title: Chakma people

text: Some typical Chakma dishes include fish, vegetables, and spices stuffed into a length of bamboo and cooked in a low fire; foods wrapped in banana leaves and placed beside a fire; and eggs that are aged until they get fermented.


title: Chakma people

text: Gudu hara, or Ha-do-do, is a game played throughout the Chakma region. Two teams stand on either side of a central line. They take turns sending a player into opposing territory to touch as many people as they can during the space of one breath, while at the same time saying "Ha-do-do." If the player runs out of breath or is caught by their opponents, they are out. On the other hand, if the player successfully returns to their own territory, the players they have tagged must leave the game.


title: Chakma people

text: Gyilhei hara is a game that can be played between two teams or two individuals. A special type of seed called "gyi-lhei" is used to play the game. "Gyilhei" seeds are found and grown in wild forests of hills and are similar to bean seeds but bigger in size. When the time comes, the large beans dry out and the seeds known as "gyilhei" are ready to be collected for use in the game.


title: Chakma people

text: Other pastimes include Nadeng Hara, played with a spinning top; and various wrestling games. Pawti hara is a complex traditional game that is played by two teams. Due to how sophisticated its rules are, it is becoming less and less common.


title: Chakma people

text: The Chakma are strongly related to Tibeto-Burman groups in Northeast India, Southeast Asian and East Asia.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: The B-52 (also B52 or Bifi or Bifty) cocktail is a layered shot composed of a coffee liqueur (Kahlúa), an Irish cream (Baileys Irish Cream), and a Grand Marnier (in later versions replaced with triple sec or Cointreau). When prepared properly, the ingredients separate into three distinctly visible layers (due to their relative densities).


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: The origins of the B-52 are not well documented, but one claim is that the B-52 was invented by Peter Fich, a head bartender at the Banff Springs Hotel in Alberta, Canada. Fich named all of his new drinks after favorite bands, albums, and songs, and he supposedly named the drink after the band of the same name, not directly after the US B-52 Stratofortress bomber after which the band was named.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: One of Fich's first customers for a B-52 owned restaurants in various cities in Alberta, and they liked the drink so much that he put it on the menu, leading to the perception that the B-52 originated at the Keg Steakhouse in Calgary, Alberta in 1977. The B-52 is also rumoured to have been created by Adam Honigman, a bartender at New York City's Maxwell's Plum.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: The B-52's widespread popularity has resulted in many variations, each earning a slightly different designation (see variations below for a small sampling). Altogether, the drinks are referred to as the "B-50 series" of layered cocktails.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: The drink became a North London favourite in late 2009 when Arsenal striker Nicklas Bendtner changed his shirt number from 26 to 52, earning himself the nickname "B52" in the process.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: There are special machines that can prepare a B-52 (or other multi-layered cocktails) in only a few seconds. However, an experienced bartender usually relies on the traditional, hand-made preparation. This method of the preparation is called "building", as opposed to blending or shaking, thus, B-52s are "built."


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: B-52s are usually served in a shot glass or sherry glass, although a heatproof glass is required when a "flaming B-52" is served. First, a coffee liqueur, such as Tia Maria or Kahlúa, is poured into the glass. Next, Baileys Irish Cream is poured very slowly over the back of a cold bar spoon, taking care to avoid disturbing the lower layer as the second liquor is poured on top. Just as carefully, Grand Marnier is poured atop the Irish Cream using the bar spoon.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: The drink is sometimes made with a shaker and served in a cocktail glass, although this is less traditional.


title: B-52 (cocktail)

text: For a Flaming B-52, the top layer is ignited, producing a blue flame. Filling the glass to the top reduces the amount of glass exposed to the flames, making the glass less likely to break but easier to spill. Triple Sec at room temperature will not ignite easily, so it is sometimes warmed up before use or topped with a small layer of an overproof rum with 65–85% ABV such as Bacardi 151 or Stroh 160. Such a preparation can be referred to as a "B-52 On a Mission".


title: Barns Courtney

text: Courtney was born in England then moved with his family to Seattle, Washington when he was 4. He returned to the United Kingdom when 15. Courtney previously led the British indie band SleeperCell, which was featured on Channel 4's "Orange Unsigned" competition, before fronting the indie band Dive Bella Dive, which signed to Island Records and performed at the Download Festival in 2012.


title: Barns Courtney

text: After recording an album's worth of material for Island Records that was never released, Courtney was dropped by the label. Determined to pursue a career in music, but with no income or home, he supported himself by working at PC World while sleeping on friends' sofas and in his girlfriend's car.


title: Barns Courtney

text: In 2015, Courtney released his first track as a solo artist, "Glitter & Gold", which received radio play on BBC Introducing Suffolk and by BBC Radio 1's Phil Taggert, and led to an appearance at Radio 1's Big Weekend in Exeter the following year. "Glitter & Gold" also reached #1 on the UK Spotify Viral Chart, and #2 on the iTunes Alternative Chart. Glitter & Gold" was later used in the trailer for the 2016 film The Founder starring Michael Keaton.


title: Barns Courtney

text: Also in 2015, "Fire" was featured in the Bradley Cooper movie "Burnt" and went on to receive airplay on American rock radio in 2016. "Fire" was later used in the advertisement of the 23rd season of "Top Gear". To date, "Fire" has been streamed more than 68 million times on Spotify, while "Glitter & Gold" has been streamed more than 98 million times. Courtney played at the SXSW Music Festival in Austin, Texas, in a showcase for "NME" magazine in March 2016 and performed "Fire" on Conan O'Brien's TBS talkshow "Conan" in June. Another track, "Hobo Rocket", was included on the soundtrack of the EA Sports video game "FIFA 17". In early 2017, the "It's All Indie" website selected Courtney as its #1 Sound of 2017.


title: Barns Courtney

text: Courtney has opened for artists including The Who, The Libertines, Ed Sheeran, The Lumineers, Tom Odell and Fitz and the Tantrums, and opened for Blur at the closing party for the 2016 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. He is currently working on his first full-length album, and will be performing at the BottleRock Napa Valley festival in California, the Governors Ball Music Festival in New York and the LaureLive Music Festival in Cleveland, OH later in 2017.


title: Barns Courtney

text: Also in 2016 Barns Courtney played at the world famous Rock Werchter festival in Belgium on the KlubC stage.


title: Barns Courtney

text: In late January he also announced details of an extensive US headlining tour, in addition to the release of his debut EP, "The Dull Drums". His song, ""Hellfire", was named as the official theme song for Extreme Rules in 2017.


title: Barns Courtney

text: Throughout the 2017 AFL season, the Hawthorn Football Club used "Glitter and Gold" with a highlights package over the ground public address system in the final 60 seconds before the start of home games.


title: Barns Courtney

text: In November 2017, the BBC used his song "Champion" for their Rugby League World Cup advertising campaign. As well as being used by WWE for their pay-per-view Backlash 2018.


title: Barns Courtney

text: In May 2018, the Netflix series "Safe" used his song "Glitter & Gold" as its intro song. Additionally they used the track "Fire" as the credit track.


title: Barns Courtney

text: His song "Hellfire" is featured on the first episode of the first season of Marvel's "Cloak and Dagger", initially aired 7 June 2018.


title: Barns Courtney

text: Courtney is also credited as featuring on The Prodigy song "Give Me a Signal" from their new album "No Tourists".


title: Barns Courtney

text: Courtney's song "Champion" was also used in the first gameplay trailer for the Battle Charge gameplay expansion for the popular battle royale shooter "Apex Legends".


title: Barns Courtney

text: His song "Sinners" was used as the background music for the first trailer of the video game "As Dusk Falls", presented on 23 July 2020.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: "Rainbow Connection" is a song from the 1979 film "The Muppet Movie", with music and lyrics written by Paul Williams and Kenneth Ascher. The song was performed by Jim Henson – as Kermit the Frog – in the film. "Rainbow Connection" reached No. 25 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in November 1979, with the song remaining in the Top 40 for seven weeks total. Williams and Ascher received an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Song at the 52nd Academy Awards.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: In 2020, "Rainbow Connection" was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: Williams and Ascher, who had previously collaborated on several songs for the 1976 film "A Star Is Born", were tasked with writing the songs for "The Muppet Movie". For the song that became "Rainbow Connection", Jim Henson told them that the opening scene should feature Kermit the Frog by himself, singing and playing the banjo. Williams and Ascher wrote most of the song fairly quickly at Williams' house, but got stuck trying to think of appropriate words for the part in the chorus that eventually became the phrase "the rainbow connection"; they were looking for a way to tie in the chorus to the song's theme of rainbows. As they sat down for dinner with Williams' then-wife, Kate Clinton, they explained to her their predicament of looking for a phrase that would provide "a rainbow connection", then realized, in the course of explaining the problem to her, that the phrase "the rainbow connection" would itself be a good fit. Williams and Ascher used "When You Wish Upon a Star" from "Pinocchio" as inspiration for the song.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: Williams has said that his favorite lyrics in the song are "Who said that every wish/ Would be heard and answered/ When wished on the morning star?/ Somebody thought of that/ And someone believed it/ Look what it's done so far", because they imply that "there's power in your thoughts". He also noted that the lyrical phrasing was written weirdly with Kermit's speech patterns in mind.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: Allmusic described "Rainbow Connection" as an "unlikely radio hit ... which Kermit the Frog sings with all the dreamy wistfulness of a short, green Judy Garland" and went on to add that "'Rainbow Connection' serves the same purpose in "The Muppet Movie" that "Over the Rainbow" served in "The Wizard of Oz", with nearly equal effectiveness: an opening establishment of the characters' driving urge for something more in life." Others have similarly referred to "Rainbow Connection" as the film's "I Want" song.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: Ascher and Williams received Oscar nominations at the 52nd Academy Awards for the score of "The Muppet Movie" and for "Rainbow Connection", which was nominated for Best Original Song. The score lost to Bob Fosse's "All That Jazz". The song lost to "It Goes Like It Goes" from "Norma Rae", a win that some critics denounced.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: The song's name has been used by a number of charitable organizations wishing to evoke its message, including a children's charity similar to the Make-A-Wish Foundation, a summer camp for seriously ill children, and a horseriding camp for people with disabilities. The name's influence can also be seen from business names to artificial Christmas tree products.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: The American Film Institute named "Rainbow Connection" the 74th greatest movie song of all time in "AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs".


