title: Nicholas I of Montenegro

text: He was at the same time gazetted field-marshal in the Russian army, an honor never previously conferred on any foreigner except the Duke of Wellington. When the Balkan Wars broke out in 1912 King Nikola was one of the most enthusiastic of the allies. He wanted to drive the Ottomans completely out of Europe. He defied the Concert of Europe and captured Scutari despite the fact that they blockaded the whole coast of Montenegro. Again in the Great War which began in 1914 he was the first to go to Serbia's aid to repel the Austro-Hungarian Empire forces from the Balkan Peninsula.


title: Nicholas I of Montenegro

text: In January 1916, after the defeat of Serbia, Montenegro was also conquered by Austria-Hungary, and the King fled to Italy and then to France. The government transferred its operations to Bordeaux. After the end of the First World War, a meeting in Podgorica voted to depose Nikola and annex Montenegro to Serbia. A few months later, Serbia (including Montenegro) merged with the former South Slav territories of Austria-Hungary to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929. Nikola went into exile in France in 1918, but continued to claim the throne until his death in Antibes three years later. He was buried in Italy. In 1989, the remains of Nikola, his queen Milena, and two of their twelve children were re-buried in Montenegro.


title: Nicholas I of Montenegro

text: Five of his daughters were married, each to princes and kings, giving Nikola the nickname "the father-in-law of Europe", a sobriquet he shared with the contemporary King of Denmark.


title: Nicholas I of Montenegro

text: The present pretender to the throne is King Nikola's great-grandson Prince Nikola, Prince Michael's son.


title: Spillway

text: A spillway is a structure used to provide the controlled release of water downstream from a dam or levee, typically into the riverbed of the dammed river itself. In the United Kingdom, they may be known as overflow channels. Spillways ensure that water does not damage parts of the structure not designed to convey water.


title: Spillway

text: Spillways can include floodgates and fuse plugs to regulate water flow and reservoir level. Such features enable a spillway to regulate downstream flow—by releasing water in a controlled manner before the reservoir is full, operators can prevent an unacceptably large release later.


title: Spillway

text: Other uses of the term "spillway" include bypasses of dams and outlets of channels used during high water, and outlet channels carved through natural dams such as moraines.


title: Spillway

text: Water normally flows over a spillway only during flood periods, when the reservoir has reached its capacity and water continues entering faster than it can be released. In contrast, an intake tower is a structure used to control water release on a routine basis for purposes such as water supply and hydroelectricity generation.


title: Spillway

text: A spillway is located at the top of the reservoir pool. Dams may also have bottom outlets with valves or gates which may be operated to release flood flow, and a few dams lack overflow spillways and rely entirely on bottom outlets.


title: Spillway

text: A controlled spillway has mechanical structures or gates to regulate the rate of flow. This design allows nearly the full height of the dam to be used for water storage year-round, and flood waters can be released as required by opening one or more gates.


title: Spillway

text: An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or crest of the spillway, it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is controlled only by the height of water above the reservoir's spillway. The fraction of storage volume in the reservoir above the spillway crest can only be used for the temporary storage of floodwater; it cannot be used as water supply storage because it sits higher than the dam can retain it.


title: Spillway

text: In an intermediate type, normal level regulation of the reservoir is controlled by the mechanical gates. In this case, the dam is not designed to function with water flowing over the top if it, either due to the materials used for its construction or conditions directly downstream. If inflow to the reservoir exceeds the gate's capacity, an artificial channel called an auxiliary or emergency spillway will convey water. Often, that is intentionally blocked by a fuse plug. If present, the fuse plug is designed to wash out in case of a large flood, greater than the discharge capacity of the spillway gates. Although many months may be needed for construction crews to restore the fuse plug and channel after such an operation, the total damage and cost to repair is less than if the main water-retaining structures had been overtopped. The fuse plug concept is used where building a spillway with the required capacity would be costly.


title: Spillway

text: A chute spillway is a common and basic design that transfers excess water from behind the dam down a smooth decline into the river below. These are usually designed following an ogee curve. Most often, they are lined on the bottom and sides with concrete to protect the dam and topography. They may have a controlling device and some are thinner and multiply-lined if space and funding are tight. In addition, they are not always intended to dissipate energy like stepped spillways. Chute spillways can be ingrained with a baffle of concrete blocks but usually have a 'flip lip' and/or dissipator basin, which creates a hydraulic jump, protecting the toe of the dam from erosion.


title: Spillway

text: Stepped channels and spillways have been used for over 3,000 years. Despite being superseded by more modern engineering techniques such as hydraulic jumps in the mid twentieth century, since around 1985 interest in stepped spillways and chutes has been renewed, partly due to the use of new construction materials (e.g. roller-compacted concrete, gabions) and design techniques (e.g. embankment overtopping protection). The steps produce considerable energy dissipation along the chute and reduce the size of the required downstream energy dissipation basin.


title: Spillway

text: Research is still active on the topic, with newer developments on embankment dam overflow protection systems, converging spillways and small weir design.


title: Spillway

text: A bell-mouth spillway is designed like an inverted bell, where water can enter around the entire perimeter. These uncontrolled spillways are also called morning glory, (after the flower) or glory hole spillways. In areas where the surface of the reservoir may freeze, this type of spillway is normally fitted with ice-breaking arrangements to prevent the spillway from becoming ice-bound.


title: Spillway

text: In some cases, bell-mouth spillways are gate-controlled. The spillway at Hungry Horse Dam ("pictured"), in Montana, U.S., the highest morning glory structure in the world, is controlled by a ring gate. One of the most well-known of these spillways is the one in Covão dos Conchos reservoir lake, in Portugal, which is constructed to look like a natural formation; a video of this went viral on the Internet in early 2016. The largest bell-mouth spillway is in Geehi Dam, in New South Wales, Australia, measuring in diameter at the lake's surface.


title: Spillway

text: A siphon makes use of the difference in the height between the intake and the outlet to create a pressure difference needed to remove excess water. Siphons, however, require priming or the removal of air in the bend for them to function, and most siphon spillways are designed with a system that makes use of water to remove the air and automatically prime the siphon. One such design is the volute siphon, which makes use of water forced into a spiral vortex by volutes or fins on a funnel that draw air out of the system. The priming happens automatically when the water level rises above the inlets used to drive the priming process.


title: Spillway

text: Other spillway types include an ogee crest, which over-tops a dam, a side channel that wraps around the topography of a dam, and a labyrinth, which uses a zig-zag design to increase the sill length for a thinner design and increased discharge. Also, a drop inlet, which resembles an intake for a hydroelectric power plant, transfers water from behind the dam directly through tunnels to the river downstream.


title: Spillway

text: One parameter of spillway design is the largest flood it is designed to handle. The structures must safely withstand the appropriate spillway design flood (SDF), sometimes called the inflow design flood (IDF). The magnitude of the SDF may be set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of the structure and the potential loss of human life or property downstream. The magnitude of the flood is sometimes expressed as a return period. A 100-year recurrence interval is the flood magnitude expected to be exceeded on the average of once in 100 years. This parameter may also be expressed as an exceedance frequency with a 1% chance of being exceeded in any given year. The volume of water expected during the design flood is obtained by hydrologic calculations of the upstream watershed. The return period is set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of the structure and the potential loss of human life or property downstream.


title: Spillway

text: The United States Army Corps of Engineers bases their requirements on the probable maximum flood (PMF) and the probable maximum precipitation (PMP). The PMP is the largest precipitation thought to be physically possible in the upstream watershed. Dams of lower hazard may be allowed to have an IDF less than the PMF.


title: Spillway

text: As water passes over a spillway and down the chute, potential energy converts into increasing kinetic energy. Failure to dissipate the water's energy can lead to scouring and erosion at the dam's toe (base). This can cause spillway damage and undermine the dam's stability. To put this energy in perspective, the spillways at Tarbela Dam could, at full capacity, produce 40,000 MW; about 10 times the capacity of its power plant.


title: Spillway

text: First, on the spillway surface itself by a series of steps along the spillway (see stepped spillway).


title: Spillway

text: Second, at the base of a spillway, a flip bucket can create a hydraulic jump and deflect water upwards.


title: Spillway

text: A ski jump can also direct water horizontally and eventually down into a plunge pool or two ski jumps can direct their water discharges to collide with one another.


title: Spillway

text: Third, a stilling basin at the terminus of a spillway serves to further dissipate energy and prevent erosion. They are usually filled with a relatively shallow depth of water and sometimes lined with concrete. A number of velocity-reducing components can be incorporated into their design to include chute blocks, baffle blocks, wing walls, surface boils, or end sills.


title: Spillway

text: Spillway gates may operate suddenly without warning, under remote control. Trespassers within the spillway are at risk of drowning. Spillways are usually fenced and equipped with locked gates to prevent casual trespassing within the structure. Warning signs, sirens, and other measures may be in place to warn users of the downstream area of sudden release of water. Operating protocols may require "cracking" a gate to release a small amount of water to warn persons downstream.


title: Spillway

text: The sudden closure of a spillway gate can result in the stranding of fish, and this is also usually avoided.


title: Afforestation

text: Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no previous tree cover. Many government and non-governmental organizations directly engage in afforestation programs to create forests and increase carbon capture. Afforestation is an increasingly sought-after method to fight climate concerns, as it is known to increase the soil quality and organic carbon levels into the soil, avoiding desertification. Afforestation is mainly done for conservational and commercial purposes.


title: Afforestation

text: The process of afforestation begins with site selection. Several environmental factors of the site must be analyzed, including climate, soil, vegetation, and human activity. These factors will determine the quality of the site, what species of trees should be planted, and what planting method should be used.


