title: Kirtan

text: The root of kirtan is "kirt" (). The root is found in the Samhitas, the Brahmanas and other Vedic literature, as well as the Vedanga and Sutras literature. "Kirt", according to Monier-Williams contextually means, "to mention, make mention of, tell, name, call, recite, repeat, relate, declare, communicate, commemorate, celebrate, praise, glorify".


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtan, sometimes referred to as "sankirtana" (literally, "collective performance"), is a call-and-response chanting or musical conversation, a genre of religious performance arts that developed during India's "bhakti" devotional traditions. However, it is a heterogeneous practice that varies regionally according to Christian Novetzke, and includes varying mixture of different musical instruments, dance, oration, theatre, audience participation and moral narration. In Maharashtra for example, states Novetzke, a kirtan is a call-and-response style performance, ranging from devotional dancing and singing by a lead singer and audience, to an "intricate scholarly treatise, a social commentary or a philosophical/linguistic exposition", that includes narration, allegory, humor, erudition and entertainment – all an aesthetic part of "ranga" (beauty, color) of the kirtan.


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtan is locally known as "Abhang", "Samaj Gayan", "Haveli Sangeet", "Vishnupad", "Harikatha". The Vaishnava temples and monasteries of Hinduism in Assam and northeastern, called "Satra", have a large worship hall named "kirtan ghar" – a name derived from their being used for congregational singing and performance arts.


title: Kirtan

text: Musical recitation of hymns, mantras and the praise of deities has ancient roots in Hinduism, as evidenced by the Samaveda and other Vedic literature.


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtanas were popularized by the Bhakti movement of medieval era Hinduism, starting with the South Indian Alvars (Vaishnavism) and Nayanars (Shaivism) around the 6th century, which spread in central, northern, western and eastern India particularly after the 12th century, as a social and congregational response to Hindu-Muslim conflicts. The foundations of the kirtan traditions are also found in other Hindu scriptures such as the "Bhagavad-gita" where Krishna describes bhakti marga (path of loving devotion to god) as a means to moksha, alongside karma marga (path of action) and jnana marga (path of knowledge). References to kirtan as a musical recitation are also found in the Bhagavata Purana, an important Vaishnava text.


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtan is often practiced as a kind of theatrical folk song with call-and-response chanting or antiphon. The ancient sage Narada revered as a musical genius, is called a kirtankar in the Padma Purana. The famous story of Prahlada in the "Avatara Katha" mentions kirtan as one of nine forms of worship, called the "nava vidha bhakti" along with "shravanam" (listening), "smaranam" (remembrance), "pada sevanam" (service), "archanam" (offering), "vandanam" (obeisance), "dasyam" (servitude), "sakhyam" (friendship) and "atmanivedanam" (surrender). The so-called "Naradiya Kirtan" divides kirtan into five parts: "naman" (prayers), "purvaranga" (spiritual lesson based on old epics), chanting, "katha" or "akhyan" (exegesis), and a final prayer for universal welfare.


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtana as a genre of religious music has been a major part of the Vaishnavism tradition, particularly starting with the Alvars of Sri Vaishnavism sub-tradition between the 7th to 10th century CE. After the 13th-century, two subgenres of kirtan emerged in Vaishnavism, namely the "Nama-kirtana" wherein the different names or aspects of god (a Vishnu avatar) are extolled, and the "Lila- kirtana" wherein the deity's life and legends are narrated.


title: Kirtan

text: The Marathi Varkari saint Namdev (c. 1270–1350) used the kirtan form of singing to praise the glory of god Vithoba, an avatar of Vishnu. Marathi kirtan is typically performed by one or two main performers, called "kirtankar", accompanied by harmonium and "tabla". It involves singing, acting, dancing, and story-telling. The Naradiya Kirtan popular in Maharashtra is performed by a single Kirtankar, and contains the poetry of saints of Maharashtra such as Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Namdev and Tukaram.Learned poets from 17th and 18th century such as Shridhar, Mahipati, Moropant contributed to the development of this form of kirtan. "Jugalbandi Kirtan" is performed by two persons, allowing question-answer, dialogue and debate. Performance requires skill in music, dance, comedy, oratory, debate, memory, general knowledge and Sanskrit literature. Training takes place at the Kirtan Kul in Sangli, the Akhil Bharatiya Kirtan Sanstha in Dadar, Mumbai, the Narad Mandir at Sadashiv Peth, Pune and the Kalidas Mahavidyalay in Ramtek, Nagpur as well as at smaller schools in Goa, Beed and Ujjain.


title: Kirtan

text: In the early 16th century CE Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularized adolescent Krishna based san-kirtana in Bengal, with Hare Krishna mantra and other songs, wherein the love between Radha and Krishna was symbolized as the love between one's soul and God.


title: Kirtan

text: About the same time, Shankaradeva in Assam inspired the Ekasarana Dharma bhakti movement that emphasized Advaita Vedanta philosophy within the framework of Bhagavata Purana and Vaishnavism. Shankaradeva helped establish "Sattras" (Hindu temples and monasteries) with "kirtan-ghar" (also called "Namghar"), for singing and dramatic performance of Krishna-related theosophy.


title: Kirtan

text: In Vrindavan of Braj region, a kirtan accords the Hindustani classical music. The acharya Vallabha launched a kirtan singing devotional movement around the stories of baby Krishna and his early childhood, in early 16th century. "Samaj-Gayan" is the Radha-centered Radha-vallabha Sampradaya's collective style of hymn singing by the Hindustani classical forms "dhrupad" and "dhamar". This genre came to be known as Haveli Sangeet.


title: Kirtan

text: In Andhra Pradesh, the compositions of Tallapaka Annamacharya, a 14th-century mystic, represent the earliest known music called "sankirtana". He wrote in praise of Lord Venkateswara, the deity of Seven Hills in Tirumala, where unbroken worship has been offered for over twelve centuries at the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple.


title: Kirtan

text: Annamcharya is believed to be the incarnation of Lord Venkateswara's sword. During his long and prolific career, he reputedly composed and sang 32,000 Sankirtanas and 12 Shatakas (sets of hundred verses). His works were in Telugu and Sanskrit.


title: Kirtan

text: A "Kirtan" and a "Bhajan" are closely related, with both sharing common aims, subjects, musical themes and being devotional performance arts. A "Bhajan" is more free form, can be singular melody that is performed by a single singer with or without one and more musical instruments. "Kirtan", in contrast, differs in being a more structured team performance, typically with a call and response musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation or gentle sharing of ideas, and it includes two or more musical instruments, with roots in the prosody principles of the Vedic era.


title: Kirtan

text: Many "Kirtan" are structured for more audience participation, where the singer calls a spiritual chant, a hymn or a devotional theme such as from Vaishnavism, the audience then responds back by repeating the chant or by chanting back a reply of their shared beliefs.


title: Kirtan

text: "Kirtan" (Gurmukhi: ਕੀਰਤਨ "Kīratana") refers to devotional singing in Sikhism. It is typically performed at Gurdwaras (Sikh temples). Sikh scriptures and legends are usually recited in a song, to a certain "raga" and accompanied with musical instruments. The Gurus themselves created numerous musical instruments including the Taus, the Sarangi, the Saranda and a modification of the Pakhawaj (called Jori) creating an early form of the Tabla.


title: Kirtan

text: A "Shabad Kirtan" refers to the musical recitation of the Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture in the Sikhism tradition which is arranged according to "raga". The "Shabad Kirtan" can be listened to silently or sung along with the gathered congregation.


title: Kirtan

text: "Kirtan" in Sikh history has been the musical analog of "Kathas" recitation, both preferably performed by "ragi jatha", or professional trained performers. A Sikh Kirtan is a religious, aesthetic and social event, usually held in a congregational setting on Sundays or over certain festivals to honor the historical Gurus, but major temples in the Sikh tradition recite "Kirtan" every day as a mark of daily bhakti (devotional remembrance) of God's name. The congregational setting is called a "Sangat" or "Satsang", a word that in ancient Indian texts means "like minded individuals, or fellow travelers on a spiritual journey".


title: Kirtan

text: According to Guy Beck, the music tradition did not develop in early Buddhism possibly because it was considered sensual and inconsistent with its core teachings. Later Buddhism did develop monastic chanting of the canonical literature, particularly in the ritualistic Vajrayana and other Mahayana traditions. Chants, songs and plays about the life of the Buddha by the Buddhists of Bengal were called "Buddha-samkirtan".


title: Kirtan

text: Paramahansa Yogananda, a Bengali saint was an early proponent of kirtan in the west, chanting Guru Nanak Dev's "Hey Hari Sundara" ("Oh God Beautiful") with 3,000 people at Carnegie Hall in 1923. Kirtan became more common with the spread of Gaudiya Vaishnavism by the International Society for Krishna Consciousness's (ISKCON) founder A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in the 1960s.


title: Kirtan

text: Kirtan singers have appeared in the West, such as Krishna Das, Bhagavan Das, Wah! and Jai Uttal as well as Snatam Kaur, Lokah Music, Deva Premal, Jim Gelcer, Jyoshna, Aindra Das, Gina Sala', and Gaura Vani & As Kindred Spirits. Yoga centers report an increase in attendance at kirtan; according to "Pure Music"’s Frank Goodman in conversation with Krishna Das in 2006, kirtan has taken on a wider popularity.


title: Kirtan

text: There are also Kirtan singers in the west who sing authentic traditional Indian style Kirtans such as Kamini Natarajan and Sheela Bringi.


title: Kirtan

text: In the United States case law, the term "sankirtana" has also been used to refer to evangelical activities of ISKCON. ISKCON had sought the right to perform "sankirtana" in California airports such as in Los Angeles. The court ruled that while ISKCON has a constitutional rights of protected speech, the Los Angeles airport also has a right to forbid any form of solicitation, out of "a legitimate interest in controlling pedestrian congestion and reducing the risk of fraud and duress attendant to repetitive, in-person solicitation of funds" by all groups including ISKCON.


