title: Metrication in the United States

text: A novelty American football game was attempted in metric units in 1977. That concept failed to gain acceptance.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Bicycles, especially at the high end, are increasingly being sold and sized in metric units. For example, a frame described as "21 inch" size in the past is now often labeled as a "53 cm" frame instead. Some bicycle wheels are labeled in metric as "700c" for a nominal 700 mm diameter road bike tire, but mountain bike wheels are still often sold in inches (26, 27.5, or 29 inches).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Common swimming pool dimensions are 25-yard, 25-meter, and 50-meter. The Olympic-size swimming pool is specified solely in meters. High schools and the NCAA conduct 25-yard competitions. USA Swimming (USA-S) swims in both metric and non-metric pools.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The long-distance trail Mid State Trail has used metric units exclusively in its trail guide since 1973.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: USA Weightlifting uses metric units to measure weight. Weights and dumbbells at gyms are labeled in pounds.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Highway speed limits are posted in miles per hour and distances are largely displayed in miles, yards, or feet, although a few dual mile/km signs can be found, mostly remaining from demonstration projects that are no longer supported. One exception is Interstate 19 in Arizona, which is almost completely signed in metric, except for speed limit signs. Signage on this road is being converted back to customary units as it is replaced. Another exception is the turnpike section of Delaware Route 1, which uses a kilometer-based system, in anticipation of the mid-1990s conversion in the U.S. to the metric system, which did not happen. Distances were originally signed in kilometers, but have since been replaced with miles in 1995 and standard mile-markers in 2003. The exit numbers have remained metric starting at Dover Air Force Base northward to Interstate 95.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The 2000, 2003, and 2004 editions of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices were published using both metric and US customary units. Metric signs, including speed signs in kilometers per hour, were displayed in the manual although they were not normally used on the roads and there was no definite plan to convert to metric. For visual distinction, regulatory and advisory metric speed signs have black circles around the numbers followed by "km/h" and other regulatory metric signs have yellow plates reading "METRIC" in black on top of the main signs. Metric signs and metric measurements were removed for the 2009 edition and replaced with an appendix of metric conversion tables. This is in marked contrast to the position in the (largely metric) United Kingdom, where metric road signs are prohibited by law (except for those denoting widths and height restrictions, which include both metric and imperial units).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Newer signs on state highways on the Hawaiian island of Kauai also include distances in both miles and kilometers. Mile markers along highways on the Island of Hawaii will indicate both units whenever the "whole" kilometer corresponds approximately with the "whole" mile (e.g., 5 mi/8 km). In Houston, Texas, many speed limits have km/h signs underneath the MPH signs. These are located near both airports (Bush Intercontinental and Hobby) and in the Texas Medical Center. The U.S. territory of Puerto Rico generally uses American-style (MUTCD) signs with metric measurement on highways, displaying kilometer posts and distances in km, yet speed limit signs are in miles per hour. The Maine Turnpike has metric measurements on its highway signs in addition to customary measurements, partly to assist the large numbers of Canadian tourists who visit Maine's beaches.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The first signs in metric in the United States were posted on February 12, 1973, on Interstate 71 in Ohio.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Gasoline and diesel fuel are sold by the U.S. gallon, and fuel economy is rated in miles per gallon (MPG). In most other countries, using the metric system, fuel consumption is measured in liters per 100kilometers or kilometers per liter. The European Union official standard is liters per . Stations in Point Roberts, Washington, a short, noncontiguous peninsula that is accessible from the rest of the state of Washington only by crossing into Canada, sells its gasoline from pumps calibrated to dispense in liters. Gasoline is dispensed in liters in Puerto Rico. Automobile crankcase oil is sold by the quart, antifreeze by the gallon, brake fluid by the ounce (fluid), and air conditioning refrigerant by the ounce (mass). Windshield wiper replacement blades are measured in inches.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Domestic airline flights are assigned altitudes in feet and measure speed in knots. Nautical charts show depth in fathoms and use the nautical mile for distance. (One minute of arc of latitude at the radius of the earth at sea level was the standard for one nautical mile until about 1929. The nautical mile is now defined as exactly 1,852 meters.) Railroads use the standard gauge of 4 feet inches, as does most of Europe (where it is expressed instead as 1,435 mm).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: U.S. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 101, which governs vehicle controls and displays, permits speedometers to display miles per hour (MPH) or both MPH and km/h. In practice, most U.S.-market vehicles have mile odometers and dual-labeled speedometers with miles-per-hour as the primary calibration. Some 2000s era Buicks have a single speed gauge with a button on the instrument panel to switch the scale between MPH and km/h. Other vehicles have digital speedometers which can be set to read out speeds in either MPH or km/h.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Another common unit of speed is meters per second (m/s), used especially for lifts and cable cars. Odometers are permitted to record miles or kilometers, but must be clearly labeled as to which unit they record.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Tire inflation for passenger cars is typically about 30 pounds per square inch (psi) or 207 kilopascals (kPa). This is displayed on tires beside its metric equivalent. Post model year 2006 regulations also mandate an internationally standard "Tire and Loading Information" sticker which gives capacities in SI units followed by customary equivalents.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: For properties understood more recently, such as those related to electricity, there is no traditional unit; international units are always used, often in combination with U.S. customary units. One among many examples is in Table 8, chapter 9, of the "National Electrical Code Handbook (8th ed.)", where resistance of conductors per unit length is given in ohms per thousand feet.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Other units are based on customary units, but use power-of-ten factors and metric prefixes. For example, distance to target for a U.S. submarine is expressed in kiloyards (kyd) rather than some combination of miles, yards, and feet. Telephone transmission line length and loop distances are measured in kilofeet. In some fields of civil engineering (especially structural engineering), and architecture, large loads and forces (such as the weight of a building or the amount of load applied to a column) are measured in kips (kilopounds or 1000 pounds-force) instead of short tons-force (2000 pounds-force), which are used in virtually all other non-metric industries in the United States, as well as in common usage among the public, when dealing with large values of force.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The continuing use of U.S. customary units has caused writers to speculate in fiction set in the future about the adoption of the metric system. Many authors have assumed that the United States and the human race in general will use metric units. Others have assumed the continued use of U.S. customary units or have neglected to take metrication into account. Writers sometimes use customary units simply because American readers and watchers will understand the measurements; other times, they are simply used by accident. The 1966 show "", for instance, initially used U.S. customary units despite multiple Earth national origins and a setting in the 23rd century. Later, starting with "", metric measures were used, albeit inconsistently. Later sequels of the show, such as "", and "" (set in the 22nd century), used the metric system exclusively.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Both the metric system and attitudes in the U.S. toward the metric system are a target of humorous jabs in shows such as "The Simpsons", "Futurama" and "The Big Bang Theory". A "Saturday Night Live" sketch titled "Decabet", released at the height of the metrication movement, lampooned the different metric measurements by introducing a new alphabet consisting of only ten letters.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In the 1994 film "Pulp Fiction", Vincent Vega (John Travolta) tells Jules Winnfield (Samuel L. Jackson) that "Europe is a little different", because for example in Paris, they don't call it a "Quarter Pounder with Cheese" but a "Royale with Cheese" as "they've got the metric system, they don't know what the fuck a Quarter Pounder is". Later, Jules compliments the intelligence of one of their victims, after he correctly surmises that French use of the metric system is what precludes the term "Quarter Pounder."


