title: Hula

text: The subject of the songs is as broad as the range of human experience. People write mele hula auana to comment on significant people, places or events or simply to express an emotion or idea.


title: Hula

text: While the whole Hawaiian repertoire can be mainly categorised into two sides, hua kahiko and hula 'auana, the sound accompaniments have been regarded as one of the symbolic signs to distinguish them. In indigenous Hawaiian music, poetic text has always been an essential artistic element. It was documented that early Hawaiian musicians did not really focus on elaborating pure instrumental music but simply used the nose-blown flute that can only produce no more than four notes. However, after the Hawaiian culture met with Western music, some Hawaiian musicians developed several instrument-playing techniques in which the traditional Hawaiian repertoire was embedded. For example, the appearance of a Hawaiian guitar-playing method, named "steel guitar", was attributed to the perfect combination happened when guitarist is muting the strings with a steel bar; another guitar-playing approach, "slack key guitar", requires musician to tune the guitar by slackening the strings and pluck out main melody with the high-pitched strings when the lower-pitched strings are also worked on for the production of constant bass pattern.


title: Hula

text: Occasional hula auana call for the dancers to use implements, in which case they will use the same instruments as for hula kahiko. Often dancers use the Ulīulī (feathered gourd rattle).


title: Hula

text: The traditional Hawaiian hula costume includes kapa cloth skirts and men in just the malo (loincloth) however, during 1880s hula ‘auana was developed from western influences. It is during this period that the grass skirt began to be seen everywhere although, Hula ‘auana costumes are usually more western-looking, with dresses for women and pants for men.


title: Hula

text: Regalia plays a role in illustrating the hula instructor's interpretation of the mele. From the color of their attire to the type of adornment worn, each piece of an auana costume symbolizes a piece of the mele auana, such as the color of a significant place or flower. While there is some freedom of choice, most hālau follow the accepted costuming traditions. Women generally wear skirts or dresses of some sort. Men may wear long or short pants, skirts, or a malo (a cloth wrapped under and around the groin). For slow, graceful dances, the dancers will wear formal clothing such as a muumuu for women and a sash for men. A fast, lively, "rascal" song will be performed by dancers in more revealing or festive attire. The hula kahiko is always performed with bare feet, but the hula auana can be performed with bare feet or shoes. In the old times, they had their leis and other jewelry but their clothing was much different. Females wore a wrap called a "paʻu" made of tapa cloth and men wore loincloths, which are called "malo." Both sexes are said to have gone without a shirt. Their ankle and wrist bracelets, called "kupeʻe", were made of whalebone and dogteeth as well as other items made from nature. Some of these make music-shells and bones will rattle against each other while the dancers dance.


title: Hula

text: Women perform most Hawaiian hula dances. Female hula dancers usually wear colorful tops and skirts with lei. However, traditionally, men were just as likely to perform the hula.


title: Hula

text: A grass skirt is a skirt that hangs from the waist and covers all or part of the legs. Grass skirts were made of many different natural fibers, such as hibiscus or palm.


title: Hula

text: Hula is taught in schools or groups called "hālau". The teacher of hula is the "kumu hula". "Kumu" means "source of knowledge", or literally "teacher".


title: Hula

text: Often there is a hierarchy in hula schools - starting with the (teacher), (leader), (helpers), and then the (dancers) or (students). This is not true for every hālau, but it does occur often. Most, if not all, hula hālau have a permission chant in order to enter wherever they may practice. They will collectively chant their entrance chant, then wait for the kumu to respond with the entrance chant, once he or she is finished, the students may enter. One well known and often used entrance or permission chant is Kūnihi Ka Mauna/Tūnihi Ta Mauna.


title: Hula

text: According to one Hawaiian legend, Laka, goddess of the hula, gave birth to the dance on the island of Molokai, at a sacred place in Kaana. After Laka died, her remains were hidden beneath the hill "Puu Nana".


title: Hula

text: Another story tells of "Hiiaka", who danced to appease her fiery sister, the volcano goddess Pele. This story locates the source of the hula on Hawaii, in the Puna district at the Hāena shoreline. The ancient hula "Ke Haa Ala Puna" describes this event.


title: Hula

text: Another story is when Pele, the goddess of fire was trying to find a home for herself running away from her sister Namakaokahaʻi (the goddess of the oceans) when she finally found an island where she couldn't be touched by the waves. There at chain of craters on the island of Hawai'i she danced the first dance of hula signifying that she finally won.


title: Hula

text: Kumu Hula (or "hula master") Leato S. Savini of the Hawaiian cultural academy Hālau Nā Mamo O Tulipa, located in Waianae, Japan, and Virginia, believes that hula goes as far back as what the Hawaiians call the "Kumulipo", or account of how the world was made first and foremost through the god of life and water, Kane. Kumu Leato is cited as saying, "When Kane and the other gods of our creation, Lono, Kū, and Kanaloa created the earth, the man, and the woman, they recited incantations which we call Oli or Chants and they used their hands and moved their legs when reciting these oli. Therefore this is the origin of hula."


title: Hula

text: American Protestant missionaries, who arrived in 1820, often denounced the hula as a heathen dance holding vestiges of paganism. The newly Christianized alii (royalty and nobility) were urged to ban the hula. In 1830 Queen Kaʻahumanu forbade public performances. However, many of them continued to privately patronize the hula. By the 1850s, public hula was regulated by a system of licensing.


title: Hula

text: The Hawaiian performing arts had a resurgence during the reign of King David Kalākaua (1874–1891), who encouraged the traditional arts. With the Princess Lili'uokalani who devoted herself to the old ways, as the patron of the ancients chants (mele, hula), she stressed the importance to revive the diminishing culture of their ancestors within the damaging influence of foreigners and modernism that was forever changing Hawaii.


title: Hula

text: Practitioners merged Hawaiian poetry, chanted vocal performance, dance movements and costumes to create the new form, the "hula kui" (kui means "to combine old and new"). The appears not to have been used in hula kui, evidently because its sacredness was respected by practitioners; the gourd (Lagenaria sicenaria) was the indigenous instrument most closely associated with hula kui.


title: Hula

text: Ritual and prayer surrounded all aspects of hula training and practice, even as late as the early 20th century. Teachers and students were dedicated to the goddess of the hula, Laka.


title: Hula

text: Hula changed drastically in the early 20th century as it was featured in tourist spectacles, such as the Kodak Hula Show, and in Hollywood films. Vaudeville star Signe Paterson was instrumental in raising its profile and popularity on the American stage, performing the hula in New York and Boston, teaching society figures the dance, and touring the country with the Royal Hawaiian Orchestra. However, a more traditional hula was maintained in small circles by older practitioners. There has been a renewed interest in hula, both traditional and modern, since the 1970s and the Hawaiian Renaissance.


title: Hula

text: In response to several Pacific island sports teams using their respective native war chants and dances as pre-game ritual challenges, the University of Hawaii football team started doing a war chant and dance using the native Hawaiian language that was called the ha'a before games in 2007.


title: Hula

text: Since 1964, the Merrie Monarch Festival has become an annual one week long hula competition held in the spring that attracts visitors from all over the world. It is to honor King David Kalākaua who was known as the Merrie Monarch as he revived the art of hula. Although Merrie Monarch was seen as a competition among hula hālaus, it later became known as a tourist event because of the many people it attracted.


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: The Knickerbocker Club (known informally as The Knick) is a gentlemen's club in New York City that was founded in 1871. It is considered to be the most exclusive club in the United States and one of the most aristocratic gentlemen's clubs in the world.


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: The term "Knickerbocker", partly due to writer Washington Irving's use of the pen name Diedrich Knickerbocker, was a byword for a New York patrician, comparable to a "Boston Brahmin".


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: The Knickerbocker Club was founded in 1871 by members of the Union Club of the City of New York who were concerned that the club's admission standards had fallen. By the 1950s, urban social club membership was dwindling, in large part because of the movement of wealthy families to the suburbs. In 1959, the Knickerbocker Club considered rejoining the Union Club, merging its 550 members with the Union Club's 900 men, but the plan never came to fruition.


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: The Knick's current clubhouse, a neo-Georgian structure at 2 East 62nd Street, was commissioned in 1913 and completed in 1915, on the site of the former mansion of Josephine Schmid, a wealthy widow. It was designed by William Adams Delano and Chester Holmes Aldrich, and it has been designated a city landmark.


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: Members of the Knickerbocker Club are almost-exclusively descendants of British and Dutch aristocratic families that governed the early 1600s American Colonies or that left the Old Continent for political reasons (e.g. partisans of the Royalist coalition against Cromwell, such as the "distressed Cavaliers" of the aristocratic Virginia settlers), or current members of the international aristocracy. Towards the middle of the 20th century, however, the club opened its doors to a few descendants of the Gilded Age's prominent families, such as the Rockefellers and Stillmans.