title: Rainbow Connection

text: In 1996 in Whanganui, New Zealand, a 21-year-old man burst into the radio station Star FM and took the manager hostage, demanding that Kermit the Frog's rendition of the song be played.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: Kermit the Frog reprised the song on "The Muppet Show" in 1980 as a duet with Debbie Harry when she was a guest star. Jeff Moss and Ralph Burns also quoted the song's intro as the intro to the instrumental, "carriage ride" rendition of "Together Again" that segued into the "Muppet Babies" song sequence, "I'm Gonna Always Love You" in "The Muppets Take Manhattan". The song is also reprised by a large group of Muppets as the closing number in the 1985 special "". Kermit also reprises the song in the 2011 film "The Muppets", this time as a duet with Miss Piggy that leads into the entire Muppet group singing together. A shorter version of the song performed by tribute band "The Moopets", along with Fozzie Bear, is also used in the film. The iTunes release of "The Muppets" soundtrack included a new version of the song as an exclusive bonus track, recorded by Steve Whitmire, the then-current performer of Kermit. The song was also reprised in the TV series "The Muppets", in the 2015 episode "Pig's in a Blackout".


title: Rainbow Connection

text: On September 24, 2011, the town of Leland, Mississippi changed the name of a local bridge to "The Rainbow Connection" in honor of Henson on what would have been his 75th birthday. Henson had lived in Leland and played near that bridge as a child.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: On April 25, 2020, Kermit released a new performance of the song (recorded by Matt Vogel) on social media to lift spirits during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Rainbow Connection

text: On January 14, 2022, during Epcot's Festival of the Arts, Spaceship Earth was joined by The Muppets in singing Rainbow Connection.


title: History of the United States (1776–1789)

text: Between 1776 and 1789 thirteen British colonies emerged as a newly independent nation, the United States of America. Fighting in the American Revolutionary War started between colonial militias and the British Army in 1775. The Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 to form the Congress of the Confederation. Under the leadership of General George Washington, the Continental Army and Navy defeated the British military, securing the independence of the thirteen colonies. The Confederation period continued until 1789, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the Constitution of the United States, which remains the fundamental governing law of the United States.


text: The 1780s marked an economic downturn for the United States due debts incurred during the Revolutionary War, Congress' inability to levy taxes, and significant inflation of the Continental dollar. Political essays such as "Common Sense" and "The Federalist Papers" had a major effect on American culture and public opinion. The Northwest Territory was created as the first federal territory in 1787, and a border dispute in this region prompted raids that escalated into the Northwest Indian War. The Revolution and the Confederation period are placed within the American Enlightenment, a period in which Age of Enlightenment ideas grew popular and prompted scientific advancement.


text: During the 17th and 18th centuries, British colonies in America were given considerable autonomy under the system of salutary neglect. This autonomy was challenged in the 1760s by several acts of the Grenville ministry, including the Stamp Act 1765 and the Quartering Acts. These acts provoked an ideological conflict between Great Britain and the Thirteen Colonies regarding the nature of the Crown's authority over colonists. Protests by the colonists began as a demand for equal rights under the British constitution, but as the dispute progressed, they took a decidedly republican political viewpoint.


text: From the Stamp Act of 1765 onward, disputes with London escalated. Committees of correspondence were formed between 1770 and 1773 to organize colonists that opposed British authority. Riots occurred in opposition to British taxation on tea, culminating in the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773 that saw dozens of men dumping massive amounts of British tea into the Boston Harbor. Great Britain responded with the even more controversial Intolerable Acts that enforced penalties on the colonies, and on Massachusetts in particular. This prompted the colonists to convene the First Continental Congress on September 5, 1774 as a unified body to oppose British authority. The American Revolutionary War began on April 19, 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord.


text: The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the aftermath of armed clashes in April. With all thirteen colonies represented, it immediately began to organize itself as a central government with control over the diplomacy and instructed the colonies to write constitutions for themselves as states. On June 1775, George Washington, a charismatic Virginia political leader with combat experience, was unanimously appointed commander of a newly organized Continental Army. The Boston campaign continued with the Continental Army besieging British-occupied Boston until the British retreated to Halifax, Nova Scotia in March 1776. The Invasion of Quebec was also carried out by the Continental Army in 1775.


text: On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia, voted unanimously to declare independence as the "United States of America". Two days later, on July 4, Congress signed the Declaration of Independence. The Second Continental Congress was not initially formed to declare independence. Support for independence had grown gradually in 1775 and 1776 as Great Britain refused the colonists' demands and hostilities became more pronounced. The political pamphlet "Common Sense" further popularized support for independence. In May 1776, the Continental Congress recommended that the colonies establish their own governments independently of Great Britain.


text: The drafting of the Declaration was the responsibility of a Committee of Five, which included John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, and Benjamin Franklin; it was drafted by Jefferson and revised by the others and the Congress as a whole. It contended that "all men are created equal" with "certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", and that "to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed", as well as listing the main colonial grievances against the crown. Jefferson expressed that he did not wish to create new arguments, but rather to present those of previous philosophers, such as those of John Locke.


text: The signers of the Declaration of Independence were highly educated and wealthy, and they came from the older colonial settlements. They were largely Protestant and of British descent. In the following century, the signing of the Declaration of Independence would be commemorated as Independence Day.


text: The task of organizing the Continental Army fell to General Washington, and Congress oversaw military action through war boards. Washington assigned Prussian Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben to train the army, and the baron's military experience produced a strong military for the United States. To supply the army, Washington pressured Congress for additional supplies, though there was never as much as was necessary.


text: The New York and New Jersey campaign began in July 1776 as British reinforcements landed in New York City. The British counteroffensive won the Battle of Long Island, and subsequent battles resulted in alternating American and British victories. The Continental Army was routed to New Jersey, and the British army failed to take control of New England. The campaign shifted to Washington's favor after he led a crossing of the Delaware River that led to a victory in the Battle of Trenton, followed by another victory in the Battle of Princeton, boosting American morale.


text: In early 1777, a grand British strategic plan, the Saratoga campaign, was drafted in London. The plan called for two British armies to converge on Albany, New York from the north and south, dividing the colonies in two and separating New England from the rest. General John Burgoyne led British soldiers from Montreal in June 1777, engaging in skirmishes with American forces. American General Horatio Gates was appointed as Northern Army commander. The forces of Burgoyne and Gates fought in the Saratoga campaign, with the British forces surrendering after the Second Battle of Saratoga. The forces of British commander William Howe were supposed to provide reinforcements from the south, but he instead engaged in the Philadelphia campaign, taking the capital city of Philadelphia.


text: The American victory at Saratoga led the French into a military alliance with the United States through the Treaty of Alliance in 1778. France was soon joined by Spain and the Netherlands, both major naval powers with an interest in undermining British strength. Britain now faced a major European war, and the involvement of the French navy neutralized their previous dominance of the war on the sea. Britain was without allies and faced the prospect of invasion across the English Channel.


text: Except for an attempt to take Charleston in 1776, Great Britain did not attack the southern states of Georgia or South Carolina in the early years of the war. Most fighting in the South had been carried out by the Cherokee. Following the failure at Saratoga, however, Great Britain moved its focus to the South, and the Capture of Savannah occurred in 1778. The United States had not been prepared for a campaign in the South, and American General Benjamin Lincoln was appointed to the South to raise a militia. The Siege of Charleston took place in 1780, and the British captured this city as well. North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia had higher Loyalist populations than other states, further contributing to British victories in the southern theater. After the Siege of Charleston, British General Lord Cornwallis took charge of the British forces in the Southern United States. Victory in the Battle of Camden in 1780 reiterated British control over the South.


text: Cornwallis advanced his forces into North Carolina, depending on Loyalists to join his forces as he went, but few joined him. General Nathanael Greene routed the British forces, preventing them from taking North Carolina. Against his instructions to defend the occupied South, Cornwallis moved his forced north to Virginia. Greene's forces moved south and reclaimed Georgia and South Carolina. Cornwallis positioned his forces in Yorktown, Virginia in hope of defeating the forces of the French General Lafayette. The French navy prevented the British navy from providing assistance in the Battle of the Chesapeake, and Washington and Lafayette's forces laid siege to Yorktown. Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781, effectively ending the American Revolutionary War. King George III and Prime Minister Lord North wished to mount another campaign, but Parliament overruled them, forbidding any further conflict.


text: King George III formally acknowledged American independence and ordered the end of hostilities on December 5, 1782. Peace negotiations took place in Paris, with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay representing the United States. Negotiations concluded with the Treaty of Paris, which legally recognized the United States as an independent country. Great Britain agreed to give up its territorial claims in the states and to their west, though the boundary with British Canada remained unsettled. Some elements of the treaty were controversial among Americans, including those that recognized the monetary debts owed to Loyalists and those that critics felt challenged the status of each state government as a sovereign entity.


text: On November 25, 1783, Washington led a procession through New York City on horseback as the final British soldiers boarded their boats to leave the harbor. Victory celebrations were held in the city, and the day would be remembered as Evacuation Day. On December 23, 1783, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. The Treaty of Paris was ratified by Congress on January 14, 1784.


