title: National Trust

text: The work of the Trust was aided by further legislation during this period: the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 led to greater co-operation between local authorities and the Trust, while the Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act 1953 allowed the Trust to receive government grants for the upkeep and maintenance of historic buildings on the same terms as other owners.


title: National Trust

text: A major project, begun in 1959 and completed in 1964, was the restoration of the southern section of the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal. The Trust was persuaded to take on the scheme by John Smith and the work was carried out by hundreds of volunteers.


title: National Trust

text: Between 1945 and 1965 the Trust, under the chairmanship of the Earl of Crawford, saw a growth in its membership from 7,850 to 157,581 and growth in its staff from 15 to 450. The number of acres owned by the Trust increased from 112,000 in 1945 to 328,000 in 1965, with a further 53,000 acres covenanted. In May 1945 the Trust's London headquarters had moved to premises in Queen Anne's Gate.


title: National Trust

text: In 1965 the Trust launched Enterprise Neptune, a campaign to raise funds to buy, or acquire covenants over, stretches of coastline and protect them from development. The project was successful, raising over £800,000 in its first year, but it had unforeseen consequences for the Trust as the project director, Conrad Rawnsley (a former naval commander and grandson of one of the Trusts' founders, Hardwicke Rawnsley), fell out with the administration of the Trust and conducted a public attack against it. An extraordinary general meeting was called in February 1967 and, although the reform group's resolutions were defeated, the Trust recognised the need for change and set up an advisory committee to look at their management and organisation. The committee was chaired by accountant Sir Henry Benson, who was independent of the Trust. The other three members, Len Clark, Sir William Hayter and Patrick Gibson, were all on the Trust's council. The Benson report was published in 1968 and, although broadly endorsing the Trust's policy, recommended a number of organisational changes, which were then embodied in the National Trust Act of 1971. Following the publication of the report, much of the administration of the Trust was devolved to the regions.


title: National Trust

text: The last three decades of the twentieth century saw a large increase of membership of the Trust from 160,000 in 1968 to over two million by the time of its centenary in 1995, much of it down to the Trust's employment of a director of public relations, as recommended by the Benson report, and regional information officers. Starting in the 1970s, tea rooms and souvenir shops were opened in Trust properties and in 1984 a company was set up to operate the trading activities. Programmes of events, including plays and concerts, and educational activities were organised at Trust properties. The Trust appointed its first female chairman, Dame Jennifer Jenkins, in 1986.


title: National Trust

text: When the Trust reached its centenary in 1995 it owned or looked after 223 houses, 159 gardens, 670,000 acres of open countryside, and 530 miles of coastline.


title: National Trust

text: In the 1990s, there was a dispute within the Trust over stag hunting, which was the subject of much debate at annual general meetings. The Trust banned stag hunting on its land in 1997.


title: National Trust

text: In 2002 the Trust bought its first country house in more than a decade. Tyntesfield, a Victorian Gothic mansion in Somerset, was acquired with donations from the National Heritage Memorial Fund and the Heritage Lottery Fund as well as members of the public. Three years later, in 2005, the Trust acquired another country house, Seaton Delaval Hall in Northumberland.


title: National Trust

text: In 2005, the Trust moved to a new head office in Swindon, Wiltshire. The building was constructed on an abandoned railway yard and is intended as a model of brownfield renewal. It is named Heelis, taken from the married name of children's author Beatrix Potter, a supporter of, and donor to, the Trust, which now owns the land she formerly owned in Cumbria. A refit of the premises to accommodate increasing staff numbers was announced in June 2019.


title: National Trust

text: In 2007, the bicentenary of the official abolition of the slave trade, the Trust published the article "Addressing the Past" in its quarterly magazine, examining aspects of the Trust's "hidden history" and finding ways of "reinterpreting some of its properties and collections". Research carried out by the Trust revealed in 2020 that 93, nearly one third, of their houses and gardens had connections with colonialism and historic slavery: 'this includes the global slave trades, goods and products of enslaved labour, abolition and protest, and the East India Company'. The report attracted controversy and the Charity Commission opened a regulatory compliance case into the Trust in September 2020 to examine the trustees' decision making. The Charity Commission concluded that there were no grounds for regulatory action against the Trust. A group of members started a campaign, Restore Trust, to debate concerns about the future of the charity.


title: National Trust

text: The COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure in March 2020 of National Trust houses, shops and cafes, closely followed by all gated parks and gardens. At the same time, the Trust launched the #BlossomWatch campaign which encouraged people to share images on social media of blossoms seen on lockdown walks. Parks and gardens started to re-open from June 2020. In October 2020 the Trust announced 1,300 job losses.


title: National Trust

text: The trust is an independent charity (no. 205846). It was founded as a not-for-profit company in 1895 but was later re-incorporated by a private Act of Parliament, the National Trust Act 1907. Subsequent acts of Parliament between 1919 and 1971 amended and extended the Trust's powers and remit. The governance of the Trust was amended by the Charities (National Trust) Order 2005.


title: National Trust

text: The Trust is governed by a board of trustees (of between nine and fifteen members), appointed and overseen by a council consisting of eighteen people elected by the members of the Trust and eighteen appointed by other organisations whose work is related to that of the Trust, such as the Soil Association, the Royal Horticultural Society and the Council for British Archaeology. The members periodically vote on the organisations which may appoint half of the council. Members may also propose and vote on motions at the annual general meeting.


title: National Trust

text: At an operational level, the Trust is organised into regions which are aligned with the official local government regions of the UK. Its headquarters are in Swindon.


title: National Trust

text: In 2019/20 the Trust was employing 14,000 staff, including about 4,000 seasonal workers. Since 2009, customer services have been outsourced to Capita. The director-general of the Trust, Hilary McGrady, is paid an annual salary of £195,700, with a further eight executives being paid over £100,000 a year. The Trust is not a real living wage employer. In July 2020 the Trust announced that 1,200 jobs were at risk due to the coronavirus pandemic.


title: National Trust

text: For the year ended February 2020, total income of the Trust was £680.95 million. The largest sources of income were membership subscriptions (£269.7 million), direct property income (£196.9 million), enterprise and renewable energy income (£79.3 million) and legacies (£61.6 million). The Trust also received £20.8 million in grants, including £5.6 million from Natural England, £4.3 million from the National Lottery Heritage Fund, and £3.5 million from the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. In recognition of National Lottery funding, the Trust invited lottery ticket holders to visit over 100 properties free of charge for a few days in November 2017, 2018 and 2019.<ref name="Annual Report 2019/20"></ref> The Trust also takes part in the annual Heritage Open Days programme, when non-members can visit selected properties free of charge.


title: National Trust

text: In the year ending February 2020, the Trust had 5.95 million members (2.78 million memberships). Members are entitled to free entry to trust properties that are open to the public for a charge. There is a separate organisation called the Royal Oak Foundation for American supporters.


title: National Trust

text: As of 2020, the Trust owns almost of land, 780 miles of coast, more than 200 historic houses, 41 castles and chapels, 47 industrial monuments and mills, the sites of factories and mines, 9 lighthouses, 56 villages, 39 public houses, and 25 medieval barns. Most of the land is farmed, either in-hand or by tenant farmers.


title: National Trust

text: The Trust owns more than 200 historic houses that are open to the public. Most of them are large country houses or stately homes set in gardens and parks. They contain collections of pictures, furniture, books, metalwork, ceramics and textiles that have remained in their historic context. Service wings are preserved at many houses. Attingham Park in Shropshire, the most visited National Trust country house in 2019/20, is set in typical grounds with a walled garden and extensive parkland planted with trees to the designs of Humphry Repton. The most visited National Trust property in England in 2019/20 for which an admission charge is made was Clumber Park in Nottinghamshire, a park without a country house. Clumber House was largely demolished in 1938, leaving a nineteenth-century chapel as the focus of the park, which also contains a lake with wooded islands, a stable block, glasshouses and two classical temples.


title: National Trust

text: The first country house to be acquired by the Trust, the Elizabethan manor house Barrington Court in Somerset, was bought in 1907 and came in a dilapidated state and devoid of contents. The experience taught the Trust a salutary lesson about the need for endowments to cover the costs of upkeep of country houses. The Trust acquired the majority of its country houses in the mid 20th century, when death duties were at their highest and many country houses were being demolished. The arrangements made with families bequeathing their homes to the Trust often allowed them to continue to live in the property. Since the 1980s, the Trust has been increasingly reluctant to take over large houses without substantial accompanying endowment funds, and its acquisitions in this category have been less frequent, with only two, Tyntesfield and Seaton Delaval Hall, since 2000.


title: National Trust

text: As well as great country houses, the Trust also owns smaller properties, many of them associated with famous people. Examples include: Cherryburn, the cottage in Northumberland where Thomas Bewick was born; Smallhythe Place in Kent, home to Ellen Terry; Shaw's Corner in Hertfordshire, the country home of George Bernard Shaw. The home of architect Ernő Goldfinger, 2 Willow Road in Hampstead, London, was the first example of Modernist architecture to be acquired by the Trust. In 1995 the Trust bought 20 Forthlin Road in Liverpool, the childhood home of Paul McCartney; 251 Menlove Avenue, the childhood home of John Lennon, was bought by Yoko Ono in 2002 and donated to the Trust. The Birmingham Back to Backs are an example of working-class housing preserved by the Trust.


title: National Trust

text: Some properties have individual arrangements with the Trust, so for example Wakehurst Place is managed by the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew and Waddesdon Manor by a private foundation; both are open to the public.