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: E. Digby Baltzell explains in his book "Philadelphia Gentlemen: The Making of a National Upper Class": "The circulation of elites in America and the assimilation of new men of power and influence into the upper class takes place primarily through the medium of urban clubdom. Aristocracy of birth is replaced by an aristocracy of ballot. Frederick Lewis Allen showed how this process operated in the case of the nine "Lords of Creation" who were listed in the New York Social Register as of 1905: ‘The nine men who were listed [in the Social Register] were recorded as belonging to 9.4 clubs apiece,’ wrote Allen. ‘Though only two of them, J. P. Morgan and Cornelius Vanderbilt III, belonged to the Knickerbocker Club, the citadel of Patrician families (indeed, both already belonged to old prominent families at the time), Stillman and Harriman joined these two in the membership of the almost equally fashionable Union Club; Baker joined these four in the membership of the Metropolitan Club of New York (magnificent, but easier of access to new wealth); John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, and Rogers, along with Morgan and Baker were listed as members of the Union League Club (the stronghold of Republican respectability); seven of the group belonged to the New York Yacht Club. Morgan belonged to nineteen clubs in all; Vanderbilt, to fifteen; Harriman, to fourteen.’ Allen then goes on to show how the descendants of these financial giants were assimilated into the upper class: ‘By way of footnote, it may be added that although in that year [1905] only two of our ten financiers belonged to the Knickerbocker Club, in 1933 the grandsons of six of them did. The following progress is characteristic: John D. Rockefeller, Union League Club; John D. Rockefeller Jr., University Club; John D. Rockefeller 3rd, Knickerbocker Club. Thus is the American aristocracy recruited.'"


title: Knickerbocker Club

text: Christopher Doob wrote in his book "Social Inequality and Social Stratification in U.S. Society": "Personal wealth has never been the sole basis for attaining membership in exclusive clubs. The individual and family must meet the admissions committee’s standards for values and behavior. Old money prevails over new money as the Rockefeller family experience suggests. John D. Rockefeller, the family founder and the nation’s first billionaire, joined the Union League Club, a fairly respectable but not top-level club; John D. Rockefeller Jr., belonged to the University Club, a step up from his father; and finally his son John D. Rockefeller, III, reached the pinnacle with his acceptance into the Knickerbocker Club (Baltzell 1989, 340)."


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: Gainbridge Fieldhouse is an indoor arena located in downtown Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. It opened in November 1999 to replace Market Square Arena. The arena is the home of the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association and the Indiana Fever of the Women's National Basketball Association. The fieldhouse also hosts college basketball games (including the annual Big Ten Conference tournaments), indoor concerts, and ice hockey.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The arena was originally named Conseco Fieldhouse, as the naming rights to the venue were sold to Conseco, a financial services organization based in nearby Carmel. In May 2010, the company renamed itself as CNO Financial Group, but the fieldhouse retained the Conseco name. In December 2011, CNO Financial Group changed the name of the fieldhouse to Bankers Life Fieldhouse, after one of its subsidiaries, Bankers Life and Casualty. CNO decided not to renew its naming sponsorship after it expired on June 30, 2019. On September 27, 2021, the fieldhouse announced that Indianapolis-based financial platform Gainbridge would be the new naming partner for the fieldhouse in a multi-year partnership.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In April 2019, the Marion County Capital Improvement Board approved a major renovation project for the fieldhouse. The $360 million project will include a new outdoor entry plaza, new indoor gathering areas, and various interior enhancements. The Pacers committed to remaining in Indianapolis for at least 25 more years as part of the renovation agreement. Construction will take place in two phases, with the fieldhouse having planned to host the 2021 NBA All-Star Game in between the phases, which was later canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Almost all of the construction work will take place during Pacers offseasons. The project will displace the Fever for all of the 2020 and 2021 WNBA seasons, as well as at least part of the 2022 season; the Fever played the first section of the schedule at Gainbridge Fieldhouse, but after the NBA season ended, the Fever played games at Indiana Farmers Coliseum.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The arena was built to evoke an Indiana high school and college field house. As such, unlike most other North American sports arenas, it was designed primarily for basketball. The arena can accommodate an NHL-sized rink, but the ice hockey seating capacity is reduced to 12,300 in an asymmetrical configuration.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The first NBA game held at Conseco Fieldhouse was on November 6, 1999, when the Indiana Pacers played their regular-season home opener against the Boston Celtics. Later that same season, the Pacers made it to the 2000 NBA Finals against the Los Angeles Lakers. Games 3, 4, and 5 of that championship series were held at Conseco Fieldhouse, but the Pacers ended up losing that season's title four games to two.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In 2000, the fieldhouse was also the site for the 2000 Ray Miron President's Cup finals, with two games of the series being played there. The Indianapolis Ice won the series against the now-defunct Columbus Cottonmouths 4 games to 3.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: Several games of the 2002 FIBA World Championship were played at Conseco Fieldhouse, including the semifinals and the final.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In 2009, Conseco Fieldhouse was the site for the 2009 WNBA Finals. The Indiana Fever took on the Phoenix Mercury for games 3 and 4 of that series but ended up losing the series. Three years later, the Fever hosted the 2012 WNBA Finals for games 3 and 4 and beat the Minnesota Lynx.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: Additionally, the Indiana Firebirds of the Arena Football League played at the fieldhouse from 2001 to 2004 and the Indianapolis Ice of the Central Hockey League also played at the fieldhouse from 1999 to 2004. The venue also hosted select games for the Indiana Ice of the United States Hockey League.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: From 2002 to 2007, the fieldhouse served as the site of the Big Ten Conference men's basketball tournament in even-numbered years while the tournament was held at the United Center in Chicago in odd-numbered years. In 2008, the tournament was moved to Conseco Fieldhouse exclusively for five years, through 2012. The arena is also a frequent site of the Big Ten women's basketball tournament. 2012 marked the 12th time in 13 years that the tournament had been held at the fieldhouse. On June 5, 2011, the Big Ten Conference announced that beginning in 2013 the location of both of the conference basketball tournaments for the following four years would be alternated between the Chicago area and Indianapolis. Bankers Life Fieldhouse would again be the site for both men's and women's events in 2014 and 2016. The 2011 NCAA Women's Final Four was also held at the fieldhouse on April 3 and April 5 of 2011. For basketball, the venue seats 17,923 (18,345 from 1999 to 2006, 18,165 from 2006 to 2016).


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: From 2011 to 2021 the fieldhouse hosted the Crossroads Classic, an annual event that included the Butler Bulldogs, Indiana Hoosiers, Notre Dame Fighting Irish, and Purdue Boilermakers men's basketball teams.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The Professional Bull Riders brought its Built Ford Tough Series bull riding tour, now known as the Unleash the Beast Series, to the fieldhouse for the first time in January 2011. It was their second visit to Indianapolis; they first visited Indianapolis during the 2004 season when they held a BFTS event at the RCA Dome.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: Gainbridge Fieldhouse is one of many concert venues in the city of Indianapolis. On March 11, 2019, Metallica set a new attendance record at the venue with 18,274 fans at the venue. The previous record was held by Billy Joel (16,594).


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In December 2017, during a press conference the Indiana Pacers announced that the arena would host the 2021 NBA All-Star Game. In late 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic and other conflicts surrounding the 2021 NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament which was also being held in Indianapolis the same year the NBA announced the city will host the 2024 NBA All-Star Game instead of the 2021 game.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: Gainbridge Fieldhouse hosted first and second-round games of the 2017 and 2022 NCAA tournaments. The arena also hosted first, second, and regional semifinal (Sweet 16) round games of the 2021 tournament.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In addition to professional events, the arena also hosts the IHSAA state finals in wrestling as well as both girls and boys basketball. It also occasionally hosts other high school tournaments as well.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: It also hosted many PPV events such as The Great American Bash (2006), SummerSlam (2008), Survivor Series (2012), and Clash of Champions (2016).


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The fieldhouse is notable for being the location of many landmark moments for the professional wrestling group The Shield, who debuted on November 18, 2012, at Survivor Series, broke up on the June 2, 2014 episode of "WWE Raw" and reunited on the October 9, 2017 episode of "WWE Raw".


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In 2015, the fieldhouse hosted the Indy Invitational, with midget car racing and outlaw kart racing held on a dirt track erected on the arena floor.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In 2005 and 2006, Conseco Fieldhouse was ranked the No. 1 venue in the NBA according to the Sports Business Journal/Sports Business Daily Reader Survey. In 2006 The Ultimate Sports Road Trip reaffirmed Conseco Fieldhouse as the best venue in all 4 of the major sports leagues. "The Ultimate Sports Road Trip has recently concluded a re-scoring and re-evaluation of all 122 franchises in the four major sports, based on our personal visits to each of the teams in a journey that began in 1998. Based on our criteria, Conseco Fieldhouse has again withstood scrutiny to be named the "best of the best" in the four major sports. Everything about Conseco Fieldhouse is top notch, a sparkling venue in a sparkling city," said Farrell and Kulyk.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In October 2004, the fieldhouse hosted the 2004 FINA Short Course World Swimming Championships. A 25-meter 300,000-gallon competition pool and 174,000-gallon warm-up pool were temporarily installed. A total of 71,659 tickets were sold for the four-day event. On the evening of Saturday, October 11, 2004, the crowd set a record for the largest attendance at a U.S. Swimming event outside of the Olympics with 11,488 people.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: In 2012, a giant state-of-the-art scoreboard was added to Bankers Life Fieldhouse. The scoreboard features twin 1080p high definition (HD) video screens, each measuring long – extending nearly foul line to foul line – by high. In addition to the HD screens running the length of the court, the innovative rectangular scoreboard design is capped by a full 1080p HD video screen facing each baseline. The result of the design is a greatly improved visual experience from nearly every seat in the building. Additionally, a new sound system was installed.


title: Gainbridge Fieldhouse

text: The fieldhouse was home to the Indiana Firebirds of the Arena Football League from 2001 to 2004 after moving from Albany, New York.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: The history of lions in Europe is based on fossils of Pleistocene and Holocene lions excavated in Europe since the early 19th century.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: The first lion fossil was excavated in southern Germany, and described by Georg August Goldfuss using the scientific name "Felis spelaea". It probably dates to the Würm glaciation, and is 191,000 to 57,000 years old.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Older lion skull fragments were excavated in Germany and described by under "Felis fossilis" in 1906. These are estimated at between 621,000 and 533,000 years old.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Bone fragments of fossil "spelaea" lions indicate that they were bigger than the modern lion and had less specialized lower teeth, reduced lower premolars and smaller incisors.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: As indicated by numerous artistic depictions, modern lions in the Balkans had less developed manes, and lacked abdominal and lateral manes as well as limb hair. Οn the other hand, lions from Transcaucasia exhibited all these features.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: The oldest fossils excavated near Pakefield in the United Kingdom are estimated at 680,000 years old, and represent "Panthera leo fossilis".