title: Afforestation

text: After the forest site has been assessed, the area must be prepared for planting. Preparation can involve a variety of mechanical or chemical methods, such as chopping, mounding, bedding, herbicides, and prescribed burning. Once the site is prepared, planting can take place. One method for planting is direct seeding, which involves sowing seeds directly into the forest floor. Another is seedling planting, which is similar to direct seeding except that seedlings already have an established root system. Afforestation by cutting is an option for tree species that can reproduce asexually, where a piece of a tree stem, branch, root, or leaves can be planted onto the forest floor and sprout successfully. Sometimes special tools, such as a tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster.""


title: Afforestation

text: In Adelaide, South Australia (a city of 1.3 million as of June 2016), Premier Mike Rann (2002 to 2011) launched an urban forest initiative in 2003 to plant 3 million native trees and shrubs by 2014 on 300 project sites across the metro area. Thousands of Adelaide citizens have participated in community planting days on sites including parks, reserves, transport corridors, schools, water courses and coastline. Only native trees were planted to ensure genetic integrity. He said the project aimed to beautify and cool the city and make it more livable, improve air and water quality, and reduce Adelaide's greenhouse gas emissions by 600,000 tonnes of a year.


title: Afforestation

text: In 2003, the government of Canada created a four-year project called the Forest 2020 Plantation Development and Assessment Initiative, which involved planting 6000 ha of fast-growing forests on non-forested lands countrywide. These plantations were used to analyze how afforestation can help to increase carbon sequestration and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while also considering the economic and investment attractiveness of afforestation. The results of the initiative showed that although there is not enough available land in Canada to completely offset the country's GHG emissions, afforestation can be useful mitigation technique for meeting GHG emission goals, especially until permanent, more advanced carbon storage technology becomes available.


title: Afforestation

text: On December 14, 2020, Canada's Minister of Natural Resources Seamus O'Regan announced the federal government's investment of $3.16 billion to plant two billion trees over the next 10 years. This plan aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by an estimated 12 megatonnes by 2050.


title: Afforestation

text: A law promulgated in 1981 requires that every school student over the age of 11 plants at least one tree per year. As a result, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 square kilometers of afforestation in 2008. However, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. According to Carbon Brief, China planted the largest amount of new forest out of any country between 1990 and 2015, facilitated by the country's Grain for Green program started in 1999, by investing more than $100 billion in afforestation programs and planting more than 35 billion trees across 12 provinces. By 2015, the amount of planted forest in China covered 79 million hectares.


title: Afforestation

text: From 2011 to 2016, the city Dongying in Shandong province forested over 13,800 hectares of saline soil through the Shandong Ecological Afforestation Project, which was launched with support from the World Bank. In 2017, the Saihanba Afforestation Community won the UN Champions of the Earth Award in the Inspiration and Action category for "transforming degraded land into a lush paradise".


title: Afforestation

text: Europe has deforested the majority of its historical forests. The European Union (EU) has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland into forest and payments for the management of forest. An EU program, running between 2000 and 2006, afforested more than 1,000 square kilometres of land (precise statistics not yet available). Another such program began in 2007. Europe's forests are growing by 8,000 square kilometres a year thanks to these programmes.


title: Afforestation

text: According to Food and Agriculture Organization statistics, Spain had the third fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period, after Iceland and Ireland. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13.5 to 17.9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26.6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2007, that figure had risen to 36.6%. Spain today has the fifth largest forest area in the European Union.


title: Afforestation

text: In January 2013, the UK government set a target of 12% woodland cover in England by 2060, up from the then 10%. In Wales the National Assembly for Wales has set a target of 19% woodland cover, up from 15%. Government-backed initiatives such as the Woodland Carbon Code are intended to support this objective by encouraging corporations and landowners to create new woodland to offset their carbon emissions. Charitable groups such as Trees for Life (Scotland) also contribute to afforestation and reforestation efforts in the UK.


title: Afforestation

text: 23% of India is covered by forest. In 2018, the total forest and tree cover in India increased to 24.39% or 8,020. 88 km. The forests of India are grouped into 5 major categories and 16 types based on biophysical criteria. 38% of the forest is categorized as subtropical dry deciduous and 30% as tropical moist deciduous and other smaller groups. Only local species are planted in an area. Trees bearing fruits are preferred wherever possible due to their function as a food source.


title: Afforestation

text: On Thursday, 29 August 2019, Prime Minister of India Mr. Narendra Modi released ₹47, 436 crores (over 6.6 Billion USD) to various states for compulsory afforestation activities. The funds can be used for treatment of catchment areas, assisted natural generation, forest management, wildlife protection and management, relocation of villages from protected areas, managing human-wildlife conflicts, training and awareness generation, supply of wood saving devices and allied activities. Increasing the tree cover would help in creating additional carbon sink to meet the nation's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030 - part of India's efforts to combat climate change. The Maharashtra government planted almost 20,000,000 saplings in the entire state, and will pledge to plant another 30,000,000 next year. According to The Telegraph, the Indian government has attributed $6.2 billion for tree-planting in order to increase “forestation in line with agreements made at the Paris climate change summit in 2015.” The Indian government has also passed the CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) law, which will allow about 40 thousand crores rupees (almost $6 Billion) will go to Indian states for planting trees.


title: Afforestation

text: Iran is considered a low forest cover region of the world with present cover approximating seven percent of the land area. This is a value reduced to an estimated six million hectares of virgin forest, which includes oak, almond and pistachio. Due to soil substrates, it is difficult to achieve afforestation on a large scale compared to other temperate areas endowed with more fertile and less rocky and arid soil condition. According to the specific statistics of the Forests, Rangelands and Watershed Management Organization of Iran, every year, using appropriate methods and native tree species in each region, a lot of afforestation has been done, which has resulted in more natural stability.


title: Afforestation

text: With over 240 million planted trees, Israel is one of only two countries that entered the 21st century with a net gain in the number of trees, due to massive afforestation efforts. Most Israeli forests are the product of a major afforestation campaign by the Jewish National Fund (JNF).


title: Afforestation

text: Many African countries that border the Sahara desert are cooperating with the Great Green Wall project. The $8-billion project intends to restore 100 million hectares of degraded land by 2030. Also in North Africa, the Sahara Forest Project coupled with the Seawater greenhouse has been proposed. Some projects have also been launched in countries as Senegal to revert desertification. As of 2010, African leaders are discussing the combining of national resources to increase effectiveness. In addition, other projects as the Keita Project in Niger have been launched in the past, and have been able to locally revert damage done by desertification.


title: Afforestation

text: Approximately one quarter of the United States is covered in non-protected forest. Nevertheless, areas in the US were subject to significant tree planting. In the 1800s people moving westward encountered the Great Plains – land with fertile soil, a growing population and a demand for timber but with few trees to supply it. So tree planting was encouraged along homesteads. Arbor Day was founded in 1872 by Julius Sterling Morton in Nebraska City, Nebraska. By the 1930s the Dust Bowl environmental disaster signified a reason for significant new tree cover. Public works programs under the New Deal saw the planting of 18,000 miles of windbreaks stretching from North Dakota to Texas to fight soil erosion (see Great Plains Shelterbelt).


title: Afforestation

text: Afforestation boasts many climate-related benefits. Several new studies suggest that forests attract rain, which may explain why drought is occurring more frequently in certain parts of the world such as western Africa, where trees are more sparse. A 2017 study gives the first observational evidence that the southern Amazon rainforest triggers its own rainy season using water vapor from plant leaves, which then forms clouds above it. These findings help explain why deforestation in this region is linked with reduced rainfall. A 2009 study hypothesizes that forest cover plays a much greater role in determining rainfall than previously recognized. It explains how forested regions generate large-scale flows in atmospheric water vapor and further underscores the benefit of afforestation in currently barren regions of the world.


title: Afforestation

text: Afforestation helps to slow down global warming by reducing in the atmosphere and introducing more O."" Trees are carbon sinks that remove from the atmosphere via photosynthesis and convert it into biomass.


title: Afforestation

text: Afforestation provides other environmental benefits, including increasing the soil quality and organic carbon levels in the soil, avoiding erosion and desertification. The planting of trees in urban areas is also able to reduce air pollution via the trees' absorption and filtration of pollutants, including carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and ozone, in addition to .


title: Afforestation

text: Tree-planting campaigns are criticised for sometimes targeting areas where forests would not naturally occur, such as grassland and savanna biomes. Carbon sequestration forecasts of afforestation programmes often insufficiently consider possible carbon reductions in soils as well as slowing tree growth over time.


title: Afforestation

text: Afforestation can negatively affect biodiversity through increasing fragmentation and edge effects for the habitat remaining outside the planted area. New forest plantations can introduce generalist predators that would otherwise not be found in open habitat into the covered area, which could detrimentally increase predation rates on the native species of the area. A study by scientists at the British Trust for Ornithology into the decline of British populations of Eurasian curlew found that afforestation had impacted curlew populations through fragmentation of their naturally open grassland habitats and increases in generalist predators.


title: Afforestation

text: Questions have also been raised in the scientific community regarding how global afforestation could affect the surface albedo of Earth. The canopy cover of mature trees could make the surface albedo darker, which causes more heat to be absorbed, potentially raising the temperature of the planet. This is particularly relevant in parts of the world with high levels of snow cover, due to the more significant difference in albedo between highly reflective white snow and more darker forest cover which absorbs more solar radiation.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: The 2022–23 figure skating season began on July 1, 2022 and will end on June 30, 2023. During this season, elite skaters will compete on the ISU Championship level at the 2023 European, Four Continents, World Junior, and World Championships. They will also compete at elite events such as the Grand Prix and Junior Grand Prix series, culminating in the Grand Prix Final, and the ISU Challenger Series.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: From March 1, 2022 onwards, the International Skating Union banned all figure skaters and officials from Russia and Belarus from attending any international competitions following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: The season is the first under newly elected ISU President Kim Jae-youl and ISU Vice President for Figure Skating Benoît Lavoie.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: At the ISU Congress held in Phuket, Thailand in June 2022, members of the ISU Council accepted a proposal to gradually increase the minimum age limit for senior competition to 17 years old beginning from the 2024–25 season; to avoid forcing skaters who had already competed in the senior category to return to juniors, the age limit remained unchanged during the 2022–23 season, before increasing to 16 years old during the 2023–24 season, and then 17 years old during the 2024–25 season. Delegates also considered removing the word "senior" from the title of any official ISU events. Although there had been previous proposals to increase the age limit, the 2022 vote gained traction following the doping scandal of then 15-year-old Kamila Valieva of Russia at the 2022 Winter Olympics.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: If skaters of different nationalities form a team, the ISU requires that they choose one country to represent.Date refers to date when the change occurred or, if not available, the date when the change was announced.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: Several competitions were cancelled by either the ISU, the host federation, or the local government due to the Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes, COVID-19 pandemic or the Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: 2022–23 figure skating season

text: Note: An 'x' after the base value means that the base value has been multiplied by 1.1 because the jump was executed in the second half of the program. A 'q' means that the jump was landed on the quarter (missing rotation of exactly one quarter revolution and receives full base value). A '!' means an unclear edge on the takeoff of the jump.


title: Colima

text: Colima (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima (), is one of the 31 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima.


title: Colima

text: Colima is a small state of Western Mexico on the central Pacific coast, and includes the four oceanic Revillagigedo Islands. Mainland Colima shares borders with the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. In addition to the capital city of Colima, the main cities are Manzanillo and Tecomán. Colima is the fourth smallest state in Mexico and has the second smallest population, but has one of Mexico's highest standards of living and the lowest unemployment. However, Colima is also the state with the highest murder rate per capita and one of the highest crime rates, due to its ports being a contested area for cartels.


title: Colima

text: The state covers a territory of 5,455 km and is the fourth smallest federal entity after Tlaxcala, Morelos and the Federal District of Mexico City, containing only 0.3% of the country's total territory. The state is in the middle of Mexico's Pacific coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean and the states of Jalisco and Michoacán.


title: Colima

text: Colima's territory includes the Revillagigedo Islands—Socorro, San Benedicto, Clarión, and Roca Partida. These are under federal jurisdiction but are considered part of the municipality of Manzanillo.


title: Colima

text: Politically, the state is divided into ten municipalities. Natural geography divides the state into a northern and southern region. The north has a cooler climate due to the higher mountains. The south is hotter and includes the Pacific Ocean coastline. The Revillagigedo Islands, of volcanic origin, are dispersed along the 19° north parallel over an area of about 400 km—with a total landmass of 205 km.


title: Colima

text: The state is in an offshoot of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range and geographically consists of four mountain systems. The most important of these is the Cerro Grande and its related peaks of Jurípicho-Juluapan, Los Juanillos, La Astilla, El Ocote, El Peón, El Barrigón, San Diego, and La Media Luna. The second consists of mountain chains parallel to the coast between the Marabasco and Armería Rivers, which include El Espinazo del Diablo, El Escorpión, El Tigre, El Aguacate, El Centinela, El Tora and La Vaca. The third is located between the Armería and Salado Rivers and includes the Alcomún y Partida, San Miguel y Comala and San Gabriel/Callejones peaks. The last is between the Salado and Naranjo or Coahuayana Rivers and contains small mountain chains such as the Piscila, Volcancillos, La Palmera, El Camichín and Copales. Three quarters of the state is covered by mountains and hills.


title: Colima

text: At the very north of the state, the border is marked by two volcanoes. The Colima Volcano, also called the Volcán de Fuego, is active and the Nevado de Colima is not. The Nevado de Colima is taller at 4,271 m (14,013 ft) and gives its name to the national park that surrounds it. The Colima Volcano, 3825 m (12,549 ft), has a pyramidal peak, in contrast to the other, which has been leveled somewhat. The last major eruptions of the Colima Volcano occurred in 1998 and 1999.


title: Colima

text: The main rivers of the state are the Cihuatlán River, also called the Chacala, Marabasco, or Paticajo, which forms the state's border with Jalisco on the west; the Armería, which descends from the Sierra de Cacoma and crosses the state north-south into the Pacific, and the Coahuayana River, which forms Colima's eastern border with Michoacán. The Salado is another important river, which flows entirely within Colima before emptying into the Coahuayana. Many of the state's streams and arroyos empty into the Salado.


title: Colima

text: Colima has a relatively short coastline, at 139 km (1.2% of Mexico's total). It extends from the Boca de Apiza to the Cerro de San Francisco in front of Barra de Navidad, Jalisco.


title: Colima

text: Coastal lagoons include the Potrero Grande in Manzanillo along with the Miramar and the San Pedrito. On the Tecomán municipality coast there are the lagoons of Alcuzahua and Amela, with the Cuyutlán lagoon split between the municipalities of Armería and Manzanillo. Inland, there are various fresh water lakes, with the larger ones near the coast and smaller ones in the Valley of Colima. The valley lakes are fed by the runoff from the Colima Volcano and include the Carrizalillo, Las Cuatas, El Jabalí, El Calaboso, La María and La Escondida.


title: Colima

text: The predominant climate is hot and relatively moist, with the coast particularly moist. One exception is the Tecomán municipality where the climate is dry and very hot. The mildest climates are in the municipalities of Comala and Cuauhtémoc. On the coast, the average temperature varies from between 24 and 26 C and inland, at the highest elevations, the temperature averages between 20 and 22 C.


title: Colima

text: Cropland covers 27% of the state's territory, with another 28% dedicated to pasture. Forest covers 35% with the rest composed of bodies of water and urban areas. Most wild vegetation in the west of the state consists of moderately deciduous rainforest of medium height. Plants that lose leaves do so in the dry season. These include commercially important trees such as red cedar, ("Couratara guianensis"), ("Enterolobium cyclocarpum")—and trees locally known as , and . From the west of Manzanillo and into the municipalities of Armería and Coquimatlán, there is rainforest of medium height with tree species such as ("Bursera") and ("Parmentiera aculeatea"), with some pines, oaks, and salt friendly mangrove forests and scrub.


title: Colima

text: There is great diversity of wildlife species although a number of mammal species, such as ocelots, pumas, wild boar and deer, are disappearing. Among the state's rodents is the Magdalena rat ("Xenomys nelsoni"), a small rare animal little known outside Colima. Bird species include wild turkeys, although these have mostly disappeared, and a bird called the chachalaca. A number of ducks and other migratory birds pass through. Reptiles include crocodiles, with a nursery in Tecomán dedicated to their survival. It is also one of three Mexican states where the tarantula species "Brachypelma hamorii" is found, the other two being Michoacán and Jalisco.


title: Colima

text: In the latter part of the 20th century, Colima had a very high population growth, expanding from 112,321 in 1950 to 567,996 in 2005. However, this growth has slowed due to family planning programs. Despite this population growth, the state still ranks last of Mexico's federal entities, with a total of 650,555 according to the 2010 census, only 0.6% of the country's total. By 1980, the majority of the state's population was living in urban centers. Today, 89% live in urban areas, above the national average of 78%. These urban populations are concentrated in the municipalities of Colima, Manzanillo, Tecomán and Villa de Alvarez.


title: Colima

text: The majority of the population is mestizo (mixed indigenous and Spanish). As of 2005, some 2,880 people were counted with the ability to speak an indigenous language. This is about 7 out of 1,000 people, slightly higher than the nation's average of 6 per 1,000 people. However, there are ethnic Nahua and Otomi communities in Zacualpan and Suchitlán in the municipality of Comala, in Juluapan and Pueblo Nuevo in the municipality of Villa de Alvarez and in Las Pesadas in the municipality of Minatitlán. According to the 2020 Census, 1.86% of Colima's population identified as Black, Afro-Mexican, or of African descent. Over 95% of the state's population is Catholic with small communities of other Christian groups making up the rest.


title: Colima

text: The city of Colima is the capital and gives the state its name. It is located in the north central part of the state, just south of the foothills of the Colima Volcano in the Valley of Colima. The city began as a Spanish settlement that was originally established further south in 1523 but moved to the current location in 1527. The capital remains the state's economic, political and cultural center.


title: Colima

text: Villa de Álvarez is part of the city of Colima's metropolitan area. However, it maintains a distinct identity, with a combination bullfighting and charreada event that is one of the oldest of its kind in northwestern Mexico, which takes part in La Petatera, a bullring that is assembled each year for the event, made of logs and petates, and that is known as one of the world’s largest crafts. It is also known for late evening meals called cenadurias that typically feature sopes, enchiladas, tostadas, pozole, atole, and tamales.


title: Colima

text: The city of Los Martínez began at the end of the 18th century, established by someone known only by his last name of Martínez. In 1818, a strong earthquake sent many from nearby San Francisco to the area, and it was renamed San Francisco de Almoloyan. It was recognized as a town in 1860, with the name of Villa de Álvarez in honor of the first governor of the state. It was designated a city in 1991.


title: Colima

text: Manzanillo is the state's primary port and tourist destination. It is on the Pacific coast, less than two hours' drive from the capital. Manzanillo is mostly popular with regional tourists and sports fishermen, but there have been efforts to broaden its appeal. The city is one of Mexico's important Pacific ports, handing regional merchandise and acting as an overflow port for other ports from Mexico to Los Angeles. Most of the state's recent economic development has been related to this port.


title: Colima

text: Coquimatlán comes from a Nahuatl phrase meaning "land of networks" referring to the interconnected ravines in the area. It was founded in the very early colonial period and still maintains its narrow streets and old houses with large main doors of wood and balconies with simple ironwork.


title: Colima

text: Tecomán is located in what has been an agricultural valley since the colonial era, today best known for its production of limes. The town is marked by an abstract sculpture depicting a lime tree created by sculptor Sebastián, which measures thirty meters in height and weighs 110 tons. In addition to being the main lime producer, the Tecoman Valley also produces cocoa, cotton, coconuts, mangos, papaya, avocados and melons.


title: Colima

text: The state has a high level of socioeconomic development, with one of the highest standards of living in Mexico and lowest unemployment. In the state, 96% have running water, 82% have sewerage and 98% have electricity. The 2009 GDP of the state was 43,370,725,000 pesos; however, due to its small size and population, this is only 0.5% of Mexico's total GDP. Most population and employment growth has been in the main urban areas of the state such as Colima, Villa de Alvarez, Manzanillo and Tecomán. According to INEGI (2010), 24.1% are employed in services. 20.4% in commerce, restaurants and hotels, 15.9% in transportation, storage and communications, 11.1% in finance, insurance and real estate, 9.5% in electricity, gas and water services, 5.7% in manufacturing, 5.1% in construction, 4.9% in agriculture and livestock and 3.8% in mining.


title: Colima

text: Agriculture, forestry and fishing employ 1.2% of the state's population and contribute 8.45% to its GDP. Colima produces about half of Mexico's lime crop, and is second in the production of coconut meat and tuna . The principal markets for Colima's agricultural products—especially produce—are Guadalajara, Mexico City, Puebla and Monterrey. During the dry season, there is migration from the rural areas into the urban ones as most agricultural work takes place during the rainy season. Most farm work consists of the harvesting of fruit. The agricultural production supports an agro-industry that attracts workers from neighboring Jalisco and Michoacán. Most of Colima's agriculture is based on perennial plants, such as fruit trees, producing limes, coconuts, mangos and bananas, accounting for ninety percent of the volume of agricultural production and 79% of its value. Colima is the primary producer of limes in Mexico. Other important crops include corn, rice, melons, sorghum, chili peppers, coffee, tomatoes and tomatillos.


title: Colima

text: By volume the most important livestock is that of cattle, followed by domestic fowl, then honey and beeswax. Most livestock production is in the north of the state due to climate, and also includes pigs, goats and sheep. Commercially productive forest stands at about 108,225 hectares with about sixty percent of the trees salable. These forests are mostly rainforest, with some areas of holm oak. Lumber harvesting has decreased in the state owing to conservation measures.


title: Colima

text: Fishing is concentrated on the coastline in ocean waters of about 641 km as well as in 8,350 hectares of lagoons and 2,032 inland bodies of waters. There are also about 3,000 hectares dedicated to fish farming. Fish production has increased considerably since the 1980s. This is mostly due to more intensive ocean activities, but fish production from rivers and lakes has also grown, at about twelve percent.


title: Colima

text: Principle catches include tuna and squid, in which Colima ranks nationally at third and fourth place respectively. Other commercial species include huachinangos, red porgy, combers, wahoo, and mojarra. Fish farming mostly concerns raising shrimp along lakes and lagoons, such as Cuyutlán, Chupadero, and Potrero Grande, with an annual production of about 5,000 tons. Some oyster raising takes place as well.


title: Colima

text: The fishing industry in the state supports a canning industry mostly for tuna, shrimp and octopus along with the freezing of fish filets.


title: Colima

text: Mining, construction, and utilities employ 18.5% of the population and generate 27.53% of the GDP. Half of this is from production of electricity, gas, and water services. Mining is next in importance, with production of iron, mostly from the Peña Colorada, the largest deposit in the country. Manufacturing contributes 4.7% of the state's GDP with 2,007 units of production. Most facilities produce beverages, metal structures, canned foods, cereals, furniture, printed materials, building supplies and dairy products.


title: Colima

text: Handcrafts in the state are mostly produced for local needs rather than the tourist market. One distinguished craft is the making of palm frond hats, including a local style called the colimote. Ixtlahuacán is noted for its production of hammocks. Other items include huarache sandals, boots, bird cages, cold cuts and costumes and masks for traditional dance. These costumes include “Indian” dresses decorated with cross stitch. The state is also known for the production of handcrafted furniture, especially those based on the designs of Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo, from Comala. Villa de Álvarez produces decorative objects in fine wood. Suchitlán in the municipality of Comala is distinguished by its production of masks and other accessories for festivals and ceremonies. Villages on the sides of the Cerro Grande are the principal producers of baskets made from reeds and palm fronds. Santiago in the municipality of Manzanillo is noted for crafts made of seashell and snail shells. The main craft in the city of Colima is the reproduction of archeological pieces, especially ceramics of the old red-burnished (rojo-bruñido) style.


title: Colima

text: About two thirds of the state's GDP is from commerce and services which include transportation and storage, mostly linked with the Manzanillo port. Economic growth associated with the port continues to grow by double digits. Most commercial activity in general is concentrated in the cities of Colima, Tecomán and Manzanillo, which have the most developed communications, transportation and other infrastructure. The main distribution center is the city of Colima handing both basic commodities and industrial and other commercial merchandise for the rest of the state. Just under 95% of Colima's commercial enterprises are retail outlets with 5.6% involved in wholesale. Only three percent of these enterprises are modern facilities with twenty-one traditional markets, forty-five major tianguis and numerous corner stores still dominating the state. Commercial sales increase by about five percent per year.


title: Colima

text: Much of the state's tourism centers on its beaches in Manzanillo, and in the municipalities of Armería and Tecomán. Manzanillo is the most popular in the state, and a major tourism destination for Mexico's Pacific coast. For this reason, it has developed infrastructure with hotels, restaurants, golf courses, and other attractions. For Holy Week 2011, one of Mexico's busiest vacation times, the state gained 175 million pesos and had a hotel occupancy of 94%, 7% higher than the previous year. 70,249 visited during that period. Most of the visitors were at the state's beaches with the busiest being Cuyutlán, El Real and Miramar.


title: Colima

text: Colima's most important tourism destination is the beaches of Manzanillo, which is popular among those in western Mexico as well as many sports fishermen. Historically, the port was the point of departure for various maritime expeditions and received the annual Manila Galleon from the Philippines. It has called itself the "World Capital of the Sailfish" since 1957 when 336 species were caught off its shores. The abundance of this fish along with marlin has made it a popular destination with sports fishermen and the city holds the annual Dorsey International fishing tournament. However, it is not as well known or as well visited as other Pacific destinations such as Puerto Vallarta, despite long sandy beaches and docks for cruise ships. In the 2000s, the city worked to renovate its downtown, with all buildings now showing white facades and many with red tile roofs.


title: Colima

text: The second most important destination is the small town of Comala, a small traditional town near the capital of Colima. Comala was named a "Pueblo Mágico" in 2002 because of its natural surroundings and traditional architecture, which its downtown declared a historic monument. Since 1962, all the buildings in the town have been painted white and most have red tile roofs, giving it the nickname of "White Village of America."


title: Colima

text: Most of the other attractions of the state are related to its history, and most of these are in and around the capital city of Colima. The former state government palace is located in the center of the city of Colima and dates from the 19th century. The main stairwell contains a mural by Colima painter Jorge Chávez Carrillo. The Palacio Federal is near Jardín Núñez in the city of Colima and dates from the beginning of the 20th century. The upper floor contains murals with scenes depicting Mexico City and portraits of people from Mexico's history. The Archive of the History of the State is located at Jardín Juárez in the city of Colima. It dates from the early 20th century and was home to the Escuela de Artes . San Francisco de Almoloyan in the city of Colima is the ruins of an old Franciscan monastery from the 16th century. The Mesón de Caxitlán on the Colima Tecomán highway is the ruins of an old in on the former royal road from the 18th century.


title: Colima

text: Other important attractions include a number of former haciendas, many of which have been renovated. The Del Carmen hacienda is in the municipality of Villa de Álvarez. It was a cattle ranch from the 19th century, and has been restored. The San Antonio hacienda is in the municipality of Comala. It was a coffee plantation from the 19th century, with a chapel and aqueduct, which have all been restored. The former Nogueras hacienda in Comala has a main house that dates from the 19th century and a chapel from the 17th. It has been restored and is used primarily as a museum.


title: Colima

text: The United States Department of State considers the State of Colima so dangerous due to widespread crime that it has issued a "Do Not Travel" advisory to its citizens for the entire state.


title: Colima

text: Indigenous, and Spanish cultures have played a part in the shaping of the state, although traces can be hidden in modern local cultures and traditions. Most crafts and dances of the state are of indigenous origin although some originated after the Conquest. The Spanish contributed to bullfighting and charreada.


title: Colima

text: The most popular folk dances in the state include some that tell the story of the Spanish conquest—under various names, such as "Conquista," "Virgin of Guadalupe," "capotes," and "the fox." Another popular dance is called "Apaches." These originated in the colonial period, along with "Moros y Cristianos" and "machines." Dances with indigenous roots include "sonajera India" and "morenos."


title: Colima

text: Pastorales, or short plays with religious themes, are traditions that began in the very early colonial period. A popular one from that time is the "Adoration of the Three Wise Men," though it has evolved to meet modern tastes.


title: Colima

text: Colima has a number of important local festivals and other annual events. January 6 is the "Los Chayacates de Ixtlahuacán"—a mix of indigenous and Catholic practices based on the pastorale and the cultivation cycle of corn. On the Tuesday after Epiphany is the "Entrance of the Señor de la Expiración" in Rancho de Villa. On this date, the image returns to this village from Coquimatlán. It includes parades, dances, fireworks, and jaripeos.


title: Colima

text: Candlemas is an important event in Tecomán with traditional dances and fairs. Candlemas in Suchitlán is the most important annual event in the region, celebrated with dances such as Los Gallitos, Los Apaches and Los Morenos. The last two dances involved dancers with elaborately carved and decorated masks.


title: Colima

text: Villa de Álvarez celebrates its annual Fiestas Charro-Taurinas, originally the feast of the city's patron saint, Philip of Jesus. In addition to bullfights and charreadas, mojigangas are featured. The Paspaques of Suchitlán—an agricultural ritual of pre-Hispanic origin—is celebrated by the Nahuas of this small village on 19 March. It centers on preparing corn in various ways, such as tortillas, tamales, pozole, and more. Holy Week is a major event in many municipalities, which often hold passion plays during the week.


title: Colima

text: The Feria de Manzanillo occurs from 29 April to 1 May and celebrates the anniversary of its designation as a major port (Puerto de Altura). It is held with street parties, dances, contests, and jaripeos. 3 May is the Day of the Holy Cross, important in Suchitlán, and celebrated with the "morenos" dance. The Fiestas del Cristo de Caña in Quesería in May revolves around an 18th-century Christ image that came to the area from Pátzcuaro. It is celebrated with horse races, mojigangas, traditional dance, processions, and music. On 29 September Tamala, the municipality of Ixtlahuacán celebrates the feast of the Archangel Michael with a change of "mayordomos" (festival sponsors).


title: Colima

text: The most important festival in the state is Day of the Dead. For the weeks before and after, the state holds its Agricultural, Industrial, and Cultural Fair. On 1 November, the city of Colima has an agricultural, livestock, commerce, and industry fair that includes dances, parades with floats and a charreada. Pastorelas are most commonly seen during December between the feast day of the Virgin of Guadalupe (12 December) and Christmas. Comala celebrates the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe from the first to the 12 of December with processions, bullfights, jaripeos, cockfights—and on the eighth with a dance to popular music, floats, and fireworks.


title: Colima

text: The state has produced one internationally famous artist named Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo. He is best known for illustrating Christmas cards for UNICEF in the 1960s, but he did much other work and designed furniture in a style now called Rangeliano. Many of his works are preserved at his former home of the Nogueras Hacienda in Comala, which is now a museum and cultural center run by the University of Colima. Other noted artists from the state include Gabriel Portillo, Mercedes Zamora, Jorge Chávez Carrillo, Pancha Magaña and Juan Soriano. Noted writers include Gregorio Torres Quintero, Fray Juan de Grijalva, Balbino Dávalos and Felipe Sevilla.


title: Colima

text: The most important transportation hub in the state is the port of Manzanillo, handling 91.3% of the shipping of the state and the immediate region. It also operates as an overflow port for the commercial and industrial zones of western Mexico, the Bajío area and the center of Mexico, but handles overflow from as far as Los Angeles. Most of the merchandise that passes through here is part of the trade between Mexico and Asia. The port infrastructure consists of two types of installations. One is artificial, located in the interior port of San Pedrito and the other located in the bay proper. The artificial structure is a tall dock with a length of 450 meters and 225 meters wide for a surface of 10,125m2. The Manzanillo port has a dock for cruise ships, and an average of 58 ships visit per year. Nearby are two large private marinas, one in Las Hadas and the other at Isla Navidad. The port area is not fully developed, with over 130 hectares reserved for expansion.


title: Colima

text: The two main airports are the Playa de Oro International Airport in Manzanillo and the Lic. Miguel de la Madrid Airport in Colima. Playa de Oro has flights to and from destinations in Mexico, the United States and Canada. The Miguel de la Madrid airport was opened in 1987, twenty-two km outside the capital. It extends over 386 hectares with runways that cover 16,200m2. The longest runway is 2.3 km long. It has one terminal. Most of the Colima airport flights go to Mexico City, with about 100,000 passengers going through the terminal in 2009.


title: Colima

text: The state has 1,424.5 km of roadway with 686.9 km paved with asphalt and the rest stone or dirt road. The main highway out of the state connects the city of Colima and Guadalajara. The second most important connects Manzanillo with Guadalajara. This roadway has broken Mexican records in the dimensions of its bridges. There are 191.5 km of railway with fifteen active stations.


title: Colima

text: There are eight AM radio stations operating in the state and five FM stations. Most are in Colima and Manzanillo. There is no local television station with programming coming from Mexico City and through cable. Telephone service covers the entire state but rural areas still use analog. There are still some telegraph centers. The state has fourteen newspapers mostly in the city of Colima and Manzanillo, including: "Correo de Manzanillo", "Diario de Colima", and "Ecos de la Costa."


title: Colima

text: The formal name of the state is "Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima" (Free and Sovereign State of Colima). The state is named after the capital city of Colima. This name is most likely derived from a Nahuatl phrase "coliman," but the original meaning is in doubt with two most accepted versions. One interpretation means "place in the hand of the grandfather" with "grandfather" possibly referring to the volcano. The other interpretation is "place in the hands of the ancestors." A third interpretation is based on an interpretation of Colima's glyph as it appears in the Nomina and Mendocino codices, which has a bent arm with the hand turned and water on the shoulder. This glyph is still used in the state's seal. This interpretation would then be "place where the waters bend."


title: Colima

text: The state was home to a number of pre-Hispanic cultures as part of Western Mexico. Archeological evidence dates human occupation of the area as far back as 1500 BCE, with sites here contemporary with San Lorenzo on the Gulf Coast and Tlatilco in the Valley of Mexico. One period of the area's development is called the Los Ortices era, which began around 500 BCE. During this time the elements that characterize the pre-Hispanic peoples of Colima appear, including shaft tombs and a distinctive ceramic style called "rojo bruñido," or burnished red.


title: Colima

text: The next phase, called Comala and centered on a site of the same name, was from around 100 to 600 CE. Comala people perfected burnished red pottery and created representations of people and animals with skill and fluid lines. The best known of these figures are known as the "fattened dogs". The Comala site shows influence from Teotihuacan. Around 500 CE, another site in Armería developed along the river of the same name.


title: Colima

text: The Chanal site was active from the 6th to the 15th centuries and was the main culture for the Colima area. Belonging to this culture was a number of smaller sites and most of the ones known and explored to date. After Chanal the largest related site is La Campana but most contain pyramidal bases and plazas with structures often containing rounded edges. Images of Huehueteotl and Tlaloc appear with this culture, which may indicate the origins of the cultures that ultimately settled central Mexico.


title: Colima

text: There is one other site called Periquillo, which indicates one late migration into Colimas around the 10th century from the north.


title: Colima

text: At the beginning of the 16th century, the Purépechas invaded the territory of the Tecos and got as far as the salt fields of Tzacoalco. However, a chief named Colimotl or Colliman defeated the P’urhépechas during the Salitre War (Guerra del Salitre). After this, the Tecos conquered Sayula, Zapotlán and Amunla, making them the dominant cultural group in this part of the state. Both the Periquillo and Chanal sites were occupied when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century.


title: Colima

text: After conquering the Aztecs and the Purépecha, the Spanish made incursions into Colima. The first incursion into the Colima area occurred under Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte in 1522 but was defeated by the natives of the Tecomán Valley. Hernán Cortés then sent Gonzalo de Sandoval to defeat the Tecos, which he did at the Paso de Alima and the Palenque de Tecomán. Sandoval then established the first Spanish settlement in the Colima Valley called Caxitlán in 1523, making it the third oldest functioning city government in Mexico and the second municipality of western New Spain. In 1527, Francisco Cortés de San Buenaventura moved the Spanish settlement to its current located and changing the name to San Sebastián de Colima.


title: Colima

text: Revillagigedo Archipelago was discovered 1533 by Hernando de Grijalva. The state's first port at Tzalahua would be an important site for about 300 years of Spanish colonial rule as a line of defense and a commercial center.


title: Colima

text: After the Conquest, the native population was reduced drastically. Some estimations state that the population declines from 150,000 in 1523 to 15,000 in 1554, rebounding somewhat in the 17th century. This population reduction led to the introduction of African slaves and indigenous people from neighboring regions.


title: Colima

text: Evangelization was carried out by the Franciscans who established the San Francisco de Coliman monastery in 1554 then the Almoloyan monastery. They would be followed by the Mercedarians and the Brothers of Saint John of the Cross. It was originally made part of the diocese of Valladolid (Morelia).


title: Colima

text: The port of Manzanillo, then called Santiago de Buena Esperanza, played a large part in the expeditions northwards ordered by Hernán Cortés, which later led to the discovery of "Las Californias" — the Baja California Peninsula and Alta California. Cortés de San Buenaventura set out to conquer towards the north, covering the rest of the state and into what is now southern Sinaloa. Later the port would be a target for pirates as the Manila galleons would unload materials from the Spanish East Indies here. These pirates would include Francis Drake and Thomas Cavendish. The last major battle against pirates at Manzanillo was in 1615 with Captain Sebastián Vizcaino defending the port against Dutch pirate Joris van Speilbergen.


title: Colima

text: However, Colima would lose territory during the colonial period to 1822, and further into the 19th century. With the creation of Nueva Galicia in 1531, Colima lost its territories north of the Cihuatlán or Marabasco River and the region south of Lake Chapala. In 1550, Colima lost the provinces of Autlán and Amula. By the end of the 16th century, it lost the Motines region, now part of Michoacán and in the 19th century the Xilotlán region to Jalisco.


title: Colima

text: From the early colonial period, Colima was a province that answered to Mexico City. In 1789, the parish of Colima was incorporated into the diocese of Guadalajara. In 1796, Colima was converted into a sub delegation of the province of Guadalajara.


title: Colima

text: One colonial area industry in Colima was the production of "coconut wine" — an alcoholic beverage distilled from date palm fruit and coconut. One of the first introduced crops was cacao in the 16th century, with coconut, sugar cane, and cotton coming after. Other crops such as rice, indigo and vanilla would be introduced later.


title: Colima

text: In the early 19th century, the commercial port of Manzanillo was opened to domestic and international traffic for a brief time. The first Colima newspaper called "El Observador de las Leyes" was published at this time as well.


title: Colima

text: With the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, authorities arrested the head of Indian communities along with suspected insurgents in October 1810. This was despite the fact that Nahua groups had organized to defend against the insurgents upon hearing that they were enemies of the king and planned to destroy churches. One accused insurgent was José Antonio Díaz, the parish priest of Almoloyán and friend of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Later he would join the insurgent army. During the war, the city of Colima was taken by the insurgents Jose Antonio Torres at the end of 1810 without resistance and taken back by the royalist army in 1811. In 1811, royalist troops defeated the insurgents under José Calixto Martinez at the Battle of Los Llanos de Santa Juana. Insurgents took back the city in 1812 under the command of Ignacio Sandoval and Miguel Gallaga. In 1813, the city was in royalist hands with the city swearing allegiance to the monarchist constitution. In 1821 the Plan of Iguala for Mexican independence was proclaimed in the city, and accepted by local authorities. Immediately after Independence, Colima was still a subdelegation of Guadalajara. In 1821, Colima lost the Zapotlán areas along with the towns of Tecalitlán and Xilotlán, but gained the town of Tonila. This and earlier losses of territory would define the area's modern borders.


title: Colima

text: In 1824, with Mexico's first constitution, Colima was an independent territory of Mexico, However, it was integrated with Michoacán later in 1837. In 1846, Colima became a separate territory again, and in 1856, was made a state with the triumph of the Liberals. Its status as a state was reaffirmed by the 1857 Mexican Constitution and General Manuel Alvarez was declared its first constitutional governor.


title: Colima

text: Colima served as a provisional seat for Benito Juárez’s Liberal government in 1858 during the Reform War. In 1861, the Revillagigedo Islands were added to Colima’s territory. French troops entered the city in 1864, dissolving the state congress, with Colima becoming a department in 1865. In 1867, Republican troops under Ramon Corona retook the city. Colima became a diocese independent of Guadalajara in 1881.


title: Colima

text: The latter part of the 19th century saw the introduction of industry with textile factories such as La Armonía, La Atrevida and San Cayetano. The telegraph arrived to the state in 1869 to connect the capital and the port of Manzanillo. Similarly, the telephone service was added in 1883. Railroad service between the two cities began in 1889 and a city tram was added to the capital in 1892.


title: Colima

text: During the Mexican Revolution, there were no major battles but there were local clashes. In 1911, troops loyal to Francisco I. Madero entered Colima and suspended the state congress. After the war, social organizations that would mark Mexico’s development for much of the 20th century were created in Colima as well, especially ejidos, with the one in Suchitlán being the first. Another important movement was the creation of workers’ unions and cooperatives such as the Unión de Estibadores in Manzanillo. In 1919, President Venustiano Carranza created the Sociedad Cooperativa de Salineros in the city of Colima with the exclusive rights to extract salt from Cuyutlán Lake. These changes were imposed by federal authorities outside of Colima, leading to political instability within the state, especially during elections.


title: Colima

text: Federal intervention from Mexico City continued into the 1920s, with a number of laws to reform schools, hospitals and other institutions, which before had been mostly operated by the Catholic Church. This was opposed by many in the state who supported the Church's formerly prominent role in political and social affairs. The Ley de Cultos (Religion Law) of 1926 gave rise to the Cristero War pitting those favoring the Catholic Church against those favoring agrarian and socialist reform. Battles and skirmishes related to this conflict took place in a number of locales in Mexico but it caused severe problems in Colima, causing major divisions with no formal resolution.


title: Colima

text: Textile production that began in the 19th century ended by the mid 20th century, though farmers continued to grow cotton to ship to Guadalajara. In the 1940s, the Tecomán Valley began to be intensively cultivated, creating a new source income for the state, with limes as the principle crop, and leading to the development of agro-industry.


title: Colima

text: Much of the history of the latter 20th century into the present revolves around economic development. A hurricane devastated the state in 1959. The Plan Colima was conceived and executed to improve the general infrastructure of the state during the 1980s by then Mexican president Miguel de la Madrid. It was prompted mostly by road congestion due to port shipping in Manzanillo as well as the growing tourism sector. It was designed to facilitate in-state transportation and connect the state better to the rest of Mexico. The main aspect of the plan was the construction of highways such as the highway that connects Manzanillo to Guadalajara and then onto Tampico. This highway was amplified at the end of the decade and made a toll road on approach to Manzanillo. The last decades have seen a new wave of industrial construction with the building of facilities for businesses such as Cementos Apasco, Citrojugo, Brun Foods, Embotelladora de Tecomán, Consorcio Minero Benito Juárez-Peña Colorada, Grupo Agroindustrial de Occidente, AMTEX and others.


title: Colima

text: However, Mexico's struggles with drug traffickers have not skipped the state, which is along Pacific Coast drug smuggling routes. For the first quarter of 2011, there were 52 registered homicides in the state, most linked to organized crime. This is significantly higher than previous years with most of these occurring in Colima, Villa de Alvarez and Manzanillo.


title: Colima

text: A very early culture in Colima was Capacha culture, developing in the region between 2000 and 1200 BCE.


title: Colima

text: El Chanal is located four km north of the city of Colima. It is a complex of pyramid platforms with stairs, a Mesoamerican ballcourt and a number of plazas. A distinctive feature of the site are stones with glyphs that are found on stairways.


title: Colima

text: La Campana is in the urban area of Villa de Álvarez. It is a ceremonial center with various temples and pyramidal platforms with rounded edges. At least one of the platforms was used as a mausoleum with the tomb inside still visible.


title: Colima

text: The state has 307 preschools, 510 primary schools, 131 middle schools and 57 high school and vocational level schools. Today, over 85% of the population finishes primary school. Just under 90% of those who start middle school finish. Over 91% of the population over the age of 15 is literate. However, only about 12% of the state's population has a university level education and 26% have not finished primary school or have had no schooling at all.


title: Colima

text: High school level education is available in all regions of the state, with just under sixty percent of those starting a program finishing it, with most that do not dropping out.


title: Colima

text: The state system also has schools dedicated to special education, vocational training and early childhood centers for those needing various types of physical and educational therapy. Literacy programs for adults are handled by INEA and CONAFE.


title: Colima

text: Higher education consists of a number of technological schools, universities and teachers’ colleges. Just over half of these are located in the city of Colima, with about 19% in Villa de Alvarez and eleven percent in Tecomán. Most technology related higher education is provided by the Instituto Tecnológico de Colima, with 76% of the students, followed by ITESM- Colima with 7.6% and Instituto Autónomo de Educación Superior de Tecomán with 16.2%. Most of the general university education is provided by the University of Colima (over 93%) with the rest attending the Universidad Autónoma del Pacífico. The main teachers’ colleges are the Instituto Superior de Educación Normal de Colima and the Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The main providers of post graduate education are the University of Colima and ITESM-Colima.


title: Colima

text: The University of Colima was founded in 1940, following the educational philosophy of President Lázaro Cárdenas meant to provide higher education to the poorer classes. Today, the university offers high school level classes along with undergraduate and graduate degrees. Much of the institution's current size and offering is due to growth in the 1980s, and during that time its reputation in Mexico and abroad increased. Most of the university's majors are concentrated in agriculture, industry and commerce with aim of enhancing Colima's economy.


title: Colima

text: The Instituto Tecnológico de Colima was founded in 1976 with three majors in engineering and business with the aim of providing an alternative education focusing on preparing students for industry and service markets. Since then it has added majors in biotechnology, computer science, mechatronics and architecture, offering six undergraduate degrees and one master's degree.


title: Max Hastings

text: Sir Max Hugh Macdonald Hastings (; born 28 December 1945) is a British journalist and military historian, who has worked as a foreign correspondent for the BBC, editor-in-chief of "The Daily Telegraph", and editor of the "Evening Standard". He is also the author of numerous books, chiefly on war, which have won several major awards. Hastings currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings' parents were Macdonald Hastings, a journalist and war correspondent and Anne Scott-James, sometime editor of "Harper's Bazaar". He was educated at Charterhouse and University College, Oxford, which he left after a year.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings moved to the United States, spending a year (1967–68) as a Fellow of the World Press Institute, following which he published his first book, "America, 1968: The Fire This Time", an account of the US in its tumultuous election year. He became a foreign correspondent and reported from more than sixty countries and eleven wars for BBC1's "Twenty-Four Hours" current affairs programme and for the "Evening Standard" in London.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings was the first journalist to enter Port Stanley during the 1982 Falklands War. After ten years as editor and then editor-in-chief of "The Daily Telegraph", he returned to the "Evening Standard" as editor in 1996 until his retirement in 2002. Hastings was appointed Knight Bachelor in the 2002 Birthday Honours for services to journalism. He was elected a member of the political dining society known as The Other Club in 1993.


title: Max Hastings

text: He has presented historical documentaries for the BBC and is the author of many books, including "Bomber Command", which earned the Somerset Maugham Award for non-fiction in 1980. Both "Overlord" and "The Battle for the Falklands" won the "Yorkshire Post" "Book of the Year" prize. He was named "Journalist of the Year" and "Reporter of the Year" at the 1982 British Press Awards, and "Editor of the Year" in 1988. In 2010 he received the Royal United Services Institute's "Westminster Medal" for his "lifelong contribution to military literature", and the same year the Edgar Wallace Award from the London Press Club.


title: Max Hastings

text: In 2012, he was awarded the US$100,000 Pritzker Military Library Literature Award, a lifetime achievement award for military writing, which includes an honorarium, citation and medallion, sponsored by the Chicago-based Tawani Foundation. Hastings is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature, and the Royal Historical Society. He was President of the Campaign to Protect Rural England from 2002 to 2007.


title: Max Hastings

text: In his 2007 book "Nemesis: The Battle for Japan, 1944–45" (known as "Retribution" in the United States), the chapter on Australia's role in the last year of the Pacific War was criticised by the chief of the Returned and Services League of Australia and one of the historians at the Australian War Memorial, for allegedly exaggerating discontent in the Australian Army. Dan van der Vat in "The Guardian" called it "even-handed", "refreshing" and "sensitive" and praised the language used. "The Spectator" called it "brilliant" and praised his telling of the human side of the story.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings wrote a column for the "Daily Mail" and often contributes articles to other publications such as "The Guardian", "The Sunday Times" and "The New York Review of Books". He also currently writes a bimonthly column for Bloomberg Opinion.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings lives near Hungerford, Berkshire, with his second wife, Penelope (), whom he married in 1999. Hastings has a surviving son and daughter by his first wife, Patricia Edmondson, to whom he was married from 1972 until 1994. In 2000, his 27-year-old first son, Charles, died by suicide in Ningbo, China. He dedicated his book "Nemesis: The Battle for Japan 1944–45", which was published in 2007, to Charles's memory.


title: Max Hastings

text: Hastings has supported both the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. He announced his support for the Conservative Party at the 2010 general election, having previously voted for the Labour Party at the 1997 and 2001 general elections. He said that "four terms are too many for any government" and described Gordon Brown as "wholly psychologically unfit to be Prime Minister".


title: Max Hastings

text: In August 2014, Hastings was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to "The Guardian" opposing Scottish independence in the run-up to September's referendum on that issue.


title: Max Hastings

text: In June 2019, Hastings described Boris Johnson, the Conservative Party leadership candidate, as "unfit for national office, because it seems he cares for no interest save his own fame and gratification ... [his] premiership will almost certainly reveal a contempt for rules, precedent, order and stability ... If the price of Johnson proves to be Corbyn, blame will rest with the Conservative party, which is about to foist a tasteless joke upon the British people – who will not find it funny for long." He has continued along this line of argument throughout the Johnson premiership and he said that "the experiment in celebrity government to which the Conservative Party committed us has failed, and is seen by the world to have failed. The foremost task for a successor is to restore Britain's reputation as a serious country."


title: Max Hastings

text: In his Bloomberg column on 14 February 2021, Hastings wrote that the United Kingdom's future was unlikely to be long-term. He advocated a United Ireland but said he was against Scottish and Welsh independence. Hastings was widely criticised for stating in the article that the Welsh language was of "marginal value" and that Wales could not succeed as an independent country because it was "dependent on English largesse". Huw Edwards said there were several factual errors in Hastings' points, while Fergus Llewelyn Turtle responded: "For the non-English part of the UK that is ... the most integrated with England, it's pretty astonishing how many English commentators have exactly zero political clue about Wales."


title: Max Hastings

text: In March 2021, Hastings wrote that the prospect of a showdown between the United States and China over Taiwan was becoming increasingly likely.


The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Directors' branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designers' branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film.


title: Academy Award for Best Production Design

text: The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order.


title: Steve Angello

text: Steven Patrik Josefsson Fragogiannis (; born 22 November 1982), better known by his stage name Steve Angello, is a Greek-Swedish DJ, record producer, remixer and record label owner. He is a member of Swedish House Mafia, together with Axwell and Sebastian Ingrosso. Brother of Caleb Ray, who DJ’s under the name ‘Midnight Easterly’.


title: Steve Angello

text: Steve Angello was born to a Greek father and Swedish mother in Athens, Greece. His maternal grandfather was Romani. Raised in Ulriksdal in Solna, Sweden, along with his brother Antoine Josefsson (who performs as AN21). Angello began as a scratch DJ at 12 years of age and was involved in many scratch competitions, combining hip-hop, breakbeats and 1970s classics. By his late teens, he began listening to electronic music and started as an electronic DJ.


title: Steve Angello

text: Steve Angello began producing under the alias "Who's Who" and released tracks called "Not So Dirty" and "Sexy F*ck". He often worked with


title: Steve Angello

text: fellow Swedish DJ Sebastian Ingrosso on DJing, producing under the names "Buy Now", "Fireflies", "General Moders", "Mode Hookers", "Outfunk", and "The Sinners". Angello released his early records through Subliminal, Records, Cr2, and Refune, as well as producing for Interscope Records, however he is owner and founder of Size Records based in Stockholm, Sweden which was established in 2003.<ref name="http://www.spinner.com"></ref> Through Size, he has released singles such as "Gypsy", "Isabel" and "Flonko". In 2004 Angello released his remix of Eurythmics' "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)", and also has produced with Eric Prydz under the name "A&P Project". In 2006, Angello has created an alias with Axwell under the name "Supermongo", later renamed to "Supermode", in which they released the hit single "Tell Me Why, a cover version of an old Bronski Beat track, Ministry of Sound's Data Records.


title: Steve Angello

text: Following the success of Supermode's "Tell Me Why", Steve Angello's first major commercial hit as a solo artist came in 2007 from a feature on David Guetta's "Baby When the Light". Angello was later given credit for the song after only given production and songwriting credits after producing it for Guetta's third studio album "Pop Life". 2007 also saw some success come from his collaboration with Sebastian Ingrosso, "Umbrella", however this was not as successful. Crossing into the new year, Steve Angello releases a trio of songs with Sebastian Ingrosso and Laidback Luke, called "Be", "555", and "It" in the order of released, however Angello's next breakthrough song was a remake of Robin S.'s 1990 song Show Me Love". The remix was done with Dutch DJ and frequent collaborator Laidback Luke and features rerecord vocals from Robin S.. The song was a number one hit on the UK dance charts and is still a major part of Swedish House Mafia sets to this day. The song would feature on the band's debut album "Until One".


title: Steve Angello

text: In late 2008, Steve Angello, Axwell, and Sebastian Ingrosso formed the "Swedish House Mafia" with Eric Prydz not joining, saying he is a control freak and cannot abide with collaborations even with close friends. Around this time Swedish House Mafia released two songs, "Get Dumb" and "Leave the World Behind", however these weren't credited under the group name. Angello himself collaborated with David Guetta on the songs "Everytime We Touch" along with Ingrosso for Guetta's third studio album "Pop Life". In 2010, he released his debut album with Swedish House Mafia named "Until One". This followed the release of two successful single "One (Your Name)" (featuring Pharrell Williams) and "Miami 2 Ibiza" (featuring Tinie Tempah). The album also contained solo work by Steve Angello such as the songs "Valodja" and "Tivoli", and one of his most successful solo songs "Show Me Love which was released in 2008. In 2010 Angello produced his, AN21's, and Max Vangeli's remix for Pendulum's "The Island" and his own remix of Alex Metric's "Open Your Eyes", which was later used in the video game "FIFA 12" released in September 2011. 2010 also saw Angello make his Tomorrowland debut with Swedish House Mafia and achieved his highest position on the DJ Mag poll at number 14 while Swedish House Mafia debuted at number 23.


title: Steve Angello

text: In May 2011, Steve Angello began work on his second album with Swedish House Mafia with the release of the single "Save the World" featuring vocals from Swedish singer John Martin. In the summer Swedish House Mafia again performed at Tomorrowland and released two more songs in the winter named "Antidote" and "Greyhound". In July 2012, Swedish House Mafia again performed at Tomorrowland for the third consecutive year, this time heading the event and opening Night 2. In September following a successful summer of live performances, Swedish House Mafia released their most commercially successful track "Don't You Worry Child", again featuring the vocal of John Martin which reach number 1 in Sweden, Australia, and the UK and was a multiplatinum song in many countries. This would feature on Swedish House Mafia's second studio/compilation album "Until Now" along with all previous Swedish House Mafia singles plus Angello's 2012 collaboration with British DJs Third Party, "Lights" in addition to his remix of Pendulum's "The Island". "Until Now" was released on 19 October 2012. 2012, also saw Angello launched Size TV, in which Angello allows camera to record his personal and working life, in addition to releasing a first non-compilation studio album in entitled "People of the Night" in collaboration with AN21 & Max Vangeli, of whom Angello often tours with.


title: Steve Angello

text: In November 2012, Swedish House Mafia kicked off their "One Last Tour" after its announcement in June of that year. The supergroup stated that the final leg of this tour would be their last and the group would split up after its conclusion at


title: Steve Angello

text: In March 2013, Angello's record label, Size Records, began distributing for Junior Sanchez's record label Brobot Records. Angello also launched "X", a sister label to Size Records more focused on tech house, with the first release on the label being an EP by Trent Cantrelle called "Nice and Close". In August 2013, Steve Angello observed Size Records's tenth anniversary with by releasing the song "SLVR" (pronounced "Silver"), in collaboration with Russian production duo Matisse & Sadko, who were also members of the record label. The song was the 100th release for the Size Records. In January 2014, the Size Records website and artwork were redesigned by Rebels Studios, with all album artwork using the Trade Gothic Bold Extended font. A month later Steve Angello released his first song since "SLVR" called "Payback" with fellow Swedish artists Dimitri Vangelis & Wyman. Later that year, in March, Size Records gave away the first 100 releases of for free, as a promotional offer, via Google Play in the US, and through WeTransfer & Box outside of the US.


title: Steve Angello

text: In 2014, Angello had said he is looking to expand the label into further genres, once it "becomes solid". He also said that he would be expanding Size Records, and was planning to release a new album, to be called "Wild Youth". The album's first single, "Wasted Love", was released on 22 July 2014, and featured vocals from Australian singer Dougy of the indie rock band The Temper Trap. In 2015, the album second single was released. "Children of the Wild" featured production work from Mako and was available on 16 September. This was followed two months later by the album's third single "Remember" featuring Australian electronic musicians The Presets, and was released on 1 November 2015. Quickly followed were the album's fourth, fifth, and sixth singles which were all released together on the same day. "Tiger", "The Ocean", and "Prisoner" were all released on 20 November 2015, and served as a consolation as the album itself was initially scheduled for release on that day. The album was later released on 22 January 2016.


