Heart to Heart". On September 7, the group released "Heart to Heart" as its fifth Japanese single, which ranked 15 on Oricon Daily Singles chart. The group also released its first DVD, "Emerald of 4 Minute", which ranked second on the Oricon Daily DVD Chart. In October, the TV Tokyo drama "Welcome to the El-Palacio" featured 4Minute's newest song, "Ready Go", as its opener. On December 6, "Ready Go" was later released as the sixth Japanese single.


title: 4Minute

text: On April 9, 4Minute released the mini-album "Volume Up" along with the title track "Volume Up" and its music video. The single "Volume Up" reached number one on M! Countdown. On August 22, 4Minute released its seventh Japanese single "Love Tension", which featured a Japanese version of "Volume Up". Hyuna became famous for her role in the "Gangnam Style" music video. On October 13, 4Minute performed at KCON 2012 at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre in Irvine, California. On December 4, 4Minute released the song "Welcome to The School" for the KBS TV series "School 2013".


title: 4Minute

text: From January 26 to February 21, 4Minute participated in the 2013 United Cube Concert tour at venues in China, Korea and Japan. On April 26, 4Minute released the fourth mini-album "Name Is 4Minute" and the single "What's Your Name?", which was produced by Brave Brothers. Promotion for the single and album involved a set of teaser images where the members were decorated in fantasy-inspired sets and neon tones. In the fourth week of May, the song reached number one on the Gaon Single Chart, making it the group's first chart topper for Gaon. On the edition of June 1, the single reached number one on the "Billboard" K-pop Hot 100.


title: 4Minute

text: On June 28, 4Minute released the summer single "Is It Poppin'?", also written and produced by Brave Brothers. In an interview with Newsen, a Cube Entertainment spokesperson said that the song was "neither a sexy or charismatic concept, but a cute concept – a hip hop dance song that goes well with the summer feel." Its Korean title "물 좋아?" (romanized: Mul Joha?, lit. "How's the Water?"), is a slang phrase that men use to ask if the girls in a club are hot. KBS announced that the lyrics for "Is It Poppin?" were unqualified for broadcast because they contained the English word "ass". 4Minute planned to remove the word from the video for re-evaluation. "Billboard" K-Town columnist Jeff Benjamin tweeted whether the Brave Brothers' new thing was to sample old-school-sounding R&B. Benjamin also noted that similarly to "What's Your Name," "Brave Brothers uses a similar formula for 4minute's new track, but it all feels smoother." He explains the track "uses subdued snares, a twinkling Ellie Goulding "Lights"-esque sample and a soft, recurring vocal sample. Despite sounding busy on paper, the song flows nicely together as a sweet little blend of R&B and electro-pop." The song peaked at number 9 on the Gaon Digital Chart and number 6 on the "Billboard" K-Pop Hot 100, selling 606,713 digital downloads. In September, 4Minute finished its contract with Universal Music Japan, and shut down the group's Japanese official website as well as its fanclub site, 4Nia Japan.


title: 4Minute

text: On January 20, 2014, Brave Brothers released the single "Only Gained Weight" which featured 4Minute members Hyuna, Gayoon and Sohyun; the song reached number five on the Melon chart and Gaon. The group's fifth mini-album, "4Minute World", along with its featured track “Whatcha Doin' Today?”, was released on March 17. The group promoted the song on various Korean music shows along with the track "Wait A Minute". The shows included KBS's Music Bank, MBC's Show! Music Core, SBS's "Inkigayo" and Mnet's "M! Countdown" from March 20–23. The single became the group's first single to debut at number 1 in Korea. On March 30, 4Minute won against 2NE1 and Girls' Generation on "Inkigayo". And on April 3, they also won on "M! Countdown" which took place at Japan.


title: 4Minute

text: On June 7, 4Minute performed "Whatcha Doin' Today" on Dream Concert along with other Kpop idols including their labelmates Beast, Apink and BTOB. On October 17, during a performance at a local festival in Seongnam, south of Seoul in South Korea, at least 16 people were killed and 11 injured in an accident where a ventilation grate that people were standing on collapsed. On October 28, 4Minute was chosen as one of the 10 winners of "Style Icon Awards" for their trendy, stylish, and influential fashion, and also performed at the awards show.


title: 4Minute

text: On January 26, 2015, Cube Entertainment revealed that 4Minute would pre-release a track from their next mini-album titled "Cold Rain", marking the first time the group has released a ballad as a single. On February 9, 4Minute released their sixth EP "Crazy", along with the title track's music video. Their EP debuted at number 1 on "Billboard"'s World Albums Chart. On April 4, 4Minute held a solo concert "4Minute Fan Bash in Myanmar", with around 7,000 fans in attendance.


title: 4Minute

text: On January 20, 2016, it was announced that the group would release their seventh mini album "Act. 7" on February 1. 4Minute collaborated with American producer Skrillex on the lead single, "Hate". On June 13, it was announced that the group would disband following their contract expiration, with only Hyuna renewing her contract with the management agency. A Cube Entertainment representative stated, “As the contract end date approaches, the members have been in discussions for renewal, but while the agency tried to persuade half of them to continue the group, it ended up accepting the decision by the four members that they will not continue as a group." The representative added, "Due to the different opinion of the members, for all intents and purposes, the group will disband.”


