title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Some corporate transactions are not taxable. These include most formations and some types of mergers, acquisitions, and liquidations. Shareholders of a corporation are taxed on dividends distributed by the corporation. Corporations may be subject to foreign income taxes, and may be granted a foreign tax credit for such taxes. Shareholders of most corporations are not taxed directly on corporate income, but must pay tax on dividends paid by the corporation. However, shareholders of S corporations and mutual funds are taxed currently on corporate income, and do not pay tax on dividends.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporate income tax is imposed at the federal level on all entities treated as corporations (see Entity classification below), and by 47 states and the District of Columbia. Certain localities also impose corporate income tax. Corporate income tax is imposed on all domestic corporations and on foreign corporations having income or activities within the jurisdiction. For federal purposes, an entity treated as a corporation and organized under the laws of any state is a domestic corporation. For state purposes, entities organized in that state are treated as domestic, and entities organized outside that state are treated as foreign.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Some types of corporations (S corporations, mutual funds, etc.) are not taxed at the corporate level, and their shareholders are taxed on the corporation's income as it is recognized. Corporations which are not S Corporations are known as C corporations.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The US tax reform legislation enacted on 22 December 2017 (Public Law (P.L.) 115–97) changed the law of 'worldwide' to 'territorial' taxation in the US. The changed law includes the imposing of tax only on income derived within its borders, irrespective of the residence of the taxpayer. this system aimed at eliminating the need for complicated rules such as the controlled foreign corporation (CFC or Subpart F) rules and the passive foreign investment company (PFIC) rules that subject foreign earnings to current U.S. taxation in certain situations. Hence, P.L. (115-97) permanently reduced the 35% CIT rate on resident corporations to a flat 21% rate for tax years beginning after 31 December 2017. Corporate income tax is based on net taxable income as defined under federal or state law. Generally, taxable income for a corporation is gross income (business and possibly non-business receipts less cost of goods sold) less allowable tax deductions. Certain income, and some corporations, are subject to a tax exemption. Also, tax deductions for interest and certain other expenses paid to related parties are subject to limitations.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations may choose their tax year. Generally, a tax year must be 12 months or 52/53 weeks long. The tax year need not conform to the financial reporting year, and need not coincide with the calendar year, provided books are kept for the selected tax year. Corporations may change their tax year, which may require Internal Revenue Service consent. Most state income taxes are determined on the same tax year as the federal tax year.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Groups of companies are permitted to file single returns for the members of a "controlled group" or "unitary group", known as consolidated returns, at the federal level, and are allowed or required to do so by certain states. The consolidated return reports the members' combined taxable incomes and computes a combined tax. Where related parties do not file a consolidated return in a jurisdiction, they are subject to transfer pricing rules. Under these rules, tax authorities may adjust prices charged between related parties.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Shareholders of corporations are taxed separately upon the distribution of corporate earnings and profits as a dividend. Tax rates on dividends are at present lower than on ordinary income for both corporate and individual shareholders. To ensure that shareholders pay tax on dividends, two withholding tax provisions may apply: withholding tax on foreign shareholders, and “backup withholding” on certain domestic shareholders.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations must file tax returns in all U.S. jurisdictions imposing an income tax. Such returns are a self-assessment of tax. Corporate income tax is payable in advance installments, or estimated payments, at the federal level and for many states.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations may be subject to withholding tax obligations upon making certain varieties of payments to others, including wages and distributions treated as dividends. These obligations are generally not the tax of the corporation, but the system may impose penalties on the corporation or its officers or employees for failing to withhold and pay over such taxes.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: In the United States, the company number used by the tax administration is known as the Employer Identification Number (EIN).


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Nearly all of the states and some localities impose a tax on corporation income. The rules for determining this tax vary widely from state to state. Many of the states compute taxable income with reference to federal taxable income, with specific modifications. The states do not allow a tax deduction for income taxes, whether federal or state. Further, most states deny tax exemption for interest income that is tax exempt at the federal level. CIT rates range from 1% to 12%, varying for every state. The most common federal taxable income is based on apportionment formulae. State and municipal taxes are deductible expenses for federal income tax purposes.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Most states tax domestic and foreign corporations on taxable income derived from business activities apportioned to the state on a formulary basis. Many states apply a "throw back" concept to tax domestic corporations on income not taxed by other states. Tax treaties do not apply to state taxes.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Under the U.S. Constitution, states are prohibited from taxing income of a resident of another state unless the connection with the taxing state reach a certain level (called “nexus”). Most states do not tax non-business income of out of state corporations. Since the tax must be fairly apportioned, the states and localities compute income of out of state corporations (including those in foreign countries) taxable in the state by applying formulary apportionment to the total business taxable income of the corporation. Many states use a formula based on ratios of property, payroll, and sales within the state to those items outside the state.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The first federal income tax was enacted in 1861, and expired in 1872, amid constitutional challenges. A corporate income tax was enacted in 1894, but a key aspect of it was shortly held unconstitutional. In 1909, Congress enacted an excise tax on corporations based on income. After ratification of the Sixteenth amendment to the U.S. Constitution, this became the corporate provisions of the federal income tax. Amendments to various provisions affecting corporations have been in most or all revenue acts since. Corporate tax provisions are incorporated in Title 26 of the United States Code, known as the Internal Revenue Code. The present rate of tax on corporate income was adopted in the Tax Reform Act of 1986.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The corporate income tax raised $230.2 billion in fiscal 2019 which accounted for 6.6 percent of total federal revenue and had seen a change from 9 percent in 2017.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Business entities may elect to be treated as corporations taxed at the entity and member levels or as "flow through" entities taxed only at the member level. However, entities organized as corporations under U.S. state laws and certain foreign entities are treated, "per se", as corporations, with no optional election. The Internal Revenue Service issued the so-called “check-the-box” regulations in 1997 under which entities may make such choice by filing Form 8832. Absent such election, default classifications for domestic and foreign business entities, combined with voluntary entity elections to opt out of the default classifications (except in the case of “"per se" corporations” (as defined below)). If an entity not treated as a corporation has more than one equity owner and at least one equity owner does not have limited liability (e.g., a general partner), it will be classified as a partnership (i.e., a pass-through), and if the entity has a single equity owner and the single owner does not have limited liability protection, it will be treated as a disregarded entity (i.e., a pass-through).


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Some entities treated as corporations may make other elections that enable corporate income to be taxed only at the shareholder level, and not at the corporate level. Such entities are treated similarly to partnerships. The income of the entity is not taxed at the corporate level, and the members must pay tax on their share of the entity's income. These include:


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Determinations of what is taxable and at what rate are made at the federal level based on U.S. tax law. Many but not all states incorporate federal law principles in their tax laws to some extent. Federal taxable income equals gross income (gross receipts and other income less cost of goods sold) less tax deductions. Gross income of a corporation and business deductions are determined in much the same manner as for individuals. All income of a corporation is subject to the same federal tax rate. However, corporations may reduce other federal taxable income by a net capital loss and certain deductions are more limited. Certain deductions are available only to corporations. These include deductions for dividends received and amortization of organization expenses. Some states tax business income of a corporation differently than nonbusiness income.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Principles for recognizing income and deductions may differ from financial accounting principles. Key areas of difference include differences in the timing of income or deduction, tax exemption for certain income, and disallowance or limitation of certain tax deductions. IRS rules require that these differences be disclosed in considerable detail for non-small corporations on Schedule M-3 to Form 1120.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The top corporate tax rate in the U.S. fell from a high of 53% in 1942 to a maximum of 38% in 1993, which remained in effect until 2018, although corporations in the top bracket were taxed at a rate of 35% between 1993 and 2017.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: After the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, on December 20, 2017, the corporate tax rate changed to a flat 21%, starting January 1, 2018.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The adjacent table lists the tax rates on corporate income applied by each state, but not by local governments within states. Because state and local taxes are deductible expenses for federal income tax purposes, the effective tax rate in each state is not a simple addition of federal and state tax rates.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Although a state may not levy a corporate income tax, they may impose other taxes that are similar. For example, Washington state does not have an income tax but levies a B&O (business and occupation tax) which is arguably a larger burden because the B&O tax is calculated as a percentage of revenue rather than a percentage of net income, like the corporate income tax. This means even loss-making enterprises are required to pay the tax.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations, like other businesses, may be eligible for various tax credits which reduce federal, state or local income tax. The largest of these by dollar volume is the federal foreign tax credit. This credit is allowed to all taxpayers for income taxes paid to foreign countries. The credit is limited to that part of federal income tax before other credits generated by foreign source taxable income. The credit is intended to mitigate taxation of the same income to the same taxpayer by two or more countries, and has been a feature of the U.S. system since 1918. Other credits include credits for certain wage payments, credits for investments in certain types of assets including certain motor vehicles, credits for use of alternative fuels and off-highway vehicle use, natural resource related credits, and others. See, "e.g.", the Research & Experimentation Tax Credit.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Deferral is one of the main features of the worldwide tax system that allows U.S. multinational companies to delay paying taxes on foreign profits. Under U.S. tax law, companies are not required to pay U.S. tax on their foreign subsidiaries’ profits for many years, even indefinitely until the earnings are returned to U.S. Therefore, it was one of the main reasons that U.S. corporations paid low taxes, even though the corporate tax rate in the U.S. was one of the highest rates (35%) in the world. Although, since January 1, 2018 the corporate tax rate has been changed to a flat 21%.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Deferral is beneficial for U.S. companies to raise the cost of capital relatively to their foreign-based competitors. Their foreign subsidiaries can reinvest their earnings without incurring additional tax that allows them to grow faster. It is also valuable to U.S. corporations with global operations, especially for corporations with income in low-tax countries. Some of the largest and most profitable U.S. corporations pay exceedingly low tax rates through their use of subsidiaries in so-called tax haven countries. Eighty-three of the United States's 100 biggest public companies have subsidiaries in countries that are listed as tax havens or financial privacy jurisdictions, according to the Government Accountability Office.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: However, tax deferral encourages U.S. companies to make job-creating investments offshore even if similar investments in the United States can be more profitable, absent tax considerations. Furthermore, companies try to use accounting techniques to record profits offshore by any way, even if they keep actual investment and jobs in the United States. This explains why U.S. corporations report their largest profits in low-tax countries like the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Bermuda, though clearly that is not where most real economic activity occurs.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: A tax deduction is allowed at the federal, state and local levels for interest expense incurred by a corporation in carrying out its business activities. Where such interest is paid to related parties, such deduction may be limited. The classification of instruments as debt on which interest is deductible or as equity with respect to which distributions are not deductible is highly complex and based on court-developed law. The courts have considered 26 factors in deciding whether an instrument is debt or equity, and no single factor predominates.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Federal tax rules also limit the deduction of interest expense paid by corporations to foreign shareholders based on a complex calculation designed to limit the deduction to 50% of cash flow. Some states have other limitations on related party payments of interest and royalties.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporate tax avoidance refers to the use of legal means to reduce the income tax payable by a firm. One of the many possible ways to take advantage of this method is by claiming as many credits and deductions as possible.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: An empirical study shows that state-level corruption and corporate tax avoidance in the United States are positively related. According to the average effect of an increase in the number of corporate corruption convictions, it is observed that state-level corruption reduces Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) tax expense.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The main occurrence of corruption and corporate tax avoidance was in states that had the lowest level of litigation risk despite their ranking in social capital, money laundering and corporate governance. Hence, strengthening law enforcement would definitely control the level of corruption caused by tax avoidance. Corruption is distinct from earnings management predictions, disclosure of accounting restatements as proof of fraudulent accounting and tax accruals quality. Corruption metrics show that firms with their headquarters in a state with a high level of corruption are more likely to participate in tax evasion.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: According to research on culture and tax evasion, corruption can be caused by increased organizational, financial and legal complexity and the same factors can influence a firm's chance of engaging in corporate tax avoidance.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: U.S. rules provide that certain corporate events are not taxable to corporations or shareholders. Significant restrictions and special rules often apply. The rules related to such transactions are quite complex, and exist primarily at the federal level. Many of the states follow federal tax treatment for such events.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The formation of a corporation by controlling corporate or non-corporate shareholder(s) is generally a nontaxable event. Generally, in tax free formations the tax attributes of assets and liabilities are transferred to the new corporation along with such assets and liabilities.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Example: John and Mary are United States residents who operate a business. They decide to incorporate for business reasons. They transfer assets of the business to Newco, a newly formed Delaware corporation of which they are the sole shareholders, subject to accrued liabilities of the business, solely in exchange for common shares of Newco. This transfer should not generally cause gain or loss recognition for John, Mary, or Newco. Newco assumes John and Mary's tax basis in the assets it acquires. If on the other hand Newco also assumes a bank loan in excess of the basis of the assets transferred less the accrued liabilities, John and Mary will recognize taxable gain for such excess.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations may merge or acquire other corporations in a manner treated as nontaxable to either of the corporations and/or to their shareholders. Generally, significant restrictions apply if tax free treatment is to be obtained. For example, Bigco acquires all of the shares of Smallco from Smallco shareholders in exchange solely for Bigco shares. This acquisition is not taxable to Smallco or its shareholders under U.S. tax law if certain requirements are met, even if Smallco is then liquidated into or merged with Bigco.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: In addition, corporations may change key aspects of their legal identity, capitalization, or structure in a tax free manner. Examples of reorganizations that may be tax free include mergers, liquidations of subsidiaries, share for share exchanges, exchanges of shares for assets, changes in form or place of organization, and recapitalizations.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Advance tax planning might mitigate tax risks resulting from a business reorganization or potentially enhance tax savings.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Shareholders of corporations are subject to corporate or individual income tax when corporate earnings are distributed. Such distribution of earnings is generally referred to as a dividend.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Dividends received by other corporations may be taxed at reduced rates, or exempt from taxation, if the dividends received deduction applies. Dividends received by individuals (if the dividend is a "qualified dividend") are taxed at reduced rates. Exceptions to shareholder taxation apply to certain nonroutine distributions, including distributions in liquidation of an 80% subsidiary or in complete termination of a shareholder's interest.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: If a corporation makes a distribution in a non-cash form, it must pay tax on any gain in value of the property distributed.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The United States does not generally require withholding tax on the payment of dividends to shareholders. However, withholding tax is required if the shareholder is not a U.S. citizen or resident or U.S. corporation, or in some other circumstances (see Tax withholding in the United States).


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: U.S. corporations are permitted to distribute amounts in excess of earnings under the laws of most states under which they may be organized. A distribution by a corporation to shareholders is treated as a dividend to the extent of earnings and profits (E&P), a tax concept similar to retained earnings. E&P is current taxable income, with significant adjustments, plus prior E&P reduced by distributions of E&P. Adjustments include depreciation differences under MACRS, add-back of most tax exempt income, and deduction of many non-deductible expenses (e.g., 50% of meals and entertainment). Corporate distributions in excess of E&P are generally treated as a return of capital to the shareholders.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The liquidation of a corporation is generally treated as an exchange of a capital asset under the Internal Revenue Code. If a shareholder bought stock for $300 and receives $500 worth of property from a corporation in a liquidation, that shareholder would recognize a capital gain of $200. An exception is when a parent corporation liquidates a subsidiary, which is tax-free so long as the parent owns more than 80% of the subsidiary. There are certain anti-abuse rules to avoid the engineering of losses in corporate liquidations.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The United States taxes foreign (i.e., non-U.S.) corporations differently than domestic corporations. Foreign corporations generally are taxed only on business income when the income is effectively connected with the conduct of a U.S. trade or business (i.e., in a branch). This tax is imposed at the same rate as the tax on business income of a resident corporation.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The U.S. also imposes a branch profits tax on foreign corporations with a U.S. branch, to mimic the dividend withholding tax which would be payable if the business was conducted in a U.S. subsidiary corporation and profits were remitted to the foreign parent as dividends. The branch profits tax is imposed at the time profits are remitted or deemed remitted outside the U.S.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: In addition, foreign corporations are subject to withholding tax at 30% on dividends, interest, royalties, and certain other income. Tax treaties may reduce or eliminate this tax. This tax applies to a "dividend equivalent amount," which is the corporation's effectively connected earnings and profits for the year, less investments the corporation makes in its U.S. assets (money and adjusted bases of property connected with the conduct of a U.S. trade or business). The tax is imposed even if there is no distribution.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations 80% or more owned by a common parent corporation may file a consolidated return for federal and some state income taxes. These returns include all income, deductions, and credits of all members of the controlled group, generally expressed without intercompany eliminations. Some states allow or require a combined or consolidated return for U.S. members of a "unitary" group under common control and in related businesses. Certain transactions between group members may not be recognized until the occurrence of events for other members. For example, if Company A sells goods to sister Company B, the profit on the sale is deferred until Company B uses or sells the goods. All members of a consolidated group must use the same tax year.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The principles and procedures of pricing transactions within and between firms under shared ownership or control is referred to as transfer pricing. Transactions between a corporation and related parties are subject to potential adjustment by tax authorities. These adjustments may be applied to both U.S. and foreign related parties, and to individuals, corporations, partnerships, estates, and trusts.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: The U.S. has a set of rules and regulations in place to protect the tax base by preventing income from being moved among related parties due to improper pricing of party transactions. It also aims to ensure that goods and services provided by connected firms are transferred at arm's length and priced according to market circumstances, allowing earning to be reflected in the appropriate tax jurisdiction.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Transfer pricing in the U.S. is governed by section 482 of the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) and applies when two or more organizations are owned or managed by the same interests. Section 482 applies to all transactions between related parties and commonly controlled parties, regardless of taxpayer intent, according to regulatory guidance. To avoid tax evasion or to clearly reflect their income, the IRS may change the income, deductions, credits, or allowances of frequently managed taxpayers under Section 482 of the Code.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations may also be subject to additional taxes in certain circumstances. These include taxes on excess accumulated undistributed earnings and personal holding companies and restrictions on graduated rates for personal service corporations.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Some states, such as New Jersey, impose alternative taxes based on measures other than taxable income. Among such measures are gross income, pipeline revenues, gross receipts, and various asset or capital measures. In addition, some states impose a tax on capital of corporations or on shares issued and outstanding. The U. S. state of Michigan previously taxed businesses on an alternative base that did not allow compensation of employees as a tax deduction and allowed full deduction of the cost of production assets upon acquisition.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Corporations subject to U.S. tax must file federal and state income tax returns. Different tax returns are required at the federal and some state levels for different types of corporations or corporations engaged in specialized businesses. The United States has 13 variations on the basic Form 1120 for S corporations, insurance companies, Domestic International Sales Corporations, foreign corporations, and other entities. The structure of the forms and the imbedded schedules vary by type of form.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: United States federal corporate tax returns require both computation of taxable income from components thereof and reconciliation of taxable income to financial statement income. Corporations with assets exceeding $10 million must complete a detailed 3 page reconciliation on Schedule M-3 indicating which differences are permanent (i.e., do not reverse, such as disallowed expenses or tax exempt interest) and which are temporary (e.g., differences in when income or expense is recognized for book and tax purposes).