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Lion fossils were excavated in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Russia.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Late Pleistocene "Panthera spelaea" bone fragments were radiocarbon dated to between the Weichselian glaciation and the Holocene, and are between 109,000 and 14,000 years old. This lion was widely distributed from the Iberian peninsula, Southeast Europe, across most of northern Eurasia into Alaska. In Eurasia, it became extinct between 14,900 and 14,100 years ago, and survived in Beringia until 13,800 to 13,300 years ago.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: The earliest Holocene lion remains to date were excavated in Basque Country, Spain, and are about 11,600–9,000 years old, although the dating is only context-dated and therefore regarded as not too accurate. Moreover, there are doubts if this was a modern lion or a late surviving "P. spelaea" cave lion. Other early Holocene lion finds, come from different places of Italy and are dated to 12,000-9,000 years old.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: A neolithic lion tooth fragment representing the Atlantic Period was found in Karanovo, Bulgaria, and is estimated 6,000 years old.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: In Greece lions first appeared around 6,500–6,000 years ago as indicated by a front leg bone found in Philippi. Bone fragments of the modern lion were excavated in Hungary and in Ukraine's Black Sea region, which are estimated at around 5,500 to 3,000 years old. Remains were also found in Romania and European Turkey.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: In Southeast Europe, the lion inhabited part of the Balkan Peninsula, up to Hungary and Ukraine during the Neolithic period. It survived in Bulgaria until the 4th or 3rd century BC. Around 1000 BC, it became extinct in the Peloponnese. It disappeared from Macedonia around the first century AD, from Western Thrace not before the 2nd century AD and from Thessaly possibly in the 4th century AD; Themistius regretted that no more lions could be furnished for beast-shows.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: In Transcaucasia, the lion was present until the 10th century. The peak of its historic range covered all of the plains and foothills of eastern Transcaucasia, westward almost to Tbilisi in modern Georgia. Northwards, its range extended through the eastern Caucasus, from the Apsheron Peninsula to the mouth of the Samur River near the current Azerbaijan-Russia border, extending to the Araks river. From there, the boundary of its range narrowly turned east to Yerevan in modern Armenia, with its northern boundary then extending westward to Turkey.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Lions feature in ancient Greek mythology and writings, including the myth of the Nemean lion, which was believed to be a supernatural lion that occupied the sacred town of Nemea in the Peloponnese. Homer mentioned lions 45 times in his poems, but this could have been due to his experience in Asia Minor.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: Phalaecus, a tyrant of Amvrakia (modern-day Arta), was allegedly killed by a female lion due to his holding a newborn lion cub, after finding it on a hunting expedition. Conon refers to the myth of how Olynthus city got its name, when during around the period of the Trojan War, son of Strymon, Olynthos during a lion hunt was killed by a lion. According to Herodotus lions occurred between Achelous river and Nestus, being plentiful between Akanthos and Thermi. When Xerxes advanced near Echedorus in 480 BC, the troops' camels were attacked by lions. Xenophon stated around 400 BC that lions were hunted around Mount Kissos, Pangaio, the Pindus mountains and elsewhere. Aristotle in the 4th century BC provided some data on lion distribution, behaviour, breeding and also anatomy. According to him, lions were more numerous in North Africa than in Europe; they had approached towns, and attacked people only if they were old, or had poor dental health. Pliny the Elder mentions that European lions were stronger compared to those from Syria and Africa. In the 2nd century AD, Pausanias referred to lion presence east of Nestus in Thrace, in the area of Abdera. He also referred to a story about Polydamas of Skotoussa, an Olympic winner in the 5th century BC, who allegedly used his bare hands to kill a lion on Thessalian part of Mount Olympus; and to one about Caranus of Macedon who according to the Macedonians, raised a trophy that was thrown down and destroyed by a lion that was rushing down from Mount Olympus.


title: History of lions in Europe

text: The Romans used Barbary lions from North Africa for lion-baiting, and lions from Greece for gladiatorial games.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: America's Sweethearts is a 2001 American romantic comedy film directed by Joe Roth and written by Billy Crystal and Peter Tolan. It stars Julia Roberts, Crystal, John Cusack and Catherine Zeta-Jones, with Hank Azaria, Stanley Tucci, Seth Green, Alan Arkin and Christopher Walken in smaller roles.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Film publicist Lee Phillips (Billy Crystal) is promoting "Time Over Time", a movie featuring beloved husband-and-wife stars Gwen Harrison (Catherine Zeta-Jones) and Eddie Thomas (John Cusack), who have made countless popular films together. However, the eccentric director Hal Weidman (Christopher Walken) won't let anyone see the film until its premiere at a press junket, complicating Lee's job. And worse yet: Gwen and Eddie, once dubbed “America's Sweethearts”, have an ugly breakup.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Gwen's films without Eddie have been flops. On the Larry King Live show, she is thoroughly humiliated by Larry King and causing her to apologize live. Her affair with co-star Hector Gorgonzolas (Hank Azaria), who now lives with her, caused Eddie to suffer a mental breakdown and moves to a New Age retreat. Lee decides the press must believe the couple are reuniting to promote the film. Lee enlists Kathleen Harrison, nicknamed “Kiki” (Julia Roberts), who is Gwen's sister and personal assistant, to persuade Gwen that attending the junket will benefit her career and public image, where she can also serve Eddie divorce papers. At the New Age retreat, Lee informs Eddie of Gwen's humiliation on Larry King. He believes this is her karma for her affair with Hector and refuses to attend the junket. Eddie believes he's not well enough to face his past yet. Lee bribes his spiritual guide (Alan Arkin) with a luxury car to convince him can attend.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: At the junket, while Eddie and Gwen are fighting, Lee plants stories to the press they are reconciling. Gwen asks Kiki to be her go-between with Eddie, so they meet secretly to discuss the junket. Eddie's assistant leaks a photo of it to the press. Angered by the rumors about Gwen and Eddie, Hector shows up, confronts Eddie and knocks him out. As Kiki tends to Eddie, they admit their feelings and have sex. However, in the morning, as they are having breakfast, Gwen calls and Eddie rushes to meet with her. Hurt and angered, Kiki leaves, later becoming furious when Eddie tells Gwen he isn't seeing anyone. Confronting him, she says they can't pursue a relationship because he'll never get over Gwen. Downstairs, Lee tells Kiki not to give up on Eddie as he can see he has feelings for her.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Eddie has an epiphany while on the hotel roof, causing the press to believe that he's about to jump, and inciting Hector and the studio's owner Dave Kingman (Stanley Tucci) to encourage him in doing so. Gwen is thoroughly humiliated, warning him to stop as she wants maintain to the press that she and Eddie are reconciling. Hector tells her to stop bothering, pointing out that there's no need to hide their relationship. Gwen argues that they need to exercise caution because she's concerned that the press will find out they are the direct cause of Eddie's mental breakdown. Eddie tells Lee he's in love with Kiki and thinks he's blown it. Lee realizes his mistake, telling Eddie to pursue Kiki and divorce Gwen. Weidman then shows with the film.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: The screening begins, and everyone discovers that Weidman abandoned the script, making a “reality movie” instead. The footage, mostly shot with hidden cameras and without the actors' knowledge, shows Gwen's unremorseful affair with Hector, gloating about it to then overweight and timid Kiki. Eddie becomes angry about Gwen's clear infidelity, but he otherwise appears sympathetic. He is shown to actually be in love with Kiki even before her weight loss. Additionally, Dave Kingman is insulted by Weidman and mocked by his assistant. Hector enjoys the reality film very much, until Gwen insults him about the size of his penis. On the other hand, the film portrays Eddie and Kiki favorably, while Gwen is the antagonist due to her affair with Hector.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: As a result, most of the cast and crew — particularly Gwen and Kingman — are offended and confront Weidman. Eddie appears pleased by the film's portrayal of what she did to him. He suggests working together again and Weidman agrees seeing that he understands the latter's vision. He reveals it was all his plan to ruin Gwen's career because of an earlier incident on set for insulting his vision. Enraged, she announces she will sue him for invasion of privacy and Kingman Studios for having not prevented it. Kiki is surprised, but not angered by the portrayal of her sister and also pleased to be shown favorably. Hector angrily confronts Gwen for her comments, and Weidman's daughter, Leaf (Keri Lynn Pratt), defends him. She reveals their affair, pointing out Gwen's wrong to say he's small.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Humiliated, Gwen announces she is reconciling with Eddie, but he asserts he's finally through with her, and declares his love for Kiki. The latter reciprocates, standing up to Gwen for the first time, and revealing dirty secrets only she knew, before saying she is tired of putting her personal life on hold. Gwen retaliates by coldly firing her, before calming down and declaring she only wants Kiki's happiness, to look better to the press.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Outside, Gwen admits to the press that she and Eddie are over and is in love with Hector. She then claims she's on medication that makes her behave erratically and adds that he is very well-endowed. However, the press doesn't believe Gwen, having witnessed their relationship is disintegrating and how horrible of a sister she was to Kiki. Hector defends himself to the press, then humiliates her by announcing they too are through and had an affair with another co-star of theirs, Adina.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Kiki and Eddie prepare to leave together to travel and pursue their relationship. Lee arrives to tell them that, amazingly, the press love the movie and Kingman Studios have to release it despite Gwen's lawsuit threat.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Julia Roberts' niece, Emma Roberts, makes an uncredited appearance as the young girl in the purple T-shirt.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: "America's Sweethearts" opened on July 20, 2001, and earned $30,181,877 in its opening weekend, ranking second behind "Jurassic Park III" ($50,771,645). By the end of its run, the film had grossed $93,607,673 in the domestic box office and $44,583,755 overseas for a worldwide total of $138,191,428. Based on a $46 million budget, the film was a box office success. Filming took place at Lake Las Vegas.


title: America's Sweethearts

text: Despite being a box office success, the film holds a 32% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes from 146 critics. The site's consensus states: "Despite its famous cast, the movie lacks sympathetic characters and is only funny in spurts." On Metacritic, the film holds a 44 out of 100 rating based on 32 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale. Gustavo Arellano in his writing "¡Ask a Mexican!" identified Azaria's character Hector as an example of the Latin lover stereotype.