title: 4Minute

text: Plans for the sub-unit 2YOON (composing of Gayoon and Jiyoon) were announced in late 2012. On January 17, 2013, 2YOON released the album, "Harvest Moon", along with the music video for its lead single, "24/7". 2YOON held their debut stage on January 17 at M! Countdown.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The overthrow of the Roman monarchy was an event in ancient Rome that took place between the 6th and 5th centuries BC where a political revolution replaced the then-existing Roman monarchy under Lucius Tarquinius Superbus with a republic. The details of the event were largely forgotten by the Romans a few centuries later; later Roman historians invented a narrative of the events, traditionally dated to , but this narrative is largely believed to be fictitious by modern scholars.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The traditional narrative involves a dynastic struggle in which the king's second son, Sextus Tarquinius, rapes a noblewoman, Lucretia. Upon revealing the assault to some Roman noblemen, she kills herself. The Roman noblemen, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, obtain the support of the Roman aristocracy and the people to expel the king and his family and create a republic. The Roman army, supporting Brutus, forces the king into exile. Despite a number of attempts by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus to reinstate the monarchy, the Roman people are successful in establishing a republic and thereafter elected two consuls annually to rule the city.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Many modern scholars dismiss this narrative as fictitious. There does not exist, however, any concrete evidence for or against it. Various scholars have dismissed aspects of the traditional story, from the historicity of almost all of its major characters to the overthrow's entire existence.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Scholars and the ancient sources themselves disagree on when the monarchy was overthrown and how old the resulting republic was. The most well known date for the establishment of the republic, and therefore, the expulsion of the kings, is 509 BC. The specific dating to 509 BC emerges from the Varronian chronology, assembled during the late republic by Marcus Terentius Varro and later used by the "fasti Capitolini", which likely – in the earlier period – runs four years behind the actual dates (i.e. Varronian year 344 corresponds to real year 340 BC).


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The simplest way for the Romans to have known how long their republic had existed would have been to look at the list of consuls, of which two were elected every year, and simply count the number of consular pairs to impute that the republic had existed for however many years corresponded. The "fasti Capitolini" – relying on the Varronian chronology – go back to 509 BC; Livy's list of consuls points to the republic having began around 502–1 BC. Of course, this would have relied on the lists of consuls being accurate. Later historians reported dates roughly around that time, implying that the republic was founded:


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: A further account is given by Gnaeus Flavius, who asserted his temple to Concordia was dedicated 204 years after the dedication of the capitol. Because his temple was dedicated in 303 BC, this implies the capitol – which traditionally was held to have been dedicated in the first year of the republic – was dedicated in 507.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: However, modern scholars are sceptical of much of this traditional chronology, especially that related to the dedication of the capitol. This relates mainly to debate over whether the earlier entries on the consular "fasti" are fabrications. Many historians have argued that the "fasti" are "an unreliable product of the late republic whose accuracy regarding the early republic is minimal". Resolution of this topic is difficult, however, due to the absolute paucity of reliable sources such that – as the historian Fred Drogula remarks – "we have no way to prove most of the information contained [in the "fasti"]".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Roman tradition held that there were seven kings of Rome who reigned from the city's founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC) by Romulus up to the reign of Tarquin. Archaeological evidence indicates there were kings in Rome; but many modern scholars doubt the traditional narrative and believe its characters and details to be largely the product of later literary invention.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: According to the traditional account, a group of aristocrats overthrow the last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, in response to the rape of the noblewoman Lucretia by the king's second son, Sextus Tarquinius; after revealing the rape to some noblemen, Lucretia commits suicide. The resulting outrage leads to an uprising against the ruling family, led by some of the king's relatives: Lucius Junius Brutus (the king's nephew), Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (the king's cousin and Lucretia's husband), and Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus (Lucretia's father). They are also joined by an influential friend Publius Valerius Poplicola.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: During this time, Tarquin was conducting a war against Ardea, but rushes back to Rome on news of the coup; however, the city is shut before him and the coup leaders convince the army at Ardea to join them, leading to the expulsion of the king's sons. Brutus and Collatinus then become the first consuls, with Brutus administering an oath before the people to never again tolerate a king in Rome and to kill anyone who attempts to restore the monarchy; among Brutus' reforms, he proposes the banishment of all members of the Tarquin clan, leading also to the banishment of his co-consul Collatinus, who is replaced in office by Poplicola. Note, however, that the Romans, also report that in this early period, the consuls were initially called (deriving from "leader").


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Soon after, Brutus' two sons, brothers of Brutus' wife, the Vitellii, the Aquilii, and relatives of Collatinus are discovered plotting to restore the monarchy. After the conspiracy is exposed by a slave, Brutus orders the death of his own sons and relatives. Meanwhile, Tarquin flees to Etruria and persuades various cities there to attack Rome and restore him to the throne. They are unsuccessful and defeated at the Battle of Silva Arsia, where Brutus falls in battle; Poplicola then returns to celebrate a triumph for victory over the Etruscans. Tarquin then requests aid from Lars Porsenna, the king of Clusium, who marches on Rome but is stopped by Horatius Cocles who defends a bridge alone against Porsenna's forces until it can be demolished. The heroism of the republic's youths and Rome's force of arms persuade Porsenna to give up his campaign.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Tarquin then appeals to his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, who mobilises the Latin League against Rome, until they too are defeated at the Battle of Lake Regillus (with the Romans receiving divine assistance from Castor and Pollux). With no more allies willing to attack the Romans, Tarquin leaves for a more permanent exile in Cumae before dying in 495 BC. The Roman government then falls into the hands of a group of aristocratic families, the patricians, who then elect magistrates from among their number, setting up conditions for the so-called Conflict of the Orders.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The traditional account likely derived from an earlier oral tradition. Barthold Georg Niebuhr, in the early nineteenth century, posited that the oral tradition may have been transmitted by poems sung or recited by bards at banquets during the republic. While this "ballad theory" has "generally been dismissed by modern scholars", T. P. Wiseman has more recently argued that the stories were transmitted by means of public performance of plays dramatising historical events. Such plays would be especially important in a society with low literacy, and are perhaps supported by archaeological evidence suggesting circulation of Greek myths and stories in Italy as far back as the archaic period. Attilio Mastrocinque, in "A companion to Livy", for example, identifies Lucius Accius's tragedy "Brutus" as a source for some of the stories transmitted via Livy.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The sources we have today for the monarchy and the earliest parts of the republic are "notorious[ly] unreliable" literary sources: Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, along with some supporting work from Plutarch's "Life of Poplicola". The first literary history in Rome was written by Quintus Fabius Pictor , centuries after the actual fall of the monarchy. These early historians read the fragmentary evidence from early Rome "so that it read like a history of their own times" and the surviving accounts of Livy and others are based on these writers rather than the original evidence. Thus:


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The stories that written down by the time of the second century BC were done so by a time the Romans had lost any reliable sources on the fall of the monarchy; the purpose of that history as well was not to record the past in its terms, but for senators to describe and celebrate the republic as it existed in their time. Senatorial historiography served to advertise and embellish writers' families rather than describe political or social contexts already lost from memory. For example, T. P. Wiseman argues that many of the kings themselves and figures from the traditional story were ahistorical inventions of the fourth and third centuries BC. Wiseman and the more critical historians similarly dismiss even the earliest Roman historians, such as Fabius Pictor, as having had little knowledge of their own past beyond the fourth century BC. Other scholars go further, such as James Richardson, who believes that one of the central figures of the traditional story, Lucius Junius Brutus, "never existed".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: As to the sources of the early republic generally, scholars usually accept the timing and occurrence of major events such as "the passing of a law[,] agreement of a treaty[,] or the capture of a town". The narratives and details of the early republic are, therefore, doubtful even as the events are accepted in their most general terms. These difficulties are especially challenging when there is little middle ground between a critical reading of the sources and blind acceptance of self-contradictory and unsatisfactory sources: reconstructing the earliest parts of the republic based on a critical reading "runs the risk of simply producing [a] modern narrative with no basis at all in the evidence".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: This distrust is why "[Livy's narrative] has failed to carry much conviction among modern scholars, who have attacked its historical credentials in all kinds of ways". While the ancient tradition could be accepted in terms that there was a king who was corrupt and ineffective and that he was deposed, "the ancient tradition is so overlaid with later stereotypical features customary in the portrayal of a tyrant that we cannot be sure what details, if any, should be accepted as genuine".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: By the time of Fabius Pictor, it seems the tales of the monarchy and its overthrow were already well developed. Many of the legendary events bear uncanny similarities to Greek tales: the rape of Lucretia perhaps being an adaptation of a similar love affair which led to the expulsion of the Peisistratid tyranny in Athens also . Moreover, sexual violence against innocent and virtuous young women was a common trope characterising tyrants and bad kings in ancient literature. Furthermore, the depiction of Collatinus' exile may be paralleled on the ostracism of Hipparchos, son of Peisistratus, and Tarquinius' war on Rome to retain his crown a parallel to Darius' attempt to restore the last Peisistratid tyrant to power in Athens. The extent, however, to which these Roman tales are copies of Greek tales or are genuine Roman tales embellished with Greek details is hotly debated.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The historian Tim Cornell makes the point that "as a dynastic history[,] the bare catalogue of events within the Tarquin family is, in itself, perfectly credible". Yet, it is only that dynastic history which is credible. The parts around it are less compatible: a palace coup orchestrated by possible royal claimants "sits rather uncomfortably with the notion [that the uprising was] inspired by republican ideals". The hatred of the Tarquinii is also incompatible with the election of Collatinus (a patrilineal member of the Tarquinii) and of Lucius Junius Brutus (related to the Tarquinii maternally). The intervention and defeat of Lars Porsenna also is questionable; other ancient accounts place him as defeating the nascent republic and imposing harsh peace terms.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The specific listing of the consuls in the first year of the republic is muddled and internally inconsistent. Tradition notes five: Lucius Junius Brutus, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Publius Valerius Poplicola, Spurius Lucretius Tricipitinus, and Marcus Horatius Pulvillus. The sources themselves report inconsistencies: Livy indicates that in older writing, Lucretius' consulship was nowhere to be found. Polybius asserts that a treaty signed in the first year of the republic was dated to the consulship of Brutus and Horatius, even though the two, according to Livy and Dionysius, never held office at the same time. Cicero and Pliny themselves note a consular pair: that of Brutus and Valerius Poplicola, without Collatinus. Cassius Dio – according to a quote in Zonaras – dissents from the consular tradition entirely, saying that Brutus initially ruled alone but was given a colleague to prevent him from declaring himself king.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Gary Forsythe, a historian, argues more broadly that the names follow a pattern observed elsewhere in the ancient narrative sources of using names appearing in later years of the consular "fasti" for characters set in a previous year; he therefore dismisses Valerius and Lucretius' consulships in 509, speculating that Valerius was brought from the second year of the republic into the first so that the character could pass a which is itself fictitious and patterned on a real law from 300 BC. Furthermore, there is disagreement as to when the Capitoline temple, which was firmly associated with Horatius, was dedicated: Livy places it in the first year of the republic, while Tacitus and Dionysius both assign it to the third year of the republic, during Horatius' "second" consulship. Forsythe argues it is more likely that, to have the temple dedicated in the "momentous first year of the republic, later writers moved Horatius back two years and made him one of the first consuls".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The details aside, the traditional account supports the abolition of the monarchy and the creation of a nascent republic. Not all modern scholars, however, accept a revolutionary new government as emerging so dramatically, viewing "the transition to republican government as a process rather than a single event, in which the powers of the kings were gradually eroded... onto which later historians imposed a shorter time-frame and dramatic personal narrative".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: There are many different theories about what happened at the start of the republic. The evidence is sufficiently sparse that many stories can be plausibly put forth. Modern views range from a semi-traditional account accepting the general facts of Roman tradition to hyper-critical accounts which argue that basically all of Rome's early history are the result of "artificial numerological exercises" and almost pure invention from association with other historical events.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The semi-traditionalist approach is built on a methodology of accepting Roman tradition as correct in terms of broad events, but discarding the narrative details themselves as fictitious. This theory was presented in its most complete form in Tim Cornell's 1995 book, "Beginnings of Rome", and has some support among scholars.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Accepting those broad events, a domestic crisis provides a spark which causes a revolution in Rome which overthrows the existing monarchy in the city; Rome becomes involved around this time in a greater conflagration affecting most of Tyrrhenian Italy, as around the same time there were also similar revolutions in other states.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Lars Porsenna intervenes in northern Latium as part of this conflagration, though his role in the downfall of the Tarquins or if Tarquin requested his assistance is unknown. Porsenna's Etruscan forces probably take Rome and move south to engage the Latins, but suffer a decisive defeat at Aricia. This story also has the added benefit of being supported by a Dionysius of Halicarnassus' history of Aristodemus of Cumae which confirms a defeat of Lars Porsenna and a date of 504 BC for the battle of Aricia from a separate Greek historical tradition.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Also suggesting anti-royal sentiment, around 500 BC, there is evidence in the archaeological record of destruction around the comitium. The royal sanctuary near Sant'Omobono at the foot of the Capitoline hill also was destroyed and abandoned for around a century. Cornell argues that the abandonment of the site at Sant'Omobono "contributes to the general impression... of an oligarchic coup against a populist tyranny" which was then forced to concede power to the army represented in the . If the king had been in the habit of nominating two army officers for the approval from the , "an attractive hypothesis is that... it was they who overthrew their master and took over the state".