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Some state corporate tax returns have significant imbedded or attached schedules related to features of the state's tax system that differ from the federal system.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Preparation of non-simple corporate tax returns can be time-consuming. For example, the U.S. Internal Revenue Service states that the average time needed to complete Form 1120-S, for privately held companies electing flow through status, is over 56 hours, not including recordkeeping time.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Federal corporate tax returns for most types of corporations are due by the 15th day of the third month following the tax year (March 15 for calendar year). State corporate tax return due dates vary, but most are due either on the same date or one month after the federal due date. Extensions of time to file are routinely granted.


title: Corporate tax in the United States

text: Penalties may be imposed at the federal and state levels for late filing or non-filing of corporate income tax returns. In addition, other substantial penalties may apply with respect to failures related to returns and tax return computations. Intentional failure to file or intentional filing of incorrect returns may result in criminal penalties to those involved.


title: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir

text: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir, also known as Ragga Ragnars (born 24 October 1984) is an Icelandic actress and former swimmer, who specialised in sprint freestyle events. She is a multiple-time Icelandic record holder in both long and short course freestyle (both 50 metres and 100 metres). After retiring from swimming, Ragnheiður studied acting and has played the role of Gunnhild on the TV series "Vikings" since 2018.


title: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir

text: Ragnheiður made her Olympic debut, as Iceland's youngest swimmer (aged 19), at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. She qualified for two swimming events by attaining B-standard entry times of 26.34 (50 m freestyle) and 56.74 (100 m freestyle). In the 100 m freestyle, Ragnheiður finished last in heat three and fortieth overall with a time of 58.47 seconds. In the 50 m freestyle, Ragnheiður almost snared out of triumph in heat five by a hundredth of a second (0.01) behind Luxembourg's Lara Heinz, finishing second and thirty-first overall in 26.36 seconds.


title: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir

text: At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Ragnheiður qualified for the second time in the same swimming program as the previous Games. She cleared FINA B-cuts of 25.95 (50 m freestyle) from the Dutch Open Swim Cup in Eindhoven and 56.06 (100 m freestyle) from FINA World Championships in Melbourne. In the 100 m freestyle, she was reassigned in heat three against seven other swimmers, including Hong Kong's Hannah Wilson and Bahamas' Arianna Vanderpool-Wallace. She touched out Cyprus' Anna Stylianou to take the fifth spot and thirty-fifth overall by three hundredths of a second (0.03), in a time of 56.35 seconds. In the 50 m freestyle, Ragnheiður finished fourth in heat eight by 0.13 of a second behind Jamaica's Natasha Moodie, clocking at 25.82. Ragnheiður failed to advance into the semifinals, as she placed thirty-sixth out of 92 swimmers in the evening prelims.


title: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir

text: Ragnheiður has said that she always had a passion for acting and after retiring from swimming, decided to study acting. She took an 8-week "Acting for Film" course with New York Film Academy in Los Angeles, which she "loved" and then enrolled for a one-year programme. She graduated in 2015. It was also announced in the 2020 Game Awards that she would star in an animated series based on the popular Studio Wildcard game "" in 2022 playing the role of Queen Sigrid.


title: Ragnheiður Ragnarsdóttir

text: Ragnheiður was married to Atli Bjarnason, a business administrator, from 2013 to 2017. Their son was born in 2013.


title: Sinopec

text: China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation (中国石油化工股份有限公司) or Sinopec (), is a Chinese oil and gas enterprise based in Beijing. It is listed in Hong Kong and also trades in Shanghai.


title: Sinopec

text: Sinopec Limited's parent, Sinopec Group, is the world's largest oil refining, gas and petrochemical conglomerate, headquartered in Chaoyang District, Beijing. Sinopec's business includes oil and gas exploration, refining, and marketing; production and sales of petrochemicals, chemical fibers, chemical fertilizers, and other chemical products; storage and pipeline transportation of crude oil and natural gas; import, export and import/export agency business of crude oil, natural gas, refined oil products, petrochemicals, and other chemicals. It also produces ethanol and several biofuels such as biodiesel and green jet fuel, from waste vegetable oil.


title: Sinopec

text: Sinopec Limited was established as a joint stock entity under the China Petrochemical Corporation Group (Sinopec Group) in February 2000. The company was simultaneously listed in Hong Kong, New York, and London in October 2000. A Shanghai listing was completed in June 2001.


title: Sinopec

text: Given its legacy asset base from Sinopec Group, analysts have categorized it as a more downstream oil player than PetroChina. Sinopec is the largest oil refiner in Asia by annual volume processed. Sinopec produces around 1/4 as much raw crude oil as PetroChina, but produces 60% more refined products per annum.


title: Sinopec

text: In December 2006, Sinopec acquired the assets of Shengli Petroleum, whose main asset was a maturing domestic oil field, in order to stabilize its crude inputs and raise the utilization rate of its existing refineries.


title: Sinopec

text: In March 2013, China Petroleum and Chemical Corp agreed to pay $1.5 billion for Sinopec Group's overseas oil and gas-producing assets.


title: Sinopec

text: In August 2013, Sinopec acquired a 33% stake in Apache Corporation’s oil and gas business in Egypt for $3.1 billion.


title: Sinopec

text: In December 2013, MCC Holding Hong Kong Corp. Ltd. and MCC Oil & Gas Hong Kong Corp. Ltd., acquired an 18% stake of Sinopec in oil and gas business for $9.3 billion.


title: Sinopec

text: In November 2021, construction of a green hydrogen plant in Kuqa city began. The cost of the construction is to amount to 3 billion yuan (US$470 million), and the plant will provide an annual production of 20,000 tons which will be supplied to Sinopec's Tahe refinery and production is to begin by June 2023. Also included in the plans are a storage tank as well as a pipeline network. The project will also be powered by a 1000-megawatt solar power station.


title: Sinopec

text: Sinopec signed an evaluation deal with Gabon in 2004. During his African visit that year Chinese President Hu Jintao signed a series of bilateral trade accords with his Gabonese counterpart Omar Bongo, including a "memorandum of agreement aimed at showing the parties' desire to develop exploration, exploitation, refining and export activities of oil products". Three onshore fields were to be explored. One of the three blocks, LT2000, is some southeast of Gabon's economic hub, Port Gentil, which lies south of the capital, Libreville, on the Atlantic coast. The other two — DR200 and GT2000 - are around northeast of Port Gentil, according to the Gabonese oil ministry.


title: Sinopec

text: In November 2005, Sinopec Group announced plans to partner with CNPC to purchase an oil field in Sudan, and has reportedly indicated an interest in expanding its business in Sudan. Sinopec Corporation is a partner in Petrodar Operating Company Ltd., a consortium whose partners also include China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC, the 90 per cent owner of PetroChina) and Sudapet (the Sudanese state-owned oil company), among others. In August 2005, Petrodar commenced production of oil in blocks 3 and 7 in South-east Sudan. In December 2005, Petrodar announced that its first shipment of crude oil would be shipped from Sudan in January 2006. Petrodar's operations represent a major increase in overall Sudanese oil production. Sinopec is also looking into other companies such as ERHC Energy which has multiple oil block assets in the Joint Development Zone.


title: Sinopec

text: In 2007, in eastern Ethiopia’s Ogaden Desert, a raid by an ethnic Somali rebel group on a Sinopec drilling site left 74 dead including 9 Chinese oil workers, and 7 kidnapped on 24 April 2007. The rebels, the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF), later released the seven abductees and warned foreign companies against working in the area. Sinopec said it had no plans to pull out of the resource-rich region despite the attack. Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Liu Jianchao says that China strongly condemns the violent attack carried out by Somalian insurgents on the premises of the oil company Sinopec in Ethiopia.


title: Sinopec

text: In August 2009, Sinopec completed a takeover of Geneva-based Addax Petroleum for $7.5 billion marking China's biggest foreign takeover. On 31 October 2011 Addax acquired Shell's 80% share of an exploration firm called Pecten that explores and drills in various offshore locations including the oil basin near Douala, Cameroon in cooperation with TotalEnergies.


title: Sinopec

text: In June 2013, Sinopec agreed to acquire Marathon Oil Corp's Angolan offshore oil and gas field for $1.52 billion.


title: Sinopec

text: In February 2007, Saudi Aramco and Exxon signed a deal with Sinopec to revamp the Fujian oil refinery and triple its capacity to by 2009. Aramco, Exxon and Sinopec also signed contracts for a fuel marketing venture that will manage 750 service stations and a network of terminals in Fujian province. Unipec, a subsidiary of Sinopec, signed a contract with French oil company Total Gabon in February 2002. Under the contract China, for the first time, bought Gabonese crude oil. In the African nation of Gabon, Sinopec's joint ventures in oil exploration have been accused of violating environmental conventions by the government of Gabon. Its activities in Gabon's national parks were suspended in September 2006, by the Gabonese national parks council.