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: Mike Clattenburg is a Canadian television and film director, producer and screenwriter. He is best known as creator, executive producer, writer and director of the TV comedy series "Trailer Park Boys" (2001–2008), for his work with "This Hour Has 22 Minutes" (2004), and as the co-creator of the Adult Swim series "Black Jesus" (2014–2019).


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: A native of Cole Harbour, a suburb of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Clattenburg spent his years after high school as drummer in a Police-inspired rock band, The Spawning Grunions.


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: Clattenburg's jump from music to television began with his co-hosting and production of a Halifax Cable 10 show, "That Damn Cable Show", from 1990 to 1993. The program featured on-location interviews and profiles of Halifax entertainers, many of whom were acquaintances of Clattenburg's through his band contacts. Wedged in between the entertainer segments were comedic three-minute clips that displayed his early talent for irreverent film making. "That Damn Cable Show" was remarkable for its high production values despite being a local cable channel production on a shoestring budget, and made an early name for Clattenburg in film production circles.


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: Outgrowing the local cable television station, Clattenburg made the move to professional television production with work on comedy and drama programs at CBC Television, including "Pit Pony", "Street Cents", "The Bette Show", and a variety of segments for "Sesame Street". His credits include the direction of music videos for Gord Downie, Len, The Tragically Hip, comedy rap group Three Loco, and, most recently, a rap video for Far East Movement featuring Riff Raff of Three Loco.


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: In addition to "Trailer Park Boys" and its associated films "", "" and "", Clattenburg also directed the films "Afghan Luke" and "Moving Day", which were released in Toronto and Halifax on July 20, 2012, and the short film "Crackin' Down Hard".


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: He is co-creator, executive producer, co-writer (along with Aaron McGruder), and director of the Adult Swim series "Black Jesus", which premiered on August 7, 2014.


title: Mike Clattenburg

text: He is co-creator (along with Mike O'Neill from Trailer Park Boys), director and an executive producer of Canadian television comedy series "Crawford", which premiered as a streaming video on February 2, 2018.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan Hatice Sultan (, ""nobility of the Khan"" or "mercy of the Khan" " and ""respecful lady""; 1627 – 4 August 1683) was the first Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim (reign 1640–48) and Valide Sultan as the mother of Mehmed IV (reign 1648–87). Turhan was prominent for the regency of her young son and her building patronage. She and her mother-in-law, Kösem Sultan, are the only two women in Ottoman history to be regarded as official regents and had supreme control over the Ottoman Empire. As a result, Turhan became one of the prominent figures during the era known as Sultanate of Women.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Of Rus' origin, Turhan Hatice Sultan, was born in 1627 in Ruthenia, Ukraine. She was captured in one of the raids of the Tatars and sold into slavery. She was sent to the Imperial Harem at the Topkapı Palace from the Khan of Crimea. She was presented to the palace, as a gift of Kör Süleyman Pasha to Kösem Sultan. She was trained by Atike Sultan, daughter of Sultan Ahmed I, and groomed by Kösem, who


title: Turhan Sultan

text: presented her to her son, Ibrahim. She had one brother, Yunus Agha (died 1689), living in Istanbul. According to Sakaoğlu, she was tall, delicate, had blue eyes and was white skinned.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan gave birth to one child, Şehzade Mehmed (future Sultan Mehmed IV) born on 2 January 1642. Mehmed's birth caused great rejoicing both within and without the palace. Although, she had borne the sultan his first son, she was, however, largely ignored by him. Her daily stipend as the "haseki" consisted of 1000 aspers.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: At one point Ibrahim took a great liking to the infant son of a slave woman, to the extent of preferring the unrelated child to his son Mehmed. Turhan, grew extremely jealous and vented her anger to Ibrahim, who flew into a rage and grabbed Mehmed from Turhan's arms and threw him into a pool. Mehmed would have drowned if a servant had not rescued him. He was left with a permanent scar on his forehead.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Ibrahim's behaviour sparked talks of deposing the sultan. On 8 August 1648, Ibrahim was dethroned and several days later he was strangled. At the head of the Ottoman Empire stood the child sultan, Mehmed IV. With Mehmed's ascendancy, the position of Valide Sultan ("mother of the reigning sultan") should have gone to Turhan. However, Turhan was overlooked due to her youth and inexperience. Instead, the sultan's grandmother and the previous Valide Sultan, Kösem Sultan, was reinstated to this high position. Kösem Sultan was a Valide (mother) under two sons, thus having the more experience of the two women.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: However, Turhan turned out to be too ambitious a woman to lose such a high position without a fight. In her struggle to become Valide Sultan, Turhan was supported by the chief black eunuch in her household and the grand vizier, while Kösem was supported by the Janissary Corps. Although, Kösem's position as Valide was seen as the best for the government, the people resented the influence of the Janissaries on the government.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: In this power struggle, Kösem planned to dethrone Mehmed and replace him with another young grandson. According to one historian, this switching had more to do with replacing an ambitious daughter-in-law with one who was more easily controlled. The plan was unsuccessful as it was reported to Turhan by Meleki Hatun, one of Kösem's slaves. As N.M. Penzer describes it:


title: Turhan Sultan

text: With the death of her rival, Turhan became the Valide Sultan. As a regent, Turhan wielded great power. She accompanied her son the sultan to important meetings and on several occasions spoke from behind her curtained sitting place. She was deeply loved and respected by her son, the sultan. Due to her inexperience, Turhan relied on other members of the government to advise her on political matters. This is evident from her correspondence to the grand viziers.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan's regency was marred by at least two factors: the war with the Venetians for the island of Crete, and the financial crisis that arose from the high expenses of waging war. Weak grand viziers did not improve the situation. However, in 1656 Köprülü Mehmed Pasha was appointed to the position of grand vizier. His condition upon accepting the post was that he be given greater authority than his predecessors. Thus, Turhan transferred her political power to that of the grand vizier.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: In 1657, During the long-term residence of Mehmed in Edirne due to the expeditions, Turhan Sultan was with him. During the short-term departure of Edirne, one of the viziers was appointed to supervise the sultan. She traveled to Istanbul from time to time while her son was on a long trip. It is known that a few years after the commencement of the round trips to Edirne, she built a flat (Avcı Sultan Mehmed Khan Apartment / Dolmabahçe Pavilion) in her palace in 1661. Turhan Sultan went to Babadağı with her son, who left Edirne and moved in the direction of Kamaniçe with a ceremony on 5 June 1672 for the Polish expedition.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: The army decided to stay here until he returned from the expedition, and one of the dome viziers, İbrâhim Pasha, was commissioned with the guard. Meanwhile, her grandson Şehzade Mustafa (later Mustafa II), who was eight years old, was with her. However, her residence in Babadağı did not last until the return of the army. When the army arrived at Edirne, Turhan Sultan was in Istanbul. Mehmed sent the second vizier Mustafa Pasha to Istanbul to bring his mother before a week passed.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Gülnuş Sultan attempted to have her husband's brothers Suleiman II and Ahmed II strangled after she gave birth to her firstborn Mustafa, but Turhan had hindered these attempted murders.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: By providing the grand vizier with great authority, Turhan limited her own power on the political stage. However, she channeled her energies into other architectural projects.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: She built a fountain in 1653 in Beşiktaş district. Her first building project began in 1658. Perhaps in answer to the Venetian threat, the Valide built two fortresses at the entrance to the Dardanelles. The fortresses, one on the European side and the other on the Asian side, can still be seen today. Mehmed the Conqueror and other sultans also built fortresses in the same area. Each of the fortresses contained of a mosque, elementary schools, hamams and bazaars. Turhan had built wells in Hejaz, she also constructed a library in Çanakkale and Istanbul.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan also built the Yeni Mosque in Istanbul. The initial construction was started by one of Turhan's predecessors, Safiye Sultan. She had chosen the commercial quarter of the city, "Eminonü", as the location of the mosque. This area was inhabited by non-Muslims. By building a new mosque in Eminönü, Safiye wanted to Islamize the area.To build on this site meant that land had to be appropriated from the local non-Muslim residents, an act that had not gone smoothly. In the year 1597, the first stones were laid. At the death of Safiye's son, Mehmed III, the construction of the mosque stopped as she was no longer the Valide. The construction was abandoned for 57 years, but was restarted after the area was devastated by the Great Fire of 1660. Turhan decided to complete what had been started by Safiye Sultan. After its completion in 1665, the complex contained not only the mosque, but also a school, public fountains, a market, and a tomb. The Yeni Mosque was the first imperial mosque built by a woman. On 31 October 1665, the mosque was opened and Turhan Sultan and Sultan Mehmed IV's consort Gülnuş Sultan attended the first prayer in the mosque.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: In the southeast corner of the mosque, there is a need to pass to the majestic ruin and the sultan pavilion is arranged in three floors. The lower and middle floor cut-top stone has upper-level stone and brick walls that do not meet the needs of the brick. The pavilion, which is entered through a low arch door, has a long and ramped path. The palace, which has a long vaulted corridor underneath, is located on the upper floor, which is reserved for the sultan and the sultan, together with two hearth rooms. After the “L” shaped hall and an intermediate space, the balcony in front of the building passes to the building. The walls in the Hünkâr pavilion are covered with herbal decorated tile panels in under-glaze technique.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan was the last woman to wield such great power as to act as a regent to a young son. As women were not seen in public in the Ottoman Empire, it was through her patronage of building that Turhan showed herself to her subjects


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan Sultan, Mehmed IV, Mustafa II, Ahmed III, Mahmud I and total of forty-four people are buried especially some people from Osman and his family. In the direction of the mausoleum of the tomb, a treasure was formed in the courtyard over time, so fountains and power windows were built on the courtyard wall.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: Turhan Sultan died on 4 August 1683 in Edirne. Her body was brought back to Istanbul and was buried in the tomb named after her at the Yeni Mosque. She lies alongside her son and her descendants. She was considered the last of the great valide sultans. Her death marked the end of the period known as the Sultanate of Women.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: In addition to Mehmed, several historians speculate that Turhan may have been the mother of at least one daughter.


title: Turhan Sultan

text: In 2015, Turkish historical fiction TV series "", Turhan is portrayed by Turkish actress Hande Doğandemir. In the series, she is the mother of Mehmed IV and Beyhan Sultan.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: Come Fly with Me is a British mockumentary television comedy series created by and starring Matt Lucas and David Walliams. Narrated by Lindsay Duncan, the series launched on 25 December 2010 on BBC One. A spoof of British documentaries "Airport" and "Airline", the series follows the activity at a major airport and three fictional airlines: low-cost British airline FlyLo (a parody of Flybe, Ryanair, easyJet), low-cost Irish airline Our Lady Air (a parody of Ryanair and Aer Lingus), and major British airline Great British Air (a parody of British Airways).