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Cornell also argues that this populist tyranny had for some time reduced the older traditionalist kingship into the ceremonial , as its existence makes it "easy to speculate" that the title descended from a real king whose political powers had been reduced to ceremony only (as in the modern British monarchy or the archon basileus at Athens). One suggestion in this vein is that the previous king Servius Tullius ruled as a popular life-magistrate – a "tyranny" in ancient Greek terms – with some speculation that Tullius' supposed original name – Mastarna – is an Etruscan corruption of Latin (as in , one of the Roman dictator's other titles). The survival of a vestigial dictatorship, normally replaced by two consuls, also suggests similarity to other Latin towns which were ruled by dictators, including Alba Longa, which supposedly had replaced its king with two annually elected dictators before its destruction.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Alternatively, another theory also accepted among scholars, including Gary Forsythe, is that the republic arose from Lars Porsenna's invasion itself. This theory was first presented by Andreas Alföldi in 1965. Accepting the tradition – specifically in Tacitus and Pliny the Elder – that Porsenna was successful in capturing Rome, he either abolishes the monarchy directly or puts the existing king to flight. Tarquin flees to other Latin cities for support while Porsenna uses Rome as a bridgehead to invade Latium. But after the Etruscan defeat at the Battle of Aricia in 504 BC, Porsenna is forced to withdraw and leave the Romans to face Latin attempts to restore Tarquin as king.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: When the Latins are unable to prevail by force of arms at Lake Regillus, Tarquin then goes into exile in Cumae, leaving the republic standing. If this theory is true, it also would explain the appointment of Brutus and Collatinus: Porsenna would want to install someone to govern the city and members of the former royal house would lend legitimacy to his occupation and a co-equal pair would check against abuses. In this story, upon Porsenna's withdrawal, the two officials were retained and turned into the classical consuls.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: This theory could also be plausibly combined with Cornell's semi-traditionalist account above, by proposing that Porsenna's intervention was opportunistically related to Rome's overthrow of its monarchy and the resulting unstable power struggle. There is also substantial archaeological evidence of destruction in central Etruria around at the end of the sixth century, suggesting major inter-state conflict, making the use of military force, even without an internal Roman political crisis, not implausible.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Some scholars also reject the dating of the republic's foundation. One hypothesis is that the Capitoline temple is older than the republic and that the republic's "fasti" were artificially lengthened to make the foundation of the temple and the republic line up. Robert Werner argued this in a 1963 monograph. He believed that some of the names of the "fasti", mostly Etruscan ones, were fake, dismissing plebeian names under the assumption they could not hold the consulship. Doing so brings the republic's establishment to 472 BC, which coincides with the collapse of Etruscan power in central Italy.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Alternatively, the Capitoline temple's foundation may coincide with the introduction of eponymous magistrates – magistrates giving their names to the year – but without the formation of a republic (in which those magistrates held state power). Eponymous magistrates and a Roman kingdom are not necessarily incompatible: the ephors of Sparta were ruled by kings but still gave their names to the years; nor was the eponymous magistrate abolished during the Pisistratid tyranny in Athens. This hypothesis, proposed by Krister Hanell, argues that the "fasti" have nothing to do with the republic at all, which in his view emerged gradually when royal power faded away into the hands of the eponymous magistrates who became the consuls. Cornell argues that Hanell's hypothesis only makes sense if one assumes, ab initio, the republic's creation was gradual and that there is little evidence one way or the other.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Also alternatively, Einar Gjerstad argued that moving the expulsion of the kings to a cultural break matches both with archaeological evidence of impoverishment and the disappearance of Etruscan names from the consular "fasti", which synthesises both acceptance of the "fasti" and the argument that the republic's foundation might not coincide with that of the temple's. Gjerstad's theory, however, requires the end of Etruscan rule to coincide with the monarchy's expulsion, for which there is no evidence.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Cornell rejects all of these views as overly revisionist and dependent on a "a complex mixture of archaeological and literary data" while having strong assumptions about the changes that the expulsion of the kings created. More critical historians, like Forsythe, however, believe Cornell's treatment is "too trusting and overly optimistic" about the nature of the source material.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Scholars have recognised that many of the traditional stories are "replete with fictionalised individuals who are nothing more than duplications of later personalities and events" and that the dates given for them are likely copied over from other Hellenistic historical traditions. In those traditions, the large number of events in various societies that lacked firm dates was resolved by assigning the same dates to similar events in those different societies.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: That early Roman history was reconstructed (or, less generously, in Cicero's description "a forgery") was well known even to the Romans themselves. The primary sources of Roman history to the ancient Romans were lists noting the achievements of family ancestors and priestly notices, all of which lacked chronological significance. Specific years were then assigned by synchronism with various other events under various different reconstructions; for even major events such as the Gallic sack of Rome, the surviving ancient historians disagreed at what occurred in what years.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: For example, Alexander Koptev argued in 2010 that the placement of dates in early Roman history was rooted in a single source by Timaeus of Tauromenium, which "as chronological ... shaped the chronological skeleton of Roman history, basing it on a comparison with the Hellenistic world", directly influencing the annalists, whose works flow forward to the sources we have today. Timaeus performed "artificial numerological exercises" which provided a chronology onto which dimly remembered oral stories, like that of the expulsion of the kings, could be placed. Here, Timaeus' dating the start of the republic was an arbitrary synchronism: it started in merely the same year in which Cleisthenes established democracy in Athens (510–9 BC). This also neatly explains why Roman history accords with Dionysius' discussion of war between Cumae and Etruria: it was placed there deliberately.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Similarly, some historians believe that Livy's account of the early republic is structured by a cyclic approach to history in which a rise in moral virtues precedes their decline, with a period of a consisting of 360–365 years. Starting with Romulus, the cycle reaches a peak under king Servius Tullius before a second founding under Camillus, completing the cycle. This causes a second peak in the time of Scipio Africanus before Augustus enters as the figure to re-found Rome again and restart the great year, with Livy suggesting that Romulus, Camillus, and Augustus are coequal heroic figures.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The critical approach also stresses the extent to which the sources available today were shaped and moulded "by ideologies, by the political background, and by the geopolitical stakes in the depiction of the beginnings of Rome" for then-contemporaries.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The role of Lucius Junius Brutus in the abolition of the kings was referenced by the public as part of a campaign to convince one of his descendants, Marcus Junius Brutus, to organise the assassination of Julius Caesar.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: During the French Revolution, images of both Lucius Brutus and Marcus Brutus "were ubiquitous [in]... Jacobin clubs, public buildings, and popular societies"; the stories of his overthrow of the kings "embodied evolving ideals of civic virtue" and "the populace at large embraced [Brutus as] a heroic model of citizenship". Boys, and whole towns, were named after Brutus. The leaders of the French Revolution, according to Mona Ozouf, drew on "legendary antiquity... to rise to the level of the events which they were living". Contemporaneously, in the debate over ratification of the what would become the Constitution of the United States, the authors of The Federalist Papers signed with the pseudonym "Publius", a reference to the Publius Valerius Poplicola of the Livian narrative.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: In the ancient world, the playwright Lucius Accius composed a tragedy depicting the events of the overthrow, titled "Brutus", that combined elements from Greek myth and tragic dramas with the Roman story.