title: Kirtan

text: The male given name Kirtan or Kirtana is used in South India for females as well, particularly in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa Cooper is a fictional character on the FOX television series "The O.C.", portrayed by Mischa Barton. Marissa was among the original "core four" characters on "The O.C." She is a privileged California native born into a wealthy family, residing next to the Cohen family's house. Throughout The O.C.'s storyline, Marissa is introduced to new characters who influence her perspective on life and her personality.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa Cooper is characterized as the privileged yet troubled girl next door. Her designer-label-packed wardrobe masks her turbulent mood swings and hard-partying ways. Although Marissa is tall, thin and pretty, she is not much else. She is afforded all the privileges of a Newport Beach lifestyle, yet she fails to show any interest or engagement with the world around her. Like many of her peers, she is emotionally distant from her mother and becomes disillusioned with her mother's materialistic ways. As a result, she, like her sister Kaitlin, often rebelled against her mother. She is closer to her father, whom she stated was the "last thing keeping [her] sane" through the tumult of the first two seasons. Marissa was the social chair of The Harbor school. She organized the debutante ball rehearsals, school dances, carnivals, and other charity events. Simultaneously engaging in problematic romance and risky behavior, which in her case often go together.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa's risky behavior was a factor in her on-off relationship with Ryan Atwood. For example, during Ryan's first Christmas in Newport Beach, he was furious to find her drunk due to his painful experiences as the child of alcoholic parents, but she did not understand his aversion to alcohol and thought that he was overreacting.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa is introduced as a wealthy, beautiful socialite in Newport Beach, California, whose family (mother Julie, father Jimmy, and younger sister Kaitlin) go through dramatic changes over the seasons. She is a troubled person before the series begins, with a history of substance abuse and rebellious behavior. This is evident from a scene in the pilot where she is left on her front door by her friends, passed out from drinking. The backstory on her friendship with Summer Roberts showcases it as a powerful bond, forged during second grade. One of her most profound connections, the friendship is a central element on the show for three seasons. The show significantly focuses on Marissa's on-and-off again relationship with Ryan Atwood.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Viewers of the series have debated Marissa's sexuality. When she hooked up with Alex Kelly, her heterosexual identity became the source of speculation. Fans questioned whether Marissa was bisexual or just bi-curious. The question became one of the top queries that viewers wanted "The O.C." creator Josh Schwartz to answer.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Schwartz insisted that the relationship between Marissa and Alex was not a rating stunt and that Marissa developed real feelings for Alex. Sarah Warn of AfterEllen.com said that despite Schwartz's statements, "Marissa's predominantly heterosexual past, the huge fan support for the Marissa and Ryan (Benjamin McKenzie) pairing, and the controversy "The O.C." would court by making one of its principal characters bisexual, it's likely that her 'real feelings' for Alex will only last a few episodes." Within the series, Marissa refers casually to Alex as her ex-girlfriend.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa's sexual orientation, other than her known heterosexual identity, was never confirmed by the series, and was reported to be "Marissa just experimenting with the fairer sex and not committing to a full-on romantic, sapphic relationship." The executives did, however, cite her relationship with Alex as an important one, and one that was successful with viewers.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Schwartz said that the network was "nervous" about the storyline and wanted it "wrapped up as fast as humanly possible and Alex moving on out of the OC."


title: Marissa Cooper

text: The decision to kill Barton's character came from the producers. Josh Schwartz relays that it was entirely a creative decision: "It had as much to do with creatively feeling like this was always in the cards for this character and she was an inherently tragic heroine, and part of the Ryan/Marissa story was him trying to save her from a fate that she couldn't be rescued from." Commenting on her character's death, Barton said: "My character has been through so, so much and there's really nothing more left for her to do." She added, "I was really excited that I get to die, to be honest. [...] It was better than one of those lame farewells."


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa's father is caught committing fraud and eventually files for bankruptcy. The first episode sees sparks from between Marissa and Ryan Atwood. "Who are you?" asks Marissa. "Whoever you want me to be," replies Ryan. Luke Ward, Marissa's long-term boyfriend, shows animosity towards Ryan from the moment he steps foot into Orange County. Soon after, on vacation in Tijuana with Ryan, Seth Cohen and best friend Summer Roberts, Marissa discovers that her parents are separating. In the aftermath, she catches Luke cheating on her with one of her best friends, Holly Fischer. Marissa then separates from her friends and overdoses on painkillers. Ryan finds her unconscious in an alleyway in Tijuana and summons help just in time. After this, Marissa battles with her mother, who wants to send her to rehab. She eventually gets through to Julie but has to agree to see a therapist in Newport Beach after she is caught shoplifting. She meets Oliver Trask during her first session, and they soon become good friends, much to Ryan's displeasure.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Throughout the first season, Marissa is involved in an on-again, off-again relationship with Ryan, with the relationship jeopardized by Luke and Oliver. Oliver is initially discovered by Ryan to be mentally unstable and harboring an unhealthy obsession for Marissa. Ryan and Marissa break up because of his interference. Oliver is arrested after he keeps Marissa as a hostage and threatens to kill himself if she does not leave Ryan for good. After Oliver's arrest, Marissa attempts reuniting with Ryan, he refuses and they remain friends.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: During this time, her mother is romantically involved with Kirsten Cohen's father, Caleb Nichol. During a brief breakup with Caleb, Marissa's mother has a fling with Luke, which causes Marissa to run away to Chino, California, to Ryan's ex-girlfriend Theresa Diaz's house. This leads to Ryan and Marissa again becoming romantically involved. Marissa uses the affair between Julie and Luke as blackmail to get out of counseling or living with her mother because Julie does not want anyone to find out.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa and Ryan's relationship is strained once more when Theresa comes to Newport Beach towards the end of the season after suffering domestic abuse from her boyfriend Eddie. Theresa reveals to Marissa that she is pregnant and does not know whether the baby's father is Ryan or Eddie. In the season finale, Ryan leaves Marissa to move back to Chino and help Theresa raise the baby. Marissa moves into Caleb Nichol's home after he and her mother marry in the season finale. Marissa's grief over Ryan's departure makes her turn back to alcohol.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: During the second season, Marissa struggles with alcohol and depression, caused largely by Ryan's departure from her life. When Ryan returns, it looks as though they may have rekindled their relationship, but after finding out about her relationship with D.J., the "yard guy," Ryan decides that they should just be friends, which they remain throughout most of the season. Marissa's relationships in the interim period seem somewhat specifically chosen to take stabs at her mother—first with D.J. and then a same-sex relationship with Alex Kelly. Her relationship with her parents sinks to an all-time low when she discovers that they were back together again. At Jimmy's farewell party, she confronts her parents in public and loudly calls Julie a whore and herself "the daughter of a thief and a slut."


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Towards the end of the season, Marissa gets back together with Ryan and becomes friends with his brother, Trey, who was recently let out of jail. After Trey snorts cocaine, he tries to rape Marissa. Marissa does not want to tell Ryan because she did not want him to worry, and Trey does not want her to tell him because he and Ryan were getting along again. Marissa breaks down and tells Summer, who tells Seth. Seth is initially reluctant to tell his foster brother, knowing Ryan's volatile temperament and tendency to physically lash out when it comes to people he cared about. When Ryan finds out, he and Trey get into a fist fight at Trey's apartment. The scene ends with Marissa shooting Trey in order to save Ryan, who is pinned on the floor.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: As the series' third season opens, Marissa is under investigation regarding the shooting of Trey Atwood, who is in a coma as a result of the wound. When he awakens, Julie threatens to smother Trey if he does not tell the authority that Ryan shot him, in order to keep Marissa out of trouble. Marissa finds out and convinces Trey to tell the truth. Ryan is let free, and Marissa faces no legal liability as she was defending another person's life using proportional force in the circumstances.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Despite a lack of legal repercussions, the event results in Marissa's expulsion from the prestigious Harbor School, as it is cited along with her past of flagrant shoplifting and substance abuse. Following her expulsion, she attends the local public school Newport Union and has difficulty fitting in. She befriends one of her schoolmates, a local surfer named Johnny Harper. Johnny causes rifts in her relationship with Ryan, who ironically befriends Johnny due to their similar backgrounds, initially because Marissa feels she cannot talk to Ryan about what happened with Trey and later because Johnny falls in love with her. She is readmitted to Harbor after a campaign led by Ryan, Seth, Summer, and Marissa's former rival for power at Harbor, Taylor Townsend. Marissa confirms her commitment to Ryan and writes Johnny a letter saying that while he is her friend and she cares for him, she will never love him. This results in Johnny falling to his death from a cliff after a drinking binge, and the tragedy causes Ryan and Marissa's final breakup.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: In the wake of Johnny's death, Marissa struggles to find closure, as well as her own place and purpose in Newport Beach. She develops a relationship with Kevin Volchok after she and Ryan break up, which causes her to go back to her rebellious ways. She begins to abuse alcohol again and tries cocaine. Marissa distances herself from Ryan, Summer, and Seth and becomes argumentative again with her mother. After some time, she comes to her senses and decides to leave Kevin. But when she finds him watching "The Sound of Music", she realizes he has a sensitive side and decides she may be able to have a relationship with him. During their senior prom, though, she catches him cheating on her and breaks things off.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: In the season finale, Marissa receives a letter from her father inviting her to live for a year on a boat with him in Greece, and she accepts. The day she graduates from Harbor along with her friends Summer, Ryan, Seth, and Taylor, Kevin begins calling her and asks to see her, but she declines. Marissa pays Kevin to get out of town and to leave her and Ryan alone. She says her goodbyes to her family and friends and prepares to leave for Greece. After their time together, Ryan drives her to the airport. On the way to the airport, a drunken Kevin begins hitting their car, causing them to go off the road.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: The car flips over several times and lands upside down on another street. Marissa is unconscious, but Ryan pulls her out of the car, which begins to drip gasoline. Ryan takes Marissa into his arms and away from the car as it explodes. He tells her that he will need to go get help, but knowing that nothing can be done, she asks him to stay. After a few moments of looking into each other's eyes, she dies while in Ryan's arms.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: In "The Avengers," Summer believes she sees Marissa - as a ghost - when she returns to the adjoining bedrooms they shared together for the first time since Marissa's death. This causes Summer to fast track her trip back to Brown and leave Newport Beach. Moreover, many characters throughout Season 4 catch glimpses of Marissa, whether they be similar-looking girls in passing or a ghostly imagination of Marissa while reminiscing about her in a familiar place.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa's death has a significant impact on the fourth season, as various characters, particularly her mother Julie and Ryan, struggle to deal with their grief over her death. In the episode "The Cold Turkey", Julie decides that it was time to move on after learning that Volchok turned himself over to the police and had been arrested. Later in the episode, during Thanksgiving dinner, Ryan reminisces to Julie about the first time he saw Marissa out on the driveway and thought that "she was really hot". Marissa's death is most explicitly examined in the episode "The Chrismukk-huh?" where Ryan and Taylor Townsend, both in comas, enter into an alternate universe where he has never moved to Newport Beach, and the lives of most major characters are completely changed.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: While trying to find out what is happening in this reality, Taylor stumbles into Marissa's bedroom. She surprises Julie's maid, who tells Taylor that "Miss Cooper's" plane arrives at 3 o'clock from Berkeley. Taylor then sees a photograph of Marissa and Julie on her desk, which leads her to believe that Marissa is still alive in this alternate universe.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: After Taylor tells Ryan the news, he immediately wants to go to the airport to see Marissa. Taylor does not want him too, in fear that Ryan, who is still recovering from Marissa's death, would be willing to spend the rest of his life in a coma if he could be with Marissa. At the airport, Ryan catches a glimpse of a girl with a pink Berkeley sweatshirt tied around her waist. The sweatshirt resembles the one worn by Marissa in "The Day After Tomorrow." Ryan grabs her shoulder and realizes that it is not Marissa, but her sister, Kaitlin. Kaitlin then explains to Ryan that her sister died three years ago in an overdose in Tijuana (a parallel of her non-fatal overdose in the episode "The Escape").