title: Sinopec

text: On 13 April 2010 the company announced acquisition of Conoco Phillips's 9% stake in the Canadian oil sand firms, Syncrude, for $4.65bn. The deal was granted regulatory approval from the Canadian government on 25 June 2010. While largely welcomed by industry, Sinopec's Syncrude stake has raised concerns about the influence the Chinese government may try to exert on Canadian policy makers.


title: Sinopec

text: In October 2011, the company offered C$2.2 billion ($2.1 billion) to acquire Canadian oil and gas firm Daylight Energy. Daylight was renamed Sinopec Daylight Energy Ltd. after it was taken over in December 2011.


title: Sinopec

text: On 11 November 2011 Sinopec announced that the company will invest $5.2 billion in buying a 30 percent stake in the Brazilian unit of Galp Energia SGPS SA which discovered biggest reserved in the western hemisphere since 1976.


title: Sinopec

text: On 15 October 2012 Sinopec completed the purchase of 20 oil wells belonging to TOTAL E&P in Southern Nigeria in a deal worth around $2.45 billion. This was a remarkable achievement in the company's aim at fully exploring the oil-rich African country. Also they are presently executing an oil/gas project in STUBB CREEK region in Akwa Ibom Southern Nigeria that is capable of producing about 10,000 barrels of oil/day. This is in addition to other exploration projects currently being embarked upon both in Rivers and Akwa Ibom States. Sinopec indeed had previously taken over Addax Petroleum with numerous assets in Nigeria and Cameroon.


title: Sinopec

text: On 17 December 2012 Talisman Energy UK announced Sinopec has invested $1.5 billion in a 49 percent stake of Talisman's North Sea properties.


title: Sinopec

text: In April 2013, Sinopec agreed to sell a stake of 30 percent in an oil and gas block in Myanmar to Taiwan's CPC Corp.


title: Sinopec

text: In November 2021, U.S. producer Venture Global LNG signed a twenty-year contract with Sinopec to supply liquefied natural gas (LNG). In January 2022 they offered to re-sell LNG to take advantage of high Asian spot prices.


title: Sinopec

text: China's imports of U.S. natural gas will more than double. In March 2022, a memorandum of understanding was signed between Sinopec and Aramco to strengthen the already existing ties between the companies and to improve their downstream operations.


title: Sinopec

text: In 2004, Sinopec prospected for oil in the 1,550 square kilometers of Loango National Park in southern Gabon and encountered criticism for what domestic and foreign environmental critics said were poor and damaging methods. Primatology professor Christophe Boesch of the US-based environmental organization, the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS), criticized the use of dynamite and heavy machinery in exploration and road construction by Sinopec through park, noting that it might drive native gorillas deeper into the jungle, where they would be outside legal restrictions on hunting. Gabonese law states that industries can extract oil from national parks, but must rehabilitate them to the prior condition. Boesch, and other international experts, have suggested that Sinopec use other methods such as horizontal drilling to minimize its environmental footprint. Sinopec's activities in Gabon's national parks were suspended in September 2006, by the Gabonese national parks council. In 2007, Sinopec redid its earlier environmental study, this time in conjunction with the Gabonese environmentalist group Enviropass and the World Wildlife Foundation, winning high marks from Gabonese, Western, and Chinese conservation experts. Shortly thereafter, Sinopec resumed production with more environmentally friendly methods.


title: Sinopec

text: On 21 December 2006, gas started leaking during the drilling of a test well by the Sinopec Southern Prospecting and Development Branch in Quingxi. 12,380 people were evacuated after the leakage occurred. It took at least three attempts and two weeks for the company to seal the leak.


title: Sinopec

text: China's top environmental watchdog warned Sinopec in 2007 to stop operations at one of its oil fields due to chronic river pollution. Zhongyuan Oilfields Petrochemical Company, a unit of Sinopec, had failed to meet waste water treatment requirements and had been ordered to pay a pollution fine and operations had to be halted, according to the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA).


title: Sinopec

text: Guangdong Provincial Environment Bureau (GPEB) had also issued a red sign warning to 19 companies, including Sinopec Guangzhou, in February 2008. By GPEB's standard, the companies that have involved in excessive emissions or caused serious environmental pollution accidents will be given the red sign warning and will be placed under strict supervision.


title: Sinopec

text: On Wednesday, 28 July 2010, an explosion at an abandoned Sinopec plastics and chemicals factory in the Qixia District of Nanjing, China killed at least 12 people and seriously injured 15 more.


title: Sinopec

text: An oil pipeline explosion on Friday, 22 November 2013, in Qingdao, Shandong province killed at least 62 people, injuring 136, and displacing hundreds more after oil previously leaking onto a street during the day ignited.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Marcion of Sinope (; ; ) was an early Christian theologian in early Christianity. Marcion preached that God had sent Jesus Christ who was an entirely new, alien god, distinct from the vengeful God of Israel who had created the world. He considered himself a follower of Paul the Apostle, whom he believed to have been the only true apostle of Jesus Christ, a doctrine called Marcionism. Marcion published the earliest extant fixed collection of New Testament books.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Early Church Fathers such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian denounced Marcion as a heretic, and he was excommunicated by the church of Rome around 144. He published the first known canon of Christian sacred scriptures, which contained ten Pauline epistles (the Pastoral epistles were not included) and the Gospel of Marcion which is a shorter version of the Gospel of Luke. This made him a catalyst in the process of the development of the New Testament canon by forcing the proto-orthodox Church to respond to his canon.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Epiphanius records in his that Marcion was born the son of a bishop in Pontus (modern-day Turkey), likely Philologus of Sinope. Rhodo and Tertullian, young men in Marcion's old age, described him as a "mariner" and a "ship-master" respectively. Some time in the late 130s, Marcion traveled to Rome, joined the Roman church, and made a large donation of 200,000 sesterces to the congregation there. Conflicts with the church of Rome arose and he was eventually excommunicated in 144, his donation being returned to him. After his excommunication, he returned to Asia Minor, where he continued to lead his many church congregations and teach the Gospel of Marcion, likely an edited version of the Gospel of Luke.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: According to Christian sources, Marcion's teacher was the Simonian Cerdo. Irenaeus writes that "a certain Cerdo, originating from the Simonians, came to Rome under Hyginus [...] and taught that the one who was proclaimed as God by the Law and the Prophets is not the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" ("Against Heresies", 1, 27, 1). Also, according to them, Marcion and the Gnostic Valentinus were companions in Rome.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: In 394, Epiphanius claimed that after beginnings as an ascetic, Marcion seduced a virgin and was accordingly excommunicated by his father, prompting him to leave his home town. Some scholars have taken this "seduction of a virgin" as a metaphor for Marcion's corruption of the Christian Church, with the Church portrayed as the undefiled virgin, and that Marcion apparently haas become "the victim of the historicisation of such a metaphor, even though it contradicts the otherwise firm tradition of his strict sexual probity". Doubtful is Tertullian's claim in "The Prescription Against Heretics" (written ) that Marcion professed repentance, and agreed to the conditions granted to him — that he should receive reconciliation if he restored to the Church those whom he had led astray — but that he was prevented from doing so by his death.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: The Marcionite church expanded greatly within Marcion's lifetime, becoming a major rival to the emerging Catholic church. After his death, it retained its following and survived Christian controversy and imperial disapproval for several centuries.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Study of the Hebrew scriptures, along with received writings circulating in the nascent Church, led Marcion to conclude that many of the teachings of Jesus were incompatible with the actions of Yahweh, characterized as the belligerent god of the Hebrew Bible. Marcion responded by developing a ditheistic system of belief around the year 144. This notion of two gods—a higher transcendent one and a lower world-creator and ruler—allowed Marcion to reconcile his perceived contradictions between Christian Old Covenant theology and the Gospel message proclaimed by the New Testament.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: In contrast to other leaders of the nascent Christian Church, however, Marcion declared that Christianity was in complete discontinuity with Judaism and entirely opposed to the scriptures of Judaism. Marcion did not claim that these were false. Instead, he asserted that they were entirely true, but were to be read in an absolutely literalistic manner, one which led him to develop an understanding that Yahweh was not the same God spoken of by Jesus. For example, Marcion argued that the Genesis account of Yahweh walking through the Garden of Eden asking where Adam was, proved that Yahweh inhabited a physical body and was without universal knowledge, attributes wholly incompatible with the Heavenly Father professed by Jesus.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: According to Marcion, the god of the Old Testament, whom he called the Demiurge, the creator of the material universe, is a jealous tribal deity of the Jews, whose law represents legalistic reciprocal justice and who punishes mankind for its sins through suffering and death. In contrast, the God that Jesus professed is an altogether different being, a universal God of compassion and love who looks upon humanity with benevolence and mercy. Marcion also produced a book titled "Antitheses", which is no longer extant, contrasting the Demiurge of the Old Testament with the Heavenly Father of the New Testament.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Marcion held Jesus to be the son of the Heavenly Father but understood the incarnation in a docetic manner, i.e. that Jesus' body was only an imitation of a material body, and consequently denied Jesus' physical and bodily birth, death, and resurrection.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Marcion was the first to codify a Christian canon. His canon consisted of only eleven books, grouped into two sections: the , a shorter version of the Gospel of Luke, and the , a selection of ten epistles of Paul the Apostle, which were also slightly shorter than the canonical text. Early Christians such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Epiphanius claimed that Marcion's editions of Luke and the Pauline epistles were intentionally edited by Marcion to match his theological views, and many modern scholars agree. However, some scholars argue that Marcion's texts were not substantially edited by him, and may in some respects represent an earlier version of these texts than the canonical versions. Like the Gospel of Mark, the gospel used by Marcion did not contain elements relating to Jesus' birth and childhood. Interestingly, it did contain some Jewish elements, and material that challenged Marcion's ditheism—a fact that was exploited by early Christians in their polemics against Marcion.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: The centrality of the Pauline epistles in Marcion's canon reflects the fact that Marcion considered Paul to be the correct interpreter and transmitter of Jesus' teachings, in contrast to the Twelve Disciples and the early Jerusalem church.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: Marcion is sometimes described as a Gnostic philosopher. In some essential respects, Marcion proposed ideas which aligned well with Gnostic thought. Like the Gnostics, he believed that Jesus was essentially a divine spirit who appeared to human beings in human form, but did not actually take on a fleshly human body.