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Shakespeare's 1594 poem "Lucrece" "enjoyed immense acclaim when it was first published... telling the story of Lucretia in melodramatic rather than narrative fashion". His play "Macbeth" also borrowed elements from the ancient stories of Tarquin's fall: Attilio Mastrocinque argues Macduff, Malcolm, and Siward of Northumbria are modelled on Brutus, Lucretius, Collatinus, and Poplicola. Nathaniel Lee, an English playwright, dramatised the story of Lucretia and the overthrow of the Tarquins in a late 17th century play, "Lucius Junius Brutus".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: Voltaire wrote a play, "Brutus" (), dramatising Lucius Junius Brutus' overthrow of Tarquin, which, while not immediately successful, became enormously popular in the 1790s during the French Revolution after abolition of the French monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Thomas Babington Macaulay also published a poetic telling of the expulsion in "Lays of Ancient Rome" which was "once extremely well known".


title: Overthrow of the Roman monarchy

text: The death of Lucretia and the death of Brutus' sons also were subjects of many neoclassical paintings in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: Kenneth Franklin McKenzie Jr. (born 1956 or 1957) is a retired United States Marine Corps general who served as the 14th commander of the United States Central Command from March 28, 2019 to April 1, 2022. He served as Director of the Joint Staff from July 5, 2017 after having previously served for two years as Director of Strategic Plans and Policy (J-5) on the Joint Staff.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: A native of Birmingham, Alabama, McKenzie was commissioned in 1979 via the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at The Citadel. McKenzie holds a Master's degree in History from the National Defense University and has served as a Senior Military Fellow at the school's Institute for National Strategic Studies. He is an Honors Graduate of the Marine Corps Command and Staff College and the School of Advanced Warfighting.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: As an infantry officer McKenzie's assignments have included command of the 1st Battalion, 6th Marines as Commanding Officer of the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit, which he led on deployments to both Iraq and Afghanistan. He also served as Military Secretary to two Commandants of the Marine Corps.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: McKenzie's general officer posts have included Deputy Director of Operations for the National Military Command Center in the Pentagon. In 2008 he was selected by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff to serve as Director of his new administration transition team, overseeing the transition of military forces under incoming President Barack Obama. He returned to Afghanistan serving as Deputy Chief of Staff for Stability under the International Security Assistance Force, followed by a tour as Director of Strategy, Plans and Policy at United States Central Command. He then returned to the Pentagon to serve as the Marine Corps Representative to the Quadrennial Defense Review and, after receiving his third star, was appointed Commanding General of United States Marine Forces Central Command.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: As CENTCOM commander, McKenzie oversaw the successful high-profile special forces raid in Syria to kill or capture then-Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in October 2019, and the 2020–2021 withdrawals and reductions of U.S. troops from Iraq.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: During the 2020–2021 Afghanistan withdrawal, McKenzie replaced General Austin "Scott" Miller as leader of U.S. and NATO forces in Afghanistan upon the latter's resignation on July 12, 2021, with Miller's departure perceived by some as "the symbolic end of the U.S. military mission in Afghanistan." One month later, McKenzie was responsible for the August 2021 Kabul drone strike which targeted and killed civilians, 7 children and 3 adults.