title: National Trust

text: Since its founding in 1895, the trust has gradually expanded its collection of art, mostly through whole property acquisitions. From 1956 until the post was removed in 2021, there was a curator of pictures and sculpture. The first was St John (Bobby) Gore, who was appointed "Adviser on Paintings" in 1956. He published catalogues of the pictures at Upton House, Polesden Lacey, Buscot Park, Saltram House, and Ascott House. His successor in 1986 was Alastair Laing, who cared for the works of art at 120 properties and created the exhibition "In Trust for the Nation", held at the National Gallery in 1995–96. From 2009 until 2021, the curator was David Taylor, who approved photographs of the Trust's 12,567 oil paintings to be included in the Public Catalogue Foundation's searchable online archive of oil paintings, available since 2012. Artists represented in the Trust's collections include Rembrandt (whose "Self-portrait wearing a white feathered bonnet" which is now displayed at Buckland Abbey was recently re-attributed to the artist), Hieronymous Bosch, El Greco, Peter Paul Rubens, Angelica Kauffmann, and Stanley Spencer.


title: National Trust

text: From the 1980s to 2001 the Trust commissioned artists to create works depicting National Trust places with their "Foundation for Art", and in 2009 launched its contemporary art programme entitled "Trust New Art" in a joint venture with Arts Council England and Arts Council of Wales. As part of this programme the Trust has worked with over 200 artists to create new artworks inspired by their places including: Jeremy Deller, Anya Gallaccio, Antony Gormley, Sir Richard Long, Serena Korda, Marcus Coates and Katie Paterson.


title: National Trust

text: The National Trust is the largest private landowner in the United Kingdom. The Trust's land holdings account for almost , mostly of countryside. A large part of this consists of parks and agricultural estates attached to country houses, but there are many countryside properties which were acquired specifically for their scenic or scientific value. The Trust owns or has covenant over about a quarter of the Lake District; it has similar control over about 12% of the Peak District National Park (e.g. South Peak Estate and High Peak Estate).


title: National Trust

text: Most National Trust land, about , consists of tenant or in-hand farms, where public access is restricted to rights of way and sometimes additional routes. At Wimpole Estate in Cambridgeshire, the home farm is open to the public. The Trust also owns forests, woods, downs and moorland. These areas are generally open to the public free of charge, as are some of the parks attached to country houses (others have an admission charge).


title: National Trust

text: The Trust owns or protects roughly one-fifth of the coastline in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (), and has a long-term campaign, Project Neptune, which seeks to acquire more.


title: National Trust

text: The National Trust Acts grant the Trust the unique statutory power to declare land inalienable. This prevents the land from being sold or mortgaged against the Trust's wishes without special parliamentary procedure. The inalienability of trust land was over-ridden by Parliament in the case of proposals to construct a section of the Plympton bypass through the park at Saltram, on the grounds that the road proposal had been known about before the park at Saltram was declared inalienable.


title: National Trust

text: In 2017 the Trust, in spite of criticism by members, supported the government's scheme to build a road tunnel under the Stonehenge World Heritage Site as part of the plans to upgrade the A303 road. The scheme would involve the compulsory purchase of land held inalienably by the Trust.


title: National Trust

text: The 2020/21 annual report lists the National Trust properties for which an admission charge is made that attracted more than 50,000 visitors. The figures in the annual report reflected the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused a decrease in visitors due to closures. The 10 most visited properties are:<ref name="Annual Report 2020/21"></ref>


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel is a family-owned diversified business founded in Saudi Arabia in 1945 by the late Sheikh Abdul Latif Jameel (1909–1993). Operating across 7 core business sectors, Abdul Latif Jameel has a presence in over 30 countries across 6 continents.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel was founded in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, in 1945 by Sheikh Abdul Latif Jameel. It became a Toyota distributor in the Kingdom in 1955, a position it has retained till today.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 1979, Abdul Latif Jameel United Finance Company (ALJUF), a financial services company aimed at further supporting Toyota vehicle sales in Saudi Arabia, was established. In the same year, the company also set up a consumer product business which imports electronics and consumer durables. In 1981, it established an outdoor advertising company to support the marketing of Toyota products. It also began exporting and distributing Lexus passenger vehicles in 1989, opening the first dedicated Lexus centre in Saudi Arabia four years later.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 1990, Abdul Latif Jameel established an automotive accessories and conversion business in Saudi Arabia. In 1993, after the death of his father, Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel assumed the leadership role in the company and, today, is the President and CEO. In the same year, the company started operating a Toyota distributorship in Algeria. Two years later, in 1995, another dealership was started in Morocco.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 1996, Abdul Latif Jameel established a general trading company in Japan, which now has an experiential open business centre in Tokyo. Two years later, the company’s first Toyota dealership businesses in China and a Daihatsu distributorship in Turkey were launched. A Daihatsu distributorship in Morocco and a financial services company in Egypt were also established in 1999.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 2001, Japan-based DENSO Corporation (DENSO International America's parent company) and Abdul Latif Jameel Co., Ltd. jointly established a company that produces car heating, ventilation and air conditioners (HVAC) in Jeddah. In 2003, Abdul Latif Jameel's accessories and conversion business in Saudi Arabia became an approved Toyota Development Base, and the company established an aftermarket parts business. In the same year, the company also established Abdul Latif Jameel Community Initiatives, its corporate social responsibility (CSR) arm.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: On the 50th anniversary of its collaboration with Toyota Motor Company, Abdul Latif Jameel launched a Lexus dealership in Japan and a Daihatsu distributorship in Saudi Arabia in 2005. The next year, the company also established Toyota and Lexus dealerships in the UK (later sold in 2017), and a Daihatsu dealership in Egypt. It also launched a Hino distributorship in Algeria in 2007, and the DJ aftermarket vehicle parts in 2008. In 2009, it established a Toyota distributorship in Turkey and a Hino distributorship in Egypt.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 2010, Abdul Latif Jameel launched a Hino distributorship in Morocco. The next year, the company's aftermarket division acquired the Malaysian company FBK and expanded into China and Malaysia. In 2012, Abdul Latif Jameel established its Energy and Environmental Services division, launched a financial services division to support Toyota sales in Turkey, and opened the first Lexus dealership in China. That year, the company also relocated its international operations headquarters from Beirut to Dubai.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel and Sumitomo Corporation formed a JV (known presently as Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery) in 2013 for distributing Komatsu heavy equipment in Saudi Arabia. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel established a real estate development division, Abdul Latif Jameel Land. It also set up a Ford distributorship in Egypt and acquired a refrigerated vehicle conversion manufacturer in Turkey, in 2013.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In 2013, King Abdullah Economic City and Abdul Latif Jameel signed an agreement for the purchase of 1.5 million sqm land in KAEC-Industrial Valley. The company agreed to invest SR 1.2 billion to build a complex for the import, distribution, component manufacture and assembly of cars. The next year, Abdul Latif Jameel signed a joint venture MoA with the Dubai-based regional property developer, Emaar Properties, and also hosted a delegation from the Family Business Network (FBN) International (now known as the Family Business Council-Gulf) at its UAE regional headquarters.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel also began a joint venture with the Spain-based company Fotowatio Renewable Ventures (FRV) in 2014, and acquired FRV in 2015.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In May 2016, Abdul Latif Jameel opened launched the first Lexus brand distributorship in Turkey. In the same year, the company also announced its intention to invest US$2.2 billion in Saudi Arabia over the next 5 years as part of its long-term expansion plans. This includes an expansion of the Toyota outlet network, the opening a Lexus showroom in Riyadh Saudi Arabia, and the opening of a new flagship Komatsu facility in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. In 2016, Abdul Latif Jameel Land began building J│ONE Residences, its first residential project in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: At the World Future Energy Summit 2017, in Abu Dhabi, Abdul Latif Jameel Energy announced the launch of Almar Water Solutions. Abdul Latif Jameel Energy also started construction on the two of the largest solar projects in Jordan. The projects, called Mafraq I &II, are scheduled to generate approximately 2% of Jordan's total generation capacity. In the same year, the company's electronics division was rebranded and re-launched as Redsea.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In April 2018, Abdul Latif Jameel Land launched J|ONE residencies. In October, it established the first Lexus showroom in Morocco, launching it at the Auto Expo 2018 in Casablanca. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel Energy also announced its first large-scale solar project in India: the 138-MW DC Solar Farm in Andhra Pradesh. Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery also announced a strategic partnership with Kanoo Machinery.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel Energy established a wind energy project in 2019 in Japan. Supported by the regional power companies Hokkaido Electric Power Company and Tohoku Electric Power Co., Inc., Abdul Latif Jameel Energy launched its first micro wind turbines at Cape Erimo, Japan’s “Wind Town”. In the same year, Abdul Latif Jameel Land and the Al Muhaidib Group partnered to launch a new joint venture, Muheel, an Integrated Facilities Management company (IFM) in Saudi Arabia. Abdul Latif Jameel Logistics launched an express delivery service and end-to-end e-commerce solution brand, S:mile.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In April 2019, Abdul Latif Jameel Motors was awarded the Gold Award for Business Transformation, for its JSAP program in the annual SAP Quality Awards, presented at a ceremony in Heidelberg, Germany. This was the first time a Saudi Arabian company had won the top SAP prize. In the same year, Almar Water Solutions, a part of Abdul Latif Jameel Energy, acquired a contract to develop a desalination plant in the city of Shuqaiq, on the Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In November 2021, it was reported that Abdul Latif Jameel's investment unit had accumulated almost 114 million shares in Rivian, which was valued at almost $11.5 billion on the closing day of Rivian's IPO.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: In September 2022, the company was listed by Forbes in the Middle East's Top 100 Arab Family Businesses, ranking seventh.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: The founder, Abdul Latif Jameel, ran the company from its formation until his death in 1993, when his son, Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel, became chairman and president. Mohammed's eldest son, Fady Mohammed Abdul Latif Jameel, serves as deputy president and vice chairman of Abdul Latif Jameel. Mohammed's middle son, Hassan Jameel, serves as deputy president and vice chairman of domestic Saudi Arabia operations.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel has dual headquarters in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) and Dubai (United Arab Emirates), and affiliated corporate offices in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), Istanbul (Turkey) and Tokyo (Japan). Through various subsidiaries, it operates in six sectors:


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel Motors: The passenger car division, which distributes Toyota and Lexus vehicles in Saudi Arabia and other markets across the Middle East, Europe and Asia. It also distributes Ford vehicles in Egypt.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel Machinery: This division handles commercial vehicles, and heavy equipment and materials. It distributes Komatsu, Toyota, BT and Raymond fork-lift trucks, HINO trucks, Manitou telehandlers, Loxa cement equipment and Teksan generators in Saudi Arabia and North Africa.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel Finance: This division operates in Saudi Arabia, with affiliates in Turkey and Egypt.


title: Abdul Latif Jameel

text: Abdul Latif Jameel also has an advertising and media division, consisting of the advertising agency DelphysME (a JV with Delphys of Japan) and the company’s captive outdoor advertising company in Saudi Arabia. It also has an engineering and manufacturing division that handles the aftermarket vehicles parts businesses.


title: The Big Fix (South Park)

text: "The Big Fix" is the second episode of the twenty-fifth season of the American animated television series "South Park". The 313th episode overall of the series, it premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on February 9, 2022. This episode retconned the name of the supporting character Token Black, establishing that his name is really Black, and that he was named after "The Lord of the Rings" author J. R. R. Tolkien.


title: The Big Fix (South Park)

text: Cannabis farmer Randy Marsh attends a cannabis exposition where he learns that some people are boycotting cannabis farms that are not employing people of color. Randy speaks with his wife, Sharon, and their children, Shelly and Stan, about their lack of interaction with black people, in particular the fact that Stan never plays solely with his black classmate, Token Black. Stan invites Token and his parents, Steve and Linda Black, to the farm for dinner. During the meal, it is revealed that Token's first name is actually , in honor of J. R. R. Tolkien. This comes to the surprise of Stan, who learns that he was the only one in his class who did not know this. Steve accepts Randy's invitation to work with him by providing financial consulting for his cannabis business, Tegridy Farms. However, Steve is later angered to see a Tegridy Farms billboard using his likeness. When Randy gives him some of the profits resulting from the new ad campaign, Steve initially entertains the idea, but when he realizes he is being commodified, and that Randy is not interested in any of his ideas, he leaves the business.


title: The Big Fix (South Park)

text: Stan goes to a doctor, and says that he fears that he is racist, having thought Tolkien's first name was a reference to tokenism. The doctor harshly criticizes Stan for having assumed such a thing, and breaks the fourth wall to question whether "anyone else" believed the same thing. He suggests Stan do some reading from the perspective of a black person, but Stan instead reads books by J. R. R. Tolkien. In class, Stan shares what he learned from Tolkien's work, which he suggests be made required reading. He later addresses a school assembly declaring it to be J. R. R. Tolkien Appreciation Day, but when he invites Tolkien up to speak, Tolkien declares he has never shared his father's love with the writer, hates Tolkien's work, and the fact that he was named after him. Later at Stan's house, Stan confesses to Tolkien his error regarding Tolkien's name. Tolkien says his parents bought the cannabis farm across the road, and named it Credigree Weed. Randy is incensed by this, and by the fact that Steve is using Randy's idea of exploiting Black culture for profit, and speaking in African-American Vernacular English to establish "street cred" with customers. Randy kicks Tolkien out of his house, promising to go to war with Steve. The episode ends with a gag public service announcement by the doctor, directed to those who thought Tolkien's name was really Token.


title: The Big Fix (South Park)

text: Dan Caffrey with "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an "A" rating, praising the Tolkien theme of the episode, and stating, "Of all the outstanding Tolkien episodes throughout "South Park"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s history, I'd be hard-pressed to find one as funny and insightful as tonight's 'The Big Fix,' in which fantasy mythology and weed-farming come together to take on the hefty task of satirizing performative allyship."


title: The Big Fix (South Park)

text: John Schwarz with "Bubbleblabber" rated the episode an 8 out of 10, commenting on "South Park"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s history of racial discussion, stating "'With Apologies to Jesse Jackson' kind of introduced Matt Stone and Trey Parker's misconceived notions from white people as it pertains to black culture, 'The Big Fix' focuses on them just a bit more. It's an interesting conversation, however, it's interesting that we really didn't get a firm grasp on what the 'apology tour' should be, and perhaps, maybe even Matt and Trey are wrestling with this as well."


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Jonathan Frid (December 2, 1924 – April 14, 2012) was a Canadian actor, best known for his role as vampire Barnabas Collins on the gothic television soap opera "Dark Shadows".


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid was born of Scottish and English ancestry in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. His birth name was John Herbert Frid. He was the youngest son of homemaker Isabel Flora (née McGregor) and Herbert Percival "H.P." Frid, a construction executive.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid served in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War II. He graduated from McMaster University in Hamilton in 1948, and the following year was accepted at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts in London. He moved to the United States in 1954, and received a Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree in Directing from the Yale School of Drama in 1957. As a student at Yale in 1956, he starred in the premiere of William Snyder's play "A True and Special Friend". He went on to star in the first productions at the Williamstown Theater in Williamstown, Massachusetts and stage productions in Canada, England and the United States.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: He began using the stage name Jonathan Frid (rather than John Frid) in 1962, and made his Broadway debut as an understudy in the 1964 play "Roar Like a Dove".


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Early television roles with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation included parts in "Julius Caesar", "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea", "Our Town", and "The Picture of Dorian Gray".


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid is widely known for the role of vampire Barnabas Collins in the original gothic serial "Dark Shadows", which ran from 1966-71 and in which he appeared in 594 episodes. He also starred as Barnabas in the 1970 movie "House of Dark Shadows". In 1967, Frid had made plans to move to the U.S. West Coast to pursue a career as an acting teacher when he won the role that ultimately made him a household name. As Frid explained on his Web site, he had barely entered his apartment as the phone call from his agent came informing him that he had won the role of Barnabas Collins. He agreed to accept it after being told it was a short-term one that would provide him with extra cash while he prepared to move. As the character's popularity soared, Frid scrapped those plans.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: After "Dark Shadows" ended in 1971, he returned to performing in live theatre full-time with starring roles in the Broadway plays "Murder in the Cathedral" as Thomas Becket and "Wait Until Dark" as Harry Roat. Frid had previously played the role of a psychiatrist on the CBS Television soap opera "As the World Turns". In 1973, Frid appeared in the TV movie "The Devil's Daughter", starring Shelley Winters, and the following year starred in Oliver Stone's directorial debut, "Seizure". In 1978, he returned to Canada for a time and later returned to New York City in the early 1980s.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid began performing readings at "Dark Shadows" fan conventions in the 1980s and while developing ideas for his one-man shows. He succeeded Abe Vigoda, also a "Dark Shadows" alumnus, as Jonathan Brewster in the 1986–87 Broadway revival of "Arsenic and Old Lace".


title: Jonathan Frid

text: In 1994, he retired and returned to Canada. He continued to perform one-man shows for charities in both Canada and the United States. In 2000, he starred in the play "Mass Appeal" which enjoyed a successful, limited run in Hamilton and at the Stirling Festival Theatre in Stirling, Ontario.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid attended "Dark Shadows" conventions in New York in August 2007, Burbank, California, in July 2008, and Elizabeth, New Jersey, in August 2009. In 2010, he returned to the role of Barnabas for the first time in 39 years in a "Dark Shadows" audio drama, "The Night Whispers". Along with former "Dark Shadows" castmates Lara Parker, David Selby, and Kathryn Leigh Scott, he spent three days at Pinewood Studios in June 2011 filming a cameo appearance as a guest in the "happening" scene for the 2012 Tim Burton "Dark Shadows" film, which became his final film appearance.


title: Jonathan Frid

text: Frid died at Juravinski Hospital in Hamilton, Ontario, of pneumonia and complications after a fall. While some sources at the time variously reported the date of his death as April 13 or April 14, Frid's nephew, David Howitt, confirmed that Frid died in the early hours of April 14, 2012. Howitt added that while Friday the 13th "makes for good press... it’s good to get it right."


title: Economic nationalism

text: Economic nationalism, also called economic patriotism and economic populism, is an ideology that favors state interventionism over other market mechanisms, with policies such as domestic control of the economy, labor, and capital formation, including if this requires the imposition of tariffs and other restrictions on the movement of labor, goods and capital. The core belief of economic nationalism is that the economy should serve nationalist goals.


title: Economic nationalism

text: Economic nationalists oppose globalization or at least question the benefits of unrestricted free trade. They favor protectionism and advocate for self-sufficiency. To economic nationalists, markets are to be subordinate to the state, and should serve the interests of the state (such as providing national security and accumulating military power). The doctrine of mercantilism is a prominent variant of economic nationalism. Economic nationalists tend to see international trade as zero-sum, where the goal is to derive relative gains (as opposed to mutual gains).


title: Economic nationalism

text: Economic nationalism tends to emphasize industrialization (and often aids industries with state support), due to beliefs that industry has positive spillover effects on the rest of the economy, enhances the self-sufficiency and political autonomy of the country, and is a crucial aspect in building military power.


title: Economic nationalism

text: While the coining of the term "economic patriotism" has been attributed to French parliamentarian Bernard Carayon, there is evidence that the phrase has been in use since earlier. In an early instance of its use, William Safire in 1985, in defending President Reagan's proposal of the Strategic Defense Initiative missile defense system, wrote, "Our common denominator is nationalism – both a military and economic patriotism – which inclines us to the side of pervasive national defense."


title: Economic nationalism

text: In the mid-to-late 1800s, Italian economic thinkers began to gravitate towards the theories of Fredrich List. Led by Italian economists like Alessandro Rossi, policies favoring protectionism gained momentum. The Italian government had previously been ignoring Italian industry in favor of trade with France. The Italian government seemed content to watch other European powers modernize and gain influence through their colonies. Various groups began to put pressure on the Italian government, from textile to ceramic manufacturers, and although the Italian government imposed tariffs the industrialists felt that it was not enough. The push for industrialization and protectionism quickly spun Italy into an economic crisis in 1887, exposing Italian industrial woes.