title: Metrication in the United States

text: "Popular Science"'s September 2003 edition listed NIST's "Metric System Advocate" on its list of the "Worst Jobs in Science".


title: Lauri Peters

text: Lauri Peters (born Patricia Peterson; July 2, 1943) is an American actress, dancer, singer, drama teacher, and author.


title: Lauri Peters

text: Peters created the role of Liesl Von Trapp in the original 1959 Broadway production of "The Sound of Music". She received a Tony Award nomination for Best Supporting or Featured Actress in a Musical, which she shared with her sibling castmates. She was married to actor Jon Voight (1962–67), whom she met when he joined the cast as Nazi messenger boy Rolfe, with whom Liesl shares a song ("Sixteen Going on Seventeen") and an attraction. She can be heard on the show's cast album, which has sold more than three million copies in the US.


title: Lauri Peters

text: In Britain, she is probably best known as Cliff Richard's romantic lead in the 1963 film "Summer Holiday". On film, she also acted alongside Fabian, James Stewart, and Sidney Poitier.


title: Lauri Peters

text: She appeared as Moll in the revival of Marc Blitzstein's "The Cradle Will Rock" directed by Howard Da Silva.


title: Lauri Peters

text: Although she worked primarily in the theater, on and off Broadway, and in touring companies, she also appeared on popular television shows of the 1960s and '70s, including "Gunsmoke", where she was featured as “Allie”, an innocent girl stuck in a poor family of eight (with a father and brother who were future-less lazy, whiners), yet she somehow remained kind and caring, as well as falling hard for her heartthrob, Marshall Dillon in the episode “Take Her, She’s Cheap” (S10E6).


title: Lauri Peters

text: That was after her first starring role on "Gunsmoke" in 1964 (S9E20) as the title character “Mayblossom”, portraying Festus’s cousin (who was promised to him for marriage), but who also falls prey to being violated by a townsman.


title: Lauri Peters

text: With acting teacher Sanford Meisner, Peters founded the Meisner Extension at New York University in 1993, where she was artistic director and master teacher. Teaching the technique away from Manhattan, she has written a book on Meisner.


title: Brennan Elliott

text: Brennan Elliott (born March 24, 1975) is a Canadian actor, best known for his role as Dr. Nick Biancavilla in the Lifetime medical drama series, "Strong Medicine" (2000-2004). Elliott later had recurring roles on "The 4400", "Cedar Cove" and "UnREAL".


title: Brennan Elliott

text: Elliott was born in Calgary, Alberta, Canada of Clan Eliott. His father's family originated in North of Ireland. He was educated at the prestigious Actors Studio at the Juilliard School in New York City. One of Elliott's first screen appearances was in the music video for Tom Cochrane's 1991 song "Life is a Highway".


title: Brennan Elliott

text: Elliott is best known as Dr. Nick Biancavilla in Lifetime's "Strong Medicine". Among his most prominent roles are his leading roles in the 1999 movie "The Silencer" and "G-Saviour" from 2000. Additionally, he had a role in the horror film, "Curse of Chucky" and a cameo role in the 2014 film "".


title: Brennan Elliott

text: After appearing in episodes of Canadian television series like "Madison", "Viper", "The Outer Limits", "Welcome to Paradox", "First Wave", "The Net" and "" in the 1990s, Elliott has appeared in episodes of American television series like "Monk", "House M.D.", "Criminal Minds", "", "The 4400", "Cold Case", "What About Brian", "Castle" and "Desperate Housewives". Elliott appeared on "Grey's Anatomy" as the father of a son who is a drug abuser. He made appearances in the series "Ghost Whisperer" and "Private Practice" and starred as 9/11 hero Todd Beamer in "Flight 93".


title: Brennan Elliott

text: In 2013, Elliott began starring as Warren Saget on the Hallmark Channel series, "Cedar Cove". In 2015, he was cast in the recurring role of reality dating show host Graham in the Lifetime drama series, "UnREAL".


title: Miyu Irino

text: On 06/24/2009, Irino made his debut as an artist under Kiramune label with his first mini album「Soleil」.Irino is one of the first Kiramune's artists. He released the 1st single 「Faith」on the same year.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom Thumb is a character of English folklore. "The History of Tom Thumb" was published in 1621 and was the first fairy tale printed in English. Tom is no bigger than his father's thumb, and his adventures include being swallowed by a cow, tangling with giants, and becoming a favourite of King Arthur. The earliest allusions to Tom occur in various 16th-century works such as Reginald Scot's "Discovery of Witchcraft" (1584), where Tom is cited as one of the supernatural folk employed by servant maids to frighten children. Tattershall in Lincolnshire, England, reputedly has the home and grave of Tom Thumb.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Aside from his own tales, Tom figures in Henry Fielding's 1730 play "Tom Thumb", a companion piece to his "The Author's Farce". It was expanded into a single 1731 piece titled "The Tragedy of Tragedies, or the History of Tom Thumb the Great".


title: Tom Thumb

text: In the mid-18th century, books began to be published specifically for children (some with their authorship attributed to "Tommy Thumb"), and by the mid-19th century, Tom was a fixture of the nursery library. The tale took on moral overtones and some writers, such as Charlotte Mary Yonge, cleansed questionable passages. Dinah Mulock, however, refrained from scrubbing the tale of its vulgarities. Tom Thumb's story has been adapted into several films.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom Thumb may have been a real person born around 1519, as there is a grave purporting to be his. It is set into the floor adjacent to the font of the main chapel in Holy Trinity Church at Tattershall, Lincolnshire, UK. The inscription reads: "T. THUMB, Aged 101 Died 1620". The grave measures just 16" (40 cm) in length.