title: Kenneth F. McKenzie Jr.

text: McKenzie retired from active duty on 1 April 2022, after relinquishing command of CENTCOM to General Michael Kurilla.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: 1945 is a 2022 Indian war drama film directed by Sathyasiva and produced by S. N. Rajarajan of K Production. It was simultaneously shot in Tamil and Telugu languages under the same title. The film stars Rana Daggubati, Regina Cassandra, Sathyaraj and Nassar. The film began its production in 2016 but was left unfinished since 2019 due to differences between the producer and the lead actor.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: The Telugu version of the film was released theatrically on 7 January 2022. The Tamil version premiered via a streaming platform on 4 July 2022.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: During the year 1945, the British police stationed in Burma hear the news of a supposed plane crash in which Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose dies presumably. So they devise plans to overthrow the INA started by Bose. The INA also plan to start a rebellion in 1945 in order to subdue the British Raj, with Burma being their organizational center. However an internal dispute arises within the community of INA members after Netaji's death as to whether Netaji Bose supposedly died or not. Adhi is an active member of the INA, who voices out to his fellow INA members, that Netaji still lives, but others fail to listen to him. A depressed Adhi now recalls his past as to how he was inspired to join the INA.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: In the year 1942, Adhi was a budding barrister who had come to Burma from India to work under Subbayya- a leading barrister of that time who was also a convoy and friend of the British. It is revealed that Adhi also intended to marry Anandhi, the daughter of Subbayya and both Adhi and Anandhi fall in love when they meet each other. In Burma, Adhi learns of the dismal fate of his fellow Indians who are tortured and killed by some malicious British officers who also loot the wealth of the common people. Adhi also comes to learn of the INA founded by Netaji fighting against the British and inspired by their work he joins their alliance, takes up arms and annihilates many corrupt British officers. On learning this, Subbayya who had initially approved of his daughter's marriage to Adhi, now disapproves of it and tries to separate Adhi from his family. However Adhi and Anandhi still love each other and Adhi's friend somehow tries to convince Subbayya for their wedding. Subbayya hesitantly agrees and so Adhi and Anandhi get married. Meanwhile, a protest ensues between the Indians in Burma and the Britishers there, in which, many innocent people are killed by the British, including Adhi's friend. This enrages Adhi who takes the help of the INA and kills the British governor in a coup. In retaliation, the British soldiers also kill many INA members, however Adhi manages to survive. Meanwhile, Subbayya who learns of Adhi's ways quickly manages to flee with his wife and daughter Anandhi on-board a ship. Before boarding the ship, Anandhi meets Adhi during an ensuing fight between him and the Britishers and she tells him that she's leaving to India on the advice of her father but she still loves him and asks him to finish the mission that he had started and then return to his family in India if destiny permits.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: Sathyasiva first began scripting the film in mid-2015 and approached Jiiva to play the lead role, but the film did not find producers. S. N. Rajarajan, who won the rights for "" is bankrolling this big budgeted bilingual project, being helmed by Sathyasiva. As Rana Daggubati was picked to play the lead due to closeness of the producer, Regina Cassandra was chosen to pair with Rana after considering several heroines. Later Nassar and Sathyaraj, were also chosen to play important roles than supporting ones. Yuvan Shankar Raja has been roped in compose music for the project, after previously collaborated for director's "Kazhugu" and "Kazhugu 2". On the first look poster release, it was revealed that Sathya Ponmar, Gopi Krishna and E. Thiyagarajan are selected as cinematographer, editor and art director respectively, who three of them previously collaborated with director on his films before. The Tamil version was originally titled "Madai Thiranthu" before the name was changed to "1945".


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: The film features Rana Daggubati and Regina Cassandra in lead roles along with veterans Nassar and Sathyaraj slated for a pivotal roles.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: The principal photography has been commenced at Kochi since 19 August 2016. Depicting Subhas Chandra Bose's Independence movement in the 1940s, huge sets have been erected along the beach for this period drama as the portions for Nassar and Regina Cassandra is being canned. Satyaraj is expected to join the next schedule of shoot in September and Rana Daggubati likely to join the production unit shortly once he wraps "". A schedule was completed in October 2017 at Kochi in Kerala and Sri Lanka. Rana Daggubati went clean-shaven for a portion of the film.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: "1945" was released theatrically on 7 January 2022. Earlier, the film was scheduled to be released on 24 January 2020. However, owing to financial differences between the producer and the lead actor, its release was delayed indefinitely. Later, it was scheduled to release on 31 December 2021 before moving to the present date.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: "Pinkvilla" gave the film a rating of 1.5/5 and wrote "The film is undone by the inadequate background music and the frivolous graphics.The Britishers are trigger-happy antagonists who behave more like the underwritten villains of mass masala movies.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: After the first look of the film was released, Rana Daggubati quickly took to his Twitter account, claiming that producer Rajarajan had defaulted on his payments, and was using the announcement of the event as a way to raise money and cheat more people. Daggubati also claimed that the film's status was "unfinished". In response to these accusations, Rajarajan replied to Daggubati on Twitter that it is the director's prerogative to make the final decision whether the film is completed or not. Daggubati replied with a thumbs-up emoji and did not continue the conversation.