title: Economic nationalism

text: The Austro-Hungarian empire’s ethnic diversity made it an unusual case of the rise of European nationalism. The fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, while mostly caused by the empire's defeat in World War I, was also caused by the lack of economic and political integration between Austrians and Slavs. Though Hungary relied on Austria economically, as it provided a market for Hungary's agriculture production, there was a deep social and economic rift between the Austrians and Slavic people, who actively boycotted and protested Austrian rule in favor of more autonomy in the Balkans. Regions within the empire began using forms of price discrimination to strengthen national economies. As a result, intra-empire trade began to fail. Grain prices fluctuated throughout the empire after the 1880s into World War I, however an ethnic breakdown of the empire showed that grain trade between two predominantly Austrian territories, or two predominantly Slavic territories, led to a gradual decrease in grain prices from the 1870s up to World War I. This was mainly due to the increased presence of railroads in the late 1800s. The only trade pairing that did not observe decreasing grain prices were two territories of varying nationality. Overall, grain prices were cheaper, and the price gap was smaller, when the two territories trading more closely resembled each other ethnically and linguistically.


title: Economic nationalism

text: At the Financial Conference on Inflation in September 1974, one topic of discussion was the gradual dissolution of economic barriers to the movement of goods, people and services across borders in the post World War II era. According to William E. Simon, who was United States Treasury Secretary at that time, there was concern that inflation would motivate economic nationalism: "This has had enormously beneficial effect; Now, however, there is some danger that inflation may drive countries in economic nationalism."


title: Economic nationalism

text: The philosophical foundations of economic nationalism are difficult to trace due to the ideology's lengthy history and its unique appeal to different types of groups. The four general pillars come from its political, cultural, economic, and social roots. Though details surrounding these four pillars may differ depending on a nation's status, generally a nation's own status and economic stability takes precedence over another. During the late-19th and early-20th century this meant an emphasis on protectionism, increased role of the government, and even colonialism, as it was a means of modifying an occupied country's culture and creed.


title: Economic nationalism

text: In both Germany and Italy, Fredrich List played a role in the rise in economic nationalism during the 1800s. List brought elements of economic theory and national identity together, as he postulated that an individual's quality of life was in correlation with the success of their country and was a well-known proponent of tariffs in the United States. List's ideas on economics and nationalism directly challenged the economic theories of Adam Smith, as List felt that Smith reduced the role of national identity too much and favored of a globalized approach which ignored certain complexities of political life.


title: Economic nationalism

text: As a policy is a deliberate system of principles to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes, the following list of would be examples of an economic nationalistic policy, where there is consistent and rational doctrine associated with each individual protectionist measure:


title: Economic nationalism

text: The reason for a policy of economic protectionism in the cases above varied from bid to bid. In the case of Mittal's bid for Arcelor, the primary concerns involved job security for the Arcelor employees based in France and Luxembourg. The cases of French Suez and Spanish Endesa involved the desire for respective European governments to create a 'national champion' capable of competing at both a European and global level. Both the French and US government used national security as the reason for opposing takeovers of Danone, Unocal, and the bid by DP World for 6 US ports. In none of the examples given above was the original bid deemed to be against the interests of competition. In many cases the shareholders supported the foreign bid. For instance in France after the bid for Suez by Enel was counteracted by the French public energy and gas company Gaz De France the shareholders of Suez complained and the unions of Gaz De France were in an uproar because of the privatization of their jobs.


title: Economic nationalism

text: More recently, the economic policies advocated by Steve Bannon in the wake of the 2016 United States presidential election have been considered by some scholars and political commentators as a (partial) return to the economic nationalism of the Theodore Roosevelt Era.


title: Economic nationalism

text: The modern phenomenon of the European Union has in part led to a recent resurgence of economic nationalism. Western Europe as a whole has become more economically globalized since the end of World War II, embracing economic integration and introducing the euro. This did lead to positive economic impacts, such as steady wage increases. However, from the 1990s through the Great Recession, there has been an increasing distrust in this globalized system. With rising income inequalities and little protection against natural economic occurrences, many Europeans have begun to embrace economic nationalism. This is because modern European nationalists see their nation's economy becoming generally more globalized at the expense of one's own economic status. Globalization, like the type one can observe in the European Union, is easy to oppose as it creates winners and losers. Those who lose their jobs due to globalization are more likely to be drawn to parties espousing economic nationalism.


title: Economic nationalism

text: Although some European nations were impacted differently, nations that saw an increased exposure to the China trade stock did move significantly further right politically and generally supported more nationalist and protectionist policies. Even industries which did not see increased exposure to the China trade shock generally shifted towards right wing policies. This shows that, while some voters shifted their political support due to their worsening economic conditions, many voters shifted to right-wing policy due to a community-wide reaction from the China trade shock. Though the shock took place in the 1980s, its economic effects still impact the European electorate today. In particular, the Brexit vote showed the impact this shock had on the electorate, as regions which were most impacted by the China trade shock were still economically weak (in terms of GDP per capita) in comparison to other regions like London, even over a decade later. There is a strong positive correlation in regions most impacted by the China trade shock and an increase in votes to leave the European Union.


title: Economic nationalism

text: Immigration plays a large part in the policy of modern economic nationalists. With a considerable influx of immigration, particularly from parts of eastern Europe and the Middle East, those who gravitate towards economic nationalism find that their national identity and culture has been diluted by increased immigration. Though studies have shown marginal improvements to both native employment and wages when put in competition with immigrants.


title: Economic nationalism

text: The impact of Europe's move towards a globalized economy has led to the passing of nationalist policies and the support of right-wing populist parties, which generally espouse nationalist and socially conservative views - though there was also a growth in support for left-wing populist parties, such as Podemos in Spain, and Syriza in Greece. Such parties have formed governments in a number of European countries, including Poland (Law and Justice), Hungary (Fidesz), and, arguably, the United Kingdom, where the Conservative Party, headed by PM Boris Johnson, has absorbed the vast majority of UKIP's support since Brexit. This is a prominent example of the rise in nationalism and anti-globalization, as Brexit, a result of lengthy campaigns by UKIP and the Eurosceptic faction of the Conservatives for a national referendum, is regarded by many opponents as a manifestation of economic (and social) nationalism, and right-wing populism more broadly. However, the majority of UK opinion polls since Brexit in have shown support for rejoining the EU, or ceasing the Brexit process during the period 2016-2020, in part likely due to the economic impacts of the deal agreed by the EU and UK.


title: Economic nationalism

text: Consumer preference for local goods gives local producers monopoly power, affording them the ability to lift prices to extract greater profits. Firms that produce locally produced goods can charge a premium for that good. Consumers who favor products by local producers may end up being exploited by profit-maximizing local producers. For example; a protectionist policy in America placed tariffs on foreign cars, giving local producers (Ford and GM market) market power that allowed them to raise the price of cars, which negatively affected American consumers who faced fewer choices and higher prices. Locally produced goods can attract a premium if consumers show a preference towards it, so firms have an incentive to pass foreign goods off as local goods if foreign goods have cheaper costs of production than local goods.


title: Economic nationalism

text: Raymond Leslie Buell criticized economic nationalism, arguing that it contributed to competition and warfare between states as they were motivated to annex territory containing resources, markets and seaports.


title: Blue Riband

text: The Blue Riband () is an unofficial accolade given to the passenger liner crossing the Atlantic Ocean in regular service with the record highest average speed. The term was borrowed from horse racing and was not widely used until after 1910. The record is based on average speed rather than passage time because ships follow different routes.


title: Blue Riband

text: Also, eastbound and westbound speed records are reckoned separately, as the more difficult westbound record voyage, against the Gulf Stream and the prevailing weather systems, typically results in lower average speeds.


title: Blue Riband

text: Of the 35 Atlantic liners to hold the Blue Riband, 25 were British, followed by five German, three American, as well as one each from Italy and France. Thirteen were Cunarders (plus "Queen Mary" of Cunard White Star), five by White Star, with four owned by Norddeutscher Lloyd, two by Collins, two by Inman and two by Guion, and one each by British American, Great Western, Hamburg-America, the Italian Line, Compagnie Générale Transatlantique and finally the United States Lines.


title: Blue Riband

text: The record set by "United States" in 1952 remains unbroken by any passenger liner. The next-longest period through which the Blue Riband was retained was 19 years, held from 1909 to 1929 by "Mauretania". The shortest period was six weeks, by "Bremen" from July to August 1933.


title: Blue Riband

text: Many of these ships were built with substantial government subsidies and were designed with military considerations in mind. Winston Churchill estimated that the two Cunard Queens helped shorten the Second World War by a year. The last Atlantic liner to hold the Blue Riband, the SS "United States", was designed for her potential use as a troopship as well as her service as a commercial passenger liner. There was no formal award until 1935, when Harold K. Hales donated the Hales Trophy; though the rules for the Hales Trophy were different from the traditional rules for the Blue Riband (for example, the Hales Trophy was originally only awarded for westbound records) and changed several times thereafter. It was awarded to just three Blue Riband holders during the express liner era. The trophy continues to be awarded, though many people believe "United States" remains as the holder of the Blue Riband, because no subsequent record-breaker was in Atlantic passenger service.


title: Blue Riband

text: The first well-documented crossing of the North Atlantic, though not the earliest, was that of John Cabot's ship "Matthew" in the summer of 1497. "Matthew" crossed from Bristol to Newfoundland in 35 days, returning the following month in just 17 days.


title: Blue Riband

text: Over the next three centuries, countless vessels (merchant ships and warships, fast and slow, in peace and war) crossed back and forth over the North Atlantic, all subject to the vagaries of wind and weather. They arrived at port when they could, dependent on the wind, and left when they were loaded, frequently visiting other ports to complete their cargo. During this period eastbound passages of 30 and 45 days were not uncommon, while westward passages of 65 to 90 days excited no attention. It was the advent of the steamship, with its independence from wind power, which offered the possibility of regular, scheduled Atlantic crossings, in periods of two to three weeks, that opened a new era of transatlantic travel and competition.