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Ryan then returns to Newport Beach, realizing that he can never be with Marissa again, alternate universe or not. At first, Ryan and Taylor believe they need to restore the relationships that existed before Marissa's death in order to wake up. However, it becomes apparent that both Ryan and Taylor need to battle their internal demons instead. For Taylor, her demon is her mother (whom she confronts along with her alternate male self at the Christmas party), and for Ryan, it is getting over Marissa.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Back in the real world, Kirsten finds a letter from Marissa addressed to Ryan but does not read it. She hands it over to Julie, who reads the letter. Marissa wrote that she still loved Ryan, but would be leaving Newport Beach because she knew that it was the best thing to do, so that they could both move on. She stated that when she got back, they might try again, as they would both be older and wiser. The letter is eventually placed right beside Ryan, which allows the letter to be "delivered" to Ryan in the alternate universe.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Ryan then goes to the beach, and upon discovering the letter, reads it. He finally says goodbye to Marissa and exits the alternate universe.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: In the final episode, Marissa appears as Ryan's final flashback as he reflects on his life in Newport Beach. As he backs out of the driveway, Ryan remembers seeing Marissa standing on the corner watching as he and Sandy drive away when Ryan thought he was not coming back to Newport Beach (as seen in "The Premiere").


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Ryan Atwood is Marissa's second boyfriend on The O.C. Although extremely on-and-off-again throughout the show's course - their relationship originated as a platonic friendship in the pilot episode, which later escalated into romantic feelings. By the 10th episode of the first season, the couple officially began their romantic relationship. The beginning of this relationship sees its first end when Marissa feels that Ryan has overreacted to Marissa and Oliver Trask's friendship. The second course of Marissa and Ryan's relationship fails because of Theresa Diaz and Ryan's illegitimate child together, whom Ryan agrees to help raise – returning to Theresa's arms and leaving Marissa to return to her alcoholic behavior. The third attempt of Marissa and Ryan's relationship terminates after the suicide of Johnny Harper where they struggle to mourn him and need a break from each other. The couple's last attempt at a relationship ends when Marissa is killed by a drunken Kevin Volchok who sends Ryan and Marissa's car off the road, sending her to her death.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: The overall relationship between Marissa and her mother, Julie Cooper, is full of angst, rebellion, misunderstanding and miscommunication. Beginning with the fling between Julie and Marissa's ex-boyfriend Luke Ward, the strain in the two's relationship increases throughout the course of the show. After Marissa's father Jimmy Cooper and Julie divorce, Julie treats Marissa as second tier to her many wealthy, successful boyfriends and fiancés in an attempt to save her own social and monetary status. The troubled Marissa is then left to deal with her friendship, alcoholic, and depression issue alone, without the help of Julie. The mother-daughter duo move from their home neighboring the Cohens, to Caleb Nichol's home, to a mobile home during their time of financial hardship.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Summer Roberts, Marissa's best friend, is a girl that Marissa often leans on in both happy and sad times. Marissa's nickname for Summer, “Sum,” emphasizes the two's bond. Together, Marissa and Summer are the popular girls at school: Summer the socialite, and Marissa the over-achieving, beautiful girl many long to be. The friendship between Summer and Marissa is further strengthened by the boyfriends they often have: best friends, and “brothers,” Seth Cohen and Ryan Atwood, as many group hang-outs and double dates occur. After every fight between Marissa's on-and-off-again boyfriend, Ryan, Summer is the first by Marissa's side – a supportive and comforting friend asking what went wrong. Summer becomes a positive force in Marissa's life. For instance, Summer helps Marissa out of the hospital in episode 8, is open to Marissa's fluid sexuality in episode 24, and has enough faith in Marissa despite her problematic behavior that she buys her a Berkeley sweatshirt in episode 71. Their friendship offers strong signs of female solidarity and is unique in that it is shown as a source of support and a catalyst for empowerment.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Marissa's first romantic relationship on the show is with water polo player Luke Ward. Their relationship begins prior to the Premiere. Marissa and Luke's relationship stems back to the fifth grade on a class trip to the Museum of Tolerance. After much hesitation, Marissa decides to lose her virginity to Luke. Issues in Marissa and Luke's relationship constantly arise, making the viewer question if they really are in love. On a trip to Tijuana, Marissa discovers Luke cheating on her with one of her friends, Holly Fischer, on the dance floor in a club. Marissa breaks up with Luke, who later begins an affair with her mother, Julie Cooper.


title: Marissa Cooper

text: Luke and Marissa's tumultuous relationship evolves into a mature friendship by the second season. The two realize that they may not be the most compatible couple but can benefit from each other's friendship and support.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Robert de Brus (11 July 1243 – 15 March 1304), 6th Lord of Annandale, "jure uxoris" Earl of Carrick (1252–1292), Lord of Hartness, Writtle and Hatfield Broad Oak, was a cross-border lord, and participant of the Second Barons' War, Ninth Crusade, Welsh Wars, and First War of Scottish Independence, as well as father to the future king of Scotland Robert the Bruce.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Of Scoto-Norman-Irish heritage, through his father he was a third-great grandson of David I of Scotland. Other ancestors included Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, Henry I of England and Aoife MacMurrough, daughter of Dermot MacMurrough.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: The son and heir of Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale and Lady Isabella de Clare, daughter of the Earl of Gloucester and Hertford, his birth date is generally accepted, but his place of birth is less certain. It is generally accepted that he, rather than his first son, was born on the family estate at Writtle, Essex.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Legend tells that the 27-year-old Robert de Brus was a handsome young man participating in the Ninth Crusade. When Adam de Kilconquhar, one of his companions-in-arms, fell in 1270, at Acre, Robert was obliged to travel to tell the sad news to Adam's widow Marjorie of Carrick. The story continues that Marjorie was so taken with the messenger that she had him held captive until he agreed to marry her, which he did in 1271. However, since the crusade landed in Acre on 9 May 1271, and only started to engage the Muslims in late June, the story and/or his participation in the Ninth Crusade are generally discounted.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: In 1264 his father, the 5th Lord of Annandale, was captured, along with Henry III of England, Richard of Cornwall, and the future Edward I of England at the Battle of Lewes, Sussex. Bruce negotiated with his uncle Bernard Brus, and cousin Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, both supporters of Simon de Montfort, over the terms of the ransom. Following the Battle of Evesham, in August 1265, both Bruce and his father profited from the seizure of the rebellious Barons' possessions, including those of Bernard. The younger Robert acquired lands in Yorkshire, Northumberland, and Bedfordshire.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Robert and his younger brother Richard are known to have received letters of protection, in July 1270, to sail with Edward for crusade that August, and are presumed to have taken the cross, with Edward, at Northampton in 1268. They were joined by their Father, who'd sought pardon from Alexander III, but their date of return from Acre is less certain; it may have been as early as October 1271, when the younger Robert is recorded as receiving a quitclaim in Writtle, Essex, and his mother a gift of deer, from the King, also in Essex.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: In 1272 he married, without Scottish Royal consent, Marjorie, Countess of Carrick. As a result, she temporarily lost her castle and estates, that Oram described as "poor", but regained them on payment of a fine.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Around this time his mother died, the date is unknown but on 3 May 1273 his father married Christina de Ireby, the Widow of Adam Jesmond, the Sheriff of Northumberland, at Hoddam. The marriage added estates in Cumberland and dower land from her previous husband, to the Brus holdings. The younger Robert and his step-mother do not appear to have got on, with Robert recorded as trying to withhold dower lands, after his father's death in 1295. This may be one of the reasons why the Father appears to have independently managed the possessions in the North, as well as intermittently holding the position of Constable of Carlisle, while Robert appears to have confined himself largely to the management of the southern and midland possessions, with his brother Richard who independently held Tottenham and Kempston, as well as commanding a Knight banneret for Edward. Richard is recorded as receiving a number of wards and gifts of deer and to have sought permission to empark the forest at Writtle at this time. Robert, while not part of Edward's household, became an envoy and mouthpiece for Alexander III at court, swearing fealty on Alexander's behalf, to Edward at Westminster, in 1277, as well as following Edward to Gascony Robert is also recorded as following Alexander to Tewkesbury, in the autumn of 1278.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: In February 1284, Bruce attended to convention at Scone, where the right of succession of Alexander III's granddaughter, Margaret, Maid of Norway was recognized. On 1 June 1285 the Earl & Countess, at Turnberry, grant the men of Melrose abbey certain freedoms, according to English law.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: In May 1295 his father, the 5th Lord of Annandale, died, and on 6 October, Bruce swore fealty to Edward and was made Constable and Keeper of Carlisle Castle, a position his father previously held.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Shortly after the Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297), Annandale was laid waste as retaliation to younger Bruce's actions.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Yet, when Edward returned to England after his victory at the Battle of Falkirk, which John of Fordun accords to Robert turning the Scottish flank:


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: This is contested as no Bruce appears on the Falkirk roll, of nobles present in the English army, and ignoring Blind Harry's 15th claim that Wallace burned Ayre Castle in 1297, two 19th-century antiquarians: Alexander Murison and George Chalmers have stated Bruce did not participate in the battle and in the following month decided to burn Ayr Castle, to prevent it being garrisoned by the English. Annandale and Carrick were excepted from the lordships and lands which Edward assigned to his followers, the father having not opposed Edward and the son being treated as a waverer whose allegiance might still be retained.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: Robert at that time was old and ill, and there are reports that he wished his son to seek peace with Edward. If not his son's actions could jeopardise his own income, which was primarily derived from his holdings south of the border (estimated £340 versus £150). The elder Bruce would have seen that, if the rebellion failed and his son was against Edward, the son would lose everything, titles, lands, and probably his life.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: It was not until 1302 that Robert's son submitted to Edward I. The younger Robert had sided with the Scots since the capture and exile of Balliol. There are many reasons which may have prompted his return to Edward, not the least of which was that the Bruce family may have found it loathsome to continue sacrificing his followers, family and inheritance for King John.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: There were rumours that John would return with a French army and regain the Scottish throne. Soulis supported his return as did many other nobles, but this would lead to the Bruces losing any chance of gaining the throne themselves.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: His first wife was Margery of Carrick, 3rd Countess of Carrick (11 Apr 1254 – November 1292), the daughter and heiress of Niall, 2nd Earl of Carrick. Carrick was a Gaelic Earldom in Southern Scotland. Its territories contained much of today's Ayrshire and Dumfriesshire. The couple married at Turnberry Castle in 1271 and held the principal seats of Turnberry Castle and Lochmaben.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: He was portrayed (as a leper) by Ian Bannen in the 1995 film "Braveheart". "Braveheart" portrays Robert de Brus as being involved in the capture of William Wallace in Edinburgh; as noted above Robert de Brus died in 1304 and William Wallace was captured on 3 August 1305 by Sir John de Menteith in Glasgow. Menteith was a son-in-law to Gartnait, Earl of Mar and Christina Bruce.


title: Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale

text: In "Outlaw King", he is played by James Cosmo, who had a role in "Braveheart" as Old Campbell, the father of Wallace's childhood friend. In the 2018 film, de Brus is depicted as lamenting the disintegration of his relationship with Longshanks.


title: Bear claw

text: A bear claw is a sweet, yeast-raised pastry, a type of Danish, originating in the United States during the mid-1910's. In Denmark, a bear claw is referred to as "kamme". France also have an alternate version of that pastry: "patte d'ours" (meaning "bear paw"), created in 1982 in the Alps. The name "bear claw" as used for a pastry is first attested in March 1914 by the Geibel German Bakery, located at 915 K Street in downtown Sacramento. The phrase is more common in Western American English, and is included in the U.S. Regional Dialect Survey Results, Question #87, "Do you use the term 'bear claw' for a kind of pastry?"


title: Bear claw

text: Most Danishes include the same basic ingredients such as eggs, yeast, flour, milk, sugar, and butter. The bear claw is also made with "sweet dough" which is "bread dough with more shortening than usual". One of the differences between most Danishes, besides taste, is seen in their shape. A bear claw is usually filled with almond paste, and sometimes raisins, and often shaped in a semicircle with slices along the curved edge, or rectangular with partial slices along one side. As the dough rises, the sections separate, evoking the shape of a bear's toes, hence the name. A bear claw may also be a yeast doughnut in a shape similar to that of the pastry. Such doughnuts may have an apple pie-style filling, or other fillings such as butter pecan, dates, cream cheese, grape or cherry.


title: Bear claw

text: A bear claw can be made by hand or by machine. Bear claw can be hand-made by using a bear claw cutter that was invented in 1950 by James Fennell. A 1948 patent describes the process of assembling the bear claw as rolling out the dough, layering filling onto it, folding the dough over, cutting small incisions to create the claw-like look, and finally cutting the dough into separate pastries. The pastry can be curved into a half-circle at this point, which causes the "toes" to separate.


title: Bear claw

text: Similar to other pastries, the bear claw is typically high in carbohydrates and fats. Example nutrition information can be seen from a version produced by the restaurant chain Panera Bread.


title: John Battaglia

text: John David Battaglia Jr. (August 2, 1955 – February 1, 2018) was an American convicted murderer who was executed by the state of Texas for filicide. He was convicted of killing his two young daughters in May 2001 in an act of "ultimate revenge" against his estranged wife, Mary Jeane Pearle, who had separated from him after his numerous instances of assault and violence. Battaglia was executed for the murders on February 1, 2018.


title: John Battaglia

text: Battaglia was of Italian ancestry and was born on a military base in Enterprise, Alabama. As a child, he moved across the country and to Germany. His father left the military in 1970. He attended high school in Oregon and Dumont, New Jersey, ultimately graduating from Dumont High School. He attended Fairleigh Dickinson University, being an accounting major after initially being a pre-med major, but dropped out in 1976 at the urging of a friend. After getting into trouble with the law for using illegal drugs, he joined the Marines. He became a sergeant and left the Marines to become an accountant. He moved to Dallas because his father lived there, and he took night classes to become a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) and did modeling. He ultimately became an accountant.


title: John Battaglia

text: He had a daughter, Christie, from a previous marriage to Michelle Ghetti (née LaBorde) in Dallas. At one point Ghetti, an attorney, filed a request for Battaglia to be arrested on grounds of harassment. He had committed domestic violence against Ghetti; on one occasion he assaulted her outside of the school Christie attended, on another, he caused her a broken nose, and in another, he assaulted her at a bus stop in retaliation for the arrest request, causing her to be admitted to a hospital. In 1987 Battaglia admitted guilt to a misdemeanor charge and was punished with probation for a two-year period.


title: John Battaglia

text: The woman who would become his second wife, Mary Jean Pearle, resided in Highland Park, Texas, in the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex. They married on April 6, 1991. His two daughters with Pearle, Mary Faith (1992–2001) and Liberty Mae Battaglia (1995–2001) were students at John S. Bradfield Elementary School in Highland Park.


title: John Battaglia

text: In January 1999, Pearle separated from Battaglia after verbal abuse, and he was not permitted to live with her. At Christmas 1999, Battaglia was on a visit to see Faith and Liberty when he attacked Pearle in a domestic violence incident. As a result, he pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor-level assault charge and was given two years' probation. Pearle filed for divorce immediately after the incident, and the divorce was finalized in August 2000.


title: John Battaglia

text: Pearle was attempting to have Battaglia's parole revoked because he had harassed her over the telephone. He was not supposed to send messages to her, and she contended that he should be incarcerated because of his history of domestic violence. He also used marijuana, which violated the terms of his probation.


title: John Battaglia

text: Up to that point, he had not hit either of his daughters. Pearle stated that he previously doted upon them, and until he killed the girls, she did not believe he was willing to harm them despite his earlier domestic violence towards adult women. He was allowed to have periodic visits with them. To his acquaintances, he made negative statements about his ex-wives while making positive statements about his daughters. Jacquielynn Floyd, a columnist for "The Dallas Morning News", stated that "He fooled people into believing he was a devoted father."


title: John Battaglia

text: On May 2, 2001, Pearle left her daughters with Battaglia for a planned dinner at the mall, but he instead took them into his apartment in the Adam Hats Lofts in Deep Ellum in Dallas. Battaglia called Pearle from the apartment. With Pearle on the phone he shot and killed his daughters, ages 6 and 9. During the phone call, he asked Faith to ask Pearle, "Why do you want Daddy to go to jail?" Before her death, she cried, "No, Daddy!” “Please don't!” “Don't do it!" Pearle then told the girls to run, but, it was too late. Jon grabbed his gun and shot Faith three times and shot Liberty five times with his gun. He told Pearle, "Merry Fucking Christmas", in reference to the Christmas 1999 assault. Pearle terminated the call and dialed 9-1-1. After the killings, Battaglia left a message on the answering machine in the girls' bedroom:


title: John Battaglia

text: "Hi, girls. I just want to tell you how very, very brave you were, and I hope you are resting in a better place now. I wish that you had nothing to do with your mother. She’s evil and vicious and stupid!"


title: John Battaglia

text: Battaglia then visited a tattoo parlor and got two roses, representing his daughters, on his left biceps. He was apprehended shortly afterward, getting into a fistfight with the arresting police officers, which left him with a black eye. Police confiscated sixteen firearms from the house. Texas authorities stated that Battaglia killed his daughters out of retaliation because Pearle had complained to his probation officer.


title: John Battaglia

text: The funeral for the two girls was held at Our Redeemer Lutheran Church in North Dallas, and they were buried at Hillcrest Cemetery, in North Dallas, with Pearle's father.


title: John Battaglia

text: Battaglia's capital murder trial began on April 22, 2002, and was held at the Frank Crowley Courts Building in Dallas. Howard Blackmon was the lead prosecutor; Battaglia was represented by Paul Johnson and Paul Brauchle. Jurors deliberated for 19 minutes before convicting Battaglia of the highest charge, capital murder. During the penalty phase of the trial, Battaglia's lawyers argued that their client should not receive the death penalty because he had bipolar disorder. On April 30, 2002, the same jury sentenced Battaglia to death.


title: John Battaglia

text: After he received his sentence, Battaglia was held at the Polunsky Unit near Livingston. After the sentencing, his ex-wife told him to "burn in hell forever". She also said: "You are one of the most heinous murderers of modern times. I would like to say the next time you see me is when they put the needle in your arm...But I'm not going to waste the time to be there." Pearle changed her mind and witnessed the execution nearly sixteen years later. Christie Battaglia publicly expressed support for Battaglia's execution, as did Ghetti.