title: Marcion of Sinope

text: However, Marcionism conceptualizes God in a way which cannot be reconciled with broader Gnostic thought. For Gnostics, some human beings are born with a small piece of God's soul lodged within their spirit (akin to the notion of a Divine Spark). God is thus intimately connected to and part of his creation. Salvation lies in turning away from the physical world (which Gnostics regard as an illusion) and embracing the godlike qualities within oneself. Marcion, by contrast, held that the Heavenly Father (the father of Jesus Christ) was an utterly alien God; he had no part in making the world, nor any connection with it. According to Bart Ehrman: "Marcion himself should not be thought of as a Gnostic; he held that there were only two gods, not many; he did not think of this world as a cosmic disaster, but as the creation of the Old Testament God; and he did not think divine sparks resided in human bodies that could be set free by understanding the true 'gnosis.' Moreover, his docetic view does not appear to have been the typical view of Gnostics."


title: LRT Line 2

text: The Light Rail Transit Line 2, also known as LRT Line 2 (LRT-2) or Megatren, is a rapid transit line in Metro Manila in the Philippines, generally running in an east–west direction along the Radial Road 6 and a portion of the Circumferential Road 1, referred to as the Purple Line, and previously known as the Mass Rapid Transit Line 2 or MRT Line 2 (MRT-2).


title: LRT Line 2

text: Although the line is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority, resulting in it being called as "LRT-2", it is actually a heavy rail, rapid transit line. Instead of the light rail vehicles used in earlier lines, it uses very large metro cars, longer and wider than those used on the PNR network, and roughly the same size as those used on the MTR in Hong Kong, MRT in Bangkok and Singapore, and the heavy metro lines of the Taipei Metro. Until the opening of MRT Line 7 (MRT-7) in 2022 and the Metro Manila Subway (MMS) in 2025, it is the country's only line using these types of trains.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Envisioned in the 1970s as part of the Metropolitan Manila Strategic Mass Rail Transit Development Plan, the thirteen-station, line was the third rapid transit line to be built in Metro Manila when it started operations in 2003. It is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority (LRTA), a government-owned and controlled corporation attached to the Department of Transportation (DOTr).


title: LRT Line 2

text: Serving close to 200,000 passengers daily before the COVID-19 pandemic in the country, the line is the least busy among Metro Manila's three rapid transit lines, and was built with standards such as barrier-free access and the use of magnetic card tickets to facilitate passenger access in mind. Total ridership however is significantly below the line's built maximum capacity, with various solutions being proposed or implemented to increase ridership in addition to the planned extensions to the line. However, the short-term solutions have had a minimal effect on ridership, and experts have insisted that the extensions be built immediately, despite pronouncements that the system is steadily increasing ridership each year. Regardless, the line encounters periods of peak ridership during rush hour in the morning and the evening.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line is integrated with the public transit system in Metro Manila, and passengers also take various forms of road-based public transport, such as buses and jeepneys, to and from a station to reach their intended destination. Although the line aimed to reduce traffic congestion and travel times along R-6 and portions of C-1, the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization. Expanding the network's revenue line to accommodate more passengers is set on tackling this problem.


title: LRT Line 2

text: When the line's east extension to Antipolo, Rizal opened on July 5, 2021, Line 2 became the first rapid transit line extending outside the Metro Manila area.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Future plans include a three-station westbound extension in the City of Manila by 2024 and another proposed eastbound extension from station in Masinag towards Cogeo and downtown Antipolo.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The rail line serves the cities that Radial Road 6 (Marcos Highway, Aurora Boulevard, Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard, Legarda Street and Recto Avenue) passes through: Manila, San Juan, Quezon City, Marikina, Pasig (depot), and Antipolo. The rails are mostly elevated and erected either over or along the roads covered, with sections below ground before and after the station, the only underground station on the line.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line serves 13 stations along its route. The western terminus of the line is the station at Recto Avenue, while the eastern terminus of the line is the station along Marcos Highway.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Three stations serve as connecting stations between other lines in the metro. is within walking distance to the station of the PNR Metro Commuter Line; is indirectly connected to the station of the same name on the MRT Line 3 through local streets and inter-connected mall passageways inside Araneta City (formerly Araneta Center); and is indirectly connected to the station of the LRT Line 1 through a covered walkway. No stations are connected to other rapid transit lines within the paid areas.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line currently runs from 5:00 a.m. PST (UTC+8) until 9:30 p.m. on a daily basis. It operates almost every day of the year unless otherwise announced. Special schedules are announced via the PA system at every station and also in newspapers and other mass media. During Holy Week, a public holiday in the Philippines, the rail system is closed for annual maintenance, owing to fewer commuters and traffic around the metro. Normal operation resumes on Monday. During the Christmas and year-end holidays, the operating hours of the line are modified and shortened, due to the low ridership of the line during the holidays.


title: LRT Line 2

text: During the construction of the first line of the Manila Light Rail Transit System in the early 1980s, a Swiss company called Electrowatt Engineering Services designed a comprehensive plan for metro service in Metro Manila. The plan—still used as the basis for planning new metro lines—consisted of a network of rapid transit lines spanning all major corridors within 20 years, including a line on the Radial Road 6 alignment, one of the region's busiest road corridor.


title: LRT Line 2

text: A feasibility study for the LRT Line 2 that would connect Marikina to the City of Manila via Aurora Boulevard and Ramon Magsaysay Boulevard was carried out in 1988. The project was to be bid out as a build-operate-transfer project together with the LRT Line 1 capacity expansion project in 1989. Although sixteen firms were reported to have submitted bids for the line's construction, the bidding failed, causing delays. Another feasibility study was conducted in 1991 with financing from the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF). The final revised project was approved in 1995 as a separate project from the LRT-1 capacity expansion project.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The LRT Line 2 project officially began in 1996, twelve years after the opening of Line 1, with the granting of the official development assistance loans from the Japan Bank for International Cooperation for the line's construction starting in March of that year. The LRTA would have ownership of the system and assume all administrative functions, such as the regulation of fares and operations as well as the responsibility over construction and maintenance of the system and the procurement of spare parts for trains.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Construction started in 1997 after the LRTA signed the first three packages of the agreement with Sumitomo Corporation delivering Package 1 in which covers the construction of the depot and its facilities, while the Hanjin-Itochu joint venture delivered packages 2 and 3 in which covers the substructure and the superstructure plus the stations respectively.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The project suffered delays in 1998 when the fourth package of the project, which includes the communications and fares systems, vehicles, and trackworks, were alleged to had irregularities with the contract. In September 2000, Package 4 was awarded to the "Asia-Europe MRT Consortium" (AEMC), a consortium of local and foreign companies led by Marubeni Corporation and composed of Balfour Beatty, Toshiba, Daewoo Heavy Industries, and a local company which was D.M. Consuji Incorporated (DMCI). AEMC, through Marubeni Corporation, entered into a contract with Singapore Technologies Engineering on December 12 of that year to supply and install the communications system, supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system, automatic fare collection system, and the management information system. The consortium provided the eighteen four-car trainsets built by Rotem and Toshiba.


title: LRT Line 2

text: During construction, the LRTA, along with the project consultants oversaw all the design, construction, equipping, testing, commissioning, and technical supervision of the project activities. Halcrow was appointed in 1997 as the lead consultant for the project.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The pre-casting segmental method, a method used to launch girders and connect them to create a full span, was used in the construction of the original line (except the underground section in Katipunan).


title: LRT Line 2

text: On April 5, 2003, the first of the line, which forms part of the line's first phase, from to was inaugurated by President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. In December 2003, a test run from to with passengers was conducted. Due to the absence of seamless interconnection between the initial section and the section beyond Araneta Center-Cubao, westbound passengers alighted at Cubao station before riding a train to V. Mapa. An estimated 3,000 passengers took the ride during the three-day test run. All remaining stations that are part of the line's second phase opened on April 5, 2004, except for Recto which opened on October 29, 2004. However, ridership was initially moderate yet still far below expectations, since the passenger volume in this line is not yet fully achieved.