title: Blue Riband

text: The term "Blue Riband of the Atlantic" did not come into use until the 1890s, and the history of the trans-Atlantic competition, which was compiled retrospectively, was regarded as starting with the crossings by the steamships "Sirius" and "Great Western" in 1838. Although not the first steamships to cross the Atlantic ("Savannah" had crossed in 1819, and "Royal William" in 1831) nor the fastest to make the crossing (the packet sailing ship "Columbia" crossed west to east in 15 days 23 hours in 1830, and crossings by sail packets of 16 and 17 days were not unheard of) the "Sirius" and "Great Western" were the first steamships offering a regular, scheduled trans-Atlantic service; and crucially, they were involved in a race. Cunard refused officially to recognise the title because racing vessels was not in line with the company's safety policy.


title: Blue Riband

text: The idea of building a line of transatlantic steamships was mooted in 1832 by Junius Smith, an American lawyer turned London merchant. The idea came to him during an Atlantic crossing which took 57 days, a not unusual occurrence, and it was published in the "American Rail Road Journal". After receiving no support for several years, his plan gained credibility when Scottish shipbuilder, Macgregor Laird became an investor. Smith, who is often considered the "Father of the Atlantic Liner", formed the British and American Steam Navigation Company to operate a London-New York service. About the same time, the question of Atlantic steamships was discussed at an 1835 director's meeting of the newly formed Great Western Railway when the line's chief engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel supposedly joked that the line could be made longer by building a steamship to run between Bristol and New York. The necessary investors were recruited by Brunel's friend, Thomas Guppy, a Bristol engineer and businessman. The next year, the Great Western Steamship Company was established, even though the rail line was still years from completion.


title: Blue Riband

text: By spring 1838, Brunel's was ready for sea, but Smith's first ship was still without engines. When Great Western scheduled its initial sailing, Laird suggested that British and American charter the Irish Sea steamer from the St. George Steam Packet Company for two voyages to beat Great Western. While the "Sirius" left Cork, Ireland four days before "Great Western" departed Avonmouth, "Great Western" still came within a day of overtaking "Sirius" to New York. To complete the voyage, "Sirius" was forced to burn spars when coal ran low. With her westbound crossing at 8.03 knots (14.87 km/h), "Sirius" is often considered the first record holder even though she would have held the record for only one day, until "Great Western"'s arrival from her even faster crossing. However the notion of a "Blue Riband" would not be used for several decades. "Great Western" herself became the prototype for all successful wooden paddlers and made a record-breaking voyage at as late as 1843.


title: Blue Riband

text: The Cunard Line started its Liverpool-Halifax-Boston service in 1840 with the four ships that were slightly reduced versions of "Great Western" with about the same speed. Ultimately Cunard built nine additional wood paddlers. By 1846, Cunard was the only original steamship line that survived, largely because of its subsidy from the British Admiralty to carry the mails and its emphasis on safety. Until 1850, the record passed between various Cunarders, finally reaching for an 8-day Liverpool-Halifax crossing by "Asia". Record voyages during this period were often the result of using sails to gain extra speed from a following gale.


title: Blue Riband

text: Cunard's first serious competition for the record came from the American-owned Collins Line. The American Government supplied Collins with a substantial subsidy to operate four wooden paddlers that were superior to Cunard's best. In its first year, 1850, the set the record at on a 10-day run from Liverpool to New York. Unfortunately, Collins suffered a setback when its foundered with heavy loss of life. The next year, Cunard put further pressure on Collins by commissioning its first iron-hulled paddler, the "Persia", which set a new record with a 9-day, 16-hour Liverpool–New York voyage at . During the Crimean War, Cunard supplied eleven of its ships for war service and suspended all routes except the Liverpool–Halifax–Boston service. While the Collins' fortunes improved because of the lack of competition during the war, Collins collapsed in 1858 after the loss of two additional steamers. Cunard emerged as the leading carrier of first-class passengers and in 1862 commissioned the "Scotia", the last paddle steamer to set a record with a Queenstown-New York voyage at . "Scotia" was the final significant paddler ordered for the Atlantic because under the terms of Cunard's mail contract with the Admiralty, it was still required to supply paddle steamers when needed for military service.


title: Blue Riband

text: In 1845, Brunel's became the first iron-hulled screw liner on the Atlantic. Starting in 1850, the Inman Line built numerous reduced versions for the steerage trade. In 1866, Inman started to commission single screw express liners that were the equal of "Scotia". The Admiralty allowed Cunard to order its first screw express liner, the "Russia". In 1871 both companies faced a new rival when the White Star Line commissioned "Oceanic" and her five sisters. The following year, White Star's "Adriatic" finally surpassed "Scotia" with a voyage at . The new White Star record-breakers were especially economical because of their use of compound engines, but their high ratio of length to beam (10:1 compared to the previous norm of 8:1) increased vibration. To counter this, White Star placed the dining saloon midships and made their ships more luxurious. Inman rebuilt its express fleet to the new standard, but Cunard lagged behind both of its rivals. In 1875, Inman's new "City of Berlin" averaged on its record-breaking voyage.


title: Blue Riband

text: During the five-year shipping depression that began in 1873, William Pearce, the controlling partner of the John Elder shipyard, became convinced that a crack steamer that carried only passengers and light freight could be profitable because she would attract more passengers and spend less time in port. He proposed a ship that crammed the most powerful machinery possible into the hull, sacrificing everything to speed. When Cunard rejected his proposal, Pearce offered his idea to the Guion Line, a firm primarily engaged in the steerage trade. The first ship Pearce built for Guion, the "Arizona" was described as a "souped-up transatlantic hot rod" by one nautical historian. While she only won the eastbound record, two years later, Guion took delivery of the even faster "Alaska" that set the record at . To continue the program, Pearce offered Guion favourable terms on a third unit, the "Oregon", which raised the record to in 1884. These ships were uncomfortable and their excessive coal consumption made them uneconomic. However, for a while they were popular with American clients because of their American ownership.


title: Blue Riband

text: After being out of the contest for a decade, Cunard finally started to rebuild. In 1884, Cunard purchased "Oregon" from the Guion line when that firm defaulted on payments to the shipyard. Later that year, Cunard commissioned the first steel-hulled record-breakers, "Umbria" and "Etruria". "Etruria", the faster of the pair, raised the record to on a 6-day, 2-hour run from Queenstown to Sandy Hook in 1888. However, "Etruria" and her sister represented the limit of single screw technology.


title: Blue Riband

text: The Inman line fell on hard times after their intended record-breaker, "City of Rome" failed to meet expectations and was returned to her builders in 1882. Inman directors agreed to voluntary liquidation so that the largest creditor, the Philadelphia-based International Navigation Company could purchase Inman's assets. The new owners provided the capital to build two outstanding record breakers, the twin-screw and the . Starting in 1889, the later ship set the record on four occasions, including a voyage at in 1892. White Star, which had not built an express liner since the of 1875, commissioned the record-breaker, of 1889 and of 1890 after receiving a subsidy from the Admiralty to make the pair available as merchant cruisers in the event of hostilities. Cunard countered with two even faster ships, the "Campania" and the "Lucania" of 1893. The next year, "Lucania" recorded a voyage at . Inman became the American Line and ordered two additional express liners from American yards, but no attempt was made to best the new Cunarders. In 1894, Guion ceased sailing as its ships were now hopelessly outdated.


title: Blue Riband

text: No sooner had Cunard reestablished its supremacy than new rivals emerged. Beginning in the late 1860s, several German firms commissioned liners that were almost as fast as the British mail steamers working from Liverpool. In 1889, the Hamburg-America Line commissioned four double screw steamers capable of . Its rival, Norddeutscher Lloyd (NDL) lagged behind until 1895 when it ordered two ships intended to take the record. In 1898, the raised the record to , while the other liner, "Kaiser Friedrich" failed to achieve her contract speed and was returned to her builders. Hamburg America ordered the even more powerful that reached on one of her record-breaking 1900 voyages. However, Hamburg America quickly learned that these high powered double screw liners had vibration problems. "Deutschland" had the unpleasant nickname, "cocktail shaker" and actually lost part of her stern in 1902 because of the constant vibration.


title: Blue Riband

text: Rather than match the new German speedsters, White Star decided to drop out of the competition and commission the four large "Celtic"-class luxury liners of more moderate speed. White Star realised that passengers preferred comfort even if this means spending an extra day at sea. In 1902, White Star joined the well capitalised American combine, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM) that owned the American Line and others. IMM also had trade agreements with Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. After its bad experience with the "Deutschland", Hamburg America also dropped out of the race and commissioned large luxury liners based on the "Celtic". However, NDL completed building a fleet of four additional express liners modelled on "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse".


title: Blue Riband

text: After 1902, only the Cunard Line and the French Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (CGT) were independent of the IMM combine. British prestige was at stake, and the Government provided Cunard with an annual subsidy of £150,000 plus a low-interest loan of £2.5 million to pay for the construction of the two superliners, "Lusitania" and "Mauretania", under the condition that they be available for conversion to armed cruisers when needed by the navy. Starting in 1907, both ships won the Blue Riband and "Mauretania's" 1909 record of stood for 20 years. However, these ships paid a price for speed and lacked many of the amenities found in the new White Star and Hamburg American luxury liners. Both Cunard rivals ordered a trio of even bigger luxury liners, the White Star "Olympic"-class capable of and HAPAG's "Imperator" class capable of . Even Cunard chose this approach when it ordered its third superliner, the "Aquitania".


title: Blue Riband

text: There is a persistent rumor that was attempting to win the Blue Riband and that such effort resulted in excessive speed and collision with the iceberg. This is likely false, as the "Titanic" was built for luxury, not speed.


