title: Control character

text: Control characters are often rendered into a printable form known as caret notation by printing a caret (^) and then the ASCII character that has a value of the control character plus 64. Control characters generated using letter keys are thus displayed with the upper-case form of the letter. For example, ^G represents code 7, which is generated by pressing the G key when the control key is held down.


title: Control character

text: Keyboards also typically have a few single keys which produce control character codes. For example, the key labelled "Backspace" typically produces code 8, "Tab" code 9, "Enter" or "Return" code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for "Enter").


title: Control character

text: Many keyboards include keys that do not correspond to any ASCII printable or control character, for example cursor control arrows and word processing functions. The associated keypresses are communicated to computer programs by one of four methods: appropriating otherwise unused control characters; using some encoding other than ASCII; using multi-character control sequences; or using an additional mechanism outside of generating characters. "Dumb" computer terminals typically use control sequences. Keyboards attached to stand-alone personal computers made in the 1980s typically use one (or both) of the first two methods. Modern computer keyboards generate scancodes that identify the specific physical keys that are pressed; computer software then determines how to handle the keys that are pressed, including any of the four methods described above.


title: Control character

text: The control characters were designed to fall into a few groups: printing and display control, data structuring, transmission control, and miscellaneous.


title: Control character

text: Printing control characters were first used to control the physical mechanism of printers, the earliest output device. An early example of this idea was the use of Figures (FIGS) and Letters (LTRS) in Baudot code to shift between two code pages. A later, but still early, example was the out-of-band ASA carriage control characters. Later, control characters were integrated into the stream of data to be printed.


title: Control character

text: The carriage return character (CR), when sent to such a device, causes it to put the character at the edge of the paper at which writing begins (it may, or may not, also move the printing position to the next line).


title: Control character

text: The line feed character (LF/NL) causes the device to put the printing position on the next line. It may (or may not), depending on the device and its configuration, also move the printing position to the start of the next line (which would be the leftmost position for left-to-right scripts, such as the alphabets used for Western languages, and the rightmost position for right-to-left scripts such as the Hebrew and Arabic alphabets).


title: Control character

text: The vertical and horizontal tab characters (VT and HT/TAB) cause the output device to move the printing position to the next tab stop in the direction of reading.


title: Control character

text: The form feed character (FF/NP) starts a new sheet of paper, and may or may not move to the start of the first line.


title: Control character

text: The backspace character (BS) moves the printing position one character space backwards. On printers, including hard-copy terminals, this is most often used so the printer can overprint characters to make other, not normally available, characters. On video terminals and other electronic output devices, there are often software (or hardware) configuration choices that allow a destructive backspace (e.g., a BS, SP, BS sequence), which erases, or a non-destructive one, which does not.


title: Control character

text: The shift in and shift out characters (SI and SO) selected alternate character sets, fonts, underlining, or other printing modes. Escape sequences were often used to do the same thing.


title: Control character

text: With the advent of computer terminals that did not physically print on paper and so offered more flexibility regarding screen placement, erasure, and so forth, printing control codes were adapted. Form feeds, for example, usually cleared the screen, there being no new paper page to move to. More complex escape sequences were developed to take advantage of the flexibility of the new terminals, and indeed of newer printers. The concept of a control character had always been somewhat limiting, and was extremely so when used with new, much more flexible, hardware. Control sequences (sometimes implemented as escape sequences) could match the new flexibility and power and became the standard method. However, there were, and remain, a large variety of standard sequences to choose from.


title: Control character

text: The separators (File, Group, Record, and Unit: FS, GS, RS and US) were made to structure data, usually on a tape, in order to simulate punched cards.


title: Control character

text: While many systems use CR/LF and TAB for structuring data, it is possible to encounter the separator control characters in data that needs to be structured. The separator control characters are not overloaded; there is no general use of them except to separate data into structured groupings. Their numeric values are contiguous with the space character, which can be considered a member of the group, as a word separator.


title: Control character

text: For example, the RS separator is used by (JSON Text Sequences) to encode a sequence of JSON elements. Each sequence item starts with a RS character and ends with a line feed. This allows to serialize open-ended JSON sequences. It is one of the JSON streaming protocols.


title: Control character

text: The transmission control characters were intended to structure a data stream, and to manage re-transmission or graceful failure, as needed, in the face of transmission errors.


title: Control character

text: The start of heading (SOH) character was to mark a non-data section of a data stream—the part of a stream containing addresses and other housekeeping data. The start of text character (STX) marked the end of the header, and the start of the textual part of a stream. The end of text character (ETX) marked the end of the data of a message. A widely used convention is to make the two characters preceding ETX a checksum or CRC for error-detection purposes. The end of transmission block character (ETB) was used to indicate the end of a block of data, where data was divided into such blocks for transmission purposes.


title: Control character

text: The escape character (ESC) was intended to "quote" the next character, if it was another control character it would print it instead of performing the control function. It is almost never used for this purpose today. Various printable characters are used as visible "escape characters", depending on context.


title: Control character

text: The substitute character (SUB) was intended to request a translation of the next character from a printable character to another value, usually by setting bit 5 to zero. This is handy because some media (such as sheets of paper produced by typewriters) can transmit only printable characters. However, on MS-DOS systems with files opened in text mode, "end of text" or "end of file" is marked by this Ctrl-Z character, instead of the Ctrl-C or Ctrl-D, which are common on other operating systems.


title: Control character

text: The cancel character (CAN) signalled that the previous element should be discarded. The negative acknowledge character (NAK) is a definite flag for, usually, noting that reception was a problem, and, often, that the current element should be sent again. The acknowledge character (ACK) is normally used as a flag to indicate no problem detected with current element.


title: Control character

text: When a transmission medium is half duplex (that is, it can transmit in only one direction at a time), there is usually a master station that can transmit at any time, and one or more slave stations that transmit when they have permission. The enquire character (ENQ) is generally used by a master station to ask a slave station to send its next message. A slave station indicates that it has completed its transmission by sending the end of transmission character (EOT).


title: Control character

text: The device control codes (DC1 to DC4) were originally generic, to be implemented as necessary by each device. However, a universal need in data transmission is to request the sender to stop transmitting when a receiver is temporarily unable to accept any more data. Digital Equipment Corporation invented a convention which used 19 (the device control 3 character (DC3), also known as control-S, or XOFF) to "S"top transmission, and 17 (the device control 1 character (DC1), a.k.a. control-Q, or XON) to start transmission. It has become so widely used that most don't realize it is not part of official ASCII. This technique, however implemented, avoids additional wires in the data cable devoted only to transmission management, which saves money. A sensible protocol for the use of such transmission flow control signals must be used, to avoid potential deadlock conditions, however.


title: Control character

text: The data link escape character (DLE) was intended to be a signal to the other end of a data link that the following character is a control character such as STX or ETX. For example a packet may be structured in the following way (DLE) <STX> <PAYLOAD> (DLE) <ETX>.


title: Control character

text: Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not often seen today. For example, code 22, "synchronous idle" (SYN), was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send. (Modern systems typically use a start bit to announce the beginning of a transmitted word— this is a feature of "asynchronous" communication. "Synchronous" communication links were more often seen with mainframes, where they were typically run over corporate leased lines to connect a mainframe to another mainframe or perhaps a minicomputer.)


title: Control character

text: Code 0 (ASCII code name NUL) is a special case. In paper tape, it is the case when there are no holes. It is convenient to treat this as a "fill" character with no meaning otherwise. Since the position of a NUL character has no holes punched, it can be replaced with any other character at a later time, so it was typically used to reserve space, either for correcting errors or for inserting information that would be available at a later time or in another place. In computing it is often used for padding in fixed length records and more commonly, to mark the end of a string.


title: Control character

text: Code 127 (DEL, a.k.a. "rubout") is likewise a special case. Its 7-bit code is "all-bits-on" in binary, which essentially erased a character cell on a paper tape when overpunched. Paper tape was a common storage medium when ASCII was developed, with a computing history dating back to WWII code breaking equipment at Biuro Szyfrów. Paper tape became obsolete in the 1970s, so this clever aspect of ASCII rarely saw any use after that. Some systems (such as the original Apples) converted it to a backspace. But because its code is in the range occupied by other printable characters, and because it had no official assigned glyph, many computer equipment vendors used it as an additional printable character (often an all-black "box" character useful for erasing text by overprinting with ink).


title: Control character

text: Non-erasable programmable ROMs are typically implemented as arrays of fusible elements, each representing a bit, which can only be switched one way, usually from one to zero. In such PROMs, the DEL and NUL characters can be used in the same way that they were used on punched tape: one to reserve meaningless fill bytes that can be written later, and the other to convert written bytes to meaningless fill bytes. For PROMs that switch one to zero, the roles of NUL and DEL are reversed; also, DEL will only work with 7-bit characters, which are rarely used today; for 8-bit content, the character code 255, commonly defined as a nonbreaking space character, can be used instead of DEL.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: A wide variety of characters have appeared on the American children's television series "Sesame Street". Many of the characters are Muppets, which are puppets made in Jim Henson's distinctive puppet-creation style. Most of the non-Muppet characters are human characters, but there are many characters that are animated.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Jim Henson created many Muppet characters for the purpose of appearing on "Sesame Street". His involvement with the show began when he and one of the creators, Joan Ganz Cooney, met in the summer of 1968 at one of the show's five three-day curriculum planning seminars in Boston. Author Christopher Finch reported that director Jon Stone, who had worked with Henson previously, felt that if they could not bring him on board, they should "make do without puppets".