title: Tom Thumb

text: The earliest surviving text is a 40-page booklet printed in London for Thomas Langley in 1621 entitled "The History of Tom Thumbe, the Little, for his small stature surnamed, King Arthur's Dwarfe: whose Life and adventures containe many strange and wonderfull accidents, published for the delight of merry Time-spenders". The author is presumed to be Londoner Richard Johnson (1579–1659?) because his initials appear on the last page. The only known copy is in the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom was already a traditional folk character when the booklet was printed, and it is likely that printed materials circulated prior to Johnson's. It is not known how much Johnson contributed to Tom's character or his adventures. William Fulke referred to Tom in 1579 in "Heskins Parleament Repealed", and Thomas Nashe referred to him in 1592 in his prose satire on the vices of the age "Pierce Penniless, His Supplication to the Divell". Reginald Scot listed Tom in his "Discoverie of Witchcraft" (1584) as one of the creatures used by servant maids to frighten children, along with witches, dwarfs, elves, fairies, giants, and other supernatural folk.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom was mentioned by James Field in "Coryat's Crudities" (1611): "Tom Thumbe is dumbe, until the pudding creepe, in which he was intomb'd, then out doth peepe." The incident of the pudding was the most popular in connection with the character. It is alluded to in Ben Jonson's masque of the Fortunate Isles: "Thomas Thumb in a pudding fat, with Doctor Rat."


title: Tom Thumb

text: Richard Johnson's "History" may have been in circulation as early as this date because the title page woodblock in the 1621 edition shows great wear. Johnson himself makes it clear in the preface that Tom was long known by "old and young... Bachelors and Maids... and Shepheard and the young Plow boy".


title: Tom Thumb

text: The tale belongs to the swallow cycle. Tom is swallowed by a cow, a giant, a fish, and by a miller and a salmon in some extensions to Johnson's tale. In this respect, the tale shows little imaginative development. Tom is delivered from such predicaments rather crudely, but editors of later dates found ways to make his deliverance more seemly and he rarely passed beyond the mouth.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom's tale was reprinted countless times in Britain, and was being sold in America as early as 1686. A metrical version was published in 1630 entitled "Tom Thumbe, His Life and Death: Wherein is declared many Maruailous Acts of Manhood, full of wonder, and strange merriments: Which little Knight liued in King Arthurs time, and famous in the Court of Great Brittaine". The book was reprinted many times, and two more parts were added to the first around 1700. The three parts were reprinted many times.


title: Tom Thumb

text: In 1711, William Wagstaffe published "A Comment upon The History of Tom Thumbe". In 1730, English dramatist Henry Fielding used Tom Thumb as the central figure of a play by that name, which he rewrote in 1731 as the farce "The Tragedy of Tragedies, or the History of Tom Thumb the Great". The play is filled with 18th-century political and literary satire and is intended as a parody of heroic tragedies. The title of "The Great" may be intended as a reference to politician Sir Robert Walpole who was often called "The Great."


title: Tom Thumb

text: Henry Fielding's tragedy "Tom Thumb" was the basis for an opera constructed by Kane O'Hara. Fielding's Tom is cast as a mighty warrior and a conqueror of giants, despite his stature, as well as the object of desire for many of the ladies at court. The plot is largely concerned with the various love triangles amongst the characters, who include Princess Huncamunca, giantess Glumdalca, and Queen Dollalolla (Arthur's wife in this version). Matters are complicated when Arthur awards Tom the hand of Huncamunca in marriage which results in Dollalolla and the jealous Grizzle seeking revenge. Eventually, Tom dies when swallowed by a cow, but his ghost returns. At the conclusion, Tom's ghost is killed by Grizzle and most of the cast kill each other in duels or take their own lives in grief.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Fielding's play was later adapted into a spoof on opera conventions called "The Opera of Operas; or Tom Thumb the Great" by playwrights Eliza Haywood and William Hatchett. This version includes a happy ending in which Tom is spat back out by the cow and the others are resurrected by Merlin's magic. This is considered to be a satirical comment on the unlikely and tacked-on nature of many happy endings in literature and drama.


title: Tom Thumb

text: In the mid-18th century, books began appearing specifically for children, and Tom was cited as the author of titles such as "Tommy Thumb's Song Book" (1744) and "Tommy Thumb's Little Story Book" (c. 1760). In 1791, Joseph Ritson remarked that Tom's popularity was known far and wide: "Every city, town, village, shop, stall, man, woman, and child, in the kingdom, can bear witness to it."


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom's story was originally intended for adults, but it was relegated to the nursery by the mid-19th century. Vulgar episodes were sanitized, and moralizing colored the tale. In Charlotte Mary Yonge's 1856 adaptation, Tom resists his natural urges to play impish pranks, renounces his ties to Fairyland, and pronounces himself a Christian. As Mordred's rebellion wears on in the last days of Arthur's reign, Tom refuses to return to Fairyland, preferring to die as an honorable Christian.


title: Tom Thumb

text: In 1863, Dinah Maria Craik Mulock refused to cleanse the tale's questionable passages and let the story speak for itself. She adds material, and Tom has adventures that again involve being swallowed by a miller and a salmon, being imprisoned in a mousetrap, angering King Thunston and his queen, and finally dying from the poisonous breath of a spider. Tom's tale has since been adapted to all sorts of children's books with new material added and existing material reworked, but his mischievous nature and his bravery remain undiminished.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Richard Johnson's "The History of Tom Thumbe" of 1621 tells that in the days of King Arthur, old Thomas of the Mountain, a plowman and a member of the King's Council, wants nothing more than a son, even if he is no bigger than his thumb. He sends his wife to consult with Merlin. In three months' time, she gives birth to the diminutive Tom Thumb. The "Queene of Fayres" and her attendants act as midwives. She provides Tom with an oak leaf hat, a shirt of cobweb, a doublet of thistledown, stockings of apple rind, and shoes of mouse's skin.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom cheats at games with other boys and because of his many tricks, the boys will not associate with him. Tom retaliates by using magic to hang his mother's pots and glasses from a sunbeam. When his fellows try the same, their pots and glasses fall and are broken. Thereafter, Tom stays home under his mother's supervision. At Christmas, she makes puddings, but Tom falls into the batter and is boiled into one of them. When a tinker comes begging, Tom's mother inadvertently gives him the pudding containing her son. The tinker farts while crossing a stile, but Tom calls out about the farting and the frightened tinker drops the pudding. Tom eats himself free and returns home to tell his mother and father of his adventure.


title: Tom Thumb

text: His mother thereafter keeps a closer watch upon him. One day, he accompanies her to the field to milk the cows. He sits under a thistle, but a red cow swallows him. The cow is given a laxative and Tom passes from her in a "cow turd". He is taken home and cleaned. Another day, he accompanies his father for the seed sowing and rides in the horse's ear. Tom is set down in the field to play the scarecrow, but a raven carries him away. His parents search for him, but are unable to find him.