title: Blue Riband

text: As a result of the war, Hamburg American and Norddeutscher Lloyd lost their premier units. In 1926, the U.S. Government awarded Norddeutscher Lloyd (NDL) $27 million in compensation for its confiscated liners. By this time, improvements in turbine technology and hull form, along with the use of fuel oil instead of coal, made it possible to build more civilised record breakers. Using these funds, NDL ordered two ships designed to cross the Atlantic in five days, the and . However, the American government netted the award against debts owed by the German Government and Berlin was forced to directly subsidise NDL to continue the project. "Bremen" recorded on her 1929 Blue Riband voyage and "Europa" increased the Blue Riband to in 1933.


title: Blue Riband

text: In 1928, as Britain's response to the German and , the White Star Line ordered a new Diesel-electric 1000-ft long ocean liner to be named "Oceanic" capable of 200,000 SHP. Construction started on 28 June 1928. However, White Star did not have the funds to complete the liner, and "Oceanic"'s construction was put on hold until 1931 when her keel was silently scrapped. Her ahead-of-their-time engines might have been powerful enough to enable her to win the Blue Riband.


title: Blue Riband

text: In 1929, two lines from Italy each ordered a ship based on the German pair. Just as these ships were being completed, the Italian government nationalised the shipping industry, creating the Italian Line. While both superliners were successful, only the won the Blue Riband, with a 1933 voyage at .


title: Blue Riband

text: CGT also ordered a new superliner in 1929. The next year, Cunard started construction on an 80,000-ton liner that was to be the first of two record-breakers fast enough to fit into a two-ship weekly Southampton–New York service. Consequently, CGT altered its plans to make its new liner even bigger. However, as the 1929 shipping depression intensified, construction on Cunard's hull 534 was halted while work on the heavily subsidised French ship continued. By 1934, both Cunard and White Star lines were failing and the British Government was concerned about potential job losses. Therefore, the government agreed to give Cunard a loan of £3 million to complete hull 534 as the and an additional £5 million to build a second ship, the only if Cunard merged with White Star.


title: Blue Riband

text: CGT's entered service in 1935 and won the Blue Riband at . "Queen Mary" was commissioned the next year, and after a few break-in voyages, took the Blue Riband to . The two liners were operated as a pair and traded the Blue Riband again, with the Cunard White Star Liner ultimately posting in 1938. "Queen Mary's" consort, "Queen Elizabeth", was commissioned after war was declared and was never allowed to attempt the record.


title: Blue Riband

text: In 1935, Harold K. Hales (1868–1942), a member of the UK Parliament and owner of a shipping company, commissioned a large trophy to be presented to the fastest ship crossing the Atlantic, in order to formalize the rules surrounding the trans-Atlantic competition. The rules for the trophy did not correspond to the traditional rules for the Blue Riband in that the trophy was to be awarded only to surface passenger ships achieving the fastest speed in the westbound direction. Other rule changes further complicated the situation, and eventually the trophy was awarded to just three Blue Riband holders; "Rex", in 1935, "Normandie" in 1936, and "United States" in 1952.


title: Blue Riband

text: Of the ships of state, only "Queen Mary", "Queen Elizabeth" and "Europa" survived the war. "Europa" became CGT's "Liberté" and no attempt was made to retain her former speed when she was reconstructed. However, the United States government was impressed by the large numbers of troops carried by the Queens during the war and ordered a superliner that was as much a troop carrier as an express liner. On her maiden voyage in 1952, the "United States" upped the Blue Riband to . In 1958, the transatlantic airlines put jet transports into service and the days of the record breakers were numbered. "Liberté" retired in 1961, along with "Queen Mary" in 1967, and "United States" in 1969.


title: Blue Riband

text: With the success of "United States" in 1952 and Cunard's decision not to challenge the new record the Blue Riband contest again subsided. There was a growing recognition that the era of fast crossings by express liners was becoming a thing of the past and that the contest for fast transatlantic travel was shifting to the air.


title: Blue Riband

text: In the 1930s, air travel was already competing with the express liners for fast Atlantic crossings; in 1936, the German company DELAG commenced an airship service to New York, their "Hindenburg" crossing from Europe to America in times ranging from 53 to 78 hours, and the following year, while experimenting with a flying boat service, Empire Airways "Caledonia" reduced this to 15 hours.


title: Blue Riband

text: In the post-war period times were reduced again by the advent of land-based airliners, such as the Lockheed Constellation. Hopes in 1952 were expressed for the new de Havilland Comet jetliner, though these were dashed by the succession of crashes that halted the Comet programme. A regular jetliner service was finally introduced in 1958 with the Boeing 707 and the DC 8, cutting the crossing to 7 hours. The final step in the quest for trans-Atlantic speed was the Concorde, which set a record in 1996 of a second under two hours 53 minutes, at an average speed of 1250 mph (Mach 1.9), but by this time airlines were aware that cost and comfort were more important to passengers than speed, and the emphasis shifted to aircraft like the Boeing 747, with a sleeper capacity for business passengers.


title: Blue Riband

text: At sea "United States" record stood until 1986 when it was challenged by British entrepreneur Richard Branson, and his high-speed motor vessel, "Virgin Atlantic Challenger". Despite having to stop to refuel on several occasions, Branson shaved two hours off the record, increasing the average speed to 36.4 knots. However, as " Virgin Atlantic Challenger" was not a passenger vessel the New York Maritime Museum refused to part with the Hales Trophy, so Branson inaugurated the Virgin Atlantic Challenge Trophy, for the fastest unqualified Atlantic crossing, open to all challengers. Three years later this was won by Tom Gentry, whose "Gentry Eagle" slashed the record, crossing in 62 hours at an average 47.4 knots.


title: Blue Riband

text: In 1992 the Virgin Atlantic Challenge was again won, by the Aga Khan's "Destriero" crossing in 58 hours 34 minutes and averaging 53.09 knots. She also made a record-breaking return journey, winning the Columbus Atlantic Trophy, posted by the yacht club in response to the Virgin Atlantic Challenge for the fastest two-way voyage i.e. a single crossing and return voyage within a specified time.


title: Blue Riband

text: Meanwhile, Incat, builders of fast catamaran ferries, and therefore indisputably commercial vessels, decided to make an attempt to win the Hales Trophy, for which the record was still that of "United States". This was achieved in 1990 by "Hoverspeed Great Britain", with a non-stop crossing of 79 hours 54 minutes, averaging 36.6 knots and Incat were awarded the trophy by the Hales Trophy Committee. Eight years later this record was broken by another Incat vessel, "Catalonia", and again the following month by "Cat-Link V" in 68 hours and 9 minutes (41.28 knots).


title: Blue Riband

text: With the end of the express liners era, the Blue Riband has become an item of largely historical interest, with some authors regarding the "United States" as the last holder of the accolade. Meanwhile, the goal of the fastest Atlantic crossings remains a physical and technological challenge and at least three awards for the feat remain in play.


title: Blue Riband

text: The following is the latest consensus list of the research to date. Because there was no sanctioning body for the Blue Riband, researchers are limited to surviving shipping company archives and press reports to develop the list of Blue Riband winners. These lists are retrospective and limited to steamships only. Therefore, most lists feature "Sirius", in her race with "Great Western" in 1838, as the first record-holder, although her crossing was not as fast as some sail packet ships of the period. Early writers including Arthur Maginnus (1892), Henry Frey (1896), Charles Lee (1931) and C. R. Benstead (1936) were the standard sources until the 1950s. Since then, C. R. Vernon Gibbs (1952), and Noel Bonsor (1975) added to the body of knowledge, with additional detail about the German ships provided by Arnold Kludas.


title: Blue Riband

text: Over the years, the lists have not agreed. For example, Gibbs credits Inman's "City of Paris" with an 1866 Blue Riband voyage, and Cunard's "Russia" with an eastbound record the following year because he considered as dubious "Scotia's" Blue Riband claim of , supposedly based on a very long track. Later writers have included the "Scotia" claim. Gibbs also includes the claimed Blue Riband voyage at of the National Line's "America" of 1884 that was not confirmed by later researchers.


title: Scale (map)

text: The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. This simple concept is complicated by the curvature of the Earth's surface, which forces scale to vary across a map. Because of this variation, the concept of scale becomes meaningful in two distinct ways.


title: Scale (map)

text: The first way is the ratio of the size of the generating globe to the size of the Earth. The generating globe is a conceptual model to which the Earth is shrunk and from which the map is projected. The ratio of the Earth's size to the generating globe's size is called the nominal scale (= principal scale = representative fraction). Many maps state the nominal scale and may even display a bar scale (sometimes merely called a 'scale') to represent it.


title: Scale (map)

text: The second distinct concept of scale applies to the variation in scale across a map. It is the ratio of the mapped point's scale to the nominal scale. In this case 'scale' means the scale factor (= point scale = particular scale).


title: Scale (map)

text: If the region of the map is small enough to ignore Earth's curvature, such as in a town plan, then a single value can be used as the scale without causing measurement errors. In maps covering larger areas, or the whole Earth, the map's scale may be less useful or even useless in measuring distances. The map projection becomes critical in understanding how scale varies throughout the map. When scale varies noticeably, it can be accounted for as the scale factor. Tissot's indicatrix is often used to illustrate the variation of point scale across a map.


title: Scale (map)

text: The foundations for quantitative map scaling goes back to ancient China with textual evidence that the idea of map scaling was understood by the second century BC. Ancient Chinese surveyors and cartographers had ample technical resources used to produce maps such as counting rods, carpenter's square's, plumb lines, compasses for drawing circles, and sighting tubes for measuring inclination. Reference frames postulating a nascent coordinate system for identifying locations were hinted by ancient Chinese astronomers that divided the sky into various sectors or lunar lodges.