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Henson was initially reluctant, but he agreed to join "Sesame Street" for social goals. He also agreed to waive his performance fee for full ownership of the "Sesame Street" Muppets and to split any revenue they generated with the Children's Television Workshop, the series' non-profit producer. The Muppets were a crucial part of the show's popularity and it brought Henson national attention. In early research, the Muppet segments of the show scored high, and more Muppets were added during the first few seasons. The Muppets were effective teaching tools because children easily recognized them, they were predictable, and they appealed to adults and older siblings.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: During the production of "Sesame Street"s first season, producers created five one-hour episodes to test the show's appeal to children and examine their comprehension of the material. Not intended for broadcast, they were presented to preschoolers in 60 homes throughout Philadelphia and in daycare centers in New York City in July 1969. The results were "generally very positive"; children learned from the shows, their appeal was high, and children's attention was sustained over the full hour. However, the researchers found that although children's attention was high during the Muppet segments, their interest wavered during the "Street" segments, when no Muppets were on screen. This was because the producers had followed the advice of child psychologists who were concerned that children would be confused if human actors and Muppets were shown together. As a result of this decision, the appeal of the test episodes was lower than the target.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: The Street scenes were "the glue" that "pulled the show together", so producers knew they needed to make significant changes. The producers decided to reject the advisers' advice and reshot the Street segments; Henson and his coworkers created Muppets that could interact with the human actors. These test episodes were directly responsible for what writer Malcolm Gladwell called "the essence of "Sesame Street"—the artful blend of fluffy monsters and earnest adults". Since 2001, the full rights for the "Sesame Street" Muppets have been owned by Sesame Workshop, as the CTW was renamed in 2000.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: The series' main protagonist and the first Muppet to appear on the show was Big Bird, a curious 8-foot-tall yellow bird believed by writer Shalom M. Fisch and Dr. Lewis Bernstein to be a canary, who resides in a large nest alongside the "123 Sesame Street" building and represents the 6-year-old child with his tendency to question everything. On special days, he wears a white collar and colorful necktie. Big Bird's best friend is Aloysius Snuffleupagus (better known as "Snuffy"), who was portrayed as the bird's imaginary friend until revealed to the human cast in 1985.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Also living outside of the building is Oscar the Grouch, a trash can-dwelling creature belonging to his own unique species, who is portrayed as a habitual pessimist and was designed to give children "permission to feel grouchy—and to demonstrate differing opinions". Oscar and Big Bird were specifically created for the reshooting of the "Street" scenes with the idea that they would be able to interact with the human characters. For his part, Oscar has several friends of his own despite his pessimism; these include the Grouch's pet worm, Slimey, and his girlfriend Grundgetta.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Two other Muppets who have appeared on the show since its beginning are Bert and Ernie, a pair of best friends with contrasting personalities; Ernie is portrayed as a free-spirited trickster who loves his rubber duck, while Bert is the world-weary foil to his friend's naïve trouble-making, and shows himself to be obsessed with things like pigeons and paper clips. The debate on these characters' sexuality is highly disputed, but as of September 2018, Bert and Ernie are confirmed to not have any sexuality, as do the other characters on this list.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Also appearing on the show are an unidentified species of furry characters referred to as "monsters". Among these are Cookie Monster, a blue monster with a baritone voice, who is addicted to the baked goods for which he is named but ironically also likes healthy foods; he will eat anything and everything in sight, regardless of whether it's food or not.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Zoe is an orange three-year-old female monster who is "simultaneously dainty and strong, practical and impulsive" and is Elmo's best friend. She has a pet rock named Rocco; and loves to dance ballet.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Rosita is a bilingual turquoise five-year-old female monster who speaks both English and Spanish. She also plays the guitar.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Grover is a blue monster described by Borgenicht as "self-confident, furry, cute, capable, and intelligent", and has a superhero alter-ego named "Super Grover", who is more well-meaning than helpful.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: In addition to Ernie and Bert, recognizable humanoid Muppets appearing on the show include Count von Count, a friendly and harmless, but number-obsessed vampire based on Bela Lugosi's interpretation of Count Dracula. The Count has been confirmed to be of Indian descent, explaining the love of numbers as his being directly related to Aryabhata.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Prairie Dawn is a methodic and driven young girl who loves to write and direct pageants featuring her friends.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: One Muppet monster who became a household name in the show's recent history is Elmo, a small, red monster with a falsetto voice, representing the three-year-old child, and usually referring to himself from a third person perspective. Elmo became what his eventual portrayer, Kevin Clash, considered a "phenomenon" after Clash took over the role in 1984, and his popularity ultimately grew to the point where he became what writer Michael Davis called "the embodiment" of "Sesame Street". Typically, he is portrayed as friendly and cheerful, he has a distinctive giggling laughter, and every so often he falls over backwards to amuse viewers, such as in the 2002 video, "Elmo Visits the Firehouse" (except that Maria caught him on that occasion). In 1998, the Muppet got his own segment occupying the last 15 minutes of the show, "Elmo's World", in which he explored child-centered topics from two worlds of live action and computer animation, which looked like "a child's squiggly crayon drawing come to life". "Elmo's World" continued until 2012, when it was alternated by another segment starring the character, "Elmo the Musical". Later, "Elmo's World" returned in 2017, with a new revamped version.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: While the rights to Muppet characters from other productions were sold to The Walt Disney Company in 2004, Sesame Workshop continued to fully own the "Sesame Street" Muppets; as a result, Sesame Workshop was and is allowed to have new Muppets designed and built for the show. These have included Abby Cadabby, a four-year-old pink fairy-in-training, who was introduced in 2006 to increase the number of the show's female Muppets; Her stepbrother, Rudy, was introduced to the show in the summer of 2017.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Julia is the first Muppet with autism on the show, introduced in 2017, who was created to familiarize young children with the autism spectrum. She is four years old.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: In addition to these regular characters, others that occasionally appear are: the Twiddlebugs, a family of cute and innovative insects; the Yip Yips, a species of Martians who "valiantly explore our world despite their frequent terrifying encounters with everyday objects"; game show host Guy Smiley; construction workers Biff and Sully; Herry Monster, a burly blue monster who does not know his own strength; Forgetful Jones, a "simpleton cowboy" with a short-term memory disorder; and even Kermit the Frog, the flagship character of The Muppets.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: The Three Bears from the story of Goldilocks appear in Muppet form on "Sesame Street". Telly Monster, a violet-red worrywart who overthinks everything, was described by writer David Borgenicht as "neurotic", and was originally portrayed as a television addict; Murray Monster, a dark orange monster with an energetic, outgoing personality and a sense of quick wit, who hosts a segment at the beginning of each episode called "Word on the Street".


title: Sesame Street characters

text: The original human cast, chosen by Stone, consisted of four characters. The first character to be introduced to the show was Gordon Robinson, a "well-liked and respected" African-American ultimately portrayed as a science teacher; he was played by Garrett Saunders on the test pilots, by Matt Robinson in the early years of the actual series, and after being briefly played by Hal Miller, was taken over by his longest-serving portrayer, Roscoe Orman, in 1974. The other three original human characters were Gordon's wife Susan, played by Loretta Long; Mr. Harold Hooper, a "gruff grocer with [a] warm heart" portrayed by Will Lee until his death in 1982; and Bob Johnson, a music teacher played by Bob McGrath. Unlike what was done for most children's television series at the time, the producers of "Sesame Street" decided against using a single host and cast a group of ethnically diverse actors, with, as "Sesame Street" researcher Gerald S. Lesser put it, "a variety of distinctive and reliable personalities".


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Stone did not audition actors until the spring of 1969, a few weeks before the show's five test pilots were due to be filmed. Stone videotaped the auditions, and researcher Ed Palmer took them out into the field to test children's reactions. The actors who received the "most enthusiastic thumbs up" were cast. For example, when the children saw Long's audition, they stood up and sang along with her rendition of "I'm a Little Teapot". As Stone said, casting was the only aspect of the show that was "just completely haphazard". Most of "Sesame Street"s cast and crew found their jobs through personal relationships with Stone and the other producers.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Bob's former girlfriend was Linda (Linda Bove), a librarian who communicated using American Sign Language, and who became the longest-running deaf character in television history. In 1985, Gordon and Susan adopted a shy child, Miles, who was later age-progressed into a fun-loving teenager who formed his own band. In 1971, the show introduced a Mexican-American character named Luis Rodriguez (Emilio Delgado), a repairman who has been called the "Mr. Fix-It" of "Sesame Street". Luis married Maria (Sonia Manzano) in 1988, and their daughter, Gabi, was born the following year.


title: Sesame Street characters

text: When Lee died (and Mr. Hooper with him), "Sesame Street" dealt with his death in what Davis called a "landmark broadcast" aired on Thanksgiving Day 1983. After that, Mr. Hooper's apprentice David (Northern Calloway) took over as his store's proprietor until he himself left the show in 1989, and was succeeded by Mr. Handford (played first by Leonard Jackson and then by David Smyrl from 1990 to 1998), a former firefighter. The most recent owner of Hooper's Store is Alan, played by Alan Muraoka. Gina Jefferson (played by Alison Bartlett O'Reilly) started on the show as a teenager working at Hooper's Store, later ran a day care center, and eventually became a veterinarian. The most recently introduced human characters on "Sesame Street" include Chris (Chris Knowings), Gordon and Susan's nephew, who works part-time at Hooper's Store; Indian-American laundromat owner Leela (Nitya Vidyasagar); and Armando (Ismael Cruz Córdova), an energetic Latino writer and "techie [who] loves his gadgets".


title: Sesame Street characters

text: Mr. Noodle, a major character in the "Elmo's World" segment, was played by Broadway actor Bill Irwin, who had previously worked with Arlene Sherman (one of the show's executive producers) in short films for "Sesame Street". When he became unavailable, Sherman asked her friend Michael Jeter to replace Irwin as Mr. Noodle's brother Mr. Noodle. Jeter was in the role beginning in 2000, until his death in 2003. Kristin Chenoweth played Mr. Noodle's sister Ms. Noodle, and Sarah Jones played Mr. Noodle's other sister Miss Noodle. Writer Louise A. Gikow called the Noodles "a dynasty of mimes...in the tradition of great silent film comedians like Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, and Harold Lloyd". They made mistakes, but solved them with the help of "enthusiastic kid voice-overs", which empowered children and helped them feel smarter than the adults. According to long-time "Sesame Street" writer Judy Freudberg, "Mr. Noodle, who never speaks, is all about trial and error. When you throw him a hat, he acts like he's never seen one before. Kids feel empowered watching him because they can do what he can't".