title: LRT Line 2

text: To address passenger complaints on the lack of universal access on earlier train lines, the LRTA made sure during the construction phase that the stations were equipped with universal access by putting up escalators and elevators for easier access, as well as making passenger fares at par with the other existing lines. However, while all stations have elevators to and from the platform, not all stations have elevators to and from the station concourse on both sides of the road.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Plans to extend the line to Antipolo were first laid out as part of Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study Master Plan by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1999. The extension was first approved by the Investment Coordination Committee (ICC) board of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) in October 2003. The Light Rail Transit Authority announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo in 2006. The project aims to accommodate an additional 80,000 passengers and reduce traffic congestion along Marcos Highway.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The Light Rail Transit Authority secured funds for the project from Philippine banks in May 2011. In October 2011, the Japan International Cooperation Agency released a feasibility study report for the project. The extension, starting from the eastern terminus of Santolan Station up to Antipolo station in Antipolo, calls for two additional stations, Marikina station in Barangay San Roque, Marikina near Sta. Lucia East Grand Mall; and Antipolo station, in Barangay Mayamot, Antipolo near SM City Masinag. The ₱9.7 billion project, at its current form, was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority chaired by then-President Benigno Aquino III on September 4, 2012. The civil works packages was funded by the Philippine government, while the electro-mechanical system package was funded by a loan from the Japan International Cooperation Agency as part of its Capacity Enhancement of Mass Transit Systems in Metro Manila Project, wherein JICA allotted ¥43.2 billion for various extension and capacity expansion projects of railway lines in Metro Manila.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Before construction started, the Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC) awarded a civil works consultancy contract to the Korean consortium of Foresight Development and Surveying Company, Soosung Engineering, and Korea Rail Network Authority in February 2014. The electrical and mechanical (E&M) systems consultancy contract was awarded to the CMX consortium, a consortium of Filipino and Japanese companies in March 2015. Both consortiums oversaw the design and construction of the project, and provided bidding assistance and technical supervision.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The civil works packages, Packages 1 and 2, covered the design and construction of the viaduct and stations, respectively. Both packages were awarded to D.M. Consunji Incorporated (DMCI). Package 3, awarded to the Marubeni-DMCI consortium, covers the design and installation of the railway tracks and electrical and mechanical (E&M) systems of the extension.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The groundbreaking ceremony was held on June 9, 2015 to mark the start of construction of the extension. Another groundbreaking ceremony was held on May 30, 2017 to mark the start of construction of the two stations. The installation of the railway track and E&M systems, meanwhile, commenced on April 16, 2019.


title: LRT Line 2

text: During construction, on March 10, 2017, a truck slammed in a concrete post of the east extension viaduct, causing one fatality and two injuries.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Unlike the original line which used the pre-casting segmental method of construction, the east extension viaduct made use of AASHTO girders with a deck slab above the girders.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The east extension was originally expected to be completed in the fourth quarter of 2020. However, construction delays brought by the COVID-19 pandemic delayed the extension's opening. As such, the extension was initially set to be inaugurated on April 26, 2021 and was expected to begin operations the following day, however, the opening day was delayed twice due to increased COVID-19 case spikes since March 2021 and to give time for work completion brought by technical considerations in integrating the two new stations to the railway's existing systems since June 2021.


title: LRT Line 2

text: After series of delays in the extension's opening, the extension opened on July 5, 2021 after being inaugurated on July 1 by President Rodrigo Duterte. The Department of Transportation and Light Rail Transit Authority offered free rides for the East Extension stations until July 18, 2021. From July 5 to September 2, 2021, a temporary shuttle service was implemented between Santolan and Antipolo stations due to ongoing integration works of the signalling system at that time. However, on the opening day of the extension, various inconveniences were reported by passengers along the extension. There was only one shuttle train servicing passengers in the east extension, causing waiting times that can reach as long as 20 to 30 minutes. The passengers also cited the lack of trains in the line. Seamless end-to-end train services between Antipolo and Recto stations and vice versa begun on September 3, 2021, after integration works were completed.


title: LRT Line 2

text: LRT Line 2 is planned to be further extended eastward up to Cogeo, and the Antipolo city government is very supportive of the project.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Stations have a standard layout, with a concourse level and a platform level. The concourse is usually below the platform except for the underground station, with stairs, escalators and elevators leading down to the platform level. The levels are separated by fare gates. All stations are barrier-free inside and outside the station, and trains have spaces for passengers using wheelchairs.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The concourse contains ticket booths. Some stations, such as , are connected at concourse level to nearby buildings, such as shopping malls, for easier accessibility.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Stations either have island platforms, such as , or side platforms, such as and . Part of the platform at the front of the train is cordoned off for the use of pregnant women, children, elderly, and persons with disabilities. At side-platform stations, passengers are able to switch platforms at the concourse level without leaving the closed system, while passengers can easily switch sides at stations with island platforms. Stations have toilets at the concourse level, both inside and outside the closed system.


title: LRT Line 2

text: As of November 8, 2009, folding bicycles are allowed to be brought into trains provided that it does not exceed the LRTA's baggage size limitations of . The last car of each train are also designated as "green zones", where folding bicycle users can ride with their bikes.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line has a total of 72 escalators and 40 elevators across all 13 stations. However, by 2021, only a few elevators and escalators remain operational due to anomalies and corruption involving the procurement contracts, causing complaints from passengers. The elevators and escalators are being repaired and restored since 2022, and more are being repaired and restored as of April 2022.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Inside the concourse of all stations is at least one stall or stand where people can buy food or drinks. Stalls vary by station, and some have fast food stalls. The number of stalls also varies by station, and stations tend to have a wide variety, especially in stations such as Recto and V. Mapa.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Stations such as Recto and Santolan are connected to or are near shopping malls and/or other large shopping areas, where commuters are offered more shopping varieties.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In cooperation with the Philippine Daily Inquirer, passengers are offered a copy of the Inquirer Libre, a free, tabloid-size, Tagalog version of the Inquirer, which is available from 6 a.m. at all stations.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line has always presented itself as a safe system to travel in, which was affirmed in a 2004 World Bank paper prepared by Halcrow describing the overall state of metro rail transit operations in Manila as being "good".


title: LRT Line 2

text: With an estimated pre-pandemic daily ridership of 200,000 passengers, and a current weekday ridership of 50,000 passengers, the line operates significantly below its designed capacity of between 570,000 and 580,000 passengers per day. Operating under capacity since 2004, government officials have admitted that system extensions are overdue, although in the absence of major investment in the system's expansion, LRTA has resorted to experimenting with and/or implementing other solutions to maximize the use of the system, including having bus feeder lines.


title: LRT Line 2

text: For safety and security reasons, persons who are visibly intoxicated, insane and/or under the influence of controlled substances, persons carrying flammable materials and/or explosives, persons carrying bulky objects or items over tall and/or wide, and persons bringing pets and/or other animals are prohibited from entering the line. Products in tin cans are also prohibited, citing the possibility of home-made bombs being concealed inside the cans.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In response to the Rizal Day bombings and the September 11 attacks, security has been stepped up on board. The Philippine National Police has a special police force, and security police provided by private companies can be found in all stations. All stations have a head guard. Some stations may also have a deployed K9 bomb-sniffing dog. The line also employs the use of closed-circuit television inside all stations to monitor suspicious activities and to assure safety and security aboard the line. Passengers are also advised to look out for thieves, who can take advantage of the crowding aboard the trains. Wanted posters are posted at all stations to help commuters identify known thieves.


title: LRT Line 2

text: As a response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the line operated at a limited capacity when public transport operations resumed on June 1, 2020 after a three-month lockdown that halted the operations of public transport. The use of face masks (and later, face shields) became mandatory since the resumption of operations in June 2020. The use of face shields later became no longer mandatory in public transport in November 2021, except when an area is under the two highest levels of the alert level system. Social distancing measures were also implemented. Since March 1, 2022, all railway lines are operating at a full capacity due to the de-escalation of Metro Manila to the lowest of the five levels of the alert level system.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In addition, talking with other passengers and answering phone calls in trains has been prohibited in the system. The policy has also been implemented in all railway lines and forms of public transport.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The trains are regularly being disinfected when the train arrives at a terminus. It takes three to five minutes for a train to be disinfected.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line is designed and was forecasted to carry 570,000 passengers daily. However, the line operates under its designed capacity. Before the pandemic, the line had a ridership of 200,000 passengers, but the ridership soon decreased in 2019 due to lack of trains and a power trip that closed three stations in October 2019 that was reopened in January 2021. The line served 33,267 passengers daily on average in 2021, with eight trains available for revenue service running at an operating speed of in 10 minute intervals.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line, like all existing lines in Metro Manila, uses a distance-based fare structure, with fares ranging from fifteen to thirty pesos (34 to 60 U.S. cents), depending on the destination. Commuters who ride the line are charged ₱11 upon boarding. An additional ₱1 is charged for every kilometer travelled. For single journey ticket users, the fares are rounded up in multiples of ₱5.00. Meanwhile, the fares for Beep card users are rounded up to the nearest peso. Children below (the height of a fare gate) may ride for free.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Fares are free of charge every March 8 (International Women's Day; free rides exclusive for women), June 12 (Independence Day), and December 30 (Rizal Day) on limited time slots.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line, along with the MRT Line 3 and Philippine National Railways lines also offered free rides to students starting July 1, 2019, but students must register to avail a student pass. However, the free rides for students stopped in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic as distance learning was implemented as a mode of learning during the pandemic. Free rides for students resumed on August 22, 2022, but ended on November 5 due to operating losses incurred. Instead, the line offers a 20% fare discount for students that wish to avail.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Four types of tickets exist: a single-journey (one-way) ticket whose cost is dependent on the destination, a stored-value (multiple-use) ticket for 100 pesos, a discounted stored value ticket (multiple-use) which can only be availed by senior citizens and disabled persons, and a single journey ticket for employees (one-way) which is exclusive for LRTA employees only. The single-journey ticket and the single journey ticket for employees is valid only on the date of purchase. Meanwhile, the stored-value ticket and the discounted stored-value ticket is valid for four years from date of purchase.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Tickets come in four incarnations: one bearing the portrait of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, which have since been phased out, although some tickets have been recycled due to ticket shortages, one with the Line 1 third generation train inauguration together with Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, one with the LRT-MRT closing the loop project design with Gloria Macapagal Arroyo again in the picture, and one with a picture of the Hyundai Rotem EMUs used in the line which featured different designs for the single journey and stored value tickets with the former having a picture of the train unloading, while the latter is a flipped concept art of the train.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In the past, Line 3 borrowed tickets from LRTA rather than recycling the old "Erap tickets", due to the same ticket shortages.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Despite the common practice for regular passengers to purchase several stored-value tickets at a time, the line barely has ticket shortages due to the inter-compatibility of tickets with the LRTA lines and the steady release of new tickets that addresses the problem.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Although the LRTA, together with Line 3 has experimented with the Flash Pass as an alternative ticketing system in the past, this was phased out in 2009.