title: Scale (map)

text: The Chinese cartographer and geographer Pei Xiu of the Three Kingdoms period created a set of large-area maps that were drawn to scale. He produced a set of principles that stressed the importance of consistent scaling, directional measurements, and adjustments in land measurements in the terrain that was being mapped.


title: Scale (map)

text: In addition to the above many maps carry one or more "(graphical)" bar scales. For example, some modern British maps have three bar scales, one each for kilometres, miles and nautical miles.


title: Scale (map)

text: A lexical scale in a language known to the user may be easier to visualise than a ratio: if the scale is an inch to two miles and the map user can see two villages that are about two inches apart on the map, then it is easy to work out that the villages are about four miles apart on the ground.


title: Scale (map)

text: A lexical scale may cause problems if it expressed in a language that the user does not understand or in obsolete or ill-defined units. For example, a scale of one inch to a furlong (1:7920) will be understood by many older people in countries where Imperial units used to be taught in schools. But a scale of one pouce to one league may be about 1:144,000, depending on the cartographer's choice of the many possible definitions for a league, and only a minority of modern users will be familiar with the units used.


title: Scale (map)

text: A map is classified as small scale or large scale or sometimes medium scale. Small scale refers to world maps or maps of large regions such as continents or large nations. In other words, they show large areas of land on a small space. They are called small scale because the representative fraction is relatively small.


title: Scale (map)

text: Large-scale maps show smaller areas in more detail, such as county maps or town plans might. Such maps are called large scale because the representative fraction is relatively large. For instance a town plan, which is a large-scale map, might be on a scale of 1:10,000, whereas the world map, which is a small scale map, might be on a scale of 1:100,000,000.


title: Scale (map)

text: The following table describes typical ranges for these scales but should not be considered authoritative because there is no standard:


title: Scale (map)

text: The terms are sometimes used in the absolute sense of the table, but other times in a relative sense. For example, a map reader whose work refers solely to large-scale maps (as tabulated above) might refer to a map at 1:500,000 as small-scale.


title: Scale (map)

text: In the English language, the word is often used to mean "extensive". However, as explained above, cartographers use the term "large scale" to refer to "less" extensive maps – those that show a smaller area. Maps that show an extensive area are "small scale" maps. This can be a cause of confusion.


title: Scale (map)

text: Mapping large areas causes noticeable distortions because it significantly flattens the curved surface of the earth. How distortion gets distributed depends on the map projection. Scale varies across the map, and the stated map scale is only an approximation. This is discussed in detail below.


title: Scale (map)

text: The region over which the earth can be regarded as flat depends on the accuracy of the survey measurements. If measured only to the nearest metre, then curvature of the earth is undetectable over a meridian distance of about and over an east-west line of about 80 km (at a latitude of 45 degrees). If surveyed to the nearest , then curvature is undetectable over a meridian distance of about 10 km and over an east-west line of about 8 km. Thus a plan of New York City accurate to one metre or a building site plan accurate to one millimetre would both satisfy the above conditions for the neglect of curvature. They can be treated by plane surveying and mapped by scale drawings in which any two points at the same distance on the drawing are at the same distance on the ground. True ground distances are calculated by measuring the distance on the map and then multiplying by the inverse of the scale fraction or, equivalently, simply using dividers to transfer the separation between the points on the map to a bar scale on the map.


title: Scale (map)

text: As proved by Gauss’s "Theorema Egregium", a sphere (or ellipsoid) cannot be projected onto a plane without distortion. This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it. The only true representation of a sphere at constant scale is another sphere such as a globe.


title: Scale (map)

text: Given the limited practical size of globes, we must use maps for detailed mapping. Maps require projections. A projection implies distortion: A constant separation on the map does not correspond to a constant separation on the ground. While a map may display a graphical bar scale, the scale must be used with the understanding that it will be accurate on only some lines of the map. (This is discussed further in the examples in the following sections.)


title: Scale (map)

text: Let "P" be a point at latitude formula_1 and longitude formula_2 on the sphere (or ellipsoid). Let Q be a neighbouring point and let formula_3 be the angle between the element PQ and the meridian at P: this angle is the azimuth angle of the element PQ. Let P' and Q' be corresponding points on the projection. The angle between the direction P'Q' and the projection of the meridian is the bearing formula_4. In general formula_5. Comment: this precise distinction between azimuth (on the Earth's surface) and bearing (on the map) is not universally observed, many writers using the terms almost interchangeably.


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: the point scale at P is the ratio of the two distances P'Q' and PQ in the limit that Q approaches P. We write this as


title: Scale (map)

text: where the notation indicates that the point scale is a function of the position of P and also the direction of the element PQ.


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: if P and Q lie on the same meridian formula_7, the meridian scale is denoted by formula_8 .


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: if P and Q lie on the same parallel formula_9, the parallel scale is denoted by formula_10.


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: if the point scale depends only on position, not on direction, we say that it is isotropic and conventionally denote its value in any direction by the parallel scale factor formula_11.


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: A map projection is said to be conformal if the angle between a pair of lines intersecting at a point P is the same as the angle between the projected lines at the projected point P', for all pairs of lines intersecting at point P. A conformal map has an isotropic scale factor. Conversely isotropic scale factors across the map imply a conformal projection.


title: Scale (map)

text: Isotropy of scale implies that "small" elements are stretched equally in all directions, that is the shape of a small element is preserved. This is the property of orthomorphism (from Greek 'right shape'). The qualification 'small' means that at some given accuracy of measurement no change can be detected in the scale factor over the element. Since conformal projections have an isotropic scale factor they have also been called orthomorphic projections. For example, the Mercator projection is conformal since it is constructed to preserve angles and its scale factor is isotropic, a function of latitude only: Mercator "does" preserve shape in small regions.


title: Scale (map)

text: Definition: on a conformal projection with an isotropic scale, points which have the same scale value may be joined to form the isoscale lines. These are not plotted on maps for end users but they feature in many of the standard texts. (See Snyder pages 203—206.)


title: Scale (map)

text: There are two conventions used in setting down the equations of any given projection. For example, the equirectangular cylindrical projection may be written as


title: Scale (map)

text: Here we shall adopt the first of these conventions (following the usage in the surveys by Snyder). Clearly the above projection equations define positions on a huge cylinder wrapped around the Earth and then unrolled. We say that these coordinates define the projection map which must be distinguished logically from the actual printed (or viewed) maps. If the definition of point scale in the previous section is in terms of the projection map then we can expect the scale factors to be close to unity. For normal tangent cylindrical projections the scale along the equator is k=1 and in general the scale changes as we move off the equator. Analysis of scale on the projection map is an investigation of the change of k away from its true value of unity.


title: Scale (map)

text: Actual printed maps are produced from the projection map by a "constant" scaling denoted by a ratio such as 1:100M (for whole world maps) or 1:10000 (for such as town plans). To avoid confusion in the use of the word 'scale' this constant


title: Scale (map)

text: scale fraction is called the representative fraction (RF) of the printed map and it is to be identified with the ratio printed on the map. The actual printed map coordinates for the equirectangular cylindrical projection are


title: Scale (map)

text: This convention allows a clear distinction of the intrinsic projection scaling and the reduction scaling.


title: Scale (map)

text: Consider a small circle on the surface of the Earth centred at a point P at latitude formula_1 and longitude formula_2. Since the point scale varies with position and direction the projection of the circle on the projection will be distorted. Tissot proved that, as long as the distortion is not too great, the circle will become an ellipse on the projection. In general the dimension, shape and orientation of the ellipse will change over the projection. Superimposing these distortion ellipses on the map projection conveys the way in which the point scale is changing over the map. The distortion ellipse is known as Tissot's indicatrix. The example shown here is the Winkel tripel projection, the standard projection for world maps made by the National Geographic Society. The minimum distortion is on the central meridian at latitudes of 30 degrees (North and South). (Other examples).


title: Scale (map)

text: The key to a "quantitative" understanding of scale is to consider an infinitesimal element on the sphere. The figure shows a point P at latitude formula_1 and longitude formula_2 on the sphere. The point Q is at latitude formula_22 and longitude formula_23. The lines PK and MQ are arcs of meridians of length formula_24 where formula_25 is the radius of the sphere and formula_1 is in radian measure. The lines PM and KQ are arcs of parallel circles of length formula_27 withformula_2 in radian measure. In deriving a "point" property of the projection "at" P it suffices to take an infinitesimal element PMQK of the surface: in the limit of Q approaching P such an element tends to an infinitesimally small planar rectangle.


title: Scale (map)

text: Normal cylindrical projections of the sphere have formula_12 and formula_30 equal to a function of latitude only. Therefore, the infinitesimal element PMQK on the sphere projects to an infinitesimal element P'M'Q'K' which is an "exact" rectangle with a base formula_31 and height formula_32. By comparing the elements on sphere and projection we can immediately deduce expressions for the scale factors on parallels and meridians. (The treatment of scale in a general direction may be found below.)


title: Scale (map)

text: is independent of the definition of formula_36 so it is the same for all normal cylindrical projections. It is useful to note that


title: Scale (map)

text: The following examples illustrate three normal cylindrical projections and in each case the variation of scale with position and direction is illustrated by the use of Tissot's indicatrix.


title: Scale (map)

text: The equirectangular projection, also known as the "Plate Carrée" (French for "flat square") or (somewhat misleadingly) the equidistant projection, is defined by


title: Scale (map)

text: where formula_25 is the radius of the sphere, formula_2 is the longitude from the central meridian of the projection (here taken as the Greenwich meridian at formula_46) and formula_1 is the latitude. Note that formula_2 and formula_1 are in radians (obtained by multiplying the degree measure by a factor of formula_50/180). The longitude formula_2 is in the range formula_52 and the latitude formula_1 is in the range formula_54.


title: Scale (map)

text: The figure illustrates the Tissot indicatrix for this projection. On the equator h=k=1 and the circular elements are undistorted on projection. At higher latitudes the circles are distorted into an ellipse given by stretching in the parallel direction only: there is no distortion in the meridian direction. The ratio of the major axis to the minor axis is formula_58. Clearly the area of the ellipse increases by the same factor.