title: Sesame Street characters

text: In addition to its "variety of distinctive and reliable personalities", both Muppet and human, "Sesame Street" has featured a few animated characters throughout its history, who have included (among others) Alice Braithwaite Goodyshoes, described by Lesser as an "arrogant, sanctimonious know-it-all", and the Teeny Little Super Guy, a typical problem solver. In 2008, Bert and Ernie got their own Claymation segment called "Bert and Ernie's Great Adventure", in which they explore the world, going on "active adventures in exotic locations", according to "Sesame Street" executive producer Carol-Lynn Parente. The following year, Abby Cadabby got her own computer-animated segment, "Abby's Flying Fairy School", where she takes fairy training classes from her teacher Mrs. Sparklenose, along with her classmates Gonnigan and Blögg. Additionally, several DC Comics characters were licensed for use in animated segments on the show during its first season, including Batman and Superman. Animated characters rarely if ever interact with the human and Muppet characters, with the exception of Smarty. Smarty debuted in 2017 season 47 of "Elmo's World". Smarty is a sentient smartphone who can look things up in order to learn about them, and gives that information to Elmo and the audience.


title: Betty Wright

text: Bessie Regina Norris (December 21, 1953 – May 10, 2020), better known by her stage name Betty Wright, was an American soul and R&B singer, songwriter and background vocalist. Beginning her professional career in the late 1960s as a teenager, Wright rose to fame in the 1970s with hits such as "Clean Up Woman" and "Tonight Is the Night". Wright was also prominent in her use of whistle register.


title: Betty Wright

text: Born in Miami, Florida, as Bessie Regina Norris on December 21, 1953, Wright was the youngest of seven children of Rosa Akins Braddy-Wright and her second husband, McArthur Norris. Wright began her professional career at the age of two when her siblings formed the Echoes of Joy, a gospel group. Wright contributed to vocals on the group's first album, released in 1956. Wright and her siblings performed together until 1965, when she was 11 years old.


title: Betty Wright

text: Following the group's break-up, Wright, who was already using the name Betty Wright, decided to switch musical styles from gospel to rhythm and blues, singing in local talent shows until she was spotted by a Miami record label owner, who signed her to her first label (Deep City Records) in 1966, when she was 12. She released the singles "Thank You Baby" and "Paralyzed", which found Wright local fame in Miami. In 1967, the teen was responsible for discovering other local talents such as George and Gwen McCrae, helping them sign with the Alston Records label TK Records, part of Henry Stone's recording and distribution company. Her first album, "My First Time Around", was released when she was age 14. Her first hit single was "Girls Can't Do What the Guys Do". In 1970, while still in high school, she released "Pure Love" at the age of 16.


title: Betty Wright

text: About a year later, Wright released her signature song "Clean Up Woman", written by Clarence Reid and Willie Clarke and recorded when she was 17. The record reached number two on the R&B charts, where it stayed for eight weeks. It crossed over to the pop charts, peaking at number six and staying on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for 14 weeks. It eventually sold over 1 million copies and was certified gold on December 30, 1971, nine days after the singer turned 18. Wright struggled with a successful follow-up until 1972 when the single "Baby Sitter" (one of Wright's first compositions) reached the top 50 of the Hot 100 and peaked at number six on the R&B charts. Another hit that emerged during this early period was 1973's "Let Me Be Your Lovemaker", which peaked at number 55 on the Hot 100 and number 10 on the R&B chart, it was the first instance (after "Baby Sitter") where Wright showed off her powerful whistle register vocals. Another successful composition was the proto-disco number "Where Is the Love" (co-written by Wright, with producers Harry Wayne Casey and Richard Finch, from KC & The Sunshine Band). This peaked at number 15 on the R&B chart, number-two on the dance charts and crossed over to the UK, peaking at #25, leading Wright to perform overseas. Wright later won the Best R&B Song Grammy Award for composing "Where Is the Love".


title: Betty Wright

text: A second prominent overseas hit was another proto-disco number "Shoorah! Shoorah!", issued on Alston and written by Allen Toussaint. Both songs appeared on one of Wright's most popular albums, "Danger! High Voltage!", released in late 1974. It was on this album that Wright had her most successful composition, with the smooth soul ballad "Tonight Is the Night", which Wright attributed to her first sexual experiences. The original version peaked at number 28 on the R&B chart. Four years later, Wright released a "live" version of the song. The remodeled version, which included a now-famous monologue and portions of Wright's 1970 hit "Pure Love", peaked at number 11 on the R&B chart in 1978.


title: Betty Wright

text: In 1977, Wright discovered musician Peter Brown and sang background on Brown's hits "You Should Do It" and "Dance with Me" (where her vocals were prominently featured alongside Brown's) from the successful LP "A Fantasy Love Affair". In 1978, she performed a duet with shock rocker Alice Cooper on the song "No Tricks", and a year later, opened for Bob Marley on the reggae star's "Survival Tour".


title: Betty Wright

text: Wright's other albums at the end of the 1970s were less successful, and by 1981, as TK began to struggle, she moved to a bigger label, signing with Epic, where her self-titled album was released. The album was notable for the minor Stevie Wonder-composed hit, "What Are You Gonna Do with It". The same year, she contributed vocals on Richard "Dimples" Fields' "Dimples" album, especially on the hit "She's Got Papers on Me". In 1983, she released the album "Wright Back at You", which featured compositions by Marlon Jackson of the Jacksons. In 1985, Wright formed her own label, Miss B Records, issuing the album "Sevens" the following year. In 1988, Wright made history as the first black female artist to score a gold album on her own label, when her 1987 album, "Mother Wit" achieved that certification. The album was notable for the come-back hits "No Pain, No Gain," which returned her to the top 20 on the R&B chart for the first time in a decade, and "After the Pain".


title: Betty Wright

text: In 1990, she had a hit duet with Grayson Hugh on the remake of Champaign's 1981 hit "How 'Bout Us", and later arranged the harmonies for Gloria Estefan's "Coming Out of the Dark", which hit number 1 in 1991. Continuing to release solo material into the 1990s, her 1994 album "B-Attitudes" featured a remixed duet of Marvin Gaye's "Distant Lover". She then self-released several more recordings while still performing successfully as a live act.


title: Betty Wright

text: In 2001, the compilation album "The Very Best of Betty Wright" was released, along with "Fit for a King", her first studio album for several years. In 2008, Wright was featured on a Lil Wayne track titled "Playing with Fire". However, due to a lawsuit, the song was removed from the album online. In 2006, Wright appeared on the TV show "Making the Band", appointed by Sean Combs as a vocal coach for new female group Danity Kane. She mentored several young singers and did vocal production for such artists as Gloria Estefan, Jennifer Lopez and Joss Stone. Along with co-producers Steve Greenberg and Michael Mangini, Wright was nominated for a 2005 Grammy Award in the Best Pop Album category for producing Joss Stone's album "Mind Body & Soul".


title: Betty Wright

text: Wright, Greenberg and Mangini also produced two tracks on Tom Jones's 2008 album "24 Hours": a cover of Bruce Springsteen's "The Hitter" and "More Than Memories", written by Stax legend Carla Thomas. The trio also produced the debut album by Diane Birch in 2009. In December 2010, Wright was given another Grammy Award nomination for the song "Go" on the Best Traditional R&B Vocal Performance. The album "Betty Wright: The Movie", credited to Betty Wright and the Roots, produced by Wright and Ahmir Questlove Thompson was released November 15, 2011 on Ms. B Records/S-Curve Records. "Betty Wright: The Movie" also included collaborations with Joss Stone, Snoop Dogg, Lil Wayne and Lenny Williams. "Surrender", a track from the album, was nominated for a 2011 Grammy in the Best Traditional R&B Performance category. On New Year's Eve 2011, Wright appeared on the UK's BBC Two television channel, on the Jools's Annual "Hootenanny" show, backed by the Jools Holland Rhythm & Blue Orchestra. She performed her singles "Clean Up Woman" and "Shoorah! Shoorah!" alongside "In the Middle of the Game (Don't Change the Play)" from "Betty Wright: The Movie". In 2017, Wright was honored with the National R&B Music Society Unsung Heroine Award at their Black Tie Gala & Awards Ceremony in Philadelphia, Pa. Paul Anthony and Bowlegged Lou of Full Force presented the award to her.


title: Betty Wright

text: Her last appearance was on the TV show "Unsung" on April 5, 2020, which was a month before her death.


title: Betty Wright

text: Wright was married three times and had five children. In 1976, Wright married Jerome McCray and together they had a daughter. Wright and McCray divorced in 1981. Wright was married to Patrick Parker from 1982 until 1983 and together they had two children. Wright was married to Jamaican musician Noel Williams, better known as King Sporty, from 1985 until his death in 2015. Together Wright and Williams had two children. Her son Patrick Parker Jr. was killed on Christmas Day in 2005 in a shooting incident.


title: Betty Wright

text: Wright died from cancer, on May 10, 2020, at her home in Miami, aged 66. The news of her death was first announced by her niece. Just two days earlier, fellow singer Chaka Khan had made a plea on Twitter saying "Calling all my #PrayWarriors. My beloved sister, Betty Wright @MsBettyWright, is now in need of all your prayers."


title: Betty Wright

text: Several of Wright's works have been sampled over the years by hip hop, rock and R&B musicians. In 2008, Sheek Louch of The Lox used both the live version of "Tonight Is The Night" and "Pure Love" in his song "Good Love". In 1992, Wright sued the producers behind Color Me Badd's breakthrough hit "I Wanna Sex You Up" after claiming they used the sample of her live version without clearance and without permission, and sued for royalties. Wright won her case, winning 35% of royalties for writing the song.


title: Betty Wright

text: Wright won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song award for composing "Where Is the Love" at the 18th Annual Grammy Awards in 1976. She received one award from six nominations.