text: The Articles of Confederation were proposed by the Continental Congress on November 15, 1777, and they were ratified on March 1, 1781. It replaced the administrative boards and appellate courts that Congress had created during the early stages of the Revolutionary War. While the Articles of Confederation granted certain powers to the Congress of the Confederation, they also imposed restrictions that made governance difficult. These restrictions were by design, as many Americans feared that a strong central government would be too similar to the British monarchy. The powers of the central government were limited primarily to war, diplomacy, and resolving interstate disputes. It lacked powers to pass economic legislation, causing economic decline as it proved unable to pay its debts. Acts of Congress required high majorities to be passed, and amendments to the Articles required unanimous approval by the states.


text: Most governing was carried out by state governments during the Confederation Period. Though Pennsylvania was the only state to use official political parties, informal partisanship developed across the new nation in the 1780s. Divisions emerged over how powerful the central government should be, how debts should be managed, and how Western settlement should be carried out. The political and economic troubles caused civil conflict within the states. Mutinies occurred in Pennsylvania and New Jersey in January 1781, soldiers marched on the capital in June 1783, and a coup against General Washington was considered among military officers in Newburgh. The unrest culminated in Shays' Rebellion in the winter of 1786–1787, in which protests against the handling of debts in Massachusetts led to an armed uprising. The states declined to fund a military force, and Massachusetts was forced to fund its own state force.


text: Congress oversaw foreign policy, but the states had the final say in their own foreign relations, with each state ratifying treaties individually. Relations with Great Britain were still troubled after the war. Many states did not comply with the terms of the Treaty of Paris regarding the treatment of British nationals, and the British Army maintained a presence in the western territories. Britain also hurt American trade through restrictions on American products to promote Canadian growth. The Shelburne ministry had been lenient in the negotiation of the Treaty of Paris, but this proved controversial, prompting a change in government that resulted in much colder relations with the United States.


text: As economic conditions worsened, Congress failed to repay its debts to the countries that provided military support during the war: France, Spain, and the Netherlands. Relations with Spain were further strained by the Spanish government's closure of the Mississippi River, which hindered American transport and trade. Despite a strong alliance during the revolution, France paid little attention to the United States during the Confederacy period. The United States also made trade agreements with the Netherlands, Sweden, and Prussia in the 1780s, but these made up a relatively small portion of American trade compared to Great Britain. In the Mediterranean Sea, American ships faced the North African Barbary pirates. As Congress had few resources to address the issue, little was done during the Confederation period to take action against the pirates. A peace negotiation was made with Morocco, but Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis continued to allow the capture of American ships.


text: Economic conflict grew between the states as the Confederation period went on, and Congress had no power to prevent it. By 1786, many of the most prominent Americans in government were expressing concerns that the government under the Articles of Confederation was not sufficient. It lacked both the economic and military security that had previously been provided by Great Britain. The Annapolis Convention was held in 1786 to address trade issues, but it saw meager attendance with most states failing to send a delegate. The delegates from New Jersey had been authorized wide latitude by the state, and this was used to submit a proposal for a convention to reform the government entirely. In February 1787, Congress voted to hold the convention the following May, indicating a broad loss in confidence of the governmental system under the Articles of Confederation.


text: While there was not a clear objective before the convention, some delegates wished to establish a new central government that would have more power than Congress did under the Articles of Confederation. James Madison became the leader of these delegates, developing the Virginia Plan that would form the basis of the Constitution of the United States. The convention began on May 25, 1787, after a sufficient number of delegates had arrived in Philadelphia. The main issue at contention was the extent of power that would be transferred from the states to the federal government; many state delegations, particularly that of Delaware, resisted centralization for fear that it would be dominated by the larger states. Madison's Virginia Plan competed with the New Jersey Plan of William Paterson, which opposed proportional representation in favor of equal representation. The dispute was resolved with the Connecticut Compromise, which created a bicameral legislature. The issue of slavery was also a concern, particularly in regard to whether slaves should be counted as citizens.


text: The final draft of the Constitution was delivered by Gouverneur Morris on September 12, 1787. Written to correct the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution established the procedures and powers relating to Congress, the presidency, the courts, and how these offices related to the states. It also allowed for future amendments, acknowledged the debts incurred under the Articles of Confederation, and set the requirements for ratification. The delegates signed the Constitution on September 17 and sent it to Congress, where it was approved and sent to the states for ratification.


text: Those who advocated the Constitution took the name Federalists and quickly gained supporters throughout the nation. The most influential Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, the anonymous authors of "The Federalist Papers", a series of 85 essays published in New York newspapers, written under the pen name "Publius" to sway the closely divided New York legislature. The papers have become seminal documents for the United States and have often been cited by jurists. Those who opposed the new Constitution became known as the Anti-Federalists. They were generally local rather than cosmopolitan in perspective, oriented to plantations and farms rather than commerce or finance, and wanted strong state governments and a weak national government.


text: Each state held a convention to vote on ratification of the Constitution. Supporters of ratification ensured that states more likely to accept the Constitution were the first to hold conventions, fearing that early rejections may dissuade other states from ratifying. Smaller states were supportive of the Constitution, as a centralized government offered a check on the power of larger states. Delaware and New Jersey ratified in 1787, and Georgia ratified on January 2, 1788, all by unanimous votes. Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Maryland, and South Carolina all ratified by large majorities over the winter and spring of 1788. It was more controversial in other states, with Massachusetts only ratifying by a narrow vote of 187–168. New Hampshire provided the final ratification that was necessary for the Constitution to go into effect on June 21, 1788. Ratification was more controversial in the larger states of New York, Virginia, and Massachusetts. Promises of a Bill of Rights from Madison secured ratification in Virginia, while in New York, the Clintons, who controlled New York politics, found themselves outmaneuvered as Hamilton secured ratification by a 30–27 vote. North Carolina and Rhode Island were the last of the 13 colonies to ratify, doing so after the new government had begun operation.


text: The United States Electoral College met on February 4, 1789 to unanimously vote for George Washington in the first presidential election. The 1st United States Congress read the results on April 6, and Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall on April 30.


text: Settlement of Trans-Appalachia grew during the Revolutionary War, increasing from a few thousand to 25,000 settlers. Westward expansion stirred enthusiasm even in those who did not move west, and many leading Americans, including Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, purchased lands in the west. Land speculators founded groups like the Ohio Company, which acquired title to vast tracts of land in the west and often came into conflict with settlers.


text: From 1780 to 1784, Congress held negotiations with Virginia to cede its western territory. An agreement took effect on March 1, 1784, creating the first national territory that was not part of any state. Congress created a territorial government and set requirements for statehood with the Land Ordinance of 1784 and the Land Ordinance of 1785. In 1787, Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance, which granted Congress greater control of the region by establishing the Northwest Territory. Under the new arrangement, many of the former elected officials of the territory were instead appointed by Congress. In order to attract Northern settlers, Congress outlawed slavery in the Northwest Territory, though it also passed a fugitive slave law to appease the Southern states. The Old Southwest remained under the control of the southern states, and each state claimed to extend west to the Mississippi River. In 1784, settlers in western North Carolina sought statehood as the State of Franklin, but their efforts were denied by Congress, which did not want to set a precedent regarding the secession of states.


text: During the Revolutionary War, Great Britain had aligned with many of the Native American tribes in its claimed territories to the west of the colonies. This was an escalation of the skirmishes that made up the American Indian Wars that had been prompted by land encroachment by colonists and raids by Native American tribes, such as the Shawnee tribes. Pioneers responded to Native American attacks against colonial civilians by in turn attacking Native American civilians. The British continued to supply arms to Native Americans after the signing of the Treaty of Paris. Between 1783 and 1787, hundreds of settlers died in low-level conflicts with Native Americans, and these conflicts discouraged further settlement. By the end of the decade, the frontier was engulfed in the Northwest Indian War against the Northwestern Confederacy. These Native Americans sought the creation of an independent Indian barrier state with the support and under protection of the British, posing a major foreign policy challenge to the United States. As Congress provided little military support against the Native Americans, most of the fighting was done by the settlers. This war would continue until the signing of the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 that defined the boundary between the United States and the Native American tribes.


text: The American Revolution had large scale effects on the economies of the Thirteen Colonies. The Continental Congress did not have the power to levy taxes, so it depended on the newly formed state governments to raise funds, and they were forced to raise taxes to cover war expenditures. It also caused a labor shortage as workers enlisted in the Patriot and Loyalist militaries, ending a decades-long trend of industrial expansion in the Mid-Atlantic. The workforce consisted of both free laborers and slave labor, while indentured servitude had largely fallen out of practice by the time of the American Revolution. Economic growth was further slowed by a reduction in immigration because of the war. The Bank of North America was established as the country's first bank in 1781.


text: The Continental Congress created its own Continental currency banknotes to increase funding, but this currency quickly depreciated in value and did not survive to the end of the war. The lack of a centralized currency and economic policy was a major factor in the decision to hold the Constitutional Convention. The war and the inflation caused shortages for both the military and for civilians. It was common during these shortages for civilians to form crowds and ransack stores that did not offer what they considered to be fair prices. Early supporters of revolution also supported corporatism and price controls, but most political and economic thinkers rejected these concepts, and support grew for a democratic free market system with taxation.


text: The economy of the early United States was heavily agricultural, but it also involved other forms of resource extraction, such as lumber, fishing, and fur. Manufacturing was limited, though shipbuilding was a major industry. The revolution required American merchants to rebuild connections with global markets, as trade had previously been facilitated under the flag of Great Britain. The high tariffs that were common at the time limited profitability, but high demand for American goods allowed the United States to make up for the economic turmoil of the revolution. When the war ended, the Treaty of Paris allowed British creditors to call in debts from the American market, triggering a depression. The government was also in debt to France, the Netherlands, and Spain. Many states raised taxes after the war to cover the expenses that it brought, prompting unrest, including that of Shays' Rebellion.