title: John Battaglia

text: Death sentences are automatically appealed, and Battaglia's appellate attorneys fought to have his sentence commuted from death to life-without-parole. Battaglia was scheduled to be executed on March 30, 2016, but the Fifth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals issued a stay so that the court could rule on his attorneys' claims that he was not mentally competent to be executed. The State of Texas did not challenge this stay, and his execution was postponed.


title: John Battaglia

text: On August 15, 2016, Battaglia was given an execution date of December 7, 2016. On December 2, 2016, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals issued a stay of execution for Battaglia due to questions concerning his mental competency. The ruling gave his attorneys 60 days to argue before the Court of Criminal Appeals.


title: John Battaglia

text: On September 20, 2017, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals dismissed Battaglia's claim of mental incompetence. At a competency hearing in November 2016, a mental health expert testified that Battaglia was likely faking symptoms of mental illness in an attempt to delay his execution. The appeals court affirmed this, stating that Battaglia was likely malingering. Before making the challenges of mental capacity, Battaglia read about relevant legal cases at Polunsky Unit's law library.


title: John Battaglia

text: On October 31, 2017, Battaglia's death warrant was signed, and a new execution date was set for February 1, 2018. Subsequent appeals failed. Battaglia was executed by lethal injection at 9:40 p.m. CST on February 1, 2018, at the Huntsville Unit in Huntsville, nearly sixteen years after his original sentencing. No one was in the convict's side of the witness room. Mary Jean Pearle was in the victims' side of the death chamber viewing area to watch him die; upon seeing his ex-wife in the witness room, Battaglia said "Well, hi Mary Jean", then, turning to the warden, stated "I'll see y'all later. Bye. Go ahead, please." As she walked away from the glass window that separated her from Battaglia, Pearle said, "I've seen enough of him."


title: John Battaglia

text: During the 2000s, this was one of a spate of domestic homicides related to the Park Cities, Highland Park and University Park, two wealthy enclaves in the metroplex. Stephen Michaud of the "Dallas Observer" wrote: "never in memory have the Park Cities been jolted by such unspeakable, and apparently similar, family homicides as the three most recent killings, all of which occurred in a 25-month cluster."


title: John Battaglia

text: "No, Daddy, Don't!: A Father's Murderous Act of Revenge", a 2003 nonfiction book by Irene Pence, is about the murders.


title: John Battaglia

text: As a result of the crime, Toby Goodman sponsored a bill in the Texas State Legislature that would ask judges to consider history of domestic violence when considering whether or not parental visits with children would be supervised. The Texas Senate unanimously passed Bill 140, which was signed into law by Texas Governor Rick Perry, taking effect on September 1, 2001.


title: John Battaglia

text: Hannah's House, a supervised visitation facility was founded as a direct result of this case and SB 140. A chance meeting at the courthouse during the sentencing phase between Mary Jean Pearle and the founder/executive director Wayne Whitworth ultimately resulted in her joining the Board of Directors for a short while. Later, Faith And Liberty's Place, a center for supervised visits of children operated by the Dallas domestic abuse shelter The Family Place, was established in memory of the victims.


title: John Battaglia

text: Dallas County Family Court Judge David Finn had dismissed Battaglia's assault charge in a previous hearing. The year after the killings, he resigned his position as a judge and ran against incumbent Bill Hill for election as Dallas County district attorney. Pearle campaigned against Finn, stating that his ruling kept Battaglia out of prison, which allowed the father to kill his daughters. Finn lost the March 12 election when he received only 25% of the vote.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: July 26, 1903 – August 10, 1963) was an American politician from Tennessee. A member of the Democratic Party, he served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1939 to 1949 and in the Senate from 1949 until his death in 1963.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: After leading a much-publicized investigation into organized crime in the early 1950s, he twice sought his party's nomination for President of the United States. In 1956, he was selected by the Democratic National Convention to be the running mate of presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson. He still held his U.S. Senate seat after the Stevenson–Kefauver ticket lost to the Eisenhower–Nixon ticket. Kefauver was named chair of the U.S. Senate Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee in 1957 and served as its chairman until his death.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Carey Estes Kefauver was born in Madisonville, Tennessee, the son of local hardware merchant Robert Cooke Kefauver and his wife Phredonia Bradford Estes. Kefauver was introduced to politics at an early age when his father served as mayor of their hometown. The elder Kefauver would later be an active and enthusiastic helper in his son's campaigns until his death in 1958 at the age of 87.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver attended the University of Tennessee and received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1924. He was a tackle and guard on his college football team. He taught mathematics and coached football at a Hot Springs, Arkansas, high school for a year before going on to Yale Law School, from which he earned an LL.B. "cum laude" in 1927.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver practiced law in Chattanooga for the next twelve years, beginning with the firm of Cooke, Swaney & Cooke, and eventually becoming a partner in Sizer, Chambliss & Kefauver.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In 1935, he married Nancy Pigott (born January 21, 1911, in Helensburgh, Dumbartonshire, UK), whom he had met during her visit to relatives in Chattanooga. A graduate of the Glasgow School of Art with a budding career as an artist, she changed focus after her marriage and worked diligently and effectively for her husband's campaigns. The couple raised four children, one of them adopted. Mrs. Kefauver died November 20, 1967.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Moved by his role as attorney for the "Chattanooga News", Kefauver became interested in local politics and sought election to the Tennessee Senate in 1938. He lost but in 1939 spent two months as Finance and Taxation Commissioner under the newly elected governor Prentice Cooper. When Congressman Sam D. McReynolds of Tennessee's 3rd congressional district, which included Chattanooga, died in 1939, Kefauver was elected to succeed him in the House.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver was elected to five terms in the House of Representatives as a Democrat. As a member of the House during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's time in office, Kefauver distinguished himself from the other Democrats in Tennessee's congressional delegation, most of whom were conservatives, by becoming a staunch supporter of the President's New Deal legislation. In particular, he backed the controversial Tennessee Valley Authority and was best known for his successful bid to rebuff the efforts of Tennessee Senator Kenneth McKellar to gain political control over the agency.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: As a member of the House, "Kefauver began to manifest his concern over the growing concentration of economic power in the United States", concentrating much of his legislative efforts on congressional reform and anti-monopoly measures. Among the committees Kefauver chaired was the House Select Committee on Small Business, which investigated economic concentration in the U.S. business world in 1946. That same year, Kefauver also introduced legislation to plug loopholes in the Clayton Antitrust Act.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In a May 1948 article, which appeared in the "American Economic Review", Kefauver also proposed that more staff and money be allocated to the Antitrust Division of the Justice Department, and to the Federal Trade Commission; that new legislation to make it easier to prosecute big corporations be enacted; and recommended the danger of monopolies should be publicized more.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: The Kefauver investigation into television and juvenile delinquency in the mid-1950s led to an even more intensive investigation in the early 1960s. The new probe came about after people became increasingly concerned over juvenile violence, and the possibility of this behavior being related to violent television programs.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: His progressive stances on the issues put Kefauver in direct competition with E. H. Crump, the former U.S. Congressman, mayor of Memphis, and boss of the state's Democratic Party, when he chose to seek the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate in 1948. During the primary, Crump and his allies accused Kefauver of being a "fellow traveler" and of working for the "pinkos and communists" with the stealth of a raccoon.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In a televised speech given in Memphis, in which he responded to such charges, Kefauver put on a coonskin cap and proudly proclaimed, "I may be a pet coon, but I'm not Boss Crump's pet coon."


title: Estes Kefauver

text: To win election to the Senate, Kefauver defeated the incumbent Tom Stewart in the 1948 Democratic primary. Kefauver was backed by the influential editor Edward J. Meeman of the "Memphis Press-Scimitar", who had long fought the Crump machine for its corruption and stranglehold over Memphis politics. After he went on to win both the primary and the election, he adopted the cap as his trademark and wore it in every successive campaign. He received the cap from journalist Drue Smith.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver was unique in Tennessee politics in his outspoken liberal views, a stand which established a permanent bloc of opposition to him in the state. Kefauver's success—despite his liberal views—was predicated largely on his support by the "Nashville Tennessean", a consistently liberal newspaper that served as a focus for anti-Crump sentiment in the state. His constituency included many prominent citizens, whose views were considerably less liberal than his, but who admired him for his integrity.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Despite opposition from the Crump machine, Kefauver won the Democratic nomination, which in those days was tantamount to election in Tennessee. His victory is widely seen as the beginning of the end for the Crump machine's influence in statewide politics.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Once in the Senate, Kefauver began to make a name for himself as a crusader for consumer protection laws and antitrust legislation. On civil rights, he was ambivalent: he admitted later that he had difficulty adjusting to the idea of racial integration, and in 1960 he held out to the last in favor of permitting cross-examination of black complainants in voting rights cases. Kefauver did support the civil rights program generally, and was a consistent supporter of organized labor and other movements considered liberal in the South at that time.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: After being elected to the U.S. Senate in 1948, Kefauver guided the Celler–Kefauver Act of 1950, which amended the Clayton Act by plugging loopholes allowing a corporation to purchase a competing firm's assets, through the U.S. Senate. Between 1957 and 1963, his U.S. Senate Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee investigated concentration in the U.S. economy, industry by industry, and it issued a report exposing monopoly prices in the steel, automotive, bread and pharmaceutical industries. In May 1963, Kefauver's subcommittee concluded that within monopolized U.S. industries no real price competition existed anymore and also recommended that General Motors be broken up into competing firms.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver's Antitrust and Monopoly Subcommittee also held hearings on the pharmaceutical industry between 1959 and 1963 that led to enactment of his most famous legislative achievement, the Kefauver-Harris Drug Act of 1962, after Kefauver expressed shock about the excess profits that U.S. drug companies were taking in at the expense of U.S. consumers. Some of what Kefauver's hearings on the U.S. pharmaceutical industry revealed includes the following:


title: Estes Kefauver

text: "Witnesses told of conflicts of interest for the American Medical Association (whose journal, for example, received millions of dollars in drug advertising and was, therefore, reluctant to challenge claims made by drug company ads)…The drug companies themselves were shown to be engaged in frenzied advertising campaigns designed to sell trade-name versions of drugs that could otherwise be prescribed under generic names at a fraction of the cost; this competition, in turn, had led to the marketing of new drugs that were no improvements on drugs already on the market, but nevertheless heralded as dramatic breakthroughs without proper concern for either effectiveness or safety."


title: Estes Kefauver

text: At that time, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration had limited authority to require efficacy standards or disclose risks. Kefauver was accused of expanding the power of government excessively, interfering with the freedom of doctors and patients, and threatening the viability of the pharmaceutical industry. His legislation seemed likely to fail. However, at the end of 1961, European and Australian doctors reported that an epidemic of children born with deformities of their arms and legs was caused by their use of thalidomide, which was heavily marketed to pregnant women.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: These positions made him even more unpopular with his state party's machine than ever before, especially after fellow Tennessee senator Albert Gore Sr., Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, and he became the only three Southern senators to not sign the so-called Southern Manifesto in 1956. In fact, these unpopular positions, combined with his reputation as a maverick with a penchant for sanctimony, earned him so much enmity even from other senators that one Democratic insider felt compelled to dub him "the most hated man in Congress".