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: Lucas and Walliams portray many of the focal airline and airport staff, as well as some passengers, whose comments and experiences are featured in one or more of the series episodes in the style of a "fly on the wall documentary". Despite announcing a second series, Walliams confirmed in January 2013 that a second series was not going to air.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: In June 2010, it was announced that "Little Britain" stars Lucas and Walliams had reunited to star in a new comedy series set in an airport, a spoof of British documentaries "Airport" and "Airline". Filming for "Come Fly with Me" began in August, with the duo spending two weeks at Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield. A further three weeks were spent shooting at London Stansted Airport, with scenes also being filmed at Liverpool John Lennon Airport and Pinewood Studios. A "making of" documentary titled "Come Fly on the Wall" aired on BBC One on 8 February 2011. On 28 January 2011, the BBC announced it had commissioned a second series, but Walliams confirmed in January 2013 that a second series was not going to air.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: Series 1 of "Come Fly with Me" began airing on Christmas Day 2010 to mixed reviews from critics, and gained over 12.47 million viewers. The second episode, which aired on New Year's Day 2011, gained over 8.80 million viewers, while the remaining four episodes averaged around 7 million viewers throughout the rest of the series. The series began airing in the United States on BBC America on 18 June 2011, edited to fit a 30-minute time slot with commercials.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: "Come Fly on the Wall" discussed the making of "Come Fly with Me" with Walliams and Lucas. The programme featured clips from filming, outtakes and interviews with the show's creators as they developed the series. It featured pre production discussions and rehearsals, and showed the actors filming at some of the United Kingdom's busiest airports. It also showed Walliams and Lucas transforming into their new characters in the make up chair, and bringing them to life in front of the camera.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: On 28 January 2011, the BBC announced that the show had been commissioned for a second series. The new series was set to air during 2013. However, in January 2013, Walliams confirmed that a second series would not air, stating that Lucas did not wish to continue the show.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: In conjunction with the television episodes, a selection of extra online content was published on the programme website. The extra content, featuring some of the main characters played by Matt Lucas and David Walliams, was presented as spoof versions of real life airline websites, for example an on line check in service for fictional airline FlyLo, with Melody and Keeley. The content was written by Kevin Cecil, who also contributed to the television scripts. Cecil was inspired by his own work on comedy tie in books over the years.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: "Come Fly with Me" received mixed reviews, with the "Daily Express" calling it "the worst sketch show, or sitcom to have ever gone out on a Christmas Day" and expressed concern over its screening on the day, considering the perceived lack of quality. The "Daily Mirror", however, claimed it was a resounding success and the claims of racism and lack of humour made by the "Express" were unfounded and hypocritical.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: The show was the most watched comedy of 2010, with ten million viewers, but also had thousands of viewer complaints, and criticism for perceived racist content. It was the third most-watched show on Christmas Day in the United Kingdom.


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: In June 2020, "Come Fly With Me", alongside "Little Britain", was removed from Netflix for its use of blackface, brownface and yellowface; six months prior it had also been removed from BritBox. It had not been available on iPlayer. A spokesperson for the BBC said: "There’s a lot of historical programming available on BBC iPlayer, which we regularly review". On its decision to remove the shows, BritBox added: "Times have changed since "Little Britain" first aired, so it is not currently available on BritBox. Come Fly With Me has not been available on the service for six months".


title: Come Fly with Me (2010 TV series)

text: A Dutch version of the show was created, using an almost exact copy of the script and characters (translated to Dutch). It was broadcast on RTL 4 from August 2011.


title: New Covenant

text: The New Covenant (Hebrew ""; Greek "diatheke kaine") is a biblical interpretation which was originally derived from a phrase which is contained in the Book of Jeremiah (), in the Hebrew Bible (or the Old Testament of the Christian Bible).


title: New Covenant

text: Generally, Christians believe that the promised New Covenant was instituted at the Last Supper as part of the Eucharist, which, in the Gospel of John, includes the New Commandment. Based on the biblical passage which reads that, "For where a testament is, there must also of necessity be the death of the testator. For a testament is of force after men are dead: otherwise it is of no strength at all while the testator liveth", Protestants tend to believe that the New Covenant only came into force with the death of Jesus Christ. The commentary to the Roman Catholic New American Bible also affirms that Christ is the "testator whose death puts his will into effect". Thus, Christians believe that Jesus is the mediator of the New Covenant, and they also believe that the blood of Christ, which was shed during his crucifixion, is the only blood sacrifice which is required by the covenant.


title: New Covenant

text: There are several Christian eschatologies that further define the New Covenant. For example, an inaugurated eschatology defines and describes the New Covenant as an ongoing relationship between Christian believers and God that will be in full fruition after the Second Coming of Christ; that is, it will not only be in full fruition in believing hearts, it will also be in fruition in the future external world. The description of the connection between the blood of Christ and the New Covenant is contained in most modern English translations of the New Testament such as the passage which reads: "this cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood".


title: New Covenant

text: The key New Testament chapter for the Christian concept of the New Covenant is Hebrews chapter 8, a portion of which is quoted below:


title: New Covenant

text: That full quotation, with partial quotations of the same text in other New Testament passages, reflects that the authors of the New Testament and Christian leaders generally, consider to be a central Old Testament prophecy of the New Covenant. Here is the key text:


title: New Covenant

text: Some Christians claim that there are many other passages that speak about the same New Covenant without using this exact wording. Some passages speak of a "covenant of peace", others use other constructions; some simply say "covenant", but the context may imply that the New Covenant is at issue; and some claim metaphorical descriptions, for example that "Mount Zion" is really a metaphor for the New Covenant.


title: New Covenant

text: The occurrence of the phrase "new covenant" varies in English translations of the Greek New Testament. The King James Version sometimes uses "testament" for "covenant", with the words "new covenant" together only occurring in , and while in the New International Version "new covenant" occurs at , , , , and as a translation of some form of and or .


title: New Covenant

text: Luke 22:17–20 (part of the Last Supper) is disputed. Six forms of the text have been identified; for example, the Western text-type such as Codex Bezae omit verses 19b–20.


title: New Covenant

text: The Daniel 9:27 commentary found in the 1599 Geneva Bible connects the verse with the New King James Version translation of Matthew 26:28. In this interpretation, the angel Gabriel reveals the coming New Blood Covenant of the Messiah, which is the fulfillment of the promise that through Abraham's seed all the nations would be blessed. (Galatians 3:16, 26–29)


title: New Covenant

text: Christians view the New Covenant as a new relationship between God and humans mediated by Jesus upon sincere declaration that one believes in Jesus Christ as Lord and God. Some Protestant theologians teach that the New Covenant also breaks the generational curse of original sin on all children of Adam if they believe in Jesus Christ, after people are judged for their own sins, which is expected to happen with the Second Coming of Jesus Christ.


title: New Covenant

text: Most historic Christian Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Methodist Churches and Reformed Churches, have traditionally held that law in the Old Covenant has three components: ceremonial, moral, and civil (cf. covenant theology). They teach that while the ceremonial and civil (judicial) laws have been abolished, the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments still continues to bind Christian believers.


title: New Covenant

text: Dispensationalist theology, taught by certain denominations such as the Plymouth Brethren, present a view of the nature of Israel is that God's promises to Israel are distinct from the Church. The Church, in this present age, is in no way a "spiritual Israel". Some Christians, however, believe that the Church has inherited and absorbed God's promises to Israel, and that Israel is primarily a spiritual nation composed of Jews who claim Jesus as their Messiah, as well as Gentile believers who through the New Covenant have been grafted into the promises made to Israelites. This spiritual Israel is based on the faith of the patriarch Abraham (before he was circumcised) who was ministered by the Melchizedek priesthood, which is understood to be a type for the Christian faith of believing Jesus to be Christ and Lord in the order of Melchizedek. The Apostle Paul says that it is not "the children of the flesh" who are the children of God, but "the children of the promise". While Christ came as a priest in the order of Melchizedeck, which is to say without precedence, and fulfilled God's promise of a Messiah to the entire world whosoever believes, Dispensationalists believe that the body of God's promises concerning the future of Israel were to Israel alone, and should not be interpreted as being superimposed on the Church in the present age. God's remaining promises to Israel will come to fruition in the Millennium, the 1,000 year reign of Christ on Earth.


title: New Covenant

text: Among Christians, there are significant differences on the question of membership in the New Covenant. These differences can be so serious that they form a principal reason for division i.e., denominationalism. Christian denominations exist because of their answer to this question. The first major split is between those who believe that only believers are members of the New Covenant, and (reflecting the idea of the Jewish covenants as national or community covenants) those who believe that believers and their children are members of the New Covenant.


title: New Covenant

text: These differences give rise to different views on whether children may be baptised: the credobaptist view and the paedobaptist view. Secondarily, there are differences among paedobaptists as to the nature of the membership of children in the covenant.