title: LRT Line 2

text: A unified ticket system was introduced in 2015 to replace the magnetic tickets. The Beep is a new contactless smart card to replace the old magnetic tickets. Similar to the previous magnetic tickets, the Beep cards have two types: single-journey tickets and stored value cards. The tickets can be bought at any stations or at the ticket vending machines. A trial run for the Beep cards started on July 20, 2015 at Legarda station, becoming the first of the three railway lines in Metro Manila to do so.


title: LRT Line 2

text: A shortage of the stored value cards was reported in 2022 due to the ongoing global chip shortage caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Adjusting passenger fares has been employed by the LRTA as a means to boost flagging ridership figures, and the issue of fares both historically and in the present continues to be a political issue.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Current fare levels were set on July 19, 2021, two weeks after the east extension opened. It is a 5-peso fare increase from the maximum fare that was set along with the new fare levels on January 4, 2015. The fare hike was delayed for several years despite inflation and rising operating costs. Prior to the 2015 fare adjustment of LRT and MRT, fares for the line were never increased. These lower fares—which are only slightly more expensive than jeepney fares—are financed through large government subsidies amounting to around ₱45 per passenger, and which for both the MRTC "and" the LRTA reached ₱75 billion between 2004 and 2014. Without subsidies, the cost of a single trip is estimated at around ₱60.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line runs heavy rail vehicles made in South Korea by Hyundai Rotem powered by Toshiba-made VVVF inverters in a four-car configuration. The trains came in together with the fourth package during the system's construction. Trains have a capacity of 1,628 passengers, which is more than the normal capacity of the rolling stock of Lines 1 and 3. The trains are capable of running at a maximum design speed of , but only run at a maximum operational speed of .


title: LRT Line 2

text: In 2017, the entire train fleet was retrofitted with the TUBE (formerly known as PARDS), a passenger information system powered by LCD screens installed near the ceiling of the train that shows news, advertisements, current train location, arrivals and station layouts.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In 2019, the train ventilation was upgraded to replace the aging air-conditioning units and to alleviate complaints of the commuters for uncomfortable hot rides. Two years later, three train sets underwent refurbishment and resulted in new fitted propulsion systems and train monitoring systems from Woojin Industrial Systems.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The LRTA is also acquiring 14 additional train sets by 2020 to augment the existing 18 sets, due to the expected increase of passengers ahead of the East Extension, and the West Extension. The purchase however was delayed to 2022.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Included in the design-and-build contract of the west extension is the procurement of five four-car train sets.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line maintains an at-grade depot in Barangay Santolan in Pasig, near Santolan station in the side of Barangay Calumpang in Marikina. The depot occupies approximately of space and serves as the headquarters for light and heavy maintenance of the line. Due to its location in a flood-prone area, the depot was raised above ground level. It is connected to the mainline network by a spur line.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The depot is capable of storing 24 sets of electric multiple units, with the option to expand to include more vehicles as demand arises. They are parked on several sets of tracks, which converge onto the spur route and later on to the main network.


title: LRT Line 2

text: There are eight decommissioned 1000 class and one set of 1100 class trains formerly used in LRT-1 being stored in this depot due to the ongoing expansion of the Line 1 depot in Parañaque.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The line uses a fixed block system with automatic train control (ATC), which has three subsystems: automatic train protection (ATP), automatic train operation (ATO), and Rail9000 automatic train supervision (ATS). The ATO subsystem automatically drives the trains, while the opening and closing of doors is controlled by an onboard train attendant. The ATP system, meanwhile, maintains safe operations and monitors the train's speed. Lastly, the Rail9000 ATS system is located at the operations control center at the line's Santolan Depot, which directs train operations and monitors the train movement along the line. Other components of the signalling system includes train detection through track circuits and Westrace MK1 computer-based interlocking.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The signalling equipment were manufactured by Westinghouse Signals. Westinghouse Signals, later renamed as Westinghouse Rail Systems, became part of Siemens Mobility after its acquisition by Siemens in 2013.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The signalling system is set to be upgraded with the replacement of the system's communication link and the upgrading of the interlocking module. The project started on February 15, 2022.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The rails are rails designed to the UIC 54 rail profile. The rails are supported by concrete plinths.


title: LRT Line 2

text: A extension of the line to the Manila North Harbor in Tondo, Manila has been proposed. It was first announced in August 2006, when the LRTA announced its intention to extend the line eastward to Antipolo and westward to the Pier 4 of the Manila North Harbor. It was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) on May 19, 2015. The construction of this extension would create three stations, one near the Tutuban PNR station, one in Divisoria, and one near the North Port Passenger Terminal in Manila North Harbor's Pier 4 which would serve as its terminus. In an interview, LRTA Administrator Ret. Gen. Reynaldo Berroya stated that they are aiming to finish the project by 2022 to 2023.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The total project cost is estimated to be ₱10.12 billion. In 2019, WESTRAX Joint Venture was awarded the contract for the consultancy services for the project.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In October 2019, the project was under bidding process, consisting 3 stations, , , and , with the project scheduled to be completed by 2024.


title: LRT Line 2

text: On August 27, 2020, the Light Rail Transit Authority published the bidding documents for the design-and-build contract for the west extension. According to the documents, the turn back area after the station will have three tracks; two of which are the main tracks and one serves as a pocket track. The three stations will feature side platforms.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The project was originally planned to be funded through a public-private partnership (PPP) scheme, in line with the Marcos administration's policy to use the said scheme to complete various infrastructure projects. The contract would have also covered the procurement of five new four-car trains, along with the maintenance of the line and the refurbishment of the trains. However, it was decided that the government will instead fund the project through the national budget.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The Japan International Cooperation Agency has also proposed for a second phase of the east extension to extend the line to Cogeo and downtown Antipolo. There are provisions at the end of the current rail line at Antipolo station for an extension. Two proposals were presented by JICA: a , one-station underground extension, and a , five-station extension, both originating from the Antipolo station.


title: LRT Line 2

text: As of November 2022, the feasibility study is nearing its conclusion. The extension would have three stations and the alignment is still being finalized.


title: LRT Line 2

text: The privatization of the operations and maintenance of Line 2 was planned by the then-Department of Transportation and Communications (DOTC; later the Department of Transportation as part of the agency's improvement and modernization of the railway lines in the Philippines. The bidding process for this project begun on September 13, 2014. In this project, the interested companies were required to submit pre-qualification documents and submit a bid proposal if the company is qualified for the bidding. In January 2015, four companies submitted pre-qualification documents for the project. The bidders included Aboitiz Equity Ventures with SMRT Transport Solutions (Aboitiz Equity Ventures and SMRT International Pte Ltd. through SMRT Trains), DMCI Holdings with Tokyo Metro, Light Rail Manila 2 Consortium (RATP and Metro Pacific), and San Miguel Corporation with Korea Railroad Corporation. All bidders were pre-qualified for the bidding. However, the project would eventually be shelved in 2016.


title: LRT Line 2

text: In 2017, it was reported that the Metro Pacific Investments Corporation was interested in a possible auction for the privatization of the line. The plan to privatize the operations and maintenance of the line was restarted in October 2019, following a power trip that damaged two rectifiers. Since then, no new reports have surfaced about this plan as of 2021.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Due to the aging of the line, a capacity expansion project for the line was announced in April 2022. The project would include upgrades to the trains, signalling, telecommunications, power supply, overhead systems, railway tracks, and other system equipment. The project is still under the stages of the procurement of a consultant for the project, which would assess the current condition of the line.


title: LRT Line 2

text: TÜV Rheinland has been shortlisted for the list of consultants and is the only consultant to be shortlisted in June 2022.


title: LRT Line 2

text: Like the west extension, the upgrading of the train cars would be funded through a public-private partnership scheme. The contract would also cover the maintenance of the line and the construction of the west extension.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin is a peptide hormone that causes vasoconstriction and an increase in blood pressure. It is part of the renin–angiotensin system, which regulates blood pressure. Angiotensin also stimulates the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex to promote sodium retention by the kidneys.