title: Steve Angello

text: In April 2017, Angello played new songs at Coachella 2017, including a demo with vocals from Brandon Flowers from The Killers, which was released, on 22 March 2018 with vocals from Sam Martin, as "Nothing Scares Me Anymore". Angello confirmed that the vocals from Flowers which was being saved for a different track will not be featured on his forthcoming album. Prior to this, throughout 2017, Angello released six singles in a series of "Acts", the first "Genesis" was released on 4 August, with "Inferno" being released two months later on 13 October. The final act came in the form of "Paradiso" and was released on 16 November 2017. The songs from "Genesis", "Inferno", and "Paradiso" along with "Nothing Scares Me Anymore" would feature on Angello's second studio album "Human", which was released through Size Records on 27 April 2018.


title: Steve Angello

text: One month prior to the album's release, Angello unexpectedly cancelled a weekend of tour dates in Asia during the weekend of Ultra Miami 2018. This came after heavy speculation of a Swedish House Mafia reunion at the festival, exactly five years after the supergroup left the music scene. After more speculation and a 30-minute production break, the trio made their reunion on the last day of the festival as the closing set. Continuing from this, Angello later confirmed that Swedish House Mafia would undergo a world tour in 2019.


title: Steve Angello

text: Angello is a childhood friend of fellow Swedish House Mafia member Sebastian Ingrosso, meeting at age six.


title: Steve Angello

text: In 2013, Angello married Swedish model and TV personality Isabel Adrian. The couple have two daughters, Monday-Lily, born in 2010 and Winter-Rose born on 6 April 2012. He currently resides part-time in Los Angeles.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Micronaire is a measure of the air permeability of cotton fiber and is an indication of fineness and maturity. Micronaire affects various aspects of cotton processing.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: One millionth of a metre, or one thousandth of a millimetre; about one-fourth the width of a strand of spider silk.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Cotton lint is usually measured in bales, although there is no standard and the bale size may vary country to country. For example in the United States it measures approximately 0.48 cubic metres (17 cubic feet) and weighs 226.8 kilograms (500 pounds). In India, a bale equals 170 kilograms.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Not a true unit of measure, S or super S number is an index of the fineness of wool fiber and is most commonly seen as a label on wool apparel, fabric, and yarn.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Slivers, tops and rovings are terms used in the worsted process. The sliver come off the card, tops come after the comb, rovings come before a yarn, and all have a heavier linear density.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: If the metric system is in use the linear density of slivers and tops is given in grams per metre. Tops destined for machine processing are typically 20 grams per metre. Hobby spinners typical use a little heavier top.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Similar to tex and denier, yield is a term that helps describe the linear density of a roving of fibers. However, unlike tex and denier, yield is the inverse of linear density and is usually expressed in yards per pound (yd/lb).


title: Units of textile measurement

text: There are two systems used for presenting linear density, direct and indirect. When the direct method is used, the length is fixed and the weight of yarn is measured; for example, tex gives the weight in grams of one thousand metres of yarn. An indirect method fixes the weight and gives the length of yarn created.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: The textile industry has a long history and there are various units in use. Tex is more likely to be used in Canada and Continental Europe, while denier remains more common in the United States.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Denier () or den (abbreviated D), a unit of measure for the linear mass density of fibers, is the mass in grams per 9000 metres of the fiber. The denier is based on a natural reference: a single strand of silk is approximately one denier; a 9000-metre strand of silk weighs about one gram. The term "denier" comes from the French denier, a coin of small value (worth "sou"). Applied to yarn, a denier was held to be equal in weight to .


title: Units of textile measurement

text: There is a difference between "filament" and "total" measurements in deniers. Both are defined as above, but the first relates to a single filament of fiber (commonly called "denier per filament" ("DPF")), whereas the second relates to a yarn.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Broader terms, such as "fine" may be applied, either because the overall yarn is fine or because fibers within this yarn are thin. A 75-denier yarn is considered fine even if it contains only a few fibers, such as thirty 2.5-denier fibers; but a heavier yarn, such as 150 denier, is considered fine only if its fibers are individually as thin as one denier.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: The denier system of measurement is used on two- and single-filament fibers. Some common calculations are as follows:


title: Units of textile measurement

text: In practice, measuring 9000 metres is both time-consuming and unrealistic. Generally a sample of 900 metres is weighed, and the result is multiplied by ten to obtain the denier weight.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: For single fibers, instead of weighing, a machine called a vibroscope is used. A known length of the fiber (usually 20 mm) is set to vibrate, and its fundamental frequency measured, allowing the calculation of the mass and thus the linear density.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: , where is the yarn length in metres, is the English cotton count and is the yarn weight in kilograms.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Fabric weight is measured in grams per square metre or g/m (also abbreviated as GSM). GSM is the metric measurement of the weight of a fabric—it is a critical parameter for any textile product. The weight may affect density, thickness and many physical properties of the fabric, such as strength. GSM is accountable for the linear metres and specific use of the fabric. The fabric weight is measured in grams. In the metric system, the mass per unit area of all types of textiles is expressed in grams per square metre (g/m).


title: Units of textile measurement

text: The gram (alternative spelling: gramme; SI unit symbol: g) is a metric system unit of mass. A gram is defined as one thousandth of the SI base unit, the kilogram, or . Square metre (alternative spelling: square meter; SI unit symbol: m) is a superficial area equal to that of a square whose sides' lengths are each one metre.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Typically a cheap T-shirt fabric is approximately 150 g/m. GSM of fabric helps in determining the consumption, cost and application. The more the gsm transposes to thicker and heavy construction.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Mommes (mm), traditionally used to measure silk fabrics, the weight in pounds of a piece of fabric "if" it were sized 45 inches by 100 yards (1.2 m by 90 m). One momme = 4.340 g/m; 8 mommes is approximately 1 ounce per square yard or 35 g/m.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: The momme is based on the standard width of silk of 45 inches (1.2 m) wide (though silk is regularly produced in 55-inch (1.4 m) widths and uncommonly in larger widths).


title: Units of textile measurement

text: The higher the weight in mommes, the more durable the weave and the more suitable it is for heavy-duty use. Also, the heavier the silk, the more opaque it becomes. This can vary even within the same weave of silk: for example, lightweight charmeuse is translucent when used in clothing, but 30-momme charmeuse is opaque.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Thread count, also called threadcount or threads per inch (TPI), is a measure of the coarseness or fineness of fabric. It is measured by counting the number of threads contained in one square inch of fabric or one square centimetre, including both the length (warp) and width (weft) threads. The thread count is the number of threads counted along two sides (up and across) of the square inch, added together. It is used especially in regard to cotton linens such as bed sheets, and has been known to be used in the classification of towels. There is a common misconception that thread count is an important consideration when purchasing bedding. However, linen experts claim that beyond a thread count of 400, there is no difference in quality. They further highlight that sheet material is of greater importance than thread count. The amount of thread that can fit into a square inch of fabric is limited, suggesting that bedding beyond 400 count is likely a marketing strategy. Inflated thread counts are usually the result of including the number of strands in a twisted yarn in the claimed thread count.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Thread count is often used as a measure of fabric quality, so that "standard" cotton thread counts are around 150 while "good-quality" sheets start at 180 and a count of 200 or higher is considered "percale". Some (but not all) extremely high thread counts (typically over 500) mislead as they usually count the individual threads in "plied" yarns (a yarn that is made by twisting together multiple finer threads). For marketing purposes, a fabric with 250 two-ply yarns in both the vertical and horizontal direction could have the component threads counted to a 1000 thread count although according to the National Textile Association (NTA), which cites the international standards group ASTM, accepted industry practice is to count each thread as one, even threads spun as two- or three-ply yarn. The Federal Trade Commission in an August 2005 letter to the NTA agreed that consumers "could be deceived or misled" by inflated thread counts. In 2002, ASTM proposed a definition for "thread count" that has been called "the industry's first formal definition for thread count". A minority on the ASTM committee argued for the higher yarn count number obtained by counting each single yarn in a plied yarn and cited as authority the provision relating to woven fabric in the "Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States", which states each ply should be counted as one using the "average yarn number." In 2017, the Federal Trade Commission issued a General Exclusion Order barring entry of woven textile fabrics and products marked with inflated thread counts. The inflated thread counts were deemed false advertising under section 43 of the Lanham Act, 15 U.S.C. 1125(a)(1)(B).


title: Units of textile measurement

text: In the context of tartans, thread counts are used not for determining coarseness, but rather for recording and reliably repeating the cross-striped pattern of the cloth. Such a thread count (which for the typical worsted woollen cloth used for a kilt must in total be divisible by 4) is given as a series of colour-code and thread-count pairs. Sometimes, with typical symmetrical (reflective) tartans, slash ( / ) markup at the ends is used to indicate whether (and how much of) a "pivot" colour is to be repeated when the design is mirrored and repeated backwards. For example, calls for a pattern of (left to right) blue, white, blue, red, black, green, and white, and indicates that when mirrored the two white threads (going one direction) or 24 blue threads (going the other) are repeated after mirroring, resulting in a total of 4 white going rightward and 48 blue heading left. This is known as a "half-count at pivot" thread count. The same sett (technically a half-sett) could also be represented , in a "full-count at pivot" thread count; this indicates that after the four white threads, the pattern resumes backwards with 24 green without repetition of any of the white count. The old style, without slash markup——is considered ambiguous, but is most often interpreted as a full count. The comparatively rare non-symmetrical tartans are given in full setts and are simply repeated without mirroring.


title: Units of textile measurement

text: Ends per inch (EPI or e.p.i.) is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric. In general, the higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is.