"(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me" is a song written in the 1960s by songwriting team Burt Bacharach and Hal David. Originally recorded as a demo by Dionne Warwick in 1963, "(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me" first charted for Lou Johnson, whose version reached No. 49 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the summer of 1964. Sandie Shaw took the song to No. 1 in the UK that same year, while the duo Naked Eyes had a No. 8 hit with the song in the US two decades later in 1983.


title: (There's) Always Something There to Remind Me

text: British impresario Eve Taylor heard Johnson's version while on a US visit scouting for material for her recent discovery Sandie Shaw, who consequently covered the song for the UK market. Rush-released in September 1964, the song was premiered by Shaw with a performance on "Ready Steady Go!", the pop music TV program. The first week after its release, the single sold 65,000 copies. Shaw's version reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart, spending three weeks at the top of that listing in November 1964, and that same month it debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100. However, despite reaching the Top Ten in some markets including Detroit and Miami Shaw's version failed to best the US showing of the Lou Johnson original; the Hot 100 peak of Shaw's version was No. 52.


text: A No. 1 hit in Canada and South Africa, Shaw's version of "...Always Something There to Remind Me" was also a hit in Australia (No. 16), Ireland (No. 7) and the Netherlands (No. 10), the track's success in the last territory not precluding hit status for the Dutch rendering by entitled "Ik moet altijd weer opnieuw aan je denken" (No. 12). Shaw herself recorded "...Always Something There to Remind Me" in French, as "Toujours un coin qui me rappelle", with lyrics by , which reached No. 19 in France, and in Italian, as "Il Mondo Nei Tuoi Occhi". A cover by Eddy Mitchell was more successful, reaching No. 2 in France in April 1965 and also reaching No. 3 on Belgium's French-language chart. Shaw made a bid for a German hit as well, rendering "...Always Something There to Remind Me" as "Einmal glücklich sein wie die ander'n". It was not a success.


text: "(There's) Always Something There to Remind Me" – as "Always Something There to Remind Me" – entered the US Top 40 for the first time via a version by R. B. Greaves which reached No. 27 in February 1970. Recorded at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in 1969, with production by Ahmet Ertegun and Jackson Howe, Greaves' version was also a No. 3 Easy Listening hit. This version peaked at number 48 in Australia. In Canada, it reached number 12.


text: Nearly 20 years after its composition, the song became a major hit in the US for the first time via a synth-pop reinvention by Naked Eyes titled "Always Something There to Remind Me", which reached the top 10 of the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the summer of 1983.


text: Vocalist Pete Byrne and keyboardist Rob Fisher first cut "Always Something There to Remind Me" as one of a number of demos recorded in Bristol upon forming the duo later known as Naked Eyes in early 1982. Byrne would recall: "I had always loved the song "Always Something There to Remind Me" so we called a friend who had the record, he read the lyric over the phone and we put it together from memory."


text: On the strength of the demos cut in Bristol, Byrne and Fisher were signed to EMI Records in May 1982 and the track "Always Something There to Remind Me" was cut on 1 September 1982 in a session at Abbey Road Studios produced by Tony Mansfield. Byrne would recall: "The record was recorded at Abbey Road, and we were invited to a party downstairs, with Paul McCartney and many other stars...When we returned upstairs to the studio around 1 a.m., I decided to have a go at the vocal, it was the first time I have ever recorded a vocal in one take".


text: Released in the US in 1982, Naked Eyes' "Always Something There to Remind Me" gradually gained attention, entering the "Billboard" Hot 100 in March 1983 to peak at No. 8 that June. The cachet of entering the US top 10 allowed the single, previously overlooked in its performers' United Kingdom homeland, to make a July 1983 UK chart debut, although it only rose to No. 59. "Always Something There to Remind Me" did afford Naked Eyes top 10 success in other countries besides the United States: Australia (No. 7), Canada (No. 9) and New Zealand (No. 2).


text: In Brazil, the song was included on the international soundtrack of the soap opera "Guerra dos Sexos/War of the Sexes" in 1983.


text: Naked Eyes re-recorded the song as an acoustic version for the 2007 album "Fumbling with the Covers". This version appears in a 2017 commercial for T-Mobile, as well as the trailer for the fifth season for "Arrested Development" in 2018.


text: English electronic music duo Tin Tin Out recorded a house cover of the song titled "Always (Something There to Remind Me)" in 1995. The song features vocals by French singer Espiritu (aka Vanessa Quinones) and went to No. 14 on the UK Singles Chart and No. 1 on the UK Dance Singles Chart. A music video was made to accompany the single, filmed in the Café de Paris in London.


text: A reviewer from Pan-European magazine "Music & Media" wrote, "The first thing she reminds you of is all the previous versions of this Burt Bacharach & Hal David song. Spirited and dancey as it is, it doesn't make a poor figure at all." Brad Beatnik from "Music Week"'s "RM" Dance Update commented, "This unabashed house cover of Dusty Springfield's 'Always Something There To Remind Me' is already on its way into the dancefloor history books thanks to its initial Hooj Choons release and its ability to whip a club into a total frenzy. Simple in its piano house format and chugging Euro rhythm, this is hardbag house at its purest and most joyful." Another editor, James Hamilton noted, "Vannessa calmly croons the title over piping wheezy organ and plonking piano in [a] naggingly effective simple jiggly chugging 0-129.7bpm [track]".


title: September Massacres

text: The September Massacres were a series of killings of prisoners in Paris that occurred in 1792, from Sunday, 2 September until Thursday, 6 September, during the French Revolution. Between 1,176 and 1,614 people were killed by "fédérés", guardsmen, and "sans-culottes", with the support of gendarmes responsible for guarding the tribunals and prisons, the Cordeliers, the Committee of Surveillance of the Commune, and the revolutionary sections of Paris.


title: September Massacres

text: With widespread fear that foreign and royalist armies would attack Paris, and that the imprisoned Swiss mercenaries would be freed to join them, on 1 September the Legislative Assembly called for volunteers to gather the next day on the Champs de Mars. On 2 September, around 1:00 pm, Georges Danton delivered a speech in the assembly, stating: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death. The bell we are about to ring... sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." The massacres began around 2:30 pm in the middle of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, and within the first 20 hours more than 1,000 prisoners were killed.


title: September Massacres

text: The next morning, the surveillance committees of the commune published a circular that called on provincial patriots to defend Paris by eliminating counter-revolutionaries, and the secretary, Jean-Lambert Tallien, called on other cities to follow suit. The massacres were repeated in a few other French cities; in total 65–75 incidents were reported.


title: September Massacres

text: The exact number of victims is not known, as over 440 people had uncertain fates, including 200 Swiss soldiers, (or 22?). The identity of the perpetrators, called ""septembriseurs"", is poorly documented, but a large number were Parisian national guards and provincial federates who had remained in the city since their arrival in July. 72% of those killed were non-political prisoners including forgers of assignats (galley convicts), common criminals, women, and children. 17% were Catholic priests.


title: September Massacres

text: The minister of the interior, Roland, accused the commune of the atrocities. Charlotte Corday held Jean-Paul Marat responsible, while Madame Roland blamed Georges Danton. Danton was also accused by later French historians Adolphe Thiers, Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet, Louis Blanc and Edgar Quinet of doing nothing to stop them.


title: September Massacres

text: According to modern historian Georges Lefebvre, the "collective mentality is a sufficient explanation for the killing". Historian Timothy Tackett deflected specific blame from individuals, stating: "The obsession with a prison conspiracy, the desire for revenge, the fear of the advancing Prussians, the ambiguity over who was in control of a state that had always relied in the past on a centralized monarchy: all had come together in a volatile mixture of anger, fear, and uncertainty."


title: September Massacres

text: In April 1792 France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy, prompting the War of the First Coalition. In July, an army under the Duke of Brunswick, and composed mostly of Prussians, joined the Austrian side and invaded France. As the army advanced, Paris went into a state of hysteria, especially after the Duke issued the "Brunswick Manifesto" on 25 July. His avowed aim was


title: September Massacres

text: to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him.


title: September Massacres

text: The manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should it resist the imperial and Prussian armies or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The manifesto was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty. Its authorship was frequently in doubt.


title: September Massacres

text: Revolutionaries like Marat and Hébert preferred to concentrate on the internal enemy. On 3 August Pétion and 47 sections demanded the deposition of the king.


title: September Massacres

text: On the evening of 9 August 1792, a Jacobin insurrection overthrew the leadership of the Paris municipality, proclaiming a new revolutionary commune headed by transitional authorities. The next day the insurrectionists stormed the Tuileries Palace. King Louis XVI was imprisoned with the royal family, and his authority as king was suspended by the Legislative Assembly. The following day the royalist press was silenced.


title: September Massacres

text: A provisional executive ("conseil exécutif") was named and busied itself with reorganizing or solving questions concerning the police, justice, the army, navy, and paper money, but actual power now rested with the new revolutionary commune, whose strength resided in the mobilized and armed "sans-culottes", the lower classes of Paris, and "fédérés", armed volunteers from the provinces that had arrived at the end of July. The 48 sections of Paris were equipped with munitions from the plundered arsenals in the days before the assault, substituting for the 60 national guard battalions.


title: September Massacres

text: Supported by a new armed force, the commune dominated the Legislative Assembly and its decisions. The commune pushed through several measures: universal suffrage was adopted, the civilian population was armed, all remnants of noble privileges were abolished and the properties of the "émigrés" were sold. These events meant a change of direction from the political and constitutional perspective of the Girondists to a more social approach given by the commune as expressed by Pierre-Joseph Cambon: "To reject with more efficacy the defenders of despotism, we have to address the fortunes of the poor, we have to associate the Revolution with this multitude that possesses nothing, we have to convert the people to the cause."