title: Tom Thumb

text: The raven drops Tom at the castle of a giant. The cruel giant swallows the tiny boy like a pill. Tom thrashes about so much in the giant's stomach that he is vomited into the sea. There, he is eaten once more by a fish which is caught for King Arthur's supper. The cook is astonished to see the little man emerge from the fish. Tom then becomes King Arthur's Dwarf.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom becomes a favorite at King Arthur's royal court, especially among the ladies. There is revelry; Tom joins the jousting and dances in the palm of a Maid of Honour. He goes home briefly to see his parents, taking some money from the treasury with the king's permission, then returns to court. The Queene of Fayres finds him asleep on a rose and leaves him several gifts: an enchanted hat of knowledge, a ring of invisibility, a shape-changing girdle, and shoes to take him anywhere in a moment.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Tom falls seriously ill when a lady blows her nose, but is cured by the physician to King Twaddell of the Pygmies. He takes a ride in his walnut shell coach and meets Garagantua. Each boasts of his many powers. When Garagantua threatens to harm Tom, he is cast under an enchantment and Tom hurries home to safety. King Arthur listens with amazement to Tom's many adventures.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Richard Johnson's 1621 narrative ends here, but he promised his readers a sequel that has never been found, if published at all. In 1630, a metrical version in three parts was published that continues Tom's adventures.


title: Tom Thumb

text: Other versions paint a different picture to Tom's end. Dinah Mulock continued the tale and noted that Tom exhausted himself with jousting but recovered in Fairyland. When he returned to Arthur's court, he accidentally landed in a bowl of the king's frumenty. Tom enrages the cook and is threatened with beheading. He seeks refuge in the mouth of a passing slack-jawed miller. Sensing tiny voices and movements within him, the man believes he is possessed. He yawns and Tom emerges, but the Miller is so angry he tosses Tom into a river where he is swallowed by a salmon. The fish is caught, taken to the King's kitchen, and Tom is found and kept in a mousetrap until King Arthur forgives him.


title: Tom Thumb

text: The court goes hunting and Tom joins them upon his steed, a mouse. A cat catches the mouse and Tom is injured. He is carried to Fairyland where he recovers and dwells for several years. When he returns to court, King Thunston now reigns. Charmed by the little man, the king gives Tom a tiny coach pulled by six mice. This makes the queen jealous as she received no such gifts and she frames Tom with being insolent to her. Tom attempts to escape on a passing butterfly, but is caught and imprisoned in a mousetrap. He is freed by a curious cat and once more wins back the favor of King Thunston. Sadly, he does not live to enjoy it as he is killed by a spider's bite. Tom is laid to rest beneath rosebush and a marble monument is raised to his memory with the epitaph:


title: Tom Thumb

text: There are many thumb-sized characters around the world: Le petit poucet (France), Der kleine Däumling (Germany), Little One Inch/Issun-bōshi (Japan), Thumbikin (Norway), Garbancito and Pulgarcito (Spain), Pollicino (Italy), Piñoncito (Chile), Липунюшка ("Lipunyushka" or "No-Bigger-Than-A-Finger") (Russia), Palčić (Serbia), Patufet (Catalonia), The Hazel-nut Child (Bukovina), Klein Duimpje and Pinkeltje (Netherlands), Hüvelyk Matyi (Hungary), Ko Ko Nga Latt Ma (Myanmar), দেড় আঙ্গুলে ("Dēṛa āṅgulē") (Bengal), Sprīdītis (Latvia) and others.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Interested in narrative based games from a young age, Uchikoshi studied video game development at a vocational school. His first job in game development was at KID in 1998, where he primarily wrote scenarios for "bishōjo" games and other visual novels. These included "Memories Off" (1999) and "" (2000). In 2001, he left KID to become a freelance writer, and continued to work on visual novels. Uchikoshi joined Chunsoft in 2007, where he came up with the idea of integrating puzzles into a visual novel for the player to solve. He implemented this idea in "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" (2009), the first game in which he served as the director.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Both "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" and its sequel "" (2012) were commercial failures in Japan. When Chunsoft put the "Zero Escape" series on hiatus, Uchikoshi returned to freelance work, and wrote his first anime series, "Punch Line" (2015). He also worked on a manga and video game adaptation of "Punch Line". A large fan presence helped revive the "Zero Escape" series, and Uchikoshi returned to write and direct the concluding installment, "Zero Time Dilemma" (2016). In 2017, he left Spike Chunsoft and formed the video game developer Too Kyo Games together with "Danganronpa" series staff members and his "Infinity" co-writer Takumi Nakazawa. Shortly after, he wrote the concept for the anime series "The Girl in Twilight" (2018), directed and wrote the adventure game "" (2019), and returned to write its sequel, "" (2022).


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Uchikoshi was born on November 17, 1973, in Higashimurayama, Tokyo. Almost immediately after birth, he began choking on amniotic fluid, and claims he would have died had his doctor not held him upside down and "hit his backside". Uchikoshi was born with torticollis, which required surgery when he was three years old. While in middle school, he read gamebooks written by Steve Jackson, which instilled an interest in narrative-based games.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: He studied management engineering in college, but dropped out and spent a year without a job. Uchikoshi then enrolled in the vocational school Vantan Design Institute, where he studied video game planning, 3D modelling, 2D art, sound, and programming. Vantan was founded as a school for clothes design, and only branched into game development later; according to Uchikoshi, the teachers were not well versed in video games, which led to uninteresting courses and many students dropping out. Eventually, only Uchikoshi and a few others attended classes, which resulted in the teachers being able to better focus and take care of the smaller group of students who still attended; because of this, Uchikoshi says that he and the other remaining students were able to achieve a higher level of proficiency.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Uchikoshi's first job in game development was in 1998 when he joined KID, a company known for "bishōjo" games. At the time, KID was also developing video game adaptations of board games; he originally joined KID because of these board game projects, as he was interested in making simple games that a lot of people would be able to enjoy. His first project at KID however was designing 3D models for the action game "Pepsiman" (1999). Sometime after the release of "Pepsiman", a producer at KID asked him to write a scenario for an upcoming "bishōjo" game. Uchikoshi believes he was chosen because of his personality and experience with writing. The first "bishōjo" game he worked on was the visual novel "Memories Off" (1999), followed by "", "Memories Off Pure" and "Memories Off 2nd" (all 2000). While writing "Never 7: The End of Infinity", Uchikoshi wanted to include science fiction themes, but was instructed by his superiors to instead focus on the romantic relationships between the game's characters.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: In 2001, Uchikoshi left KID to become a freelance writer and developer; this was the result of a need for independence, and the ability to work for other companies besides KID. Over the next few years, he worked on several games, including "Close To: Inori no Oka" (2001), "" (2002), and "" (2004). He also wrote two erotic visual novels, the first was a 2003 game which he was uncredited for and whose title he does not remember, and the second was "Eve: New Generation" (2006).