text: Due to the close relation of American and British commerce, many traders renegotiated with British merchants after the war, and they facilitated American trade as they did under colonial rule. Economic policies of individual states made domestic trade more difficult, as state governments often discriminated against merchants from other states. A national deficit occurred in 1786, and it continued to increase through the Confederation period. By 1787, Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.


text: A distinct American culture separate from Britain had already developed by the 1750s. A plainness in fashion and speech was common, originating from Puritan standards of the colonial era and reasserted by the revolution. The United States in the 18th century saw a proliferation of newspapers and magazine, many of which were in print only briefly. Political essays such as "The American Crisis", "Common Sense", and "The Federalist Papers" were influential in shaping the early United States. Full-length books also addressed political concepts regarding the revolution, including "Letters from an American Farmer" by J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur and "Notes on the State of Virginia" by Thomas Jefferson. Social and political ideas were often expressed through poetry. Poets such as John Trumbull, Philip Freneau and Hugh Henry Brackenridge wrote of nationalist ideas about an independent United States. "The Conquest of Canaan" by Timothy Dwight is credited as the first epic poem of the United States. "The Anarchiad" was a prominent satire of the early United States. The first American novel, "The Power of Sympathy", was published by William Hill Brown in 1789.


text: Drama and theater were controversial in the early United States. Plays had been condemned by Puritans in the colonial era, and the Continental Congress issued a formal condemnation of plays in 1774. Plays that were performed during the revolutionary era were typically European. The most prominent American dramatist during the revolutionary era was Mercy Otis Warren, whose plays included "The Adulateur", "The Group", and "The Blockheads". Hugh Henry Brackenridge wrote two historical plays that portrayed the Revolutionary War. John Leacock wrote "The Fall of British Tyranny", the first play to feature George Washington as a character. Innovations in drama declined after the Revolutionary War, in part due to the political and economic turmoil of the 1780s. William Dunlap began his prolific career as a playwright with "The Father" in 1789.


text: Visual art was influenced by the literature of European aestheticians, including Charles Alphonse du Fresnoy, Roger de Piles, Jonathan Richardson, and Johann Joachim Winckelmann. Many American artists traveled abroad to learn art, particularly to London to learn under Benjamin West. John Trumbull and Charles Willson Peale were prominent painters in the first years of the United States; as supporters of republicanism, they are both known for their respective portraits of George Washington.


text: Historians categorize the time of the American Revolution as part of a broader American Enlightenment, in which the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment began to influence American science and philosophy. This included a shift away from religious groundings in philosophy. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were prolific philosophic writers in this regard. "" by Ethan Allen was an early challenge to the religious rejection of rationalism in the United States in 1784. Massachusetts formed a medical society in 1781, following the precedent set by New Jersey in 1766.


text: The scientific community of the early United States was centered in Philadelphia, including the American Philosophical Society. Astronomy and taxonomy were two of the most prominent scientific fields at the time, and physicians of the revolutionary era often had a scientific background beyond medicine. Benjamin Franklin developed the study of electricity in the United States and discovered many of its properties. Many prominent scientists were immigrants from other countries, particularly Great Britain, which had a much larger scientific community.


text: The colonial colleges already existed by the time of the American Revolution. These colleges were all male, and they were based on the ideas of education associated with the Enlightenment. State universities began to form after the end of the Revolutionary War, starting with the University of Georgia in 1785. African Americans and Native Americans were only rarely admitted to universities, though African American men in northern states sometimes formed literary societies.


text: The population of the Thirteen Colonies was 2.5 million in 1776. The first national census was taken in 1790, shortly after the end of the Confederation period. It found that the United States had a population of 3,929,214 residents with an average of 4.5 people per square mile. There were five cities with a population over 10,000 residents. The largest city was New York City with 33,131 residents, followed by Philadelphia, Boston, Charleston, and Baltimore.


text: Many churches and ministers took vocal stances on the American Revolution while it was ongoing. John Adams considered the Anglican church to be a means for the Parliament of Great Britain to control the colonies. Anglican clergy associated with the Loyalists, and clergy that continued the mandated prayer for the Crown were harassed or exiled. Founding Father Benjamin Rush once said that some Loyalists opposed revolution because they feared it would give power to Presbyterians. From 1775 to 1783, the number of Anglican ministers in the Thirteen Colonies decreased from 311 to 141.


text: The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial, and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. The Revolutionary War drew attention away from the Pope, making King George III the most prominent foreign opponent in the minds of Americans. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states in which they had previously been discriminated against.


text: The controversial issue of slavery was brought up during the drafting of the Declaration of Independence; Jefferson's original draft condemned King George III for his support of the slave trade, but Southern delegates had the language removed. Virginia governor Lord Dunmore issued Dunmore's Proclamation in 1775, offering freedom to slaves that fought alongside the British. General Sir Henry Clinton made a similar proclamation in 1779. Thousands of slaves served as Black Loyalists in the Revolutionary War. In 1780, Pennsylvania enacted a law banning the enslavement of people born after March 1 of that year and guaranteeing freedom to children born into slavery after that date upon reaching the age of 28. Connecticut and Rhode Island ended slavery on similar terms in 1784. Slavery again became a political debate during the drafting of the Constitution. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention were divided on the morality of slavery, and there was also debate about whether slaves should be counted when allocating proportional representation to each state. The dispute was resolved with the Three-fifths Compromise in which slaves would be counted as three-fifths of a person in the United States census.


title: United States military nuclear incident terminology

text: The United States Armed Forces uses a number of terms to define the magnitude and extent of nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents in order to reduce the time taken to report the type of incident, thus streamlining the radio communications in the wake of the event.


text: United States Department of Defense directive 5230.16, "Nuclear Accident and Incident Public Affairs (PA) Guidance", Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Manual 3150.03B "Joint Reporting Structure Event and Incident Reporting", and the United States Air Force Operation Reporting System, as set out in Air Force Instruction 10-206 detail a number of terms for reporting nuclear incidents internally and externally (including in press releases). They are used by the United States of America, and are neither NATO nor global standards.


text: "Pinnacle" is a Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff OPREP-3 (Operational Event/Incident Report) reporting flagword used in the United States National Command Authority structure. The term "Pinnacle" denotes an incident of interest to the Major Commands, Department of Defense and National Command Authority, in that it:


text: All of the following reporting terms are classified "Pinnacle", with the exception of "Bent Spear", "Faded Giant" and "Dull Sword". AFI 10-206 notes that the flagword "Pinnacle" may be added to "Bent Spear" or "Faded Giant" to expedite reporting to the National Military Command Center (NMCC).


text: "Bent Spear" refers to incidents involving nuclear weapons, warheads, components or vehicles transporting nuclear material that are of significant interest but are not categorized as "Pinnacle – Nucflash" or "Pinnacle – Broken Arrow". "Bent Spear" incidents include violations or breaches of handling and security regulations.


text: An example of a "Bent Spear" incident occurred on the August 2007 flight of a B-52 bomber from Minot AFB to Barksdale AFB which mistakenly carried six cruise missiles with live nuclear warheads.


text: "Broken Arrow" refers to an accidental event that involves nuclear weapons, warheads or components that does not create a risk of nuclear war. These include:


text: The US Department of Defense has officially recognized at least 32 "Broken Arrow" incidents from 1950 to 1980. Examples of these events include:


text: Unofficially, the Defense Atomic Support Agency (now known as the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA)) has detailed hundreds of "Broken Arrow" incidents.


text: "Nucflash" refers to detonation or possible detonation of a nuclear weapon which creates a risk of an outbreak of nuclear war. Events which may be classified "Nucflash" include:


text: This term is a report that has the highest precedence in the OPREP-3 reporting structure. All other reporting terms such as "Broken Arrow", "Empty Quiver", etc., while very important, are secondary to this report.


text: "Faded Giant" refers to an event involving a military nuclear reactor or other radiological accident not involving nuclear weapons, such as the Three Mile Island accident.


text: "Dull Sword" refers to reports of minor incidents involving nuclear weapons, components or systems, or which could impair their deployments. This could include actions involving vehicles capable of carrying nuclear weapons but with no nuclear weapons on board at the time of the accident. This also is used in reports of damage or deficiencies with equipment, tools, or diagnostic testers that are designed for use on nuclear weapons or the nuclear weapon release systems of nuclear-capable aircraft.


title: Renault Espace

text: The Renault Espace is a five-door car manufactured by the French carmaker Renault since 1984 for five generations. It is classified as a large MPV/minivan within the M-segment. The first three generations of the Espace were amongst the first contemporary minivans or MPVs, and were manufactured by Matra for Renault. The fourth generation, also an MPV, was manufactured by Renault. The Renault Grand Espace is a long wheelbase (LWB) version with increased rear leg room and boot size. The fifth generation is introduced with a crossover SUV-inspired styling while keeping the space-oriented MPV body style. Renault described the fifth generation Espace as a 'crossover-style MPV' which combines elements of saloon, SUV and MPV, while retaining interior space and practicality of the latter.


title: Renault Espace

text: The name "espace" means "space" in French. In February 2012, the Espace was retired in the United Kingdom, as part of a cost-cutting plan.


title: Renault Espace

text: The Espace concept was originally conceived in the 1970s by the British designer Fergus Pollock, who was working for Chrysler UK, at its design centre at Whitley in Coventry. Matra, spearheaded by Greek designer Antonis Volanis, developed the design for Simca, the then French subsidiary of Chrysler, with the intent of marketing the vehicle as a Talbot. It would replace the Matra Rancho leisure activity vehicle on the Matra production lines. Early prototypes used Simca parts, and hence featured a grille reminiscent of the Simca 1307 (Chrysler Alpine).