title: September Massacres

text: Besides these measures, the commune engaged in a policy of political repression of all suspected counter-revolutionary activities. Beginning on 11 August, every Paris section named surveillance committees (committees of vigilance) for conducting searches and making arrests. It was mostly these decentralized committees, rather than the commune as a whole, which engaged in the repression of August and September 1792. Within a few days each section elected three commissioners to take seats in the insurrectionary commune, one of them was Maximilien Robespierre.


title: September Massacres

text: To ensure that there was some appropriate legal process for dealing with suspects accused of political crimes and treason, rather than arbitrary killing by local committees, a revolutionary tribunal, with extraordinary powers to impose the death sentence without any appeal, was installed on 17 August. Robespierre, who had proposed this measure, refused to preside over the tribunal, arguing that the same man ought not to be a denouncer, an accuser, and a judge.


title: September Massacres

text: Already, on 15 August, four sections called for all priests and imprisoned suspects to be put to death before the volunteers departed. Robespierre proposed to erect a pyramid on Place Vendôme to remember the victims of 10 August. On 19 August the nonjuring priests were ordered to leave the country within two weeks, which meant before 2 September 1792. In Paris, all monasteries were closed and would soon be in use as hospitals, etc. The remaining religious orders were banned by the law of 15 August. Marat left nothing in doubt when he urged "good citizens to go to the Abbaye, to seize priests, and especially the officers of the Swiss guards and their accomplices and run a sword through them". From 15 to 25 August, around 500 detentions were registered; some were sent to Orléans. Half the detentions were of nonjuring priests, but even priests who had sworn the required oath were caught in the wave.


title: September Massacres

text: Around 26 August, news reached Paris that the Prussian army had crossed the French border and occupied Longwy without a battle. Roland proposed that the government should leave Paris, whereas Robespierre suggested in a letter to the sections of the commune that they should defend liberty and equality and maintain their posts, and die if necessary. The assembly decreed that all the non-juring priests had to leave Paris within eight days and the country within two weeks. In the evening, in the presence of 350,000 people, a funeral ceremony was held in the gardens of the Tuileries for those killed while storming the Tuileries.


title: September Massacres

text: On 29 August, the Prussians attacked Verdun. When this news arrived it escalated panic in the capital; the situation was highly critical.


title: September Massacres

text: Throughout August, the Legislative Assembly, which had been greatly diminished as more than half of the deputies had fled since the storming of the Tuileries, had acquiesced to the activities of the commune and its sections. On 30 August, the Girondins Roland and Marguerite-Élie Guadet tried to suppress the influence of the commune, which they accused of exercising unlawful power. The assembly, tired of the pressures, declared the commune illegal and suggested the organization of communal elections and a doubling of the number of seats. However, the assembly canceled the decree the next day at the request of Jacques-Alexis Thuriot. The balance of power was disrupted and the conflict between the Girondins and the Montagnards would influence the progress of the French Revolution.


title: September Massacres

text: On 1 September the prisons were full. The citizens of Paris were told to prepare themselves for the defense of the country and gather immediately upon the sound of the tocsin. Their imminent departure from the capital provoked further concern about the crowded prisons, now full of counter-revolutionary suspects who might threaten a city deprived of so many of its defenders.


title: September Massacres

text: Marat called for a "new blood-letting", larger than the one on 10 August. Marat and his Committee of Surveillance of the Commune organized the massacres, first voting to round up 4,000 mostly ordinary people, "suspects" of the committee, agreed to kill them in "whole groups," voting down a Marat proposal to murder them by setting them on fire, then finally agreeing to a proposal by Billaud-Varennes to "butcher them". The bulk of the butchers were made up of "Marseilles," "hired assassins" from the prisons of Genoa and Sicily, paid twenty-four dollars, whose names were listed by "M. Granier de Cassagnac." The rest were murderers and others previously imprisoned for violent crimes released ahead of time from the prisons they would soon be returning to for the massacres.


title: September Massacres

text: A party at the instigation of someone or other declared they would not quit Paris, as long as the prisons were filled with Traitors (for they called those so, that were confined in the different Prisons and Churches), who might in the absence of such a number of Citizens rise and not only effect the release of His Majesty but make an entire counterrevolution.


title: September Massacres

text: On 1 September, the gates of the city closed the days before, were opened on the orders of Pétion, providing an opportunity for suspects to flee the capital. According to Louis-Marie Prudhomme people still profited from the opportunity on Sunday morning 2 September. (Verdun capitulated on 2 September gaining a clear westward path to Paris.) The Assembly decreed arming the volunteers; a third would stay in Paris and defend the city with pikes, the others were meant for the frontier and the trenches. It further decreed that traitors who refused to participate in the defense or hand over their arms deserved death. The sections, gathered in the town hall, decided to remain in Paris; Marat proposed to have Roland and his fellow Girondist Brissot arrested. The commune ordered the gates closed and an alarm gun fired. After the tocsin was rung around 14:00, 50 or 60,000 men enrolled for the defense of the country on the Champs de Mars.


title: September Massacres

text: On 2 September, around 13:00, Georges Danton, a member of the provisional government, delivered a speech in the assembly: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death." "The bell we are about to ring is not an alarm signal; it sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." After the applause, he continued, "To conquer them we must dare, dare again, always dare, and France is saved.” His speech acted as a call for direct action among the citizens, as well as a strike against the external enemy. Madame Roland and Hillary Mantel weren't the only ones who thought his speech was responsible for inciting the September Massacres, also Louis Mortimer−Ternaux.


title: September Massacres

text: Around 4 in the afternoon Madame de Staël, as ambassadress of Sweden, who lived in Rue du Bac near Champ de Mars, tried to flee through crowded streets but her carriage was stopped and the crowd forced her to go to the Paris town hall, where Robespierre presided. (However, according to Maximilien's sister Charlotte, he never presided over the insurrectionary commune. According to Louvet de Couvrai he "governed" the Paris "Conseil Général" of the département.) Late in the evening, she was conveyed home, escorted by the procurator Louis Pierre Manuel. The next day the secretary-general to the Commune of Paris, Tallien, arrived with a passport and accompanied her to the barrier.


title: September Massacres

text: The first massacre began in the quartier Latin around 14:30 on Sunday afternoon when 24 non-juring priests were being transported to the prison de l'Abbaye near the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, after being interrogated by Billaud-Varenne in the town hall. One of the carriages, escorted by Fédérés, was attacked after an incident. The "fédérés" killed three men in the middle of the street, before the procession arrived at the prison. Eighteen of the arrested were taken inside. They then mutilated the bodies, "with circumstances of barbarity too shocking to describe" according to the British diplomatic dispatch. One of their victims was the former minister of foreign affairs Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin. Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard was recognized as a beneficent priest and released.


title: September Massacres

text: In the late afternoon 115 priests in the former convent of Carmelites, detained with the message they would be deported to French Guiana, were massacred in the courtyard with axes, spikes, swords and pistols by people with a strong patois accent. They forced the priests one by one to take the oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and "swear to be faithful to the nation and to maintain liberty and equality or die defending it".


title: September Massacres

text: Some priests hid in the choir and behind the altar. Several tried to get away by climbing in the trees and over the walls and making their escape through the Rue Cassette.


title: September Massacres

text: Around five a group of 200 "Septembriseurs" came to the house of Roland on Place Dauphine to arrest him, but, as he was at the ministry, they went there.


title: September Massacres

text: Between 19:00 and 20:00, the group of "fédérés", etc. was back at the Abbaye prison. The Abbaye prison was located in what is now the Boulevard Saint-Germain just west of the current Passage de la Petite Boucherie. The door was closed, but the killing was resumed after an intense discussion with Manuel, the procurator, on people's justice and failing judges. Manuel and Jean Dussaulx belonged to a deputation sent by the ""Conseil Général"" of the commune to ask for compassion. They were insulted and escaped with their lives.


title: September Massacres

text: A tribunal composed of twelve people presided over by Stanislas-Marie Maillard, started the interrogation by asking the prisoner why he or she was arrested. A lie was fatal, and the prisoners were summarily judged and either freed or executed. Each prisoner was asked a handful of questions, after which the prisoner was either freed with the words ""Vive la nation"" and permitted to leave, or sentenced to death with the words "Conduct him to the Abbaye" or "Let him go", after which the condemned was taken to a yard and was immediately killed by a waiting mob consisting of men, women, and children.


title: September Massacres

text: The massacres were opposed by the staff of the prison, who allowed many prisoners to escape, one example being Pauline de Tourzel. The Prison de l'Abbaye contained a number of prisoners formerly belonging to the royal household, as well as survivors of the Swiss Guards from the royal palace. Among them were the royal governesses Marie Angélique de Mackau and Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel; the ladies-in-waiting the Princess de Tarente and the Princess de Lamballe; the queen's ladies-maids Marie-Élisabeth Thibault and Mme Bazile; the dauphin's nurse St Brice; the Princesse de Lamballe's lady's maid Navarre; and the valets of the king, Chamilly and Hue. All ten former members of the royal household were placed before the tribunals and freed from charges, with the exception of the Princess de Lamballe, whose death would become one of the most publicized of the September Massacres. Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel was released on order of Manuel by the Commune.


title: September Massacres

text: Of the Swiss Guard prisoners 135 were killed, 27 were transferred, 86 were set free, and 22 had uncertain fates. According to George Long 122 died and 43 people were released. The victims had to leave behind money, jewelry, silver, gold, assignats, but also an Aeneid which widely regarded as Virgil's masterpiece. Most of the victims' clothes were pierced with spade marks and had bloodstains. According to Louvet four armed men came to the house of Roland to get paid. On Monday morning nine o'clock, Billaud-Varenne came to the Abbaye prison and declared that the tribunal should stop stealing and would get paid by the Commune. At ten Maillard and his twelve judges resumed their work. In three days 216 men, and only three women were massacred in the Abbey. De Virot, responsible for the safeguarding of large stocks of weapons stored in the Hotel des Invalides, and his daughter survived.