title: 1945 (2022 film)

text: The soundtrack of the film will be composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja, collaborating with the director for the third time. While the lyrics are written by Mohana Raja and Arul Kamaraj, the audio rights are bagged by Muzik 247.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: It is a type of bipolar disorder and conforms to the classic concept of manic-depressive illness, which can include psychosis during mood episodes.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: The essential feature of bipolar I disorder is a clinical course characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes. Often, individuals have had one or more major depressive episodes. One episode of mania is sufficient to make the diagnosis of bipolar disorder; the person may or may not have a history of major depressive disorder. Episodes of substance-induced mood disorder due to the direct effects of a medication, or other somatic treatments for depression, substance use disorder, or toxin exposure, or of mood disorder due to a general medical condition need to be excluded before a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder can be made. Bipolar I disorder requires confirmation of only 1 full manic episode for diagnosis, but may be associated with hypomanic and depressive episodes as well. Diagnosis for bipolar II disorder does not include a full manic episode; instead, it requires the occurrence of both a hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode. Serious aggression has been reported to occur in one out of every ten major, first-episode, BD-I patients with psychotic features, the prevalence in this group being particularly high in association with a recent suicide attempt, alcohol use disorder, learning disability, or manic polarity in the first episode.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: Bipolar I disorder often coexists with other disorders including PTSD, substance use disorders, and a variety of mood disorders. Up to 40% of people with bipolar disorder also present with PTSD, with higher rates occurring in women and individuals with bipolar I disorder. In addition, the episodes must not be better accounted for by schizoaffective disorder or superimposed on schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or a psychotic disorder not otherwise specified.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: Regular medical assessments are performed to rule-out secondary causes of mania and depression. These tests include complete blood count, glucose, serum chemistry/electrolyte panel, thyroid function test, liver function test, renal function test, urinalysis, vitamin B12 and folate levels, HIV screening, syphilis screening, and pregnancy test, and when clinically indicated, an electrocardiogram (ECG), an electroencephalogram (EEG), a computed tomography (CT scan), and/or a magnetic resonance imagining (MRI) may be ordered. Drug screening includes recreational drugs, particularly synthetic cannabinoids, and exposure to toxins.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: In May 2013, American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). There are several proposed revisions to occur in the diagnostic criteria of Bipolar I Disorder and its subtypes. For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40 (most recent episode hypomanic) and 296.4x (most recent episode manic), the proposed revision includes the following specifiers: with psychotic features, with mixed features, with catatonic features, with rapid cycling, with anxiety (mild to severe), with suicide risk severity, with seasonal pattern, and with postpartum onset. Bipolar I Disorder 296.5x (most recent episode depressed) will include all of the above specifiers plus the following: with melancholic features and with atypical features. The categories for specifiers will be removed in DSM-5 and criterion A will add or there are at least 3 symptoms of major depression of which one of the symptoms is depressed mood or anhedonia. For Bipolar I Disorder 296.7 (most recent episode unspecified), the listed specifiers will be removed.""


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: The criteria for manic and hypomanic episodes in criteria A & B will be edited. Criterion A will include "and present most of the day, nearly every day", and criterion B will include "and represent a noticeable change from usual behavior". These criteria as defined in the DSM-IV-TR have created confusion for clinicians and need to be more clearly defined.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: There have also been proposed revisions to criterion B of the diagnostic criteria for a Hypomanic Episode, which is used to diagnose For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40, Most Recent Episode Hypomanic. Criterion B lists "inflated self-esteem, flight of ideas, distractibility, and decreased need for sleep" as symptoms of a Hypomanic Episode. This has been confusing in the field of child psychiatry because these symptoms closely overlap with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: Antidepressant-induced mania occurs in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder. Mood stabilizers, especially lithium, may protect against this effect, but some research contradicts this.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: A frequent problem in these individuals is non-adherence to pharmacological treatment; long-acting injectable antipsychotics may contribute to solving this issue in some patients.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: A review of validated treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder by international bodies was published in 2020.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: Psychosocial interventions can be used for managing acute depressive episodes and for maintenance treatment to aid in relapse prevention. This includes psycho education, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), family-focused therapy (FFT), interpersonal and social-rhythm therapy (IPSRT), and peer support.


title: Bipolar I disorder

text: Information on the condition, importance of regular sleep patterns, routines and eating habits and the importance of compliance with medication as prescribed. Behavior modification through counseling can have positive influence to help reduce the effects of risky behavior during the manic phase. Additionally, the lifetime prevalence for bipolar I disorder is estimated to be 1%.


title: Corpse paint

text: Corpse paint is a style of black and white makeup used mainly by black metal bands for concerts and band photos. The makeup is used to make the musicians appear inhuman, corpse-like, or demonic, and is perhaps "the most identifiable aspect of the black metal aesthetic."


title: Corpse paint

text: Corpse paint typically involves making the face and neck white and making the area around the eyes and lips black. Musicians will often have a trademark style. Other colors are seldom used, yet there are notable exceptions, such as Attila Csihar's use of neon colors and the bands Satyricon and Dødheimsgard experimenting with color as well.


title: Corpse paint

text: Outside of black metal, face-painting and black and white makeup has been used by a variety of other public figures such as shock rock artists (notably Arthur Brown, Alice Cooper, members of Kiss, and members of the Misfits) and professional wrestlers (e.g. Sting and Vampiro).