title: Renault Espace

text: In 1978, six years before the Espace went into production, Chrysler UK and Simca were sold to the French company PSA Peugeot Citroën, which phased out Simca within a decade because of falling sales. PSA decided the Espace was too expensive and too risky a design to put into production, preferring to focus on nursing Talbot back to financial health. The design was returned to Matra, who called it the Matra P23 and took the idea to Renault.


title: Renault Espace

text: Renault adopted the Matra concept as project J11, which was then given the name "Espace." One restraint was that Renault used longitudinally mounted engines whereas the P23 had been designed with the more efficient transverse layout in mind. The design ended up using the longitudinal layout, which allowed for more flexibility in engine fitment and also made developing a four-wheel-drive version easier. Installing the PRV V6 had been considered from early on but ended up having to wait until the introduction of the second generation. To make the engine installation as short as possible, the radiator was placed to the left in the engine compartment, with the engine reaching the grille. The compact installation necessitated an extended front end for turbodiesel models as this engine was longer; these have a protruding grille and a correspondingly larger front bumper. Renault improved on Matra's original design by insisting on an entirely flat floor in the entire area behind the front seats.


title: Renault Espace

text: The design featured a body of fibreglass, mounted on a warm-galvanised steel monocoque spaceframe, using the same technique and assembly line at the factory as the Talbot Matra Murena. The galvanization process increased torsional rigidity by 60 percent and bending resistance by 20 percent, at a cost of a weight gain. Weight distribution was rather front heavy, with 62.9 percent of the weight being over the front wheels (original petrol version).


title: Renault Espace

text: The Espace was eventually launched by Renault in July 1984. After a slow start, a mere nine Espaces were sold in the first month, consumers realised the benefits of the MPV concept and the Espace became popular. The introduction of the Espace required the relatively small Matra factory to cease production of the Murena to make room for the Espace. It was sold in the United Kingdom from August 1985. In October 1984 the turbodiesel versions Turbo D and Turbo DX arrived.


title: Renault Espace

text: In 1984, American Motors Corporation (AMC) announced it would begin to market the front wheel drive Espace in the United States. The minivan was exhibited to consumers at the 1985 Chicago Auto Show, but AMC's negotiations with Matra continued over the vehicle's import pricing. Plans for the Espace to be launched in the United States ended with the purchase of AMC by Chrysler.


title: Renault Espace

text: In 2004, BBC's motoring show "Top Gear" set up a race between two Espaces, a Toyota Previa, a Toyota MasterAce, a Mitsubishi Space Wagon, and a Nissan Serena. The Espaces came first and second - although as Jeremy Clarkson pointed out, Richard Hammond was driving a V6 Espace, giving him a performance advantage over the other vehicles.


title: Renault Espace

text: Building upon its success, the Espace was revamped in 1988, with most of the remaining Talbot/Simca content being replaced by equivalent Renault parts. The chassis and mechanical components of the car remained largely unchanged.


title: Renault Espace

text: The most obvious cosmetic exterior difference, between the very first Espaces and the revamped post 1988 models, were the changed headlights: the forward-slanting lights with orange indicator casing of the original Espace were replaced with backward-slanting lights, with a clear indicator casing.


title: Renault Espace

text: Brazilian Ford Concessionaire Grancar, in cooperation with Toni Bianco, developed a faithful copy of the original Espace in Brazil in 1990. Called the Grancar Futura, it was powered by four-cylinder engines (AP1800/AP2000) from Ford/Volkswagen's local lineup, while using the dashboard from the Ford Del Rey and the Escort's fuel tank.


title: Renault Espace

text: With Renault upset about intellectual property infringement and market liberalization undercutting the car's "raison d'être", the Futura came to an end in the end of 1991, after 159 cars had been built.


title: Renault Espace

text: A heavily revised Espace was launched in January 1991, adopting the Renault family look, to replace the Talbot themed styling of the original. This was essentially a reskin of the original car, with a new dashboard and other interior improvements. The chassis was unchanged. Production ceased in October 1996.


title: Renault Espace

text: A high performance prototype (P46) called the Espace Biturbo Quadra was also proposed by Matra in 1990, before the second generation Espace entered production. It was to use the same engine that was later installed in the Safrane Biturbo, which produced around 270 bhp.


title: Renault Espace

text: However, it never entered production due to the concern of its stability, and only a single prototype remains today. The estimated performance figures of it were: 0 to 100 km/h around 7.5 seconds, top speed above 230 km/h.


title: Renault Espace

text: In 1995, Renault displayed a show car called the Espace F1, which was created by Matra to celebrate both the tenth anniversary of the Espace and Renault's involvement in Formula One racing. Though it resembled an Espace with substantial bodywork changes, the vehicle had more in common with a Formula One car.


title: Renault Espace

text: The vehicle used a lightweight carbon fibre F1 style chassis in combination with a carbon fibre reinforced Espace J63 series body (as opposed to fibreglass on the standard model). Powering the Espace F1 was an (upgraded from its original rating of ) 3.5 litre, forty valve Renault RS5 V10 engine, as used in the 1993 Williams-Renault FW15C.


title: Renault Espace

text: As with an F1 car, the V10 engine was mid engined (as opposed to the conventional front-engined layout) and the power was transmitted to the rear wheels via a six speed semi automatic gearbox, also used in the Williams FW15C.


title: Renault Espace

text: The engine and transmission allowed the Espace F1 to accelerate from in 2.8 seconds, in 6.9 seconds and carry on accelerating to a top speed of .


title: Renault Espace

text: With the use of carbon ceramic brakes, the Espace F1's deceleration was no less impressive than its acceleration, and could accelerate from and brake to a complete halt in under .


title: Renault Espace

text: This version of the Espace was featured in driving simulator game "Gran Turismo 2". Frank Williams was a noted passenger of the Espace F1, chauffeured by Williams driver David Coulthard. The Espace F1 currently resides in the Matra Museum in France.


title: Renault Espace

text: The third generation Espace arrived in December 1996, with the long wheelbase Grand Espace coming to market in the beginning of 1998. The most notable feature of the Espace III was the radically futuristic interior (including an elongated and centrally mounted dashboard, digital speedometer and radio/CD display).


title: Renault Espace

text: The Espace III featured a plastic (GRP) body over a galvanised independent steel chassis. The Espace III received a facelift in September 2000.


title: Renault Espace

text: In November 1999, a smaller 1.9 litre turbo diesel had been added to the lineup. The Espace III shared much of its running gear with the Laguna of the same era. Although Renault badged, the Espace III continued to be built by Matra.


title: Renault Espace

text: A number of third generation Espaces were used as bases for NGV and taxi conversions for the Kuala Lumpur International Airport and the Kuala Lumpur Sentral transportation hub in Malaysia, rebranded as Enviro 2000s.


title: Renault Espace

text: The third generation Espace was the last Espace to be built by Matra (the short lived Avantime was subsequently produced on the same production line). During 2001, Matra and MG Rover discussed a possible deal to build reskinned Espaces, as well as market them. However, the deal failed to happen.


title: Renault Espace

text: The fourth generation Espace arrived in November 2002, being the first entirely Renault developed and produced model. This model is 90% recyclable, and contains numerous weight reducing materials, thus cutting fuel consumption. The aluminium doors and bonnet are lighter than steel equivalents.


title: Renault Espace

text: Its styling was reflective of a new design direction at Renault, symbolised by the radical Vel Satis and Avantime models, marking a major departure from the previous model, which also saw the range moved upmarket.


title: Renault Espace

text: In 2006, the Espace received a thorough facelift (Phase II) and added new 2.0 litre and 3.0 litre dCi engines. In October 2010, a slight redesign was unveiled at the Paris Motor Show (Phase III), with minor cosmetic changes, LED lights and improved equipment.


title: Renault Espace

text: On 22 June 2012, Renault announced a restyling of the Espace (Phase IV), the second important after 2006, incorporating the "family feeling" design concept of Laurens van den Acker. Also, it introduced new 2.0 dCi (M9R) engines, in order to meet the French regulations regarding the limitations on CO2 emissions. The car continued in production until the launch of a new generation.


title: Renault Espace

text: In 2002, Renault goals were to deliver 450,000 units of the Espace IV before 2009, which would account for 20% of the European market for an MPV. The fourth generation Espace came third from the bottom in the "Top Gear" Satisfaction Survey 2005.


title: Renault Espace

text: The 2003 Espace featured in British motoring television show "Fifth Gear", where it was crashed into a 1990s Land Rover Discovery at 64 km/h (40 mph). The passenger compartment in the Espace was kept fairly intact, but the dummy in the Discovery was smashed between the seats and the dashboard, leaving no survival possibilities.


title: Renault Espace

text: The Renault Espace IV has received very good reviews from motoring journalists and is often cited as one of the best vehicles in the large MPV class.


title: Renault Espace

text: The fifth-generation Espace was unveiled at the 2014 Paris Motor Show in October 2014. It abandons the conventional large MPV design of previous generations, instead having crossover SUV styling. The car is based on the Renault–Nissan Common Module Family architecture developed by both Renault and Nissan.


title: Renault Espace

text: It is offered with the latest version of Renault's R Link 2 information system (voice control, navigation, Bluetooth and radio), engine stop start, emergency brake assist, lane departure warning and road sign recognition with speed limit alerts, 360 degree sensors, reversing camera and a hands free parking system.


title: Renault Espace

text: The Espace V is only available in markets with LHD, with neither RHD vehicles are built nor sold, along with the Renault Talisman.


title: Renault Espace

text: The fifth generation Espace was preceded by the Initiale Paris concept car, which is similar to the production version. The concept was unveiled in September 2013 at the Frankfurt Motor Show. It has crossover SUV styling and various luxury elements, previewing also the new Renault's Initiale Paris luxury sub-marque.