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: While working as a freelance writer, Uchikoshi was contacted by the game development company Chunsoft about a possible job offering. Looking to provide a stable income for his wife and daughter, he accepted the company's offer in 2007. Chunsoft had developed several mystery visual novels in the past, such as "Kamaitachi no Yoru" (1994), but wanted to create a new type of visual novel that could appeal to a wider audience. Uchikoshi came up with the idea to include puzzles that are integrated within the story, and need to be solved in order for the player to make progress. He began implementing and expanding upon these ideas in "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" (2009), in which he served as the game director, planner, and scenario writer. Although the game was a commercial failure in Japan, its unexpected critical success in North America prompted Uchikoshi to continue the series.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: The sequel to "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" was "" (2012). In an attempt to reduce costs, Uchikoshi asked Chunsoft if he could develop "Virtue's Last Reward" and its eventual sequel simultaneously, as both games would use the same game engine and digital assets; Chunsoft agreed to the proposal. Uchikoshi maintained his duties as the director, planner, and scenario writer. Despite positive international reviews, "Virtue's Last Reward" was another commercial failure in Japan. As a result, Chunsoft placed the game's sequel on indefinite hiatus, effectively concluding the "Zero Escape" series. Uchikoshi examined the possibility of financing the development through the use of crowdfunding on a website like Kickstarter, but felt that the idea was "not quite persuasive enough".


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: After "Virtue's Last Reward", Uchikoshi returned to freelance work. He wrote a scenario for "" (2013) before working on his first non-game related project, the anime series "Punch Line" (2015). Uchikoshi wrote the episode scripts, which he noted were more cinematic in tone than most of his previous projects. The series ran on Japanese television from April to June 2015. Uchikoshi also wrote a "Punch Line" manga, which began serialization in September, and a video game adaptation, released in 2016.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Meanwhile, fans of the "Zero Escape" series created an online campaign to raise awareness and support the development of a sequel to "Virtue's Last Reward". Uchikoshi noted that the fan presence was a key factor for the sequel's reevaluation. While delivering the pitch for the game, he used a fan-made vocal rendition of the series theme song; Spike Chunsoft agreed to the proposal, and green-lit production of "Zero Time Dilemma" (2016). With "Zero Time Dilemma", Uchikoshi intended to resolve all mysteries left from the previous two games in the series, as well as those introduced in the third. Following the game's release, he remarked that having devoted the last decade of his life to the series, he was saddened to see it finally come to an end. His next two projects were announced in 2017: the escape room game "The Pop Star's Room of Doom", and the video game "". Another anime project, "The Girl in Twilight", was announced in 2018, for which Uchikoshi wrote the original concept.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: In 2018, it was announced that Uchikoshi had left Spike Chunsoft and formed a new, independent video game developer, Too Kyo Games, together with writer Kazutaka Kodaka and composer Masafumi Takada, both of whom previously worked on the "Danganronpa" series at Spike Chunsoft. Other "Danganronpa" staff members, and Uchikoshi's fellow "Infinity" writer Takumi Nakazawa, also joined the company. At Too Kyo Games, Uchikoshi has the role of scenario writer and game director, and is writing two video games: "Project #1", co-written by Kodaka; and "World's End Club", an action-adventure game involving children playing a death game.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: As a writer, Uchikoshi prioritizes storylines over characters, with the goal to write a story that people will remember regardless of the overall quality. He first writes the basic outline of a story. With plot twist heavy stories, he will typically work on the ending first and continue backwards, in order to not get confused when writing the plot. This method of writing, referred to by Uchikoshi as the "deductive composition method", was not used in his earlier works; "Ever 17: The Out of Infinity" was written using the "inductive composition method", where a setting is created first, and a story is created to support the setting, something he described as a gamble, with the risk of an uninteresting story. He also likes to work non-sequentially, writing multiple scenes in parallel.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: After crafting a story, Uchikoshi attempts to create a balanced cast of characters with regards to genders, personalities, and ages. He used the Enneagram of Personality as a reference while creating the characters for "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors" and "Virtue's Last Reward". He purposefully does not give the main character of the story a strong personality in order for the player to more easily empathize with them. Although the character dialogue is usually written with an international audience in mind, Uchikoshi will sometimes incorporate humorous or important lines aimed towards Japanese audiences. This style of writing can be seen in "Nine Hours, Nine Persons, Nine Doors", as a vital plot point hinged on a Japanese pun, which forced the localization team to play through the entire game again to determine if the story still made sense in English.


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Uchikoshi believes the most important aspect of writing visual novels is to envision what the player will think about in each scene, saying that he always has "a conversation with an imaginary player" when writing stories. Uchikoshi's works often deal with scientific and philosophical themes, including idealism,


title: Kotaro Uchikoshi

text: Rupert Sheldrake's theory of morphic resonance, and the prisoner's dilemma. When asked about this, he noted that he often has them in mind before writing a story, and collects web pages related to the topics. Once he has completed the final preparations for a story, he will choose which topics interest him and conduct further research. Among his influences are science fiction writers Isaac Asimov and Kurt Vonnegut. Uchikoshi believes ninety percent of any creative work consists of pieces from others' works, and that the remaining ten percent is creativity, with the result hinging on how well a writer can incorporate their influences with their own ideas.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The Honda VFR800 (Interceptor) is a sport touring motorcycle made by Honda since 1998. The model was the successor to the VFR750F and shares the V4 engine configuration with the Honda VF and VFR series.


title: Honda VFR800

text: Rather than being a direct development of the previous, carbureted VFR750F engine, the VFR800 engine was a detuned and longer-stroke power plant based on the fuel-injected engine designed for the RC45 of 1994. The RVF750R RC45 engine, although a development of the VFR750R RC30 and originally derived from the VFR750F RC24, was very different from Honda's previous V4s as the gear drive for the camshafts was moved from the center of the engine to the engine's right-side (next to the clutch-pack). Another change was the two side-mounted radiators as opposed to one at the front of the engine front as on the VFR750. The engine was tuned for road use in the VFR800, so that torque was improved throughout the rev range while maximum power was only slightly higher than the VFR750.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The VFR800's frame uses the engine as a stressed member, this was derived from the VTR1000 Firestorm, and retains the trademark VFR single-sided swingarm pivoted from the aft of the crankcase. It uses normal 'right-side-up' front forks.