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver also led hearings that targeted indecent publications and pornography. Among his targets were pin-ups, including Bettie Page, and the magazines that featured them.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In 1950, Kefauver headed a U.S. Senate committee investigating organized crime. The committee, officially known as the Senate Special Committee to Investigate Crime in Interstate Commerce, was popularly known as the Kefauver committee or the Kefauver hearings. The committee held hearings in fourteen cities and heard testimony from over 600 witnesses. Many of the witnesses were high-profile crime bosses, including such well-known names as Willie Moretti, Joe Adonis, and Frank Costello, the latter making himself famous by refusing to allow his face to be filmed during his questioning and then staging a much-publicized walkout. A number of politicians also appeared before the committee and saw their careers ruined. Among them were former Governor Harold G. Hoffman of New Jersey and Mayor William O'Dwyer of New York City.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: The committee's hearings, which were televised live, just as many Americans were first buying televisions, made Kefauver nationally famous and introduced many Americans to the concept of a criminal organization known as the Mafia for the first time. In fact, in 1951, Kefauver appeared as a celebrity guest on the new game show "What's My Line?" discussing the hearings briefly with the panel, showing how popular these hearings were with early television viewers.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Although the hearings boosted Kefauver's political prospects, they helped to end the twelve-year Senate career of Democratic Majority Leader Scott Lucas. In a tight 1950 reelection race against former Illinois Representative Everett Dirksen, Lucas urged Kefauver to keep his investigation away from an emerging Chicago police scandal until after election day, but Kefauver refused. Election-eve publication of stolen secret committee documents hurt the Democratic Party in Cook County, cost Lucas the election, and gave Dirksen national prominence as the man who defeated the Senate majority leader.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In the 1952 presidential election, Kefauver ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination. Campaigning in his coonskin cap, often by dogsled, Kefauver won in an electrifying victory in the New Hampshire primary, defeating President Harry S. Truman, the sitting president of the United States. Truman then withdrew his bid for re-election.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver won 12 of the 15 primaries in 1952, losing three to "favorite son" candidates. He received 3.1 million votes, while the eventual 1952 Democratic presidential nominee, Illinois governor Adlai Stevenson, got only 78,000 votes. But primaries were not, at that time, the main method of delegate selection for the national convention. Kefauver entered the convention with a few hundred votes still needed for a majority of the delegates.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: The Kefauver campaign became the classic example of how presidential primary victories in the Democratic Party do not automatically lead to the nomination itself. Although he began the balloting far ahead of the other declared candidates, Kefauver eventually lost the nomination to Stevenson, the choice of the Democratic Party political bosses. Stevenson, a one-term governor who was up for reelection in 1952, had resisted calls to enter the race, but he was nominated anyway by a "draft Stevenson" movement that had been energized by his eloquent keynote speech on the opening night of the convention. John Sparkman was selected as the Democratic candidate for vice president. Stevenson lost the general election in November to General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican nominee, in a landslide.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In 1956, Kefauver again sought the Democratic presidential nomination. In the March 13 New Hampshire primary, he defeated Adlai Stevenson 21,701 to 3,806. A week later, Kefauver again defeated Stevenson in the Minnesota primary, winning 245,885 votes compared to Stevenson's 186,723 votes. Kefauver was also victorious in the Wisconsin primary.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: By April 1956, it appeared that Kefauver would match his spectacular performance in the primaries of four years earlier. But this time, Kefauver had active competition not only from Stevenson, but also from Governor W. Averell Harriman of New York, who was endorsed by former President Truman.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Stevenson got significantly more endorsements and raised far more funds than Kefauver. He defeated Kefauver in the Oregon, Florida, and California primaries and, overall, won more primary votes than Kefauver. After his devastating loss in the California primary, Kefauver suspended his campaign. At the Democratic National Convention, Stevenson was again nominated for president.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Stevenson then decided to let the delegates themselves pick his vice-presidential nominee, instead of making that choice himself. Although Stevenson preferred Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts as his running mate, he did not attempt to influence the balloting in any way, and Kefauver eventually received the nomination for vice president.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: After his 1956 defeat, Kefauver was considered the front-runner for the 1960 Democratic nomination. In an attempt to gain more public exposure, Kefauver proposed a federal ban on the sale or possession of switchblades in 1957. He timed hearings on the legislation to coincide with a series of lurid articles in the "Saturday Evening Post" and other periodicals of the day on the use of switchblades by juvenile delinquents and gangs. At each hearing the senator would display a bizarre array of confiscated bayonets, trench knives, daggers, and switchblades, all of which he described to the press as "switchblade knives". However, Kefauver's switchblade bill failed, in large part due to residual bad feelings between Kefauver and other senators. In 1959, the senator let it be known that he was not going to campaign a third time for the presidential nomination. He continued to represent Tennessee in the U.S. Senate; the abandonment of presidential ambitions led to his most productive years as a senator. While he largely faded from the public eye, he earned the respect of congressional colleagues from both parties for his independence and his sponsorship of a number of important foreign and domestic legislative measures.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: When he ran for reelection to a third term in 1960, his first and, it would turn out, last attempt at running for office after refusing to sign the 1956 Southern Manifesto and voting in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960, he faced staunch opposition for renomination from his party's still-thriving pro-segregation wing. Nonetheless, he won the Democratic primary decisively, receiving nearly double the votes of his rival, judge Andrew T. Taylor of Jackson. Kefauver went on to defeat his Republican opponent in the general election, attorney Bradley Frazier of Camden, by more than a 2-to-1 margin.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: Kefauver voted in favor of the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In 1962, Kefauver, who had become known to the public at large as the chief enemy of crooked businessmen in the Senate, introduced legislation that would eventually pass into law as the Kefauver-Harris Drug Control Act. This bill, which Kefauver dubbed his "finest achievement" in consumer protection, imposed controls on the pharmaceutical industry that required that drug companies disclose to doctors the side-effects of their products, allow their products to be sold as generic drugs after having held the patent on them for a certain period of time, and be able to prove on demand that their products were, in fact, effective and safe.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: In signing the Kefauver-Harris Drug Control Act, President John F. Kennedy stated, "As I say, we want to pay particular appreciation to Senator Kefauver for the long hearings which he held which permitted us to have very effective legislation on hand when this matter became of such strong public interest."


title: Estes Kefauver

text: On August 8, 1963, Kefauver suffered what was reported as a "mild" heart attack on the floor of the Senate while attempting to place an antitrust amendment into a NASA appropriations bill which would have required companies benefiting financially from the outcome of research subsidized by NASA, to reimburse NASA for the cost of the research. Two days after the attack, Kefauver died in his sleep in Bethesda Naval Hospital of a ruptured aortic aneurysm. After a wake in Washington, D.C., his body was taken to the First Baptist Church in Madisonville where thousands of mourners paid their respects. He was interred in a family cemetery beside his home.


title: Estes Kefauver

text: There was some speculation that Nancy Kefauver might stand for election to her late husband's Senate seat in 1964, but she quashed such notions early on. Tennessee Governor Frank Clement appointed Herbert S. Walters to the seat instead. In November 1963, President Kennedy named Nancy Kefauver to be the first head of the new Art in Embassies Program—Kennedy's last presidential appointment. Mrs. Kefauver never considered remarrying, remarking that she "had too perfect a marriage".


title: Estes Kefauver

text: The federal courthouse in Nashville, Tennessee, was renamed the Estes Kefauver Federal Building and United States Courthouse in his honor. One of the libraries at the University of Tennessee was also named for him; his papers are held there. One of the two city parks in Madisonville, Tennessee, is named Kefauver Park in his honor, as well.


title: Geordie (band)

text: The original (from February 1972) Geordie line-up included: Vic Malcolm (lead guitar), Tom Hill (bass guitar), Brian Gibson (drums) and Brian Johnson (lead vocals). Their first single, "Don't Do That" broke into the Top 40 of the UK Singles Chart in December 1972. In March 1973, Geordie released their debut album, "Hope You Like It" on EMI label. Trying to compete with such British glam rock outfits as Slade and Sweet (Geordie supported the former on a UK tour, as well as the latter at a concert at the Rainbow Club, London in March 1973), they achieved UK Top 10 status with "All Because of You" (April 1973) and had a UK Top 20 hit with "Can You Do It" (July 1973). They also had several appearances on BBC Television including 15 appearances on "Top of the Pops", one of which was in November 1972.


title: Geordie (band)

text: In the early 1970s, Geordie toured Australia regularly and gained a solid following in Newcastle, New South Wales, due to the "Newcastle" connection and the song "Geordie's Lost his Liggie" gained popularity and airplay in Newcastle. They were one of the regular touring bands to play at the "art deco" Savoy Theatre in Lambton. Their second album, "Don't Be Fooled By The Name" (1974), including a cover of traditional "House of the Rising Sun", failed to yield a hit.


title: Geordie (band)

text: After their 1976 album "Save the World", frontman Johnson left for a solo project. The band's album, "No Good Woman", in 1978 consisted of three unreleased tracks with Johnson and new material recorded by Malcolm with future Dire Straits keyboardist Alan Clark, vocalist Dave Ditchburn, bassist Frank Gibbon, and drummer George Defty. Johnson had meanwhile begun to perform as Geordie in a new line-up, sometimes also called "Geordie II", in which he was the only original member. The band signed a recording contract in 1980, but finally folded that spring when Johnson replaced Bon Scott in AC/DC.