title: Renault Espace

text: The engine is a 1.6 litre diesel unit. The Initiale Paris is the final installment of Laurens van den Acker's "cycle of life" six-concept series, with each one representing, according to Renault, a lifetime moment: "love" (Renault DeZir), "explore" (Renault Captur), "family" (Renault R-Space), "work" (Renault Frendzy), "play" (Renaults Twin'Z and Twin'Run) and "wisdom" (Renault Initiale Paris).


title: Mean time between failures

text: Mean time between failures (MTBF) is the predicted elapsed time between inherent failures of a mechanical or electronic system during normal system operation. MTBF can be calculated as the arithmetic mean (average) time between failures of a system. The term is used for repairable systems while mean time to failure (MTTF) denotes the expected time to failure for a non-repairable system.


title: Mean time between failures

text: The definition of MTBF depends on the definition of what is considered a failure. For complex, repairable systems, failures are considered to be those out of design conditions which place the system out of service and into a state for repair. Failures which occur that can be left or maintained in an unrepaired condition, and do not place the system out of service, are not considered failures under this definition. In addition, units that are taken down for routine scheduled maintenance or inventory control are not considered within the definition of failure. The higher the MTBF, the longer a system is likely to work before failing.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Mean time between failures (MTBF) describes the expected time between two failures for a repairable system. For example, three identical systems starting to function properly at time 0 are working until all of them fail. The first system fails after 100 hours, the second after 120 hours and the third after 130 hours. The MTBF of the systems is the average of the three failure times, which is 116.667 hours. If the systems were non-repairable, then their MTTF would be 116.667 hours.


title: Mean time between failures

text: In general, MTBF is the "up-time" between two failure states of a repairable system during operation as outlined here:


title: Mean time between failures

text: For each observation, the "down time" is the instantaneous time it went down, which is after (i.e. greater than) the moment it went up, the "up time". The difference ("down time" minus "up time") is the amount of time it was operating between these two events.


title: Mean time between failures

text: By referring to the figure above, the MTBF of a component is the sum of the lengths of the operational periods divided by the number of observed failures:


title: Mean time between failures

text: MTBF is defined by the arithmetic mean value of the reliability function formula_3, which can be expressed as the expected value of the density function formula_4 of time until failure:


title: Mean time between failures

text: Any practically-relevant calculation of MTBF or probabilistic failure prediction based on MTBF requires that the system is working within its "useful life period", which is characterized by a relatively constant failure rate (the middle part of the "bathtub curve") when only random failures are occurring.


title: Mean time between failures

text: which, in turn, simplifies the above-mentioned calculation of MTBF to the reciprocal of the failure rate of the system


title: Mean time between failures

text: The units used are typically hours or lifecycles. This critical relationship between a system's MTBF and its failure rate allows a simple conversion/calculation when one of the two quantities is known and an exponential distribution (constant failure rate, i.e., no systematic failures) can be assumed. The MTBF is the expected value, average or mean of the exponential distribution.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Once the MTBF of a system is known, the probability that any one particular system will be operational at time equal to the MTBF can be estimated.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Under the assumption of a constant failure rate, any one particular system will survive to its calculated MTBF with a probability of 36.8% (i.e., it will fail before with a probability of 63.2%). The same applies to the MTTF of a system working within this time period.


title: Mean time between failures

text: The MTBF value can be used as a system reliability parameter or to compare different systems or designs. This value should only be understood conditionally as the “mean lifetime” (an average value), and not as a quantitative identity between working and failed units.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Since MTBF can be expressed as “average life (expectancy)”, many engineers assume that 50% of items will have failed by time "t" = MTBF. This inaccuracy can lead to bad design decisions. Furthermore, probabilistic failure prediction based on MTBF implies the total absence of systematic failures (i.e., a constant failure rate with only intrinsic, random failures), which is not easy to verify. Assuming no systematic errors, the probability the system survives during a duration, T, is calculated as exp^(-T/MTBF). Hence the probability a system fails during a duration T, is given by 1 - exp^(-T/MTBF).


title: Mean time between failures

text: MTBF value prediction is an important element in the development of products. Reliability engineers and design engineers often use reliability software to calculate a product's MTBF according to various methods and standards (MIL-HDBK-217F, Telcordia SR332, Siemens SN 29500, FIDES, UTE 80-810 (RDF2000), etc.). The Mil-HDBK-217 reliability calculator manual in combination with RelCalc software (or other comparable tool) enables MTBF reliability rates to be predicted based on design.


title: Mean time between failures

text: A concept which is closely related to MTBF, and is important in the computations involving MTBF, is the mean down time (MDT). MDT can be defined as mean time which the system is down after the failure. Usually, MDT is considered different from MTTR (Mean Time To Repair); in particular, MDT usually includes organizational and logistical factors (such as business days or waiting for components to arrive) while MTTR is usually understood as more narrow and more technical.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Two components formula_9 (for instance hard drives, servers, etc.) may be arranged in a network, in "series" or in "parallel". The terminology is here used by close analogy to electrical circuits, but has a slightly different meaning. We say that the two components are in series if the failure of "either" causes the failure of the network, and that they are in parallel if only the failure of "both" causes the network to fail. The MTBF of the resulting two-component network with repairable components can be computed according to the following formulae, assuming that the MTBF of both individual components is known:


title: Mean time between failures

text: For the network containing parallel repairable components, to find out the MTBF of the whole system, in addition to component MTBFs, it is also necessary to know their respective MDTs. Then, assuming that MDTs are negligible compared to MTBFs (which usually stands in practice), the MTBF for the parallel system consisting from two parallel repairable components can be written as follows:


title: Mean time between failures

text: where formula_13 is the network in which the components are arranged in parallel, and formula_14 is the probability of failure of component formula_15 during "vulnerability window" formula_16.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Intuitively, both these formulae can be explained from the point of view of failure probabilities. First of all, let's note that the probability of a system failing within a certain timeframe is the inverse of its MTBF. Then, when considering series of components, failure of any component leads to the failure of the whole system, so (assuming that failure probabilities are small, which is usually the case) probability of the failure of the whole system within a given interval can be approximated as a sum of failure probabilities of the components. With parallel components the situation is a bit more complicated: the whole system will fail if and only if after one of the components fails, the other component fails while the first component is being repaired; this is where MDT comes into play: the faster the first component is repaired, the less is the "vulnerability window" for the other component to fail.


title: Mean time between failures

text: Through successive application of these four formulae, the MTBF and MDT of any network of repairable components can be computed, provided that the MTBF and MDT is known for each component. In a special but all-important case of several serial components, MTBF calculation can be easily generalised into


title: Mean time between failures

text: since the formula for the mdt of two components in parallel is identical to that of the mtbf for two components in series.


title: Mean time between failures

text: There are many variations of MTBF, such as "mean time between system aborts" (MTBSA), "mean time between critical failures" (MTBCF) or "mean time between unscheduled removal" (MTBUR). Such nomenclature is used when it is desirable to differentiate among types of failures, such as critical and non-critical failures. For example, in an automobile, the failure of the FM radio does not prevent the primary operation of the vehicle.


title: Mean time between failures

text: It is recommended to use "Mean time to failure" (MTTF) instead of MTBF in cases where a system is replaced after a failure ("non-repairable system"), since MTBF denotes time between failures in a system which can be repaired.


title: Mean time between failures

text: MTTFd is an extension of MTTF, and is only concerned about failures which would result in a dangerous condition. It can be calculated as follows:


title: Mean time between failures

text: where "B" is the number of operations that a device will operate prior to 10% of a sample of those devices would fail and "n" is number of operations. "B" is the same calculation, but where 10% of the sample would fail to danger. "n" is the number of operations/cycle in one year.


title: Mean time between failures

text: In fact the MTBF counting only failures with at least some systems still operating that have not yet failed underestimates the MTBF by failing to include in the computations the partial lifetimes of the systems that have not yet failed. With such lifetimes, all we know is that the time to failure exceeds the time they've been running. This is called censoring. In fact with a parametric model of the lifetime, the likelihood for the experience on any given day is as follows:


title: Mean time between failures

text: For a constant exponential distribution, the hazard, formula_6, is constant. In this case, the MBTF is


title: Mean time between failures

text: where formula_31 is the maximum likelihood estimate of formula_6, maximizing the likelihood given above and formula_33 is the number of uncensored observations.