title: New Covenant

text: Another difference is between those who believe the New Covenant has "already" substantially arrived (Preterists), and that this knowledge of God that the member of the New Covenant has is primarily salvific knowledge; and those that believe that the New Covenant has "not yet" substantially arrived, but will in the Second Coming, and that this knowledge is more complete knowledge, meaning a member of the New Covenant no longer has to be taught anything at all regarding the Christian life (not just that they lack need for exhortation regarding salvific reconciliation with God).


title: New Covenant

text: This division does not just break down along Jewish v. Christian lines (as the previous difference did). In general, those that are more likely to lean toward the "already view", or "salvific knowledge view", are those Christians that do not believe in the indivisible Church (the indivisible Church is a belief of Catholics and Orthodox) and Christians that practice believer's baptism, because both believe the New Covenant is more present reality than future reality. Also in general, those that lean toward the "not yet view", or "complete knowledge view", practice infant baptism for covenantal reasons, and dispensationalistic Christians (even though they tend to practice believer's baptism), because they believe the New Covenant is more future reality than present reality.


title: New Covenant

text: Supersessionism is the view that the New Covenant replaces, fulfills or completes God's prior covenants with the Israelites. The most common alternatives to Supersessionism are abrogation of old covenant laws and dual covenant theology.


title: New Covenant

text: Writers who reject the notion of supersessionism include Michael J. Vlach, Walter Brueggemann, Roland Edmund Murphy, and Jacques B. Doukhan.


title: New Covenant

text: This prophet's word refers to the Messianic Age to come (or World to come), in which the eternal Mosaic covenant with Israel will be confirmed. Of this Mosaic covenant between God and Israel the Shabbat is declared to be the sign forever (). The Tanakh describes Shabbat as having the purpose as a "taste" of Olam Haba (the world to come, the Hereafter) following the Messianic Age (the End of Days).


title: New Covenant

text: The Jewish view of the mere wording "new covenant" is no more than a renewed national commitment to abide by God's laws. In this view, the word "new" does not refer to a new commitment that replaces a previous one, but rather to an additional and greater level of commitment.


title: New Covenant

text: Because Jews view the Mosaic covenant as applying only to Jews and any New Covenant merely a strengthening of the already existing one, Jews do not see this phrase as relevant in any way to non-Jews. For non-Jews, Judaism advocates the pre-Sinaitic Seven Laws of Noah. "Unlike Christianity, Judaism does not deny salvation to those outside of its fold, for, according to Jewish law, all non-Jews who observe the Noahide laws will participate in salvation and in the rewards of the world to come".


title: New Covenant

text: In his 1962 work "The Prophets", Abraham Joshua Heschel points out that prophecy is not the only instrument of God to change the hearts of Israel, to know that he is God. He tells how the prophet Jeremiah complains that Israel is circumcised in body but "uncircumcised in heart" (9:26), that Jeremiah says "wash your heart from wickedness" (4:14). Heschel analyses that, while the prophet can only give Israel a new word, it is God himself who will give man a new heart: The "new covenant" will accomplish the complete transformation of every individual.


title: New Covenant

text: It is mentioned several times in the Mishna and Talmud, and had been used extensively in kabbalistic literature due to the gematria value of 135 being equal to the word "HaSinai" (הסיני) in . "Brit" also has the numeric value of 612, which is suggested by some to mean that it is the "first" mitzvah which is true for the Jewish life cycle. The other use is in relationship to the merit of Ruth being an ancestor to King David, with the name again having same gematria as Brit, linking Davidic covenant with that of all previous, since Ruth was a Moabite by birth, and related to Noah also.


title: New Covenant

text: The Quran mentions that God has made a new covenant of sorts with the Christians but they "neglected part of it" and were consequently punished for that.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das (Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਰਾਮ ਦਾਸ, pronunciation: ; 24 September 1534 – 1 September 1581) was the fourth of the ten Gurus of Sikhism. He was born in a family based in Lahore. His birth name was Jetha, and he was orphaned at age seven; he there after grew up with his maternal grandmother in a village.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: At age 12, Bhai Jetha and his grandmother moved to Goindval, where they met Guru Amar Das. The boy thereafter accepted Guru Amar Das as his mentor and served him. The daughter of Guru Amar Das married Bhai Jetha, and he thus became part of Guru Amar Das's family. As with the first two Gurus of Sikhism, Guru Amar Das instead of choosing his own sons, chose Bhai Jetha, owing to Bhai Jetha's exemplary service, selfless devotion and unquestioning obedience to the commands of the Guru, as his successor and renamed him as Ram Das or "servant of god."


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das became the Guru of Sikhism in 1574 and served as the 4th guru until he gave up his body to transcend the material world in 1581. He faced hostility from the sons of Guru Amar Das, and shifted his official base to lands identified by Guru Amar Das as "Guru-ka-Chak". This newly founded town was eponymous Ramdaspur, later to evolve and be renamed as Amritsar – the holiest city of Sikhism. He is also remembered in the Sikh tradition for expanding the "manji" organization for clerical appointments and donation collections to theologically and economically support the Sikh movement. He appointed his own son as his successor, and unlike the first four Gurus who were not related through descent, the fifth through tenth Sikh Gurus were the direct descendants of Guru Ram Das.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Bhai Jetha was born on 24 September 1534 in a family belonging to the Sodhi gotra (clan) of the Khatri caste in Chuna Mandi, Lahore. His father Sri Hari Das and mother Mata Daya both died when he was aged seven. his grandmother took him to her village, Besarke, Ram Das lived there for five years.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Amar Das was then living at Khadur at the sangat of Guru Angad. Ram Das went to Khadur in 1546, attended Guru Angad's sangats, and developed great liking for the Guru and Amar Das. When Guru Amar Das settled at Goindwal in 1552, Ram Das also moved to the new township, and spent Most of his time at the guru's darbar, In 1553, he married Bibi Bhani, the younger daughter of Amar Das. They had three sons: Prithi Chand, Mahadev and Guru Arjan.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das is credited with founding the holy city of Amritsar in the Sikh tradition. Two versions of stories exist regarding the land where Guru Ram Das settled. In one based on a Gazetteer record, the land was purchased with Sikh donations, for 700 rupees from the owners of the village of Tung.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: According to the Sikh historical records, the site was chosen by Guru Amar Das and called Guru Da Chakk, after he had asked Guru Ram Das to find land to start a new town with a man made pool as its central point. After his coronation in 1574, and the hostile opposition he faced from the sons of Sri Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das founded the town named after him as "Ramdaspur". He started by completing the pool, and building his new official Guru centre and home next to it. He invited merchants and artisans from other parts of India to settle into the new town with him. The town expanded during the time of Guru Arjan financed by donations and constructed by voluntary work. The town grew to become the city of Amritsar, and the pool area grew into a temple complex after his son built the gurdwara Harmandir Sahib, and installed the scripture of Sikhism inside the new temple in 1604.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: The construction activity between 1574 and 1604 is described in "Mahima Prakash Vartak", a semi-historical Sikh hagiography text likely composed in 1741, and the earliest known document dealing with the lives of all the ten Gurus.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das composed 638 hymns, or about ten percent of hymns in the Guru Granth Sahib. He was a celebrated poet, and composed his work in 30 ancient "ragas" of Indian classical music.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das, along with Guru Amar Das, are credited with various parts of the "Anand" and "Laavan" composition in "Suhi" mode. It is a part of the ritual of four clockwise circumambulation of the Sikh scripture by the bride and groom to solemnize the marriage in Sikh tradition. This was intermittently used, and its use lapsed in late 18th century. However, sometime in 19th or 20th century by conflicting accounts, the composition of Guru Ram Das came back in use along with Anand Karaj ceremony, replacing the Hindu ritual of circumambulation around the fire. The composition of Guru Ram emerged to be one of the bases of the British colonial era Anand Marriage Act of 1909.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: The wedding hymn was composed by Guru Ram Das for his own daughter's wedding. The first stanza of the Laavan hymn by Guru Ram Das refers to the duties of the householder's life to accept the Guru's word as guide, remember the Divine Name. The second verse and circle reminds the singular One is encountered everywhere and in the depths of the self. The third speaks of the Divine Love. The fourth reminds that the union of the two is the union of the individual with the Infinite.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: While Guru Amar Das introduced the "manji" system of religious organization, Guru Ram Das extended it with adding the "masand" institution. The "masand" were Sikh community leaders who lived far from the Guru, but acted to lead the distant congregations, their mutual interactions and collect revenue for Sikh activities and Gurudwara building. This institutional organization famously helped grow Sikhism in the decades that followed, but became infamous in the era of later Gurus, for its corruption and its misuse in financing rival Sikh movements in times of succession disputes.


title: Guru Ram Das

text: Guru Ram Das died on 1 September 1581, in Goindwal, he nominated his younger son, Arjan Dev, as his successor. The Guru's eldest son Prithi Chand vehemently protested against his father suppression. The second son Mahadev did not press his claim. Prithi Chand used offensive language to his father, and then informed Baba Budhha that his father had acted inappropriately, the guruship was his own right. He vowed that he would remove Guru Arjan, and make himself the Guru. Later Prithi Chand created a rival faction which the Sikhs following Guru Arjan called Minas literally, "scoundrels"), and is alleged to have attempted to assassinate young Hargobind. However, alternate competing texts written by the Prithi Chand led Sikh faction to offer a different story, contradict this explanation on Hargobind's life, and present the elder son of Guru Ram Das as devoted to his younger brother Guru Arjan. The competing texts do acknowledge disagreement and describe Prithi Chand as having become the Sahib Guru after the martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev and disputing the succession of Guru Hargobind, the grandson of Guru Ram Das.


title: Gold coin

text: A gold coin is a coin that is made mostly or entirely of gold. Most gold coins minted since 1800 are 90–92% gold (22karat), while most of today's gold bullion coins are pure gold, such as the Britannia, Canadian Maple Leaf, and American Buffalo. Alloyed gold coins, like the American Gold Eagle and South African Krugerrand, are typically 91.7% gold by weight, with the remainder being silver and copper.