title: September Massacres

text: Late in the afternoon, they went to Tour Saint-Bernard (belonging to a confiscated monastery Collège des Bernardins, located in the Sansculotte district) where forgers of assignats were jailed. (Almost all of them were locked up in the previous three months.) The pattern of semi-formal executions followed by the popular tribunals was for condemned prisoners to be ordered "transferred" and then taken into the prison courtyard where they would be cut down. One man was released after he was recognized as a thief. The participants in the killing received bread, wine and cheese, and some money.


title: September Massacres

text: In the early evening, groups broke into another Paris prison, the Conciergerie, via an open door in a side stair. The massacre was more uncontrolled in the Conciergerie than in the Prison de l'Abbaye. In the Conciergerie, the staff did not cooperate by turning the prisoners to the mob; instead, the mob broke into the cells themselves. The massacre continued from late evening through the night until morning. Of 488 prisoners in the Conciergerie, 378 were killed during the massacre. One woman in the Conciergerie, Marie Gredeler, a bookseller who was accused of murder, was tied to a pole, killed, and mutilated.


title: September Massacres

text: According to Prudhomme people sat on the stairs of the Palace of Justice watching the butchery in the courtyard. Not far away Restif de la Bretonne saw bodies piled high on Pont au Change in front of the Châtelet, then thrown in the river. He recorded the atrocities he witnessed in "Les Nuits de Paris" (1794).


title: September Massacres

text: Before midnight the seminary Saint Firmin was visited by just four men, who killed all the seminarians. All of them were detained in August according to Cassignac; the average age of the prisoners was 47. At 2.30 in the morning, the Assembly was informed that most of the prisons were empty. The next morning the Assembly was still involved with the defense of the city; Hérault de Séchelles presided. It decided the other prisoners had to wait for their trial because of a temporary lack of judges.


title: September Massacres

text: Bicêtre, a hospital for men and boys that also served as a prison for beggars and the homeless, was visited twice that day after a rumor that there were thousands of rifles stored there. The commander brought seven cannons. According to Cassignac François Hanriot and his battalion were present; 56 prisoners were released. The average age of the 170 victims was 24–25 years, 41 were between 12 and 18 years old, and 58 were under 20. Mayor Pétion did not have much influence discussing humanity with them.


title: September Massacres

text: At dawn Salpêtrière, a hospice for women and girls to which a prison was attached, was visited. The number of victims is exactly known: 35 women, including 23 underaged. The average age of the 35 victims was 45 - only one of them, Marie Bertrand, a diocesan from Dyon, was 17 years old - and 52 were released according to Cassignac.


title: September Massacres

text: On Tuesday afternoon the killing in the Abbey finally stopped. Police commissioners and Sergent-Marceau gave orders to wash away all the blood from the stairs and the courtyard, to spread straw, to count the corpses, and to dispose of them on carts to avoid infections. A contract was signed with the gravedigger of the nearby Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris, who also had to purchase quicklime. On 5 September, the day of the election, it was perfectly quiet in Paris according to Le Moniteur Universel. There were still 80 prisoners in "La Force".


title: September Massacres

text: On 6 September the massacres finally ended. The next day the gates were opened, but it was impossible to travel to another départment without a passport.


title: September Massacres

text: In a letter from 25 January 1793 Helen Maria Williams accused Robespierre and Danton, saying that Marat was only their instrument. Francois Buzot, a Girondin, mentions Camille Desmoulins and Fabre d'Eglantine.


title: September Massacres

text: According to Galart de Montjoie, a lawyer and royalist, in those days everyone believed the Fédérés from Marseille, Avignon and Brest were involved in the killing. About 800–1000 were staying in barrack, but moved supposedly to where events would take place. It seems around 300 Fédérés from Brest and 500 from Marseille were then lodged in Cordeliers Convent. Servan planned to give them military training before using them to supplement the army at the front.


title: September Massacres

text: According to Pierre Caron there were almost 2,800 prisoners in early September. Between 1,250 and 1,450 prisoners were condemned and executed. According to Caron and Bluche 70% of the victims were killed in a 20-hour interval. Among the victims were 223 nonjuring Catholic priests and (arch)bishops who refused to submit to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 81 Swiss guards, and 40–80 political suspects, mostly royalists, aristocrats, and some former judges and ministers including the queen's best friend, the "Princesse de Lamballe", the only political victim in "La petite Force".


title: September Massacres

text: The lives of about 1,250–1,600 prisoners brought before the people's courts were saved. In a few cases people were acclaimed as "patriots" by Robespierre, Tallien, Desmoulins, and Danton. Several prisoners for debts or alimony were released by Louis Pierre Manuel or by the police before 2 September.


title: September Massacres

text: A total of nine prisons were violently entered during the five days of the massacres before the killings concluded on the night of 6–7 September; four were not visited (Sainte-Pélagie Prison, Prison Saint-Lazare, Tour du Temple and palais Bourbon). About 700 surviving Swiss soldiers, locked up in Palais Bourbon, marched to the town hall to take the oath and joined the volunteers. After initially indiscriminate slayings, ad hoc popular tribunals were set up to distinguish between "enemies of the people" and those who were innocent, or at least were not perceived as counter-revolutionary threats. In spite of this attempted sifting, estimated three-quarters of the 1,250–1,450 killed were not counter-revolutionaries or "villains", but included all the galley convicts, forgers of assignats, 37 women (including the Princess de Lamballe and Marie Gredeler) and 66 children. Some priests and women were of age, about prostitutes or insane not much is known.


title: September Massacres

text: On 3 September the surveillance committees of the Commune, on which Marat now served, published a circular that called on provincial Patriots to defend Paris and asked that, before leaving their homes, they eliminate counter-revolutionaries. Marat advised the entire nation "to adopt this necessary measure".


title: September Massacres

text: A circular letter was sent to regional authorities by Deforgues, an assistant of Danton, and Tallien, the secretary of the Paris Commune, advising that "ferocious conspirators detained in the prisons had been put to death by the people".


title: September Massacres

text: The Girondins afterward made much of this circular, but there is no evidence that it had any influence. As before, murders in the provinces continued: the blood-letting did not cease until the countryside was purged. Smaller-scale executions took place in Reims, Meaux, and Lyon on 2, 4 and 9 September. Most notable was the killing of 44 political prisoners near Château de Versailles transported from the High Court in Orléans back to Paris, the 9 September massacres. The next day Brissot wrote in "Le Patriote français", his newspaper: "No doubt you will be told that it is a vengeance of the people; it will be a slander. The people were not involved in this event."


title: September Massacres

text: According to Timothy Tackett: "For a period of some 48 hours between the 29th and 31 August, the whole of Paris was systematically searched by the national guard for lurking conspirators and hidden arms. By that time section assemblies were already passing motions demanding "the death of conspirators before the departure of citizens".


title: September Massacres

text: On 31 August the Committee of Vigilance was created with Panis and Sergent-Marceau. According to Madame de Staël on 31 August "it was already known, that only those who were destined to be massacred were sent to that prison [of the Abbey]."


title: September Massacres

text: On 1 September the Commune declared a state of emergency by decreeing that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-bodied citizens convened in the Champ de Mars.


title: September Massacres

text: On Sunday 2 September the 1792 French National Convention election started. Robespierre publicly accused Brissot and the Brissotins of plotting with the Duke of Brunswick. Marat was appointed as one of the six additional members of the Committee of Vigilance, but without the approval of the Executive Council.


title: September Massacres

text: According to Adolphe Thiers on Sunday morning 2 September: "The keeper of the Abbaye sent away his children in the morning. Dinner was served to the prisoners two hours before the accustomed time, and the knives were taken from their plates."


title: September Massacres

text: Such municipal and central government as existed in Paris in September 1792 was preoccupied with organizing volunteers, supplies, and equipment for the armies on the threatened frontiers. Accordingly, there was no attempt to assuage popular fears that the understaffed and easily accessed prisons were full of royalists who would break out and seize the city when the national guards and other citizen volunteers had left for the war. According to Madame Roland Danton responded to an appeal to protect the prisoners with the comment: "To hell with the prisoners! They must look after themselves." On 3 September Roland said: "Yesterday was a day that we should perhaps throw a veil on." The other members of the provisional government – Clavière, Lebrun-Tondu, Monge and Servan, involved in organizing the country did not do much to stop the killing, or could not foresee or prevent these excesses. Mayor Pétion de Villeneuve turned a blind eye when he visited Bicêtre. Olympe de Gouges and Brissot's newspaper were the only ones condemning the September murders.


title: September Massacres

text: The Brissotins in the Convention first attacked Danton; he was asked to resign as minister on the 25th but forced to step down on 9 October. He kept his seat in the Convention as deputy. Then the Brissotins decided to attack Robespierre and Marat.


title: September Massacres

text: On 29 October 1792, the Convention reviewed these recent events. Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray accused Robespierre of creating a personality cult, governing the Paris "Conseil General" and paying the "Septembriseurs". Marat was accused of being asocial and establishing a dictatorship. He was taken by surprise and had to be defended by Danton. Robespierre was given eight days to reply. On 5 November Robespierre stated that Marat had visited him only once since January. He insisted that most of the victims were aristocrats, which wasn't the case. He admitted the arrests at the end of August were illegal, as illegal as the revolution, the fall of the monarchy and the Bastille. He asked the convention: "Citizens, did you want a revolution without revolution?" Robespierre, Danton, and Marat insisted that the "new bloodletting" had been a spontaneous popular movement. Their opponents, the Girondins, spoke of a systematically planned conspiracy. Louvet de Couvrai who published his speech was no longer admitted to the Jacobin Club.


title: September Massacres

text: The massacres first damaged the political position of the Girondins, who seemed too moderate, and later the Jacobins, who seemed too bloodthirsty. A new mayor Nicolas Chambon was installed on 1 December 1792. On 4 February 1793 Robespierre defended the September massacres as necessary. On 13 February Pierre Gaspard Chaumette received a list of victims in the La Force Prison.