title: Mean time between failures

text: We see that the difference between the MTBF considering only failures and the MTBF including censored observations is that the censoring times add to the numerator but not the denominator in computing the MTBF.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Rush is a 1991 American crime drama film directed by Lili Fini Zanuck and based on a novel written by Kim Wozencraft. It stars Jennifer Jason Leigh and Jason Patric as two cops in the 1970s who go undercover on a case. They become drug addicts themselves and, under pressure from the chief of police, falsified evidence in some cases. The book and film are both based on a 1978-79 drug scandal involving the Tyler, Texas police department and Smith County, Texas Sheriff's Office. An FBI investigation led to the book's author and her partner pleading guilty to perjury, serving time in federal prison, and testifying in a federal civil rights case against Tyler, Texas police chief Willie Hardy, who was found not guilty by a jury of his peers in Smith County, Texas.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Seasoned undercover narcotics officer Jim Raynor is told by his superior, Lt. Dodd, to choose a partner from a group of recent police academy graduates for a planned undercover investigation. Raynor chooses the only woman applicant, Kristen Cates. Though uneasy, Dodd approves Raynor's choice.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Raynor explains to Cates that they will be deep undercover, dependent on each other to try not to get killed during the investigation. Though initially startled by Raynor's intensity, Cates insists she is capable of doing whatever it takes to get the job done. Later at Raynor's apartment, he teaches Cates how to inject drugs, claiming that he is using a harmless powder for demonstration purposes. Raynor informs Cates that she will be put in situations where she will have to take the drugs in order to convince dealers she is not a cop. He insists that if she tries to fake drug use in front of dealers, she will get both of them killed.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: The main target of the operation is a local bar owner and pornographer, Will Gaines. The chief of police insists that Gaines is the main drug boss in the town, but Gaines is deeply mistrustful of Raynor and Cates.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: As Raynor predicted, Cates is put into a position where she is forced to inject drugs in front of a dealer. Over the course of the investigation, buying drugs all over town, Cates and Raynor begin using drugs for more reasons than maintaining their cover.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Though they have successfully infiltrated the town's drug underworld, Raynor and Cates are unable to make a buy from Gaines. Under pressure from the chief and sergeant, they falsify evidence against Gaines in order to secure his arrest.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: The night before Gaines trial is to begin, Cates is startled awake by a double barrel shotgun caressing her face. A gunfight ensues, in which Raynor is shot in the thigh, striking his femoral artery. Cates returns fire and runs to a neighbor's house shouting for help, then returns to the trailer to find Raynor barely conscious. He dies in her arms.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: At the grand jury, Cates is on the witness stand. During her testimony, she mentions that she has resigned from the police force. Her testimony sticks to the fabricated story Raynor and she concocted. Gaines is later indicted. However, at trial, Cates takes the stand to testify. When she looks directly at Gaines, he slides two fingers down the bridge of his nose, mimicking the movement of the shotgun that eventually killed Raynor. Stunned, Cates retracts her statements about Gaines's involvement in the drug trade, and testifies that they were ordered to fabricate evidence by the Chief of Police. This secures Gaines's acquittal.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Freed from police custody, Gaines gets into his car a few nights later. As he drives down the road, he notices someone hiding in the backseat. Gaines pulls over, and as he turns to confront them, he is killed by a double barrel shotgun blast to the face. The killer is never shown, but it is implied that it is Cates.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Eric Clapton's Grammy-winning song "Tears in Heaven" is featured in the film. Clapton wrote the film's score and performed on it. The soundtrack includes Clapton's guitar and vocals on "Tears in Heaven" and "Help Me Up"; Clapton and Buddy Guy perform "Don't Know Which Way to Go" as well. It was mastered by Ted Jensen.


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: Other songs featured in the film (but not on the soundtrack album) include Charlie Terrell's version of the Willie Dixon classic "Wang Dang Doodle", Jimi Hendrix's "All Along the Watchtower" (composed by Bob Dylan), Lynyrd Skynyrd's "Free Bird", Freddy Fender's "Before the Next Teardrop Falls", Robin Trower's "Bridge of Sighs", The Ohio Players' "Love Rollercoaster", and Johnny Winter's "Rock and Roll Hoochie Koo" (composed by Rick Derringer).


title: Rush (1991 film)

text: The film was met with generally positive reviews, with a 71% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 28 reviews with an average score of 6.2 out of 10.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong Jin-young (born August 9, 1985) is a South Korean trot singer and entertainer. She was a member of the short-lived South Korean girl group SWAN, which debuted in 2007. In 2009, she returned to the music scene, debuting as a trot singer. She is known for her vocal ability, signature aegyo, appearances on many variety programs, and prevalence at events throughout South Korea all year round.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong made her debut in small film and television roles. In 2006, she had a small part in the movie "Who Slept With Her?" (누가 그녀와 잤을까) and she also played a role in "Yeon Gaesomun", a historical Korean drama that takes place in the seventh century.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong began her music career in 2007, with SWAN (스완), a Korean girl group consisting of members, Han Ji-na, Hong Jin-young, Heo Yoon-mi, and Kim Yeon-ji, with their debut song "Call Me When You Hear This Song" (이 노래 들으면 전화해), featuring Coolapika.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In 2009, her agency (CCM) CEO suggested her to switch to become a solo trot singer, a suggestion she initially resisted given her young age, as trot is regarded as an "older" genre of music in Korea. Nonetheless, she released her first digital single, "Love Battery" (사랑의 배터리). On August 6, 2010, she returned with a new digital single entitled, "My Love". On June 30, 2011, Hong along with many of South Korea's rising stars sang at the Changwon Sports Complex in a concert called "Changwon's First Anniversary Hope Concert, We Are". On March 22, 2013, she returned with the release of the digital single, "Boogie Man" (부기맨). During the year 2014, she had parted ways from Core Contents Media alongside Davichi.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong is well known for her multiple appearances on popular music variety shows like "" and "King of Mask Singer". In 2014, she was a panelist and also in a virtual marriage with Namkoong Min on a popular variety show, "We Got Married". In November of that year, Hong released her first EP, "Life Note" (인생노트) with the title song “Cheer Up” (산다는 건). Her virtual husband, Namkoong Min, appeared as her love interest in the music video in a cameo role.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In 2016, she released her second EP, "The Most Beautiful Moment in Life" (화양연화), with the title song “Thumb Up” (엄지 척) and “Love Wifi” (사랑의 와이파이). She also released a cover of a well-known Chinese song called “The Moon Represents My Heart” (月亮代表我的心/월량대표아적심). For the Korean remake, Hong wrote the lyrics herself.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In February 2017, Hong released a digital single called “Loves Me, Loves Me Not” (사랑한다 안한다) from “A Fabricated City” (조작된 도시) OST.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In 2017, Hong was cast as a regular member of "Sister's Slam Dunk". She was assigned as a rapper by the producers as it has been Hong's dream to become a rapper for a group, and she received direction from group leader Minzy and Jeon So-mi wrote the rap lyrics for their single, "Right?" (맞지?).


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong collaborated with comedian Kim Young-chul to release the electrot (EDM and trot) single "Ring Ring" (따르릉) on April 20, 2017, for which they won Best Trot at the 2017 MelOn Music Awards.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In 2018, Hong released a retro trot style digital single, "Good Bye" (잘가라), composed by her long-time collaborator Jo Young-soo (who also composed “Love Battery” and “Cheer Up”) and well-known K-pop lyricist Kim Eana. She wrote and composed a second electrot single "I Kicked My Luck Off" (복을 발로 차버렸어) for Kang Ho-dong, which was released through SM Station. In December 2018, Hong released a trot single about people and experiences in Seoul, entitled "Seoul" (서울사람), a collaboration with rapper Bray (브레이) which she produced with Park Keun-tae (박근태).


title: Hong Jin-young

text: In January 2019, Hong released a digital single, a ballad titled "Love Is…" (사랑은 다 이러니). On 12 January 2019, Hong made her U.S. concert debut at the Pechanga Resort & Casino in California, to an audience of over 3,000. In March 2019, Hong finally released her first studio album, titled "Lots of Love" (랏츠 오브 러브). She often appears on the KBS 1TV 'Golden Oldies ()'.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On March 21, 2022, Hong's agency announced that has finished recording a new song and filmed a music video as well. After the announcement, on April 6, 2022 the single "Viva La Vida" was released with both Korean and English versions of the song and video.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On November 1, 2022, Hong's agency announced that the release of "You are there" has been postponed from November 3rd to November 11th due to the Seoul Halloween crowd crush.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: Hong holds a Bachelor of Commerce from Chosun University. She also received a Master’s degree in Trade in 2009 and a PhD degree in Business Administration in 2012 from the same university, which were both revoked in 2020 due to plagiarism.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On November 5, 2020, Hong was accused of plagiarizing her Master of Trade's thesis after scoring 74 percent on the plagiarism review site "Copy Killer". On the same day, her agency released a statement denying all accusations, stating her thesis was "under review in 2009" and that "Copy Killer is a system that began obligatory use in universities beginning 2015 and is meant to filter out submissions with more than 50 percent plagiarized content. It is inevitable that a thesis that was reviewed in 2009 when the system did not exist would come out with a high score."


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On November 6, 2020, Hong released another statement after the accusation continued to spread. In her statement released through her personal Instagram, she stated that "I've decided to give up my master's and doctoral degrees. I think that is the best thing that I can do at this moment."


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On December 15, 2020, the Research Integrity Committee under the Chosun University Ethics Committee made the tentative judgement of plagiarism regarding Hong's master's thesis and come to a conclusion that the thesis may be plagiarized. The committee later referred the case to the Graduate School Committee, which had given Hong until 5 PM KST on December 18 to submit a written explanation, before making a final decision to determine if the plagiarism took place through a meeting which will be held on December 23. If the meeting determines that she plagiarized, then both her master's and doctoral degrees will be cancelled automatically.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On December 18, 2020, Hong released another statement through her personal Instagram, stating that she will accept Chosun University's tentative conclusion of plagiarism and she admitted to plagiarizing her thesis.


title: Hong Jin-young

text: On December 23, 2020, Chosun University Graduate School Committee confirmed that Hong master's thesis was plagiarized and accordingly all her postgraduate degrees obtained from the university will be cancelled.


title: Karan Mehra

text: Karan Mehra (born 10 September 1982) is an Indian television actor, model and fashion designer he is known for his performance as main lead Naitik Singhania in "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai", one of the longest-running Indian television serials. He is also known for Sumit Mishra in Khatmal E Ishq, Do phool ek maali. One of the highest-paid actors in Hindi television industry, he was also a contestant on "Bigg Boss 10" (2016–2017).


title: Karan Mehra

text: Mehra was born on 10 September 1982 in Jalandhar, Punjab in a Punjabi family. His family moved to Delhi when he was very young. Mehra studied fashion designing from National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), Delhi and studied at Apeejay School, Noida. He was the topper in his batch at the University. After his 12th grade, Mehra worked as a summer trainee at Dominos Pizza.