title: Scale (map)

text: It is instructive to consider the use of bar scales that might appear on a printed version of this projection. The scale is true (k=1) on the equator so that multiplying its length on a printed map by the inverse of the RF (or principal scale) gives the actual circumference of the Earth. The bar scale on the map is also drawn at the true scale so that transferring a separation between two points on the equator to the bar scale will give the correct distance between those points. The same is true on the meridians. On a parallel other than the equator the scale is formula_58 so when we transfer a separation from a parallel to the bar scale we must divide the bar scale distance by this factor to obtain the distance between the points when measured along the parallel (which is not the true distance along a great circle). On a line at a bearing of say 45 degrees (formula_60) the scale is continuously varying with latitude and transferring a separation along the line to the bar scale does not give a distance related to the true distance in any simple way. (But see addendum). Even if a distance along this line of constant planar angle could be worked out, its relevance is questionable since such a line on the projection corresponds to a complicated curve on the sphere. For these reasons bar scales on small-scale maps must be used with extreme caution.


title: Scale (map)

text: The Mercator projection maps the sphere to a rectangle (of infinite extent in the formula_30-direction) by the equations


title: Scale (map)

text: where a, formula_64 and formula_65 are as in the previous example. Since formula_66 the scale factors are:


title: Scale (map)

text: In the mathematical addendum it is shown that the point scale in an arbitrary direction is also equal to formula_58 so the scale is isotropic (same in all directions), its magnitude increasing with latitude as formula_58. In the Tissot diagram each infinitesimal circular element preserves its shape but is enlarged more and more as the latitude increases.


title: Scale (map)

text: where a, formula_2 and formula_1 are as in the previous example. Since formula_74 the scale factors are


title: Scale (map)

text: The vertical and horizontal scales now compensate each other (hk=1) and in the Tissot diagram each infinitesimal circular element is distorted into an ellipse of the "same" area as the undistorted circles on the equator.


title: Scale (map)

text: The graph shows the variation of the scale factors for the above three examples. The top plot shows the isotropic Mercator scale function: the scale on the parallel is the same as the scale on the meridian. The other plots show the meridian scale factor for the Equirectangular projection (h=1) and for the Lambert equal area projection. These last two projections have a parallel scale identical to that of the Mercator plot. For the Lambert note that the parallel scale (as Mercator A) increases with latitude and the meridian scale (C) decreases with latitude in such a way that hk=1, guaranteeing area conservation.


title: Scale (map)

text: The Mercator point scale is unity on the equator because it is such that the auxiliary cylinder used in its construction is tangential to the Earth at the equator. For this reason the usual projection should be called a tangent projection. The scale varies with latitude as formula_35. Since formula_58 tends to infinity as we approach the poles the Mercator map is grossly distorted at high latitudes and for this reason the projection is totally inappropriate for world maps (unless we are discussing navigation and rhumb lines). However, at a latitude of about 25 degrees the value of formula_58 is about 1.1 so Mercator "is" accurate to within 10% in a strip of width 50 degrees centred on the equator. Narrower strips are better: a strip of width 16 degrees (centred on the equator) is accurate to within 1% or 1 part in 100.


title: Scale (map)

text: A standard criterion for good large-scale maps is that the accuracy should be within 4 parts in 10,000, or 0.04%, corresponding to formula_80. Since formula_58 attains this value at formula_82 degrees (see figure below, red line). Therefore, the tangent Mercator projection is highly accurate within a strip of width 3.24 degrees centred on the equator. This corresponds to north-south distance of about . Within this strip Mercator is "very" good, highly accurate and shape preserving because it is conformal (angle preserving). These observations prompted the development of the transverse Mercator projections in which a meridian is treated 'like an equator' of the projection so that we obtain an accurate map within a narrow distance of that meridian. Such maps are good for countries aligned nearly north-south (like Great Britain) and a set of 60 such maps is used for the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). Note that in both these projections (which are based on various ellipsoids) the transformation equations for x and y and the expression for the scale factor are complicated functions of both latitude and longitude.


title: Scale (map)

text: The basic idea of a secant projection is that the sphere is projected to a cylinder which intersects the sphere at two parallels, say formula_83 north and south. Clearly the scale is now true at these latitudes whereas parallels beneath these latitudes are contracted by the projection and their (parallel) scale factor must be less than one. The result is that deviation of the scale from unity is reduced over a wider range of latitudes.


title: Scale (map)

text: The numeric multipliers do not alter the shape of the projection but it does mean that the scale factors are modified:


title: Scale (map)

text: Such narrow zones of high accuracy are used in the UTM and the British OSGB projection, both of which are secant, transverse Mercator on the ellipsoid with the scale on the central meridian constant at formula_93. The isoscale lines with formula_94 are slightly curved lines approximately 180 km east and west of the central meridian. The maximum value of the scale factor is 1.001 for UTM and 1.0007 for OSGB.


title: Scale (map)

text: The lines of unit scale at latitude formula_83 (north and south), where the cylindrical projection surface intersects the sphere, are the standard parallels of the secant projection.


title: Scale (map)

text: Whilst a narrow band with formula_96 is important for high accuracy mapping at a large scale, for world maps much wider spaced standard parallels are used to control the scale variation. Examples are


title: Scale (map)

text: The scale plots for the latter are shown below compared with the Lambert equal area scale factors. In the latter the equator is a single standard parallel and the parallel scale increases from k=1 to compensate the decrease in the meridian scale. For the Gall the parallel scale is reduced at the equator (to k=0.707) whilst the meridian scale is increased (to k=1.414). This gives rise to the gross distortion of shape in the Gall-Peters projection. (On the globe Africa is about as long as it is broad). Note that the meridian and parallel scales are both unity on the standard parallels.


title: Scale (map)

text: For the Mercator projection formula_66 giving formula_103: angles are preserved. (Hardly surprising since this is the relation used to derive Mercator). For the equidistant and Lambert projections we have formula_104 and formula_105 respectively so the relationship between formula_3 and formula_4 depends upon the latitude formula_1.


title: Scale (map)

text: Setting formula_31 and substituting formula_113 and formula_32 from equations (a) and (b) respectively gives


title: Scale (map)

text: For the projections other than Mercator we must first calculate formula_4 from formula_3 and formula_1 using equation (c), before we can find formula_119. For example, the equirectangular projection has formula_120 so that


title: Scale (map)

text: If we consider a line of constant slope formula_4 on the projection both the corresponding value of formula_3 and the scale factor along the line are complicated functions of formula_1. There is no simple way of transferring a general finite separation to a bar scale and obtaining meaningful results.


title: Scale (map)

text: While the colon is often used to express ratios, Unicode can express a symbol specific to ratios, being slightly raised: .


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: Coolie No. 1 is a 1995 Indian Hindi-language comedy masala film, directed by David Dhawan, and written by Rumi Jaffery and Kader Khan. The film stars Govinda, Karisma Kapoor, Kader Khan, Shakti Kapoor, Harish Kumar, Sadashiv Amrapurkar and Mahesh Anand, with music by Anand–Milind.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: This movie was one of the first successful movies of Kapoor. Govinda received the Star Screen Award Special Jury Award for his role in this movie as 'performer of the decade'. Over the years, the movie has become a classic in Hindi film history and is now considered a cult film. The film is a remake of the 1993 Tamil film "Chinna Mapillai". In 2020, Dhawan remade the film with the same name with his son Varun Dhawan, Sara Ali Khan and Paresh Rawal.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: Pandit Shadiram Gharjode (Sadashiv Amrapurkar) brings a prospective groom's family for Malti Choudhry (Karisma Kapoor). But when her father Choudhry Hoshiyar Chand (Kader Khan) learns that that family isn't filthy rich, he insults Gharjode. He vows to teach Hoshiyar Chand a lesson for his arrogance and pride.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: On the way home, Shadiram Gharjode bumps into Raju Coolie (Govinda) a bus stand porter who proudly wears his badge - "Coolie No. 1". Raju is known among his fellow porters for being heroic, recently having gotten a drug dealer Mahesh (Mahesh Anand) arrested. When Raju is smitten by Malti's photo, Gharjode hatches a plan to get the poor porter married to Malti and exact his revenge. With Gharjode's guidance and the help of his best friend Deepak Mechanic (Harish Kumar), Raju poses as the prince of Singapore, Kunwar Mahendra Pratap Singh Mehta and wins Malti's heart. In the process, Malti's sister Shalini (Kaanchan) falls for Deepak.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: Hoshiyar Chand gets Malti married to Raju, not knowing that he is just a poor porter. When Raju returns home with Malti after the wedding, he pretends that his "father" Gajendra Pratap Singh Mehta (Kulbhushan Kharbanda) has thrown him out of the house for getting married without his consent. Malti tries to make the best out of the given situation by cheering up Mahendra, which makes him feel guilty.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: The trouble becomes double when Hoshiyar Chand comes to town to visit his daughter and son-in-law but spots Raju as a coolie at the bus stand. Hoshiyar Chand creates a ruckus, saying that Raju is a fraud who posed as a rich prince and married his daughter. Spontaneously, Raju pretends to not recognize Hoshiyar Chand and shoos him away. Raju comes home dressed as Mahendra and explains that Hoshiyar Chand must have seen his twin brother Raju who his father threw out due to his drinking and gambling addictions. Hoshiyar Chand buys this story and decides to get Shalini married to Raju, so that both his daughters will live filthy rich lives.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: Raju keeps getting into trouble since he can be only at one place at one time. One such incident forces Raju, Malti and Hoshiyar Chand to file a missing complaint for Kunwar Mahendra Pratap Singh Mehta. Inspector Rakesh Pandey (Tiku Talsania) gets skeptical of the situation and starts to believe that Raju and his twin brother Mahendra are the same person.