title: Corpse paint

text: The earliest rock groups to wear makeup similar to corpse paint included Screamin' Jay Hawkins and Arthur Brown in the 1960s; Secos & Molhados, Alice Cooper, Kiss and guitarist Zal Cleminson of the Sensational Alex Harvey Band in the 1970s whose makeup, colorful clothes and menacing demeanor evoked the evil clown trope. Later that decade, shock rock and heavy metal influenced punk rock bands like the Misfits and singer David Vanian of The Damned. On seeing shock rock pioneer Arthur Brown performing his US number two hit "Fire" in 1968, Alice Cooper states, "Can you imagine the young Alice Cooper watching that with all his make-up and hellish performance? It was like all my Halloweens came at once!."


title: Corpse paint

text: In the 1980s, Hellhammer and King Diamond of Mercyful Fate (who used face paint similar to corpse paint as early as 1978 in his band Black Rose) were among the early metal groups to use corpse paint. Per "Dead" Ohlin was the first to explicitly associate stylized face paint with an attempt to look like a corpse according to Mayhem drummer Jan Axel "Hellhammer" Blomberg. Other groups soon followed suit, including Hellhammer's later incarnation Celtic Frost. Brazilian band Sarcófago also pioneered the look, being dubbed by "Metal Storm" magazine as the first band with "true" corpse paint. However, Necrobutcher insists that his band Mayhem was the first to use corpse paint and credits the band's singer Per "Dead" Ohlin with coining the term. Early corpse paint was meant simply to highlight an individual's features and make them look "dead."


title: Corpse paint

text: Bands of the early Norwegian black metal scene used corpse paint extensively. Early vocalist of Mayhem Per "Dead" Ohlin started wearing it in the late 1980s. According to Necrobutcher, Mayhem's bass player: "It wasn't anything to do with the way Kiss and Alice Cooper used makeup. Dead actually wanted to look like a corpse. He didn't do it to look cool." In the early 1990s, other Norwegian black metal bands followed suit and their style and sound was adopted by bands around the world. Eventually, some Norwegian bands—such as Emperor and Satyricon—stopped wearing corpse paint, often citing its loss of meaning or trendiness due to use by so many bands.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: Lincoln University (LU) is a public state-related historically black university (HBCU) near Oxford, Pennsylvania. Founded as the private Ashmun Institute in 1854, it has been a public institution since 1972 and was the United States' first degree-granting HBCU. Its main campus is located on 422 acres near the town of Oxford in southern Chester County, Pennsylvania. The university has a second location in the University City area of Philadelphia. Lincoln University provides undergraduate and graduate coursework to approximately 2,000 students. It is a member-school of the Thurgood Marshall College Fund.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: While a majority of its students are African Americans, the university has a long history of accepting students of other races and nationalities. Women have received degrees since 1953, and made up 66% of undergraduate enrollment in 2019.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In 1854, John Miller Dickey, a Presbyterian minister, and his wife, Sarah Emlen Cresson, a Quaker, founded Ashmun Institute, later named Lincoln University, in Hinsonville, Pennsylvania. They named it after Jehudi Ashmun, a religious leader and social reformer. They founded the school for the education of African Americans, who had few opportunities for higher education.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: John Miller Dickey was the first president of the college. He encouraged some of his first students: James Ralston Amos (1826–1864), his brother Thomas Henry Amos (1825–1869), and Armistead Hutchinson Miller (1829/30-1865), to support the establishment of Liberia as a colony for African Americans. (This was a project of the American Colonization Society). Each of the men became ordained ministers.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In 1866, a year after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, Ashmun Institute was renamed Lincoln University. The college attracted highly talented students from numerous states, especially during the long decades of legal segregation in the South. As may be seen on the list of notable alumni (link below), many furthered their in careers in fields including academia, public service, and the arts.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In June 1921, days after the Tulsa race massacre, President Warren Harding visited Lincoln to deliver the commencement address. He spoke about the need to seek healing and harmony in that incident's aftermath, as well as to honor Lincoln alumni who were part of the 367,000 African American servicemen to fight in World War I. The school newspaper noted Harding's visit as "the high water mark in the history of the institution."


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In 1945 Dr. Horace Mann Bond, an alumnus of Lincoln, was selected as the first African-American president of the university. During his 12-year tenure, he continued to do social science research, and helped support the important civil rights case of "Brown v. Board of Education", decided in 1954 by the US Supreme Court. His relationship with the collector Albert C. Barnes was essential in ensuring the university's role in the management of his art collection.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: From 1854 to 1954, Lincoln University graduates accounted for 20% of African American physicians and over 10% of African American lawyers in the United States.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: The university marked its 100th anniversary by amending its charter in 1953 to permit the granting of degrees to women. True coeducation was slow to arrive, however, and women still constituted only 5% of the student body as late as 1964.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In 1972 Lincoln University formally associated with the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as a state-related institution.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In November 2014, university president Robert R. Jennings resigned under pressure from faculty, students and alumni after comments relating to issues of sexual assault. Jennings was also the subject of a couple of no-confidence votes by faculty and the alumni association in October 2014.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: On May 11, 2017, the Lincoln University board of trustees announced the appointment of Dr. Brenda A. Allen, provost and vice chancellor for academic affairs at Winston-Salem State University as Lincoln's new president. A 1981 alumna of Lincoln, Allen's inauguration was held for October 20, 2017.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: In 2020, MacKenzie Scott donated $20 million to Lincoln University. Her donation is the largest single gift in Lincoln's history.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: According to "U.S. News & World Report", Lincoln University ranks number 19 in the 2020 magazine's ranking of HBCUs. In 2020 the "US News & World Best Colleges Report" rated Lincoln 119 among Regional Universities North.


title: Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)

text: Lincoln University's International and Study Abroad Program had student participation in Service Learning Projects in the countries of Ecuador, Argentina, Spain, Ireland, Costa Rica, Japan, France, Cambodia, Zambia, Liberia, Ghana, Kenya, Russia, Australia, Thailand, the Czech Republic, Mexico, and South Africa