title: Karan Mehra

text: Mehra came to Mumbai and started working for directors Rajkumar Hirani and Ram Gopal Verma as an assistant in four movies. He then appeared in the movie" Love Story 2050". After that, he started doing modelling and TV commercials. In 2009, while training in acting classes, he got the role of Naitik Singhania in "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai". He got a big break from the show, continued it for nearly seven-and-a-half years until June 2016 and quit then owing health issues. Along with this, he participated in the dance reality shows "Nach Baliye 5" and "Nach Baliye Shriman v/s Shrimati" with his wife Nisha Rawal in 2012–13.


title: Karan Mehra

text: In October 2016, Mehra entered the Bigg Boss house as a contestant with his co-star Rohan Mehra. He was evicted in the fifth week as the first celebrity to be evicted.


title: Karan Mehra

text: Mehra's new movie "Basthi Hai Sasthi" is about stepping up game and leaning how to cope with reality. He announced it on an interview, and advertised it on TV show "Saath Nibhana Saathiya" in 2016. It was supposed to release in 2017, however release dates have been pushed back to 2018.


title: Karan Mehra

text: In October 2020, Mehra started shooting for the upcoming Zee Punjabi soap "Mawaan Thandiyan Chawan" in Chandigarh.


title: Karan Mehra

text: In November 2020, he featured in the Jubin Nautiyal - Rochak Kohli song "Bewafa Tera Masoom Chehra". He received STAR Parivaar Award for 'Favourite Pati' (2015, 2011).


title: Karan Mehra

text: Mehra was married to actress Nisha Rawal. He saw her on the sets of Hastey Hastey where he was styling. After dating for six years, they married on 24 November 2012. Rawal found out that she was pregnant while he was in the Bigg Boss house. The couple had a son in 2017.


title: Karan Mehra

text: A complaint of domestic violence was filed against Mehra by Rawal on 31 May 2021 in Mumbai's Goregaon police station after the latter arrived with a bleeding forehead. Mehra was subsequently arrested and released on bail. Later, Rawal claimed that Mehra had admitted to an extramarital affair with a Delhi girl while he was away on a shooting in Chandigarh. Divorce has been filed following the event, and the couple is separated as of March 2022.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: The Mouth of Truth ( ) is a marble mask in Rome, Italy, which stands against the left wall of the portico of the Santa Maria in Cosmedin church, at the Piazza della Bocca della Verità, the site of the ancient Forum Boarium (the ancient cattle market). According to enduring medieval legend, it will bite off the hand of any liar who places their hand in its mouth, or, alternatively, any who utters a lie while their hand is in the mouth. It still attracts many visitors who audaciously insert their hands.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: The massive marble mask weighs about 1300 kg (2800 lbs) and probably depicts the face of the sea titan god Oceanus. The eyes, nostrils and mouth are open. Historians aren't quite certain what the original purpose of the disc was. It was possibly used as a drain cover in the nearby Temple of Hercules Victor, which had an oculus—a round open space in the middle of the roof, similar to that of the Pantheon. Hence, it could rain inside. It is also thought that cattle merchants used it to drain the blood of cattle sacrificed to the god Hercules. In the thirteenth century the disc was probably removed from the temple and placed against the wall of the Santa Maria in Cosmedin. In the seventeenth century it eventually moved to its current location inside the portico of the church.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: The Mouth of Truth has been featured as a theme in historical European art. Lucas Cranach the Elder, a German painter during the Renaissance period, created two paintings depicting a woman placing her hand in the mouth of a statue of a lion while onlookers watched, a subject which was drawn by Albrecht Altdorfer and made into a woodcut by the Dutch printmaker Lucas van Leyden.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: The Mouth of Truth is now known mostly from its appearance in the 1953 film "Roman Holiday". The film also uses the Mouth of Truth as a storytelling device since both Hepburn's and Peck's characters are not initially truthful with each other.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: In "Het geheim van de afgebeten vingers" by Dutch writer Rindert Kromhout, the fingers of lying children are cut off with a scythe by a skeleton who lives in the Capuchin Crypt in the Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini.


title: Bocca della Verità

text: There are a number of "Bocca della Verità" replicas and derivative works. A full-size reproduction sits in the Alta Vista Gardens in California and one of Jules Blanchard's sculptures in the Luxembourg Garden in Paris depicts a woman with her hand in the sculpture's mouth. Coin-operated fortune teller machines have been developed and installed in different parts of the world, including one on display in the Musée Mécanique in San Francisco.


title: Catherine Dior

text: Ginette Dior (2 August 1917 – 17 June 2008), better known as Catherine Dior, was a French resistance fighter during World War II. Involved with the Franco-Polish intelligence unit F2 from November 1941, she was arrested in Paris in July 1944 by the Gestapo, then tortured and deported to the Ravensbrück women concentration camp. Dior was subsequently forced to work in the Torgau military prison, in the Buchenwald's satellite camp of Abberode, and finally in a factory near Leipzig. After her release in April 1945, she was awarded several medals of honour for her acts in the Resistance, most notably the Croix de Guerre, the King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom, and the Legion of Honour.


title: Catherine Dior

text: After the end of the war, Dior spent the remainder of her life working with flowers: first as a flower trader in Paris, then as a flower farmer in Provence for the production of fragrance. She was close to her brother, the well-known couturier Christian Dior. Launched in 1947, the perfume "Miss Dior" is often said to have been named after her by Christian. Catherine Dior helped preserve her brother's legacy after his death in 1957, and she became the honorary president of the from 1999 until her death in 2008, aged 90.


title: Catherine Dior

text: Ginette Dior – who later took the name Catherine – was born in Granville, Normandy on 2 August 1917, the youngest child of Maurice Dior (1872–1946), a fertilizer industrialist, and Madeleine Dior, née Martin (1879–1931). She had four siblings: Raymond (the father of Françoise Dior), Jacqueline, Bernard, and the couturier Christian Dior. Following the bankruptcy of the Dior factories in the aftermath of the 1929 financial crash and the death of her mother in 1931, the family settled in 1932 in Callian, near Grasse in Provence. Catherine assisted in the family's survival by growing green beans and peas.


title: Catherine Dior

text: In November 1941, Dior met founding Resistance member Hervé des Charbonneries while shopping in Cannes. She fell in love with him; aged 36, des Charbonneries was a married man and had 3 children. Dior joined him in the Resistance in late 1941, soon after her brother Christian returned to Paris. She used Christian's apartment in Paris, located at 10 Rue Royale, in order to host underground Resistance meetings. Dior was involved with the "Massif Central" section of the F2 network, a British-funded Resistance intelligence unit set up by the Polish government-in-exile to operate in France. Des Charbonneries belonged to the same network and operated in the Zone Sud under the leadership of Admiral Jacques Trolley de Prévaux. Dior was in charge of transmitting clandestine reports to London.


title: Catherine Dior

text: On 6 July 1944, Dior was arrested along with 26 other persons of the group, then tortured by the Gestapo. Christian tried to seek her release via the Nazi contacts he had made at his job and with the help of his friend, Swedish consul-general Raoul Nordling. On 18 August, Nordling managed to convince the Nazis to place Catherine under the protection of the Swedish state, but she had already been deported by 15 August on one of the last prison trains leaving Paris towards the Ravensbrück women concentration camp. Trolley de Prévaux was arrested in Marseille during the same month.


title: Catherine Dior

text: Dior was subsequently transferred from Ravensbrück to the military prison of Torgau and posted to the all-female "Anton Kommando" to work on the production of explosives in a disused potassium mine. She then worked in Abberode – one of Buchenwald concentration camp's satellite camps – and in an aviation factory at Leipzig-Markkleeberg, which was eventually captured by the US Army on 19 April 1945. Dior was liberated near Dresden during the same month and returned to Paris on 28 May 1945. When she arrived back in Paris, she was so emaciated that her brother Christian didn't recognize her and she was too sick to eat the dinner he'd prepared to celebrate her return.


title: Catherine Dior

text: Dior was awarded several medals of honour for her acts of resistance: the Croix de Guerre – a distinction usually reserved for regular armed forces –, the Combatant Volunteer Cross of the Resistance, the Combatant's Cross, the King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom, and was named a Chevalière of the Legion of Honour.


title: Catherine Dior

text: After the war, Dior became a "representative in cut flowers" ("mandataire en fleurs coupées"). During 12 years, she worked with des Charbonneries at the Halles market in Paris, trading flowers from the south of France and the French colonies. She then moved to Callian, Provence, buying there a rose farm for the production of fragrance, which she continued to exploit until her death. Christian Dior's testament will, dated 30 August 1957, bequeathed his possessions to be equally shared between his sister Catherine and Raymonde Zehnacker, his right-hand woman. He died from a heart attack on 23 October the same year, aged 52.


title: Catherine Dior

text: The fragrance "Miss Dior", presented on 12 February 1947 during the first fashion show of the company, might have been named after her. Although the relation is not confirmed by Dior's official website, the story is often mentioned by journalists. According to the legend, Catherine Dior suddenly entered the room while her brother Christian was brainstorming names for the fragrance with his muse Mitzah Bricard; "Ah, here's Miss Dior!", Bricard said, and Christian allegedly replied "Miss Dior: now there's a name for my perfume!"


title: Catherine Dior

text: In October 1963, she publicly distanced herself from her niece Françoise Dior after her wedding with British Neo-Nazi leader Colin Jordan. Dior issued a press release denouncing the "publicity given by the press and television to [her] niece Françoise Dior's nonsensical statements. The fame of [her] brother Christian Dior must not be used to highlight the scandal and risk tarnishing a name carried with honour and patriotism by members of my family."


title: Catherine Dior

text: She kept on preserving the legacy of her brother until her death. In 1999 Dior inaugurated the opening of the in Granville As well as donating a dress that belonged to her mother, Madeleine Dior, she became the museum's honorary president.