title: Angiotensin

text: An oligopeptide, angiotensin is a hormone and a dipsogen. It is derived from the precursor molecule angiotensinogen, a serum globulin produced in the liver. Angiotensin was isolated in the late 1930s (first named 'angiotonin' or 'hypertensin') and subsequently characterized and synthesized by groups at the Cleveland Clinic and Ciba laboratories.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensinogen is an α-2-globulin synthesized in the liver and is a precursor for angiotensin, but has also been indicated as having many other roles not related to angiotensin peptides. It is a member of the serpin family of proteins, leading to another name: Serpin A8, although it is not known to inhibit other enzymes like most serpins. In addition, a generalized crystal structure can be estimated by examining other proteins of the serpin family, but angiotensinogen has an elongated N-terminus compared to other serpin family proteins. Obtaining actual crystals for X-ray diffractometric analysis is difficult in part due to the variability of glycosylation that Angiotensinogen exhibits. The non-glycosylated and fully glycosylated states of angiotensinogen also vary in molecular weight, the former weighing 53kDa and the latter weighing 75kDa, with a plethora of partially glycosylated states weighing in between these two values.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensinogen is also known as renin substrate. It is cleaved at the N-terminus by renin to result in angiotensin I, which will later be modified to become angiotensin II. This peptide is 485 amino acids long, and 10 N-terminus amino acids are cleaved when renin acts on it. The first 12 amino acids are the most important for activity.


title: Angiotensin

text: Plasma angiotensinogen levels are increased by plasma corticosteroid, estrogen, thyroid hormone, and angiotensin II levels. In mice with a full body deficit of angiotensinogen, the effects observed were low newborn survival rate, stunted body weight gain, stunted growth, and abnormal renal development.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin I (CAS# 11128-99-7), officially called proangiotensin, is formed by the action of renin on angiotensinogen. Renin cleaves the peptide bond between the leucine (Leu) and valine (Val) residues on angiotensinogen, creating the decapeptide (ten amino acid) (des-Asp) angiotensin I. Renin is produced in the kidneys in response to renal sympathetic activity, decreased intrarenal blood pressure (<90mmHg systolic blood pressure ) at the juxtaglomerular cells, dehydration or decreased delivery of Na+ and Cl- to the macula densa. If a reduced NaCl concentration in the distal tubule is sensed by the macula densa, renin release by juxtaglomerular cells is increased. This sensing mechanism for macula densa-mediated renin secretion appears to have a specific dependency on chloride ions rather than sodium ions. Studies using isolated preparations of thick ascending limb with glomerulus attached in low NaCl perfusate were unable to inhibit renin secretion when various sodium salts were added but could inhibit renin secretion with the addition of chloride salts. This, and similar findings obtained in vivo, has led some to believe that perhaps "the initiating signal for MD control of renin secretion is a change in the rate of NaCl uptake predominantly via a luminal Na,K,2Cl co-transporter whose physiological activity is determined by a change in luminal Cl concentration."


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin I appears to have no direct biological activity and exists solely as a precursor to angiotensin II.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II (AII) through removal of two C-terminal residues by the enzyme "angiotensin-converting enzyme" (ACE), primarily through ACE within the lung (but also present in endothelial cells, kidney epithelial cells, and the brain). Angiotensin II acts on the central nervous system to increase vasopressin production, and also acts on venous and arterial smooth muscle to cause vasoconstriction. Angiotensin II also increases aldosterone secretion; it therefore acts as an endocrine, autocrine/paracrine, and intracrine hormone.


title: Angiotensin

text: ACE is a target of ACE inhibitor drugs, which decrease the rate of angiotensin II production. Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by stimulating the Gq protein in vascular smooth muscle cells (which in turn activates an IP3-dependent mechanism leading to a rise in intracellular calcium levels and ultimately causing contraction). In addition, angiotensin II acts at the Na/H exchanger in the proximal tubules of the kidney to stimulate Na reabsorption and H excretion which is coupled to bicarbonate reabsorption. This ultimately results in an increase in blood volume, pressure, and pH. Hence, ACE inhibitors are major anti-hypertensive drugs.


title: Angiotensin

text: Other cleavage products of ACE, seven or nine amino acids long, are also known; they have differential affinity for angiotensin receptors, although their exact role is still unclear. The action of AII itself is targeted by angiotensin II receptor antagonists, which directly block angiotensin II AT receptors.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II is degraded to angiotensin III by angiotensinases located in red blood cells and the vascular beds of most tissues. It has a half-life in circulation of around 30 seconds, whereas, in tissue, it may be as long as 15–30 minutes.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II results in increased inotropy, chronotropy, catecholamine (norepinephrine) release, catecholamine sensitivity, aldosterone levels, vasopressin levels, and cardiac remodeling and vasoconstriction through AT receptors on peripheral vessels (conversely, AT receptors impair cardiac remodeling). This is why ACE inhibitors and ARBs help to prevent remodeling that occurs secondary to angiotensin II and are beneficial in congestive heart failure.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin III has 40% of the pressor activity of angiotensin II, but 100% of the aldosterone-producing activity. Increases mean arterial pressure. It is a peptide that is formed by removing an amino acid from angiotensin II by aminopeptidase A.


title: Angiotensin

text: Activation of the AT2 receptor by angiotensin III triggers natriuresis, while AT2 activation via angiotensin II does not. This natriuretic response via angiotensin III occurs when the AT1 receptor is blocked.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin IV is a hexapeptide that, like angiotensin III, has some lesser activity. Angiotensin IV has a wide range of activities in the central nervous system.


title: Angiotensin

text: The exact identity of AT4 receptors has not been established. There is evidence that the AT4 receptor is insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP). There is also evidence that angiotensin IV interacts with the HGF system through the c-Met receptor.


title: Angiotensin

text: Synthetic small molecule analogues of angiotensin IV with the ability to penetrate through blood brain barrier have been developed.


title: Angiotensin

text: The AT4 site may be involved in memory acquisition and recall, as well as blood flow regulation. Angiotensin IV and its analogs may also benefit spatial memory tasks such as object recognition and avoidance (conditioned and passive avoidance). Studies have also shown that the usual biological effects of angiotensin IV on the body are not affected by common AT2 receptor antagonists such as the hypertension medication Losartan.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensins "modulate fat mass expansion through upregulation of adipose tissue lipogenesis ... and downregulation of lipolysis."


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensins are potent direct vasoconstrictors, constricting arteries and veins and increasing blood pressure. This effect is achieved through activation of the GPCR AT, which signals through a Gq protein to activate phospholipase C, and subsequently increase intracellular calcium.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II has prothrombotic potential through adhesion and aggregation of platelets and stimulation of PAI-1 and PAI-2.


title: Angiotensin

text: When cardiac cell growth is stimulated, a local (autocrine-paracrine) renin–angiotensin system is activated in the cardiac myocyte, which stimulates cardiac cell growth through protein kinase C. The same system can be activated in smooth muscle cells in conditions of hypertension, atherosclerosis, or endothelial damage. Angiotensin II is the most important Gq stimulator of the heart during hypertrophy, compared to endothelin-1 and α1 adrenoreceptors.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II increases thirst sensation (dipsogen) through the area postrema and subfornical organ of the brain, decreases the response of the baroreceptor reflex, increases the desire for salt, increases secretion of ADH from the posterior pituitary, and increases secretion of ACTH from the anterior pituitary. It also potentiates the release of norepinephrine by direct action on postganglionic sympathetic fibers.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II acts on the adrenal cortex, causing it to release aldosterone, a hormone that causes the kidneys to retain sodium and lose potassium. Elevated plasma angiotensin II levels are responsible for the elevated aldosterone levels present during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.


title: Angiotensin

text: Angiotensin II has a direct effect on the proximal tubules to increase Na reabsorption. It has a complex and variable effect on glomerular filtration and renal blood flow depending on the setting. Increases in systemic blood pressure will maintain renal perfusion pressure; however, constriction of the afferent and efferent glomerular arterioles will tend to restrict renal blood flow. The effect on the efferent arteriolar resistance is, however, markedly greater, in part due to its smaller basal diameter; this tends to increase glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure and maintain glomerular filtration rate. A number of other mechanisms can affect renal blood flow and GFR. High concentrations of Angiotensin II can constrict the glomerular mesangium, reducing the area for glomerular filtration. Angiotensin II is a sensitizer to tubuloglomerular feedback, preventing an excessive rise in GFR. Angiotensin II causes the local release of prostaglandins, which, in turn, antagonize renal vasoconstriction. The net effect of these competing mechanisms on glomerular filtration will vary with the physiological and pharmacological environment.


title: 100 Greatest African Americans

text: 100 Greatest African Americans is a biographical dictionary of one hundred historically great Black Americans (in alphabetical order; that is, they are not ranked), as assessed by Temple University professor Molefi Kete Asante in 2002. A similar book was written by Columbus Salley. First published in 1992, Salley's book is titled "The Black 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential African-Americans, Past and Present".


title: 100 Greatest African Americans

text: "Reference and User Services Quarterly" reviewed the list positively in 2003, while noting the subjectivity in judging greatness, particularly for contemporary individuals. A review in "Booklist" that same year states that Asante "makes it very clear that he left out numerous current popular people because he feels the hype around the pop persona is not what makes an individual important ... Each portrait covers two to four pages that summarize the person’s life, work, and importance and is accompanied by a black-and-white photograph or illustration."