title: Honda VFR800

text: In 2000, Honda updated the fifth-generation VFR (RC46) with a catalytic converter, oxygen sensors, and an EFI system that would enter closed-loop mode under highway (cruising) operation. These also came with a temperature-actuated fast idle system, negating the need for a choke lever. The rear-view mirrors got updated as well, with Honda forgoing the old rubberized stalks, instead opting for rustproof metal ones. Bikes supplied for Europe also came with the H.I.S.S. (Honda Ignition Security System) immobiliser system in an effort to combat theft.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The VFR800 has a CBS linked braking system. This is a departure from traditional motorcycle braking system where front and rear braking are independent of each other. In this system, the front brake lever applies pressure to four (or later Gen 6, five) of the six front brake caliper pistons. The rotational movement of the left caliper when engaged actuates a secondary master cylinder and applies pressure to one of the rear caliper's pistons. The rear brake pedal is directly attached to the remaining pistons (two in the rear, and one (or two) in the front).


title: Honda VFR800

text: The CBS system is designated "Dual" as both hand lever and foot pedal each control both front and rear brakes; while commonly the foot pedal only operates the rear brake. Honda first introduced this braking system on the 1992 Honda CBR1000F. It was based on the Unified Braking System that was introduced on the 1983 GL1100.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The sixth generation VFR was introduced in 2002. It featured dual underseat exhausts, optional ABS, DCBS linked brakes, and optional hard luggage. It featured chain-driven cams rather than the gear-driven cams of earlier VFRs, and VTEC valve actuation.


title: Honda VFR800

text: In 2006 the VFR 800 received some minor upgrades, which included the change of the tachometer face from black to white, a re-mapped ECU to provide a smoother transition into VTEC, clear turn signal lenses and upgrades to the electrical wiring to fix issues with the charging system.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The VFR800 was phased out after the 2009 model year in the United States, when Honda introduced the larger VFR1200F; but the VFR1200 was not a direct replacement for the VFR800; the true successor is the 2014 VFR800F (RC79). The RC46 model of VFR800 continues to be sold in certain international markets.


title: Honda VFR800

text: The VFR800 was the first non-JDM motorcycle to use VTEC valve-gear. Honda used VTEC to meet tightening noise and emissions standards and to increase the peak engine horsepower.


title: Honda VFR800

text: Based on the VTEC-E system, the simplified motorcycle version of VTEC employs only two of the four valves per cylinder when operating at lower engine speeds. All four valves per cylinder are engaged above approximately 6,800 rpm. This is initiated by an electronically actuated oil spool valve, which sends oil pressure to the lifter actuators, which then move the engagement pins into place above the valve stem, allowing the remaining two valves to open. This design allows for variable valve timing as well, since the cam lobe profiles can be made different. After much criticism of the abruptness of power transition, Honda lowered the VTEC activation rpm threshold to 6,400 rpm in 2006. The VTEC disengages two cylinder valves when the engine speed drops again below 6,100 rpm.


title: Honda VFR800

text: A facelifted VFR800 debuted at the 2013 EICMA show in Milan, Italy. The revised model features a new single sided exhaust system, akin to the fifth-generation one, lighter wheels, and additional mass-reduction, lowering the curb weight by . The new VFR also features traction control, a new instrument panel, and revised aerodynamic bodywork with LED lighting, though the engine and chassis remain largely unchanged from the previous sixth-generation model. Continued from the sixth-generation model is also the 2006 refined version of the VTEC system. The side-mounted heat exchangers were dropped in favour of a single front-mounted unit. The model is sold worldwide. In the US market, it is available in two versions: Standard and Deluxe. The Deluxe version adds ABS, traction control, grip heaters, center stand, and self-canceling turn signals. Outside the US, only the Deluxe version is sold.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal (AFEM) is a military award of the United States Armed Forces, which was first created in 1961 by Executive Order of President John Kennedy. The medal is awarded to members of the U.S. Armed Forces who, after July 1, 1958, participated in U.S. military operations, U.S. operations in direct support of the United Nations, or U.S. operations of assistance for friendly foreign nations.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The obverse side of the medal consists of an eagle, with wings addorsed and inverted (representing the strength of the United States Armed Forces), standing on a sword loosened in its scabbard, and super- imposed on a radiant compass rose of eight points, (representing the readiness to serve wherever needed) all within the circumscription "ARMED FORCES" above and "EXPEDITIONARY SERVICE" below with a sprig of laurel on each side. On the reverse side of the medal is the shield from the United States Coat of Arms above two laurel branches separated by a bullet, all within the circumscription "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA".