title: Gold coin

text: Traditionally (up to about the 1930s), gold coins have been circulation coins, including coin-like bracteates and dinars. In recent decades, however, gold coins are mainly produced as bullion coins for investors and as commemorative coins for collectors. While modern gold coins are still legal tender, they are not observed in everyday financial transactions, as the metal value normally exceeds the nominal value. For example, the American Gold Eagle has a denomination of 10 USD, but a metal value of more than $800 USD (being around a half an ounce).


title: Gold coin

text: The gold reserves of central banks are dominated by gold bars, but gold coins may occasionally contribute.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold has been used as money for many reasons. It is fungible, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell. Gold is also easily transportable, as it has a high value-to-weight ratio compared to other commodities such as silver. Gold can be re-coined, divided into smaller units, or melted into larger units such as gold bars, without destroying its metal value. The density of gold is higher than most other metals, making it difficult to pass counterfeits. Additionally, gold is extremely unreactive chemically: it does not tarnish or corrode over time.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold was used in commerce (beside other precious metals) in the Ancient Near East since the Bronze Age, but coins proper originated much later, during the 6th century BC, in Anatolia. The name of king Croesus of Lydia remains associated with the invention (although the Parian Chronicle mentions Pheidon of Argos as a contender). In 546 BC, Croesus was captured by the Persians, who adopted gold as the main metal for their coins. The most valuable of all Persian minted coinage still remains the gold drams, minted in 1 AD as a gift by the Persian King Vonones (Matthew 2.1–23). Ancient Greek coinage contained a number of gold coins issued by the various city states.


title: Gold coin

text: The Ying yuan is an early gold coin minted in ancient China. The oldest ones known are from about the 5th or 6th century BC.


title: Gold coin

text: Larger units such as the various talent measures (26 to up to 60 kg) were used for high value exchanges (similar to today's 400-troy-ounce (12.4 kg) "good delivery" gold bullion bar).


title: Gold coin

text: The German gold mark was introduced in 1873 in the German Empire, replacing the various local Gulden coins of the Holy Roman Empire.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold coins then had a very long period as a primary form of money, only falling into disuse in the early 20th century. Most of the world stopped making gold coins as currency by 1933, as countries switched from the gold standard due to hoarding during the worldwide economic crisis of the Great Depression. In the United States, 1933's Executive Order 6102 forbade the hoarding of gold and was followed by a devaluation of the dollar relative to gold, although the United States did not completely uncouple the dollar from the value of gold until 1971.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold-colored coins have made a comeback in many currencies. However, "gold coin" (in numismatic terminology) always refers to a coin that is (more or less) made of gold, and does not include coins made of manganese brass or other alloys. Furthermore, many countries continue to make legal tender gold coins, but these are primarily meant for collectors and investment purposes and are not meant for circulation.


title: Gold coin

text: In 2007, the Royal Canadian Mint produced a gold coin with a face value of $1,000,000, though the gold content was worth over $2 million at the time. It measures in diameter and is thick. It was intended as a one-off to promote a new line of Canadian Gold Maple Leaf coins, but after several interested buyers came forward the mint announced it would manufacture them as ordered and sell them for between $2.5 million and $3 million. As of May 3, 2007, there were five orders. One of these coins was stolen when it was on exhibition at the Bode Museum in Berlin.


title: Gold coin

text: Austria had previously produced a diameter 31 kg Philharmonic gold coin with a face value of €100,000.


title: Gold coin

text: In 2012 the Royal Canadian Mint produced the world first gold coin with a 0.11–0.14 ct diamond. The Queen's Diamond Jubilee coin has been crafted in 99.999% pure gold with a face value of $300.


title: Gold coin

text: The largest legal tender gold coin ever produced was unveiled in 2012 by the Perth Mint in Western Australia. Known as the "1 Tonne Gold Kangaroo Coin" and with a face value of one million dollars, it contains one tonne of 9999 pure gold, and is approximately 80 cm in diameter by 12 cm thick.


title: Gold coin

text: Many factors determine the value of a gold coin, such as its rarity, age, condition and the number originally minted. Most gold coins minted since the late 19th century are worth slightly more than spot price, but many are worth significantly more. Gold coins coveted by collectors include the Aureus, Solidus and Spur Ryal.


title: Gold coin

text: In July 2002, a very rare $20 1933 Double Eagle gold coin sold for a record $7,590,020 at Sotheby's, making it by far the most valuable coin ever sold up to that time (a 1794 Flowing Hair Dollar sold for over $10 million in January 2013). In early 1933, more than 445,000 Double Eagle coins were struck by the U.S. Mint, but most of these were surrendered and melted down following Executive Order 6102. Only a few coins survived.


title: Gold coin

text: On October 4, 2007, David Albanese (president of Albanese Rare Coins) stated that a $10, 1804-dated eagle coin (made for President Andrew Jackson as a diplomatic gift) was sold to an anonymous private collector for $5 million.


title: Gold coin

text: Precious metals in bulk form are known as bullion, and are traded on commodity markets. While obsolete gold coins are primarily collected for their numismatic value, gold bullion coins today derive their value from the metal (gold) content, and, as such, are viewed by some investors as a "hedge" against inflation or a store of value.


title: Gold coin

text: Many nations mint bullion coins. According to British HM Revenue & Customs investment coins are generally coins that have been minted after 1800, have a purity of not less than 900 thousandths, or have been legal tender in its country of origin. Although nominally issued as legal tender, these coins' face value as currency is far below that of their value as bullion.


title: Gold coin

text: The European Commission publishes annually a list of gold coins which must be treated as investment gold coins in all EU Member States. The list has legal force and supplements the law. In the United Kingdom, HM Revenue and Customs have added an additional list of gold coins alongside the European Commission list. These are gold coins that HM Revenue & Customs recognise as falling within the exemption for investment gold coins. This second list does not have legal force.


title: Gold coin

text: South Africa introduced the Krugerrand in 1967 to cater to this market; this was the reason for its convenient and memorable gold content – exactly one troy ounce. It was the first modern, low-premium (i.e. priced only slightly above the bullion value of the gold) gold bullion coin. Bullion coins are also produced in fractions of an ounce – typically half ounce, quarter ounce, and one-tenth ounce.


title: Gold coin

text: Bullion coins sometimes carry a nominal face value as legal tender, which is minted on the coin. However, their real value is measured as dictated by their troy weight, the current market price of the precious metal contained, and the prevailing premium that market wishes to pay for those particular bullion coins. The face value is always significantly less than the bullion value of the coin.


title: Gold coin

text: Legal tender bullion coins are a separate entity to bullion gold. One enjoys legal tender status, the latter is merely a raw commodity. Gold has an international currency code of XAU under ISO 4217. ISO 4217 includes codes not only for currencies, but also for precious metals (gold, silver, palladium and platinum; by definition expressed per one troy ounce.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold bullion coins usually come in 1oz, 1/2oz, 1/4oz, 1/10oz, and 1/20oz sizes. Most countries have one design that remains constant each year; others (such as the Chinese Panda coins) have variations each year, and in most cases each coin is dated. A 1/10oz bullion coin is about the same size as a U.S. dime. A 1oz gold bullion coin is about the size of a U.S. half dollar.


title: Gold coin

text: Circulating gold coins were usually made of an alloy as other metals are mixed into the coin to make it more durable. Fineness is the actual gold content in a coin or bar and expressed as a "per mil", or thousandths. For example, a gold ingot or coin identified as being .999 fine will be 999/1000 pure gold, with the other 1/1000 being impurities.


title: Gold coin

text: Crown gold is the name given to .9167 (or 22-karat) fine gold used in sovereigns and American Gold Eagles. Meanwhile, the United States have historically struck gold coins with .900 fine gold. Most bullion coins are minted from .999 or finer gold.


title: Gold coin

text: For most of history, coins were valued based on the precious metal they contain. Whether a coin was actually made by the party as claimed was of secondary importance compared to whether it contains the correct amount of metal – that is, correct weight and fineness (purity). Genuine appearance was simply a convenient shortcut to avoid time-consuming tests in everyday transactions.


title: Gold coin

text: Gold is denser than almost all other metals, hence hard to fake. A determination of weight and volume is in many cases sufficient to spot forgeries. A coin that is not gold or below the expected fineness will either have the right size but will have a lower than expected weight or it weighs right and will be somewhat larger. Most metals that are of similar or higher density than gold are similarly or more expensive, and were unknown in ancient times (notably the platinum group). During the 19th century platinum was cheaper than gold and was used for counterfeiting gold coins. These coins could be detected by acoustic properties. Only two relatively inexpensive substances are of similar density to gold: depleted uranium and tungsten. Depleted uranium is government-regulated, but tungsten is more commonly available and suited for counterfeiting. Alloying gold with tungsten would not work for several reasons, but tungsten plated with a thin layer of gold is a common type of forgery.


title: Gold coin

text: Bullion coin counterfeits (of all types) used to be rare and fairly easy to detect when comparing their weights, colors and sizes to authentic pieces. This is because the cost of reproducing any given coin precisely can exceed the market value of the originals. However, since about 2015 counterfeit coins are "flooding the market at an astonishing rate" and "it's gotten to the point where even people who deal with coins all the time may not be able to recognize a counterfeit coin right away" (American Numismatic Association (ANA), 2016). The coins consist mostly of tungsten plated thinly with gold, have the correct weight, correct or near-correct dimensions and are professionally produced in China.


title: Gold coin

text: The weight and dimensions of a coin of .999 fineness such as the Maple Leaf cannot be replicated precisely by a gold plated tungsten core, since tungsten has only 99.74% of the specific gravity of gold. However, forgeries of alloyed gold coins (such as American Gold Eagle or Krugerrand made from a crown gold alloy with 22 karats = .917 fineness) may have the correct weight and dimensions because of the lesser density of the alloy. Such forgeries can be detected testing the acoustic, electric resistance or magnetic properties. The latter method uses the fact that gold is weakly diamagnetic and tungsten is weakly paramagnetic. The effect is weak so that testing requires strong neodymium magnets and sensitive conditions (e.g., a gold coin hanging from 2 m long pendulum or placed on styrofoam floating on water), such tests can be performed without special equipment. Forgeries using gold plated tungsten are also used in counterfeiting of gold bars.