title: Geordie (band)

text: After AC/DC's lead singer Bon Scott died in February 1980, AC/DC chose Brian Johnson (whose vocal talent had previously been praised by Scott) to take over lead vocal duties. Johnson first appeared with AC/DC on their 1980 album, "Back in Black".


title: Geordie (band)

text: In 1982, the original Geordie, but without Johnson, re-grouped as a quintet and went on to record an album titled "No Sweat" in 1983 with new singer Rob Turnbull and additional guitarist David Stephenson. The album was released on heavy metal independent record label, Neat Records. Critically acclaimed but with no major success, they disbanded for the second time. They re-grouped in the middle of 1980s, but Malcolm left, and they later changed their name to Powerhouse, to release an eponymous album in 1986, before disbanding indefinitely.


title: Geordie (band)

text: At the end of 2001, during an AC/DC hiatus, Johnson had a one-off reunion, for a short UK tour, with Geordie's 1977–80 line-up, performing largely hard rock cover versions. They were known as Geordie II.


title: Geordie (band)

text: Rob Turnbull (Dr. Rob) is a member of the band Gadji as of 2013. In 2014, Vic Malcolm formed a new band, Dynamite, with Rick Mort and recorded an album, "Rock 'Til You Drop", in 2014 on indie label Tabitha Records.


title: Geordie (band)

text: Two of the original founding members, bassist Tom Hill, and drummer Brian Gibson relaunched Geordie with a new line-up that includes Mark Wright on vocals and Steve Dawson on guitar. The group launched a YouTube channel with an announcement of the band reformation with plans to record new material.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Hyssopus officinalis or hyssop is a shrub in the Lamiaceae or mint family native to Southern Europe, the Middle East, and the region surrounding the Caspian Sea. Due to its purported properties as an antiseptic, cough reliever, and expectorant, it has been used in traditional herbal medicine.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Hyssop is a brightly coloured shrub or subshrub that ranges from in height. The stem is woody at the base, from which grow a number of upright branches. Its leaves are lanceolate, dark green, and from long.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: During the summer, hyssop produces pink, blue, or, more rarely, white fragrant flowers. These give rise to small oblong tetra-achenes.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: A plant called hyssop has been in use since classical antiquity. Its name is a direct adaptation from the Greek ὕσσωπος (). The Hebrew word אזוב ("ezov", "esov", or "esob") and the Greek word ὕσσωπος probably share a common (but unknown) origin. The name hyssop appears as a translation of "ezov" in some translations of the Bible, notably in : "Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean", but researchers have suggested that the Biblical accounts refer not to the plant currently known as hyssop but rather to one of a number of different herbs, including "Origanum syriacum" (Syrian oregano, commonly referred to as "bible hyssop"). mentions that 'ezov' was a small plant and some scholars believe it was a wall plant. It was burned with the Red Heifer () and used for purification of lepers (, ; ), and at Passover it was used to sprinkle the blood of the sacrificial lamb on the doorposts (). A sponge attached to a hyssop branch was used to give Jesus on the cross a drink of vinegar.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Suggestions abound for the modern day correlation of biblical hyssop ranging from a wall plant like moss or fern, to widely used culinary herbs like thyme, rosemary or marjoram. Another suggestion is the caper plant which is known to grow in the rocky soils of the region and along walls.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Hyssop was also used for purgation (religious purification) in Egypt, where, according to Chaeremon the Stoic, the priests used to eat it with bread in order to purify this type of food and make it suitable for their austere diet.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Hyssop is resistant to drought, and tolerant of chalky, sandy soils. It thrives in full sun and warm climates.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Under optimal weather conditions, herb hyssop is harvested twice yearly, once at the end of spring and once more at the beginning of autumn. The plants are preferably harvested when flowering in order to collect the flowering tips.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Once the stalks are cut, they are collected and dried either stacked on pallets to allow for draining or hung to dry. The actual drying process takes place in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area, where the materials are mixed several times to ensure even drying. Drying herbs are kept from exposure to the sun to prevent discoloration and oxidation. The drying process takes approximately six days in its entirety. Once dried, the leaves are removed and both components, leaves and flowers, are chopped finely. The final dried product weighs a third of the initial fresh weight and can be stored for up to 18 months.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: The essential oil includes the chemicals thujone and phenol, which give it antiseptic properties. Its high concentrations of thujone and chemicals that stimulate the central nervous system, including pinocamphone and cineole, can provoke epileptic reactions. The oil of hyssop can cause seizures and even low doses (2–3 drops) can cause convulsions in children.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: The fresh herb is commonly used in cooking. Za'atar is a famous Middle Eastern herbal mixture, some versions of which include dried Hyssop leaves.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: The plant is commonly used by beekeepers to produce nectar from which western honey bees make a rich and aromatic honey.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: Herb hyssop leaves are used as an aromatic condiment. The leaves have a lightly bitter taste due to its tannins, and an intense minty aroma. Due to its intensity, it is used moderately in cooking. The herb is also used to flavor liqueur, and is part of the official formulation of Chartreuse. It is also a key ingredient in many formulations of absinthe, where it is the main source of the green colour.


title: Hyssopus officinalis

text: In herbal medicine hyssop is believed to have soothing, expectorant, and cough suppressant properties. Hyssop has been used for centuries in traditional medicine in order to increase circulation and to treat multiple conditions such as coughing and sore throat. Hyssop can stimulate the gastrointestinal system.


title: Strongest Deliveryman

text: Strongest Deliveryman () is a 2017 South Korean television series starring Go Kyung-pyo, Chae Soo-bin, Kim Seon-ho, and Ko Won-hee. It premiered on August 4, 2017, and aired every Friday and Saturday at 23:00 (KST) on KBS2 until September 23, 2017.


title: Strongest Deliveryman

text: Choi Kang-soo is a deliveryman who wants to become the CEO of his own delivery app company. The series tells of his journey to achieving love and success.


title: Strongest Deliveryman

text: "Strongest Deliveryman" was produced by Jidam Inc. for KBS. Jidam also produced "Jang Bo-ri is Here!", "My Daughter, Geum Sa-wol" and "Mrs. Cop 2" as well as the KBS daily dramas "Ruby Ring" and "Two Mothers".


title: Strongest Deliveryman

text: Yoon Shi-yoon was offered the lead role, but declined because of a conflict with filming the drama "Hit the Top".


title: Strongest Deliveryman

text: Originally, Jang Mi-kwan and Lee Yeol-eum were set to play the second lead characters, Oh Jin-gyu and Lee Ji-yoon, but there was a change in casting and the roles were given to Kim Seon-ho and Ko Won-hee. The producer of "Strongest Deliveryman" explained that Jang Mi-kwan left the cast due to disagreements.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Krubera Cave (, ; also known as Voronya Cave, sometimes spelled Voronja Cave) is the second-deepest-known cave on Earth, after the Veryovkina Cave. It is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range of the Western Caucasus, in the Gagra District of Abkhazia, a breakaway region of Georgia.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The difference in elevation of the highest cave entrance (Arbaika) and its deepest explored point is . It became the deepest-known cave in the world in 2001 when the expedition of the Ukrainian Speleological Association reached a depth of which exceeded the depth of the previous deepest-known cave, Lamprechtsofen, in the Austrian Alps, by . In 2004, for the first time in the history of speleology, the Ukrainian Speleological Association expedition reached a depth greater than , and explored the cave to . Ukrainian diver Gennadiy Samokhin extended the cave by diving in the terminal sump to 46 metres' depth in 2007 and then to 52 m in 2012, setting successive world records of 2,191 m and 2,197 m, respectively. Krubera is one of the two known caves on Earth deeper than 2,000 metres.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Soviet speleologists who explored the cave in the 1960s named it for Russian geographer Alexander Kruber. The alternate name "Voronya Cave", "Crows' Cave" in Russian, was a name given to the cave by Kyiv speleologists during the 1980s, for the crows nesting in the entrance pit.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The Arabika Massif, the home of Krubera (Voronya) Cave, is one of the largest high-mountain limestone karst massifs in the Western Caucasus. It is composed of Lower Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic limestones that dip continuously southwest to the Black Sea and plunge below the modern sea level.