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The ribbon is 1 inches wide and consists of the following stripes: inch Green, inch Golden Yellow, inch Spicebrown, inch Black, inch Bluebird, inch Ultramarine Blue, inch White, inch Scarlet, inch Bluebird, inch Black, inch Spicebrown, inch Golden Yellow and inch Green.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: A bronze service star is authorized for participation in subsequent U.S. military operations authorized for award of the AFEM (only one award is authorized for each designated U.S. military operation). A silver service star is worn in lieu of five bronze service stars.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Arrowhead device is authorized for United States Army and United States Air Force personnel who are awarded the medal through participation in an airborne or amphibious assault.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Fleet Marine Force Combat Operation Insignia is authorized for U.S. Navy service members assigned to Marine Corps units that participate in combat during the assignment.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal may be authorized for three categories of operations: U.S. military operations; U.S. military operations in direct support of the United Nations; and U.S. operations of assistance for friendly foreign nations.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The medal shall be awarded only for operations for which no other U.S. campaign medal is approved, where a foreign armed opposition or imminent threat of hostile action was encountered.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: Since its original conception in 1961, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal has been awarded for United States participation in over forty five designated military campaigns. The first campaign of the AFEM was the Cuban Missile Crisis and the award was issued for military service between October 1962 and June 1963. Following this original issuance, the AFEM was made retroactive to 1958 and issued for actions in Lebanon, Taiwan, Republic of the Congo, Quemoy and Matsu, and for duty in Berlin between 1961 and 1963.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: During the early years of the Vietnam War, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was issued for initial operations in South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was intended to replace the Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal and Navy Expeditionary Medal, but this never occurred and both services continue to award their service expeditionary medals and the AFEM, though not concurrently for the same action.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: In 1965, with the creation of the Vietnam Service Medal, the AFEM was discontinued for Vietnam War service. As the Vietnam Service Medal was retroactively authorized, those personnel who had previously received the AFEM were granted the option to exchange the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal for the Vietnam Service Medal. In 1968, the AFEM was awarded for Naval operations in defense of the , which was seized by North Korea, as well as for Korean Service, and awarded for Thailand and Cambodia operations in 1973. Because of these awards during the Vietnam War period, some military personnel have been awarded both the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal & the Vietnam Service Medal. Some military advisers involved in the 1973 Arab–Israeli War were also awarded the medal for their involvement in the supply and training of the IDF on the use and deployment of anti-tank weapons.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: In the 1990s, it was awarded to numerous Naval ships such as who enforced the Dayton Peace Accords and operated in the Adriatic Sea enforcing UN arms embargo against Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and participating in Operation Sharp Guard and Operation Joint Endeavor up through and during the Bosnian crisis.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: In 2003, with the creation of the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal, the AFEM was discontinued for Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait. After 18 March 2003, some personnel became eligible for the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, as well as the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal. Only one medal may be awarded, however, and individuals or units that deployed to the Gulf for Operation Southern Watch, and then immediately transitioned to Operation Iraqi Freedom, are not eligible for both medals.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: Beginning in 1992 an effort was begun to phase out the AFEM in favor of campaign specific medals and the newly created Armed Forces Service Medal. The Armed Forces Service Medal was also originally intended to be a replacement for the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal, however the two awards are currently considered separate awards with different award criteria. The primary difference between the two is that the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal is normally awarded for combat operations and combat support missions.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: After the close of the Vietnam War, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was issued for various military operations in Panama, Grenada, and Libya Operation El Dorado Canyon.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The medal is also authorized for several United Nations actions, such as peacekeeping efforts in Somalia.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The AFEM has been issued for numerous operations in the Persian Gulf, most notably Operation Earnest Will, which began in 1987 and lasted until the eve of Operation Desert Shield. Following the close of Desert Storm, and the engagement in peacekeeping and sanction missions against Iraq, the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal was issued again for several operations such as Operation Northern Watch, Operation Southern Watch, and Operation Vigilant Sentinel.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (the AFEM is no longer issued for operations in the Middle East, but may be reactivated for future campaigns which may not qualify for either the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal, Iraq Campaign Medal, and Afghanistan Campaign Medal). Similar in nature to the AFEM, the GWOTEM is awarded for deploying abroad on or after Sept. 11, 2001 (and a future date to be determined), for service in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) or Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Service stars are also authorized for the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal effective February 9, 2015, retroactive to September, 11, 2001. Each service star represents a deployment in support of an approved GWOT operation. Only one GWOT-EM is awarded for each operation (five bronze service stars are authorized for six approved deployment operations). The GWOT-EM approved operations by inclusive dates are:


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Navy Expeditionary Medal and the Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal. In the modern era, service members who were authorized one of these medals are occasionally permitted to choose between receipt of the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal or the service specific expeditionary medal. The AFEM and the Navy/Marine Expeditionary Medal cannot be bestowed simultaneously for the same action.


title: Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal

text: The Air Force Expeditionary Service Ribbon. Although similar in name, this award is unrelated to the Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal and is presented for duty performed on U.S. Air Force deployments.


title: Moccasin

text: A moccasin is a shoe, made of deerskin or other soft leather, consisting of a sole (made with leather that has not been "worked") and sides made of one piece of leather, stitched together at the top, and sometimes with a vamp (additional panel of leather). The sole is soft and flexible and the upper part often is adorned with embroidery or beading. Though sometimes worn inside, it is chiefly intended for outdoor use. Historically, it is the footwear of many indigenous people of North America; moreover, hunters, traders, and European settlers wore them. Etymologically, the "moccasin" derives from the Algonquian language Powhatan word "makasin" (cognate to Massachusett "mohkisson" / "mokussin", Ojibwa "makizin", Mi'kmaq "mksɨn"), and from the Proto-Algonquian word *"maxkeseni" (shoe).


title: Moccasin

text: In the 1800s, moccasins usually were part of a Canadian regalia, e.g. a powwow suit of clothes. The most common style is that of the Plains Indians moccasin.


title: Moccasin

text: Moccasins protect the foot while allowing the wearer to feel the ground. The Plains Indians wore hard-sole moccasins, given that their territorial geography featured rock and cacti. The eastern Indian tribes wore soft-sole moccasins, for walking in leaf-covered forest ground.


title: Moccasin

text: In New Zealand and Australia, sheep shearers' moccasins are constructed of a synthetic, cream-colored felt, with a back seam and gathered at the top of the rounded toe. These moccasins are laced in the front, and the lacing is covered with a flap fastened with a buckle at the shoe's outer side. The fastener arrangement prevents the shearer's handpiece comb from catching in the laces. Shearers' moccasins protect the feet, grip wooden floors well, and absorb sweat.


title: Moccasin

text: A "driving moccasin" (driving moc) is a contemporary version of the traditional Native American moccasin with the addition of rubber tabs on the sole. The addition of rubber-pad sole adds to the versatility and longevity of the shoe while maintaining the flexibility and comfort of a traditional moccasin. They were invented for men who wanted extra grip while driving. There are two variations of the sole, including:


title: Moccasin

text: Moc Toe Boots, commonly referred as a "Moc Toe", the boots are normally combined with hard rubber compounded soles. The moccasin toe work boot is a style that reflects the Native American moccasin. Normally by weld stitching two pieces of leather or fabric, the pattern creates a U-shaped design around the toe box.


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: The voiced palatal approximant, or yod, is a type of consonant used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is . The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1, and in the Americanist phonetic notation it is . Because the English name of the letter J, "jay", starts with (voiced palato-alveolar affricate), the approximant is sometimes instead called "yod" (jod), as in the phonological history terms yod-dropping and yod-coalescence.


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: The palatal approximant can often be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close front unrounded vowel . They alternate with each other in certain languages, such as French, and in the diphthongs of some languages as and , with the non-syllabic diacritic used in different phonetic transcription systems to represent the same sound.


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: Some languages, however, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding and so cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either or its rounded counterpart, , which would normally correspond to . An example is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants: an approximant semivowel , which is always unrounded, and an unspecified for rounding approximant consonant . Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows (with audio examples added):


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: He also considers that "the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, if we take into account our understanding of the phonetics of Spanish. and are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a real consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel, if preferred. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant."


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: In the writing systems used for most languages in Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter "j" denotes the palatal approximant, as in German 'year', which is followed by IPA. Although it may be seen as counterintuitive for English-speakers, there are a few words with that orthographical spelling in certain loanwords in English like Hebrew "hallelujah" and German "Jägermeister".


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: In grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as , an iota with the inverted breve below, which is the nonsyllabic diacritic or marker of a semivowel.