title: September Massacres

text: It was Servan's proposal to bring armed volunteers from the provinces. He was arrested during the Terror, but released in February 1795. In 1796 24 or 39 craftsmen and small businessmen were accused; though only three were condemned. The vinegar maker Damiens was sentenced to twenty years of imprisonment.


title: September Massacres

text: One hundred and fifteen churchmen killed in the Carmes Prison were beatified by Pope Pius XI on 17 October 1926. Among the martyrs were Pierre-Louis de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Saintes; Jean-Marie du Lau d’Alleman, archbishop of Arles; François-Joseph de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Beauvais; and Ambroise Chevreux, the last superior-general of the monastic Congregation of Saint Maur.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: Agricultural engineering, also known as agricultural and biosystems engineering, is the field of study and application of engineering science and designs principles for agriculture purposes, combining the various disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical, food science, environmental, software, and chemical engineering to improve the efficiency of farms and agribusiness enterprises as well as to ensure sustainability of natural and renewable resources.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: An agricultural engineer is an engineer with an agriculture background. Agricultural engineers make the engineering designs and plans in an agricultural project, usually in partnership with an agriculturist who is more proficient in farming and agricultural science.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: The first use of agricultural engineering was the introduction of irrigation in large scale agriculture in the Nile and the Euphrates rivers before 2000 B.C. Large irrigation structures were also present in Baluchistan and India before Christian era. In South America irrigation was practiced in Peru by the Incas and in North America by the Aztecs.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: Settlers practiced irrigation in the vicinity of San Antonio in 1715, the Mormons practiced irrigation in Salt Lake Valley in 1847.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: With growing mechanization and steam power in the industrial revolution, a new age in agricultural engineering began. Over the course of the industrial revolution, mechanical harvesters and planters would replace field hands in most of the food and cash crop industries. Mechanical threshing was introduced in 1761 by John Lloyd, Magnus Strindberg and Dietrich. Beater bar threshing machine was built by Andrew Meikle in 1786. A cast iron plow was first made by Charles Newbold between 17960 and 1796.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: James Smith constructed a mower in 1811. George Berry used a steam combine harvester in 1886. John Deere made his first steel plow in 1833. The two horse cultivator was first about 1861.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: The introduction of these engineering concepts into the field of agriculture allowed for an enormous boost in the productivity of crops, dubbed a "second agricultural revolution" which consisted of:


title: Agricultural engineering

text: In the 20th century, with the rise in reliable engines in airplanes, cropdusters were implemented to disperse pesticides. Benjamin Holt built a combine harvester powered by petrol in 1911. Erwin Peucker constructed bulldog tractors 1936. Deutz-Fahr produced the rotary hay tedder in 1961.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: In the late 20th century, genetically modified foods (GMOs) were created, giving another large boost to crop yields and resistance to pests.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: Agricultural engineers may perform tasks such as planning, supervising and managing the building of dairy effluent schemes, irrigation, drainage, flood water control systems, performing environmental impact assessments, agricultural product processing and interpret research results and implement relevant practices. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies. Some are consultants, employed by private engineering firms, while others work in industry, for manufacturers of agricultural machinery, equipment, processing technology, and structures for housing livestock and storing crops. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, management, research and development, or applied science.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: In 2006 Armenia's agricultural sector accounted for about 20 percent of the GDP. By 2010, it grew to about 25 percent. This was and is higher than in Armenia's neighboring countries of Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran, in which the contribution of agriculture to the GDP in 2017 was 6.88, 5.63, 6.08 and 9.05 percent, respectively.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: In the Philippines, the professional designation is registered agricultural and biosystems engineer. They are licensed and accredited after successfully passing the Agriculturist and Biosystems Engineering Licensure Examination. A prospective agricultural and biosystems engineer is required to have a four-year Bachelor of Science in Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: In the United Kingdom the term agricultural engineer is often also used to describe a person that repairs or modifies agricultural equipment.


title: Agricultural engineering

text: The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, now known as the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE), was founded in 1907. It is a leading organization in the agricultural engineering field. The ASABE provides safety and regulatory standards for the agricultural industry. These standards and regulations are developed on an international scale for fertilizers, soil conditions, fisheries, biofuels, biogas, feed machinery, tractors, and machinery.


title: Lemkos

text: Lemkos (; ; ) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Lemko Region (; ) of Carpathian Rus', an ethnographic region in the Carpathian Mountains and foothills spanning Ukraine, Slovakia and Poland.


title: Lemkos

text: Their affiliation with other ethnicities is controversial. Some Lemkos consider their ethnos to be a sub-group of Rusyns (also called Carpatho-Rusyns or Carpatho-Ruthenians). Other Carpathian ethnic groups identifying as Rusyns include the Boykos and Hutsuls. Members of these groups have historically also been given other designations such as "Verkhovyntsi" (Highlanders). Among people of the Carpathian highlands, communities speaking the same dialect will identify with a different ethnic label when crossing borders due to the influence of state-sponsored education and media. As well the same community may switch its preferred identification over time. In Slovakia between the 1991 and 2001 censuses, the number of people identifying as "Ukrainian" declined by 2,467 people (an 18.6% decrease) while those reporting Rusyn as their national identity increased by 7,004 people (a 40.6% increase). It is not clear however, if this refers to the same individuals switching their identification, more young first-time respondents choosing Rusyn, or migration. Note that "Lemko" was not an option on the Slovak census, and many Rusyn-identifying Slovak citizens would be part of "other" subgroups besides the Lemkos.


title: Lemkos

text: The spoken language of the Lemkos, which has a code of "rue" under ISO 639-3, has been variously described as a language in its own right, a dialect of Rusyn or a dialect of Ukrainian. In Ukraine, almost all Lemkos speak both Lemko and standard Ukrainian (according to the 2001 Ukrainian Census). Ukraine (unlike neighboring countries) denies Lemkos separate ethnic and linguistic status. In the Polish Census of 2011, 11,000 people declared Lemko nationality, of whom 6,000 declared only Lemko nationality, 4,000 declared double national identity – Lemko-Polish, and 1,000 declared Lemko identity together with a non-Polish identity.


title: Lemkos

text: The ethnonym Lemko derives from the word (). The term is thought to have first originated as a nickname for users of the word "lem" in the borderlands between the Lemko and Boyko regions: the easternmost extent of usage of the word on the north side of the Carpathians. (On the south side of the Carpathians, the analogous nickname, "lemak", was used in the "lem-lyš" isogloss area.) The ethnonym eventually entered use in academia and was first recorded in print with the 1834 publication of "Grammatik der ruthenischen oder klein russischen Sprache in Galizien" ( 'Grammar of Ruthenian or Little Russian Language in Galicia') by Yosyp Levytsky.


title: Lemkos

text: As an endonym, "Lemko" only entered wider use in the early 20th century. Prior to adopting the name, Lemkos would refer to themselves as "Rusyns" () or "Rusnaks" (). By the interwar period the popularity of "Lemko" as an endonym had grown, and appeared in periodicals such as "Lemko" and "Naš Lemko".


title: Lemkos

text: Polish authorities also played a hand in popular adoption of the term leading up to World War II. Concerned by the potential for Ukrainian nationalism the region, authorities sought to encourage Rusyn identity as a counter. This led to promotion of the exaggerated historicity of Lemkos as a distinctive ethnographic group and of their corresponding ethnonym.


title: Lemkos

text: In the aftermath of WWII, "Lemko" finally supplanted "Rusyn" and "Rusnak" as the term of choice for the Rusyns on the north face of the Carpathians in Poland.


title: Lemkos

text: Several hypotheses account for the origin of the Lemkos, however, like all Rusyns, they most probably have a diverse ethnogenetic origin. The Lemkos (and other Carpatho-Rusyns) are considered to be descendants of the medieval White Croats, affected by the migration of Rusyn-influenced Slovaks, and the Vlach/Romanian migrations in the 14th and 15th centuries.


title: Lemkos

text: The Lemko Region became part of Poland in the time of the medieval Piast dynasty but was frequently disputed with the neighbouring Rus', as can be seen by taking the town of Sanok as an example: In 981CE Vladimir I of Kiev invaded the area and took it over from Poland. In 1018 it returned to Poland, in 1031 it went back to Rus', and in 1340 Casimir III of Poland recovered it for Poland. The "gord" of Sanok is mentioned for the first time in Hypatian Codex in 1150.


title: Lemkos

text: Lemkos (or their progenitors) became an ethnic minority as part of the Austrian province of Galicia in 1772. Mass emigration from this territory to the Western hemisphere for economic reasons began in the late 19th century. After World War I, Lemkos founded two short-lived republics, the Lemko-Rusyn Republic in the west of Galicia, which had a russophile orientation, and the Komancza Republic, with a Ukrainophilic orientation.


title: Lemkos

text: It is estimated that about 130,000 to 140,000 Lemkos were living in the Polish part of the Lemko Region in 1939. Depopulation of these lands occurred during the forced resettlement, initially to the Soviet Union (about 90,000 people) and later to Poland's newly acquired western lands (about 35,000) in the Operation Vistula campaign of the late 1940s. This action was a state ordered removal of the civilian population, in a counter-insurgency operation to remove potential support for guerrilla war being waged by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in south-eastern Poland.


title: Lemkos

text: Some 5,000 Lemko families returned to their home regions in Poland between 1957 and 1958, (they were officially granted the right to return in 1956), the Lemko population in the Polish section of Lemkivschyna only numbers around 10,000–15,000 today. Some 50,000 Lemkos live in the western and northern parts of Poland, where they were sent to populate former German villages in areas ceded to Poland. Among those, 5,863 people identified themselves as Lemko in the 2002 census. However, 60,000 ethnic Lemkos may reside in Poland today. Within the Lemko Region, Lemkos live in the villages of Łosie, Krynica-Zdrój, Nowica, Zdynia, Gładyszów, Hańczowa, Zyndranowa, Uście Gorlickie, Bartne, Binczarowa and Bielanka. Additional populations can be found in Mokre, Szczawne, Kulaszne, Rzepedź, Turzańsk, Komańcza, Sanok, Nowy Sącz, and Gorlice.