title: Krubera Cave

text: To the northwest, north, northeast, and east, Arabika is bordered by the deeply incised canyons of Sandripsh, Kutushara, Gega and Bzyb rivers. The Bzyb River separates Arabika from the adjacent Bzybsky Massif, another outstanding karst area with many deep caves, including the Snezhnaja-Mezhonogo-Iljuzia System () and Pantjukhina Cave (). To the southwest, Arabika borders the Black Sea.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The Arabika Massif has a prominent high central sector with elevations above the tree line at ~. This is an area of classical glaciokarstic landscape, with numerous glacial trough valleys and cirques, with ridges and peaks between them. The bottoms of trough valleys and karst fields lie at elevations of , and ridges and peaks rise to . The highest peak is the Peak of Speleologists () but the dominant summit is a typical pyramidal horn of the Arabika Mount (). Some middle- to low-altitude ridges covered with forest lie between the central sector and the Black Sea. A plateau-like middle-altitude outlier of the massif in its south sector is Mamzdyshkha, with part of the plateau slightly emerging above the tree line.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Among several hundred caves known in the Arabika Massif, fifteen have been explored deeper than 400 m and five deeper than 1,000 m.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Krubera Cave is located at 2,256 m above sea level in the Ortobalagan Valley, a perfectly shaped, relatively shallow, glacial trough of the sub-Caucasian stretch, which holds the advanced position in the Arabika's central sector relative to the seashore. Since 1980, Ukrainian cavers have been undertaking systematic efforts in exploring deep caves in the Ortobalagan Valley, resulting in exploration of the Krubera Cave to its current depth and of the surrounding caves, now mostly connected to it. Another deep cave in the valley, located in its very upper part and explored by Moldavian and Ukrainian cavers is Berchilskaya Cave, deep. All large caves of the Ortobalagan Valley likely belong to a single hydrological system, connected to large submarine springs at the Black Sea shore.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The Ortobalagan Valley extends along the crest of the Berchil'sky anticline, which gently plunges northwest. The cave entrances are aligned along the anticlinal crest (Figure 2) but the caves are controlled by longitudinal, transverse, and oblique fractures and faults and exhibit complex winding patterns in the plan view, remaining largely within and near the anticlinal crest zone. The caves are predominantly combinations of vadose shafts and steep meandering passages, although in places they cut apparently old fossil passages at different levels (e.g., at in Kujbyshevskaja and Krubera caves, and in the non-Kujbyshevskaja branch of Krubera Cave, etc.). The deep parts of Krubera display a more pervasive conduit pattern with a mixture of phreatic morphology, characteristic of the zone of high-gradient floods, which can be up to 400 m above the low-flow water table, and vadose downcutting elements that are observed even below the water table.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The core part of the Arabika Massif is composed of the Upper Jurassic succession resting on the Bajocian Porphyritic Series, which includes sandstones, clays and conglomerates at the top, and tuff, tuffaceous sandstones, conglomerates and breccia, porphyry and lava.Is retained only in a few ridges and peaks, but it lies intact through the low-altitude ridges to the south-west of the central part. There the Cretaceous succession includes Barremian and Aptian–Cenomanian limestones and marly limestones with abundant concretions of black chert.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The lower part of Krubera Cave. Above lies the thick Tithonian succession of thick-bedded limestones with marly and sandy varieties. Sandy limestones are particularly abundant through the upper 1,000 m sections of deep caves of the Ortobalagan Valley.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The tectonic structure of Arabika is dominated by the axis of the large sub-Caucasian anticline (oriented NW–SE), with the gently dipping southwestern mega-flank, complicated by several low-order folds, and steeply dipping northeastern flank (Figure 3). The axis of the anticline roughly coincides with the ridge bordering the Gelgeluk Valley to the north. Located on the southwestern flank of the major anticline is another large one (Berchil'sky), in which the crest is breached by the Ortobalagan Valley. There are several smaller sub-parallel anticlines and synclines farther southwest, between the Berchil' Ridge and the coast.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The plicative dislocation structure of the massif is severely complicated by faults, with the fault-block structure strongly controlling both cave development and groundwater flow. Major faults of the sub-Caucasian orientation delineate several large elongated blocks that experienced uplift with different rates during Pliocene and Pleistocene. This had a pronounced effect on the development of deep groundwater circulation and of Krubera Cave in particular. Both longitudinal and transverse faults and related fracture zones play a role in guiding groundwater flow; the latter guide flow across the strike of major plicative dislocations, from the central sector toward the Black Sea.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The cave has six entrances, in the gallery below they are arranged by altitude, highest to lowest, after the main one. All are situated above the tree line.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Major on-shore karst springs with individual average discharges of are located at altitudes ranging from (Reprua Spring) to (Gega waterfall). Two of them are located in the shore area; these are Reprua (average discharge ; altitude above sea level) and Kholodnaja Rechka (; a.s.l.). Two more major springs are located in the river canyons bordering Arabika to the east: Goluboe Ozero in the Bzyb canyon (; a.s.l.) and Gega waterfall in the Gega canyon (; a.s.l.). There are also several smaller springs in the Gagra town. The Reprua River, one of the shortest rivers in the world, about long, starts in the cave and flows toward the Black Sea.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Some boreholes located along the shore of the Black Sea yield karstic groundwater from depths of 40–280 m below sea level. Other much deeper boreholes tapped low-salinity karstic waters at depths of 500 and 1,750 m in the Khashupse Valley near Gantiadi and 2,250 m near Gagra. This suggests the existence of a deep karst system and vigorous karst groundwater circulation at depth.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Submarine springs are known in the Arabika area, emerging from the floor of the Black Sea in front of the massif. Shallow springs at depths of 5–7 m can be reached by free dive near Gantiadi. Tamaz Kiknadze (1979) reported submarine springs near the eastern part of Gagra at depth of 25–30 m and Buachidze and Meliva (1967) revealed submarine discharge at depths up to −400 m by hydrochemical profiling. Recently an outstanding feature of the sea floor topography near Arabika has been revealed from a digital bathymetric map that combines depth soundings and high-resolution marine gravity data. This is a huge submarine depression in front of the Zhovekvara River mouth, which has dimensions of about 5 x 9 km and a maximum depth of about . The Arabika Submarine Depression is a closed feature with internal vertical relief of about (measured from its lowest rim) separated from the abyssal slope by the bar at a depth of about . It has steep northern and northeastern slopes (on the side of the massif) and gentle south and southwestern slopes. Its formation is apparently karstic. Presently this depression seems to be a focus of submarine discharge of the karst systems of Arabika.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The speleological explorations and a series of dye tracing experiments conducted during the 1980s under the coordination of Alexander Klimchouk have radically changed previous notions of the hydrogeology of Arabika, revealed its outstanding speleological perspectives and strongly stimulated further efforts for exploration of deep caves. Tracers injected in the Kujbyshevskaja Cave and the Iljukhina System were detected in the Kholodnaja Rechka and Reprua springs, proving groundwater flow to the south-southwest across major tectonic structures over a distance of 13–16 km as the crow flies (Figure 1). The tracer from Kujbyshevskaja Cave was also detected in a borehole located between these two springs, which yields groundwater from a depth of below sea level. This has been interpreted as an indication of the connection of the cave with the submarine discharge. The large "Central Karst Hydrologic System", which encompasses most of the southeastern flank of the Arabika anticline, had been identified in this way. The system became the deepest in the world with its overall vertical range of about (measuring to the borehole water-bearing horizon) or even (measuring to the deepest reported submarine discharge points).


title: Krubera Cave

text: Another tracer was injected in the Moskovskaja Cave (−970 m) and detected at the Gegsky Vodopad spring, indicating the presence of a karst hydrologic system comprising the northeastern flank of the Arabika anticline (the "Northern System"). No connections have been revealed with yet another major spring, Goluboje Ozero in the Bzyb River canyon, although it apparently drains a large area of the eastern sector of the massif (the hypothetical "Eastern Karst Hydrological System"). It is not clear where Sarma Cave (−1,550 m) drains to, Goluboje Ozero to the southeast or Reprua to the southwest, at the shore.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The results of the dye-tracing tests demonstrated that groundwater flow is not subordinate to the fold structure but is largely controlled by faults that cut across the strike of major folds, and that the large part of the central sector of Arabika is hydraulically connected to the springs along the seashore and with submarine discharge points.


title: Krubera Cave

text: Krubera Cave has an extremely steep profile and reveals a huge thickness of the vadose zone. The lower boundary of the vadose zone (the top of the phreatic zone) is at an elevation of about at low flow, which suggests a low overall hydraulic gradient of 0.007-0.008. Low-TDS groundwater is tapped by boreholes in the shore area at depths of 40–280, 500, 1,750, and 2,250 m below sea level, which suggests the existence of a deep flow system with vigorous flow. Submarine discharge along the Arabika coast is reported at depths up to ~400 m b.s.l.


title: Krubera Cave

text: It is difficult to interpret these facts in terms of the development of karst systems controlled by contemporary sea level, or within the range of its Pleistocene fluctuations (up to −150 m). In combination with the existence of the Arabika Submarine Depression, all these facts point to the possibility that karst systems in Arabika could have originated in response to the Messinian salinity crisis (5.96–5.33 Ma) when the Black Sea (Eastern Paratethys) could have almost dried up, as did the adjacent Mediterranean, where the dramatic sea level drop of ~1,500 m is well established.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The biocenosis of Krubera-Voronja is composed of more than 12 species of arthropods of several groups, such as pseudoscorpions, spiders, opiliones, crustaceans, springtails, beetles and dipterans. Krubera-Voronja cave is inhabited by endemic species, including four springtails discovered during the CAVEX Team expedition of 2010: "Anurida stereoodorata", "Deuteraphorura kruberaensis", " Schaefferia profundissima", and "Plutomurus ortobalaganensis"; the last of these is the deepest terrestrial animal ever found on Earth, living below the cave entrance. The beetle "Catops cavicis" inhabits Krubera-Voronja cave and also several caves around the Ortobalagan Valley. The subterranean amphipod crustacean "Kruberia abchasica" caught by Gennady Samokhin in August 2013, during dives in the siphon 'Dva Kapitana', dwells at the deepest part of the Krubera Cave (at the depth of −2,175 metres).


title: Krubera Cave

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, Arabika was visited by French speleologist Édouard-Alfred Martel, who published several works about the massif. In 1909–10 Russian karst scientist Alexander Kruber, a founder of the study in Russia, performed some field studies in Arabika. He published his observations in a series of Arabika-specific papers and several monographs. During the subsequent 50 years no special studies were undertaken of the karst and caves in the region, although the karst of Arabika was referred to in many works dealing with regional geology and hydrogeology.


title: Krubera Cave

text: In the early 1960s, Georgian geographers led by Levan Maruashvili began exploring caves in the high sector of the massif. Among several other caves, they made the first exploration of an open-mouthed 60 m shaft in the Ortobalagan Valley and named it after Alexander Kruber. The first explorers were stopped by impassable squeezes at −95 m in a meandering passage which led off from the foot of the entrance shaft. The cave remained largely neglected over the next 20 years, although occasionally visited by cavers from various caving clubs. Before 1980 there were no caves deeper than known in Arabika.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The new era in cave explorations in the Arabika Massif began in 1980 when the Kyiv Speleological Club, led by Alexander Klimchouk, started exploring caves there. They adopted an approach to cave search and exploration which included thorough investigations in a defined area and systematic testing of cave limits, through digging in boulder chokes and enlarging squeezes which had previously obstructed exploration. The Ortobalagan Valley had been selected as a primary focus for the Ukrainian efforts. This approach, followed in subsequent years by other caving clubs which joined exploration activity in different parts of Arabika, resulted in the discovery of many deep caves including five caves deeper than 1,000 m.


title: Krubera Cave

text: In the Ortobalagan Valley, the Ukrainian cavers made breakthroughs in Kuybyshevskaya Cave at −160 m and pushed it to by 1986 through a series of massive boulder chokes. They broke through an impassable squeeze at −120 m in Genrikhova Bezdna Cave and eventually connected it to Kuybyshevskaya at −956 m in 1987. The resultant system has been named the Arabikskaya System.