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: There is also the post-palatal approximant in some languages, which is articulated slightly more back than the place of articulation of the prototypical palatal approximant but less far back than the prototypical velar approximant. It can be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, but it can be transcribed as , (both symbols denote a retracted ), or (both symbols denote an advanced ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are codice_2 and codice_3, respectively. Other possible transcriptions include a centralized ( in the IPA, codice_4 in X-SAMPA), a centralized ( in the IPA, codice_5 in X-SAMPA) and a non-syllabic ( in the IPA, codice_6 in X-SAMPA).


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: For the reasons mentioned above and in the article velar approximant, none of those symbols are appropriate for languages such as Spanish, whose post-palatal approximant "consonant" (not a "semivowel") appears as an allophone of before front vowels and is best transcribed , (both symbols denote a lowered and retracted ), or (both symbols denote a lowered and advanced ). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are codice_7 and codice_8.


title: Voiced palatal approximant

text: Especially in broad transcription, the post-palatal approximant may be transcribed as a palatalized velar approximant (, or in the IPA, codice_9, codice_10, codice_11 or codice_12 in X-SAMPA).


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Porphyry ( ) is a textural term for an igneous rock consisting of coarse-grained crystals such as feldspar or quartz dispersed in a fine-grained silicate-rich, generally aphanitic matrix or groundmass. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts. In its non-geologic, traditional use, the term "porphyry" refers to the purple-red form of this stone, valued for its appearance.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: The term "porphyry" is from the Ancient Greek (), meaning "purple". Purple was the color of royalty, and the "imperial porphyry" was a deep purple igneous rock with large crystals of plagioclase. Some authors claimed the rock was the hardest known in antiquity. Thus, "imperial"-grade porphyry was prized for monuments and building projects in Imperial Rome and thereafter.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Subsequently, the name was given to any igneous rocks with large crystals. The adjective "porphyritic" now refers to a certain texture of igneous rock regardless of its chemical and mineralogical composition. Its chief characteristic is a large difference in size between the tiny matrix crystals and the much larger phenocrysts. Porphyries may be aphanites or phanerites, that is, the groundmass may have microscopic crystals as in basalt, or crystals easily distinguishable with the eye, as in granite.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Most igneous rocks have some degree of porphyritic texture. This is because most magma from which igneous rock solidifies is produced by partial melting of a mixture of different minerals. At first the mixed melt slowly cools deep in the crust. The magma begins crystallizing the highest melting point minerals closest to the overall composition first, in a process called fractional crystallization. This forms phenocrysts, which usually have plenty of room for growth, and form large, well-shaped crystals with characteristic crystal faces (euhedral crystals). If they are different in density to the remaining melt, these phenocrysts usually settle out of solution, eventually creating cumulates; however if the partially crystallized magma is then erupted to the surface as a lava, the remainder of the melt is quickly cooled around the phenocrysts and crystallizes much more rapidly to form a very fine-grained or glassy matrix.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Porphyry can also form even from magma that completely solidifies while still underground. The groundmass will be visibly crystalline, though not as large as the phenocrysts. The crystallization of the phenocrysts during fractional crystallization changes the composition of the remaining liquid magma, moving it closer to the eutectic point, with a mixed composition of minerals. As the temperature continues to decrease, this point is reached, and the rock is entirely solidified. The simultaneous crystallization of the remaining minerals produces the finer-grained matrix surrounding the phenocrysts, as they crowd each other out.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: The significance of porphyritic texture as an indication that magma forms through different stages of cooling was first recognized by the Canadian geologist, Norman L. Bowen, in 1928.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Porphyritic texture is particularly common in andesite, with the most prominent phenocrysts typically composed of plagioclase feldspar. Plagioclase has almost the same density as basaltic magma, so plagioclase phenocrysts are likely to remain suspended in the magma rather than settling out.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Rhomb porphyry is a volcanic rock with gray-white large porphyritic rhombus-shaped phenocrysts of feldspar (commonly anorthoclase) embedded in a very fine-grained red-brown matrix. The composition of rhomb porphyry places it in the trachyte–latite classification of the QAPF diagram.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Rhomb porphyry is found in continental rift areas, including the East African Rift (including Mount Kilimanjaro), Mount Erebus near the Ross Sea in Antarctica, the Oslo graben in Norway, and south-central British Columbia.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Pliny the Elder's "Natural History" affirmed that the "Imperial Porphyry" had been discovered at an isolated site in Egypt in AD 18, by a Roman legionary named Caius Cominius Leugas. Ancient Egyptians used other decorative porphyritic stones of a very close composition and appearance, but apparently remained unaware of the presence of the Roman grade although it was located in their own country. It was also sometimes used in Minoan art, and as early as 1850 BC on Crete in Minoan Knossos there were large column bases made of porphyry.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: This particular Imperial grade of porphyry all came from the Gabal Abu Dukhan quarry in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, from 600 million-year-old andesite of the Arabian-Nubian Shield. The road from the quarry westward to Qena (Roman Maximianopolis) on the Nile, which Ptolemy put on his second-century map, was first described by Strabo, and it is to this day known as the "Via Porphyrites", the Porphyry Road, its track marked by the hydreumata, or watering wells that made it viable in this utterly dry landscape.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: After the fifth century the quarry was lost to sight for many centuries. Byzantium scholar Alexander Vasiliev suggested this was the consequence of the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE and the subsequent troubles in Egypt. The scientific members of the French Expedition under Napoleon sought it in vain, and it was only when the Eastern Desert was reopened for study under Muhammad Ali that the site was rediscovered by the English Egyptologists James Burton and John Gardner Wilkinson in 1823.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: All the porphyry columns in Rome, the red porphyry togas on busts of emperors, the porphyry panels in the revetment of the Pantheon, as well as the altars and vases and fountain basins reused in the Renaissance and dispersed as far as Kyiv, all came from the one quarry at "Mons Porphyrites" ("Porphyry Mountain", the Arabic "Jabal Abu Dukhan"), which seems to have been worked intermittently between 29 and 335 AD. Porphyry was also used for the blocks of the Column of Constantine in Istanbul.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Porphyry was extensively used in Byzantine imperial monuments, for example in Hagia Sophia and in the "Porphyra", the official delivery room for use of pregnant Empresses in the Great Palace of Constantinople, giving rise to the phrase "born in the purple".


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Choosing porphyry as a material was a bold and specific statement for late Imperial Rome. As if it were not enough that porphyry was explicitly for imperial use, the stone's rarity set the emperors apart from their subjects as their superiors. The comparative vividness of porphyry to other stones underscored that these figures were not regular citizens, but many levels above, even gods, and worthy of the respect they expected. Porphyry made the emperors unapproachable in terms of power and nature, belonging to another world, the world of the mighty gods, present for a short time on earth.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Porphyry also stood in for the physical purple robes Roman emperors wore to show status, because of its purple colouring. Similar to porphyry, purple fabric