title: Lemkos

text: An important aspect of Lemko culture is their deep commitment to Byzantine Christianity which was introduced to the Eastern Slavs from Byzantium via Moravia through the efforts of Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. Originally the Lemkos adhered to Orthodoxy, but in order to avoid latinization, directly entered into Union of Brest with the Roman Catholic Church in the 17th century.


title: Lemkos

text: Most Lemkos today are Eastern rite or Byzantine-rite Catholics. In Poland they belong to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church with a Roman Catholic minority, or to the Ruthenian Catholic Church (see also Slovak Greek Catholic Church) in Slovakia. A substantial number belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Through the efforts of the martyred priest Father Maxim Sandovich (canonized by the Polish Orthodox Church in the 1990s), in the early 20th century, Eastern Orthodoxy was reintroduced to many Lemko areas which had accepted the Union of Brest centuries before.


title: Lemkos

text: The distinctive wooden architectural style of the Lemko churches is to place the highest cupola of the church building at the entrance to the church, with the roof sloping downward toward the sanctuary as opposed to their neighbouring sub-ethnic groups such as the Boykos who place the highest cupola in the middle. Both groups styles have three cupola with numerous eaves.


title: Lemkos

text: The Slavic dialects of Central Europe form (or formed, prior to standardization) a dialect continuum with few distinct boundaries between neighbouring varieties. However the question of language boundaries has become a controversial political issue since the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and later the Soviet Union into "nation states", each having only one official language. The Lemko dialects share many features with other Carpathian ones, which are often grouped together as the Rusyn language by outside linguists.


title: Lemkos

text: The Lemko dialect has been influenced greatly by the languages spoken by geographically neighboring peoples and ruling elites, so much so that some consider it a separate entity.Lemko speech includes some patterns matching those of the surrounding Polish and Slovak languages, leading some to refer to it as a transitional dialect between Polish and Slovak (some even consider the dialect in Eastern Slovakia to be a dialect of the Slovak language).


title: Lemkos

text: Metodyj Trochanovskij developed a Lemko Primer ("Bukvar: Perša knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol", 1935) and a First Reader ("Druha knyžečka dlja narodnŷch škol", 1936) for use in schools in the Lemko-speaking area of Poland. In 1934, Lemko was introduced as the language of instruction in schools in the Lemko region. The pupils were taught from textbooks prepared by Trochanovskij and published by the State Publishing House. However, shortly before the outbreak of World War II Polish authorities replaced them with Ukrainian texts. Important fieldwork on the Lemko dialect was carried out by the Polish linguist Zdzisław Stieber before their dispersal.


title: Lemkos

text: According to the Central Statistical Office of Poland, in the school year 2010–2011, Lemko was taught as a first language in twenty primary schools and interschool groups, and ten schools and interschool groups at junior high level, with 188 students attending classes.


title: Lemkos

text: In the late 20th century, some Lemkos/Rusyns, mainly emigres from the region of the southern slopes of the Carpathians in modern-day Slovakia, began codifying a standard grammar for the Lemko dialect, which was presented on the 27 January 1995 in Prešov, Slovakia. In 2013 the famous novel "The Little Prince" was translated into Lemko by Petro Krynyckij.


title: Lemkos

text: Nikolai Gogol's short story "The Terrible Vengeance" ends at Kriváň, now in Slovakia and pictured on the Slovakian euro, in the heart of the Lemko Region in the Prešov Region. Avram Davidson makes several references to the Lemko people in his stories. Anna Bibko, mother-in-law of the protagonist of "All Shall Be Well; and All Shall Be Well; and All Manner of Things Shall Be Well", is a Lemko "guided by her senses of traditionalism and grievance, not necessarily in that order".


title: Lemkos

text: In the critically acclaimed movie "The Deer Hunter" the wedding reception scene was filmed in Lemko Hall in the Tremont neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio, which had a significant immigrant population of Lemkos at one time. The three main characters’ surnames, however, appear to be Russian, possibly Polish and Ukrainian (Michael "Mike" Vronsky, from Polish "Wroński", Steven Pushkov, and Nikonar "Nick" Chevotarevich) and the wedding was filmed inside St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral, which is also located in Tremont.


title: Lemkos

text: The Lemkos' homeland is commonly referred to as the Lemko Region (; ; ). Up until 1945, this included the area from the Poprad River in the west to the valley of Oslawa River in the east, areas situated primarily in present-day Poland, in the Lesser Poland and Subcarpathian Voivodeships (provinces). This part of the Carpathian mountains is mostly deforested, which allowed for an agrarian economy, alongside such traditional occupations as ox grazing and sheep herding.


title: Lemkos

text: The Lemko region became part of Poland in medieval Piast times. Lemkos were made part of the Austrian province of Galicia in 1772. This area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until its dissolution in 1918, at which point the Lemko-Rusyn Republic ("Ruska Lemkivska") declared its independence. Independence did not last long however, and the republic was incorporated into Poland in 1920.


title: Lemkos

text: As a result of the forcible deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the Soviet Union after World War II, the majority of Lemkos in Poland were either resettled from their historic homeland to the prеviously German territories in the North-Western region of Poland or to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Only those Lemkos living the Prešov Region in present-day Slovakia continue to live on their ancestral lands, with the exception of some Lemkos who resettled in their homeland in the late 1950s and afterward. Lemkos are/were neighbours with Slovaks, Carpathian Germans and "Lachy sądeckie" (Poles) to the west, Pogorzans (Poles) and "Dolinians" (a Rusyn subgroup) to the north, Ukrainians to the east, and Slovaks to the south.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Vettaikaaran () is a 2009 Indian Tamil-language action film directed by debutant B. Babusivan and produced by AVM Productions. The film stars Vijay and Anushka, with Srihari, Salim Ghouse, Sayaji Shinde and Ravi Shankar in supporting roles. Gopinath handled cinematography while V. T. Vijayan was the film's editor. This was Vijay's first film with AVM Productions. This was the only film B. Babusivan had directed in his life until his death on 16 September 2020.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: The film released to mixed reviews but was a commercial success. The film has collected $1,399,911 at the overseas box office. The story is a tale of unexpected events in the life of auto rickshaw driver due to conspiracy by a crime boss, and how he manages to escape from him.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Ravi is a youngster from Thoothukudi who aspires to become a police officer like his role model, Encounter Specialist DCP Devaraj IPS. After completing his PUC, he joins a college in Chennai and also earns a living by driving an auto rickshaw. During the course, he meets Suseela, an IT professional and falls in love with her.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Although Suseela rejects Ravi's advances at first, with the help of her grandmother, Ravi succeeds in winning Suseela's heart. Meanwhile, Chella is a gangster and womaniser, meets Ravi's friend Uma in a public place, where she is taking donations for some cause, and immediately develops an attraction to her. When Uma asks Chella to contribute money, he willingly donates by inserting a rupee note in her jacket. Uma feels shamed and tells to her father what happened.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Ravi finds out what had happened to Uma through her father, he comes to her defense and beats up Chella, hospitalising him. His troubles start from there as Chella's father, a powerful don named Vedanayagam, with the help of his right-hand man, a corrupt police officer Kattabomman, begin to create havoc in Ravi's life. Ravi is soon thrown into jail on a false case of drug smuggling and is expelled from college.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Suseela is willing to help him where she goes to Devaraj and pleads with him to help Ravi, but Devaraj initially refuses to help as his entire family had died at the hands of Vedanayagam and he himself was blinded by him because he had taken action against him and his gang. However, with the help of his people known in the police department, He saves Ravi from being killed in a fake encounter led by Kattabomman. It is at this stage that Ravi takes up a new persona called "Police" Ravi to clean up the illegal activities of Vedanayagam and instill hope in the public, something that Devaraj was unable to do.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: In the process however, Vedanayagam kills Ravi's close friend Sugu, prompting Ravi to kill Chella in retribution. Vedanayagam decides to become a minister, in order to prevent Ravi from targeting him and his activities. As Ravi finally plans to kill the newly sworn-in minister Vedanayagam, The police arrive to arrest him. However, Ravi sees Devaraj in the crowd and announces Vedanayagam's location to him just as he is being arrested, allowing Devaraj to assassinate Vedanayagam, effectively avenging his family's death. Devaraj is reinstated into the police force and offers to make Ravi a police officer. However, Ravi refuses, stating that he has found the police officer within himself and that is all he needs to succeed in life.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: During the filming of "Kuruvi", directed by S. Dharani, B. Babusivan served as one of his assistant directors in the film and wrote the dialogues. Sivan was later prompted to begin his maiden directorial venture with Vijay in the lead role. He was eventually chosen as the director for the next feature film to be produced AVM Productions. The project was originally titled as "Police Ravi" but in August 2008 it was re-titled as "Vettaikkaaran", taken from the Vettaikaaran (1964 film) starring M. G. Ramachandran.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: "Vettaikaran" was formally launched the next month. The film's director Babusivan, producers M. Balasubramaniam and B. Gurunath Meyyappan, Vijay and his wife, Vijay Antony, S. A. Chandrasekhar and director Dharani were present at the film's inauguration.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Commercial directors Perarasu and Hari were mentioned, but AVM Productions chose B. Babusivan to be the director of the film.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Anushka waa selected as lead female role opposite to Vijay for the very first time. Cinematographer Gopinath was chosen to be the lead cameraman in the film after Ravi Varman was dropped from the film. V. T. Vijayan was signed as the film's editor.


title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Vijay experimented with his look in two songs. In "Karigalan", the left half of his body is a man where the right half is a female. The song is also notable for featuring Vijay without a moustache in his career as of date. The look in Karigalan was suggested by Dinesh after he watched Aamir Khan in a Tata Sky advertisement. In "Oru Chinna Thamarai", Vijay sports a long hair wig. Regarding his long hair look, Vijay reveals that he "always wanted to" try long hair.