title: Gold coin

text: The rationale for biting a coin was the supposed widespread dissemination of gold plated lead coins in the 19th century. Since lead is much softer than gold, biting the coins is a sensible test for counterfeiting. While fine gold is softer than alloyed gold, and galvanized lead is softer, biting coins can only detect the crudest of forgeries. And all "gold" coins minted for circulation in the UK and America since the Tudor period (1485–1603) contained copper which made them more durable and thus hard to bite.


title: Gold coin

text: Biting a coin to determine whether it is genuine or counterfeit is a widespread cliché depicted in many films (like the 1917 "The Immigrant"), books (like the 1925 "L'Or" by Blaise Cendrars) and plays (like the 1938 "Mother Courage" which is set in the Thirty Years' War 1618–1648). According to a 2017 study, the assumed widespread practice of pirates biting into a coin is almost certainly a Hollywood myth.


title: Gold coin

text: "The origin of the tradition must therefore be older. In medieval times gold coins were made of the purest gold possible for both prestige and practical reason"


title: Gold coin

text: "This cliché might find its origin in the crude testing method used by American prospectors during the 19th century gold rush. They bit the gold nuggets they found to be sure that they were not fool's gold"


title: Gold coin

text: Olympic champions often pose biting their gold medals, even though the medals are no longer made of solid gold. Only at three Olympics (in 1904, 1908 and 1912) were medals made of solid gold, but were also smaller. David Wallechinsky commented in 2012 that "It's become an obsession with the photographers. I think they look at it as an iconic shot, as something that you can probably sell. I don't think it's something the athletes would probably do on their own."


title: Gold coin

text: There are well made counterfeit gold coins in circulation. For example, the St. Gaudens Double Eagle omega counterfeit is infamous for its complexity and has fooled many numismatics experts.


title: Gold coin

text: Another example is the US $20 gold coin ("double eagle"), which has raised lettering around its rim. If the coin is uncirculated, the letters will be flat on top. If slightly rounded, and the coin is uncirculated, it is a counterfeit. There are other counterfeit double eagles in which the gold and copper alloy was not thoroughly mixed. These counterfeits will have a slightly mottled appearance.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: In molecular biology and genetics, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings through the cell membrane(s). For transformation to take place, the recipient bacterium must be in a state of competence, which might occur in nature as a time-limited response to environmental conditions such as starvation and cell density, and may also be induced in a laboratory.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Transformation is one of three processes that lead to horizontal gene transfer, in which exogenous genetic material passes from one bacterium to another, the other two being conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact) and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage virus into the host bacterium). In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: As of 2014 about 80 species of bacteria were known to be capable of transformation, about evenly divided between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; the number might be an overestimate since several of the reports are supported by single papers.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: "Transformation" may also be used to describe the insertion of new genetic material into nonbacterial cells, including animal and plant cells; however, because "transformation" has a special meaning in relation to animal cells, indicating progression to a cancerous state, the process is usually called "transfection".


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Transformation in bacteria was first demonstrated in 1928 by the British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith. Griffith was interested in determining whether injections of heat-killed bacteria could be used to vaccinate mice against pneumonia. However, he discovered that a non-virulent strain of "Streptococcus pneumoniae" could be made virulent after being exposed to heat-killed virulent strains. Griffith hypothesized that some "transforming principle" from the heat-killed strain was responsible for making the harmless strain virulent. In 1944 this "transforming principle" was identified as being genetic by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty. They isolated DNA from a virulent strain of "S. pneumoniae" and using just this DNA were able to make a harmless strain virulent. They called this uptake and incorporation of DNA by bacteria "transformation" (See Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment) The results of Avery et al.'s experiments were at first skeptically received by the scientific community and it was not until the development of genetic markers and the discovery of other methods of genetic transfer (conjugation in 1947 and transduction in 1953) by Joshua Lederberg that Avery's experiments were accepted.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: It was originally thought that "Escherichia coli", a commonly used laboratory organism, was refractory to transformation. However, in 1970, Morton Mandel and Akiko Higa showed that "E. coli" may be induced to take up DNA from bacteriophage λ without the use of helper phage after treatment with calcium chloride solution. Two years later in 1972, Stanley Norman Cohen, Annie Chang and Leslie Hsu showed that treatment is also effective for transformation of plasmid DNA. The method of transformation by Mandel and Higa was later improved upon by Douglas Hanahan. The discovery of artificially induced competence in "E. coli" created an efficient and convenient procedure for transforming bacteria which allows for simpler molecular cloning methods in biotechnology and research, and it is now a routinely used laboratory procedure.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Transformation using electroporation was developed in the late 1980s, increasing the efficiency of in-vitro transformation and increasing the number of bacterial strains that could be transformed. Transformation of animal and plant cells was also investigated with the first transgenic mouse being created by injecting a gene for a rat growth hormone into a mouse embryo in 1982. In 1897 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, "Agrobacterium tumefaciens", was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor-inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid. By removing the genes in the plasmid that caused the tumor and adding in novel genes, researchers were able to infect plants with "A. tumefaciens" and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants. Not all plant cells are susceptible to infection by "A. tumefaciens", so other methods were developed, including electroporation and micro-injection. Particle bombardment was made possible with the invention of the Biolistic Particle Delivery System (gene gun) by John Sanford in the 1980s.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Transformation is one of three forms of horizontal gene transfer that occur in nature among bacteria, in which DNA encoding for a trait passes from one bacterium to another and is integrated into the recipient genome by homologous recombination; the other two are transduction, carried out by means of a bacteriophage, and conjugation, in which a gene is passed through direct contact between bacteria. In transformation, the genetic material passes through the intervening medium, and uptake is completely dependent on the recipient bacterium.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Competence refers to a temporary state of being able to take up exogenous DNA from the environment; it may be induced in a laboratory.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: It appears to be an ancient process inherited from a common prokaryotic ancestor that is a beneficial adaptation for promoting recombinational repair of DNA damage, especially damage acquired under stressful conditions. Natural genetic transformation appears to be an adaptation for repair of DNA damage that also generates genetic diversity.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Transformation has been studied in medically important Gram-negative bacteria species such as "Helicobacter pylori", "Legionella pneumophila", "Neisseria meningitidis", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "Haemophilus influenzae" and "Vibrio cholerae". It has also been studied in Gram-negative species found in soil such as "Pseudomonas stutzeri", "Acinetobacter baylyi", and Gram-negative plant pathogens such as "Ralstonia solanacearum" and "Xylella fastidiosa". Transformation among Gram-positive bacteria has been studied in medically important species such as "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Streptococcus mutans", "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Streptococcus sanguinis" and in Gram-positive soil bacterium "Bacillus subtilis". It has also been reported in at least 30 species of "Pseudomonadota" distributed in several different classes. The best studied "Pseudomonadota" with respect to transformation are the medically important human pathogens "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "Haemophilus influenzae", and "Helicobacter pylori".


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Naturally competent bacteria carry sets of genes that provide the protein machinery to bring DNA across the cell membrane(s). The transport of the exogenous DNA into the cells may require proteins that are involved in the assembly of type IV pili and type II secretion system, as well as DNA translocase complex at the cytoplasmic membrane.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Due to the differences in structure of the cell envelope between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, there are some differences in the mechanisms of DNA uptake in these cells, however most of them share common features that involve related proteins. The DNA first binds to the surface of the competent cells on a DNA receptor, and passes through the cytoplasmic membrane via DNA translocase. Only single-stranded DNA may pass through, the other strand being degraded by nucleases in the process. The translocated single-stranded DNA may then be integrated into the bacterial chromosomes by a RecA-dependent process. In Gram-negative cells, due to the presence of an extra membrane, the DNA requires the presence of a channel formed by secretins on the outer membrane. Pilin may be required for competence, but its role is uncertain. The uptake of DNA is generally non-sequence specific, although in some species the presence of specific DNA uptake sequences may facilitate efficient DNA uptake.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Natural transformation is a bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that depends on the expression of numerous bacterial genes whose products appear to be responsible for this process. In general, transformation is a complex, energy-requiring developmental process. In order for a bacterium to bind, take up and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become competent, that is, enter a special physiological state. Competence development in "Bacillus subtilis" requires expression of about 40 genes. The DNA integrated into the host chromosome is usually (but with rare exceptions) derived from another bacterium of the same species, and is thus homologous to the resident chromosome.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: In "B. subtilis" the length of the transferred DNA is greater than 1271 kb (more than 1 million bases). The length transferred is likely double stranded DNA and is often more than a third of the total chromosome length of 4215 kb. It appears that about 7-9% of the recipient cells take up an entire chromosome.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: The capacity for natural transformation appears to occur in a number of prokaryotes, and thus far 67 prokaryotic species (in seven different phyla) are known to undergo this process.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: Competence for transformation is typically induced by high cell density and/or nutritional limitation, conditions associated with the stationary phase of bacterial growth. Transformation in "Haemophilus influenzae" occurs most efficiently at the end of exponential growth as bacterial growth approaches stationary phase. Transformation in "Streptococcus mutans", as well as in many other streptococci, occurs at high cell density and is associated with biofilm formation. Competence in "B. subtilis" is induced toward the end of logarithmic growth, especially under conditions of amino acid limitation. Similarly, in "Micrococcus luteus" (a representative of the less well studied "Actinomycetota" phylum), competence develops during the mid-late exponential growth phase and is also triggered by amino acids starvation.


title: Transformation (genetics)

text: By releasing intact host and plasmid DNA, certain bacteriophages are thought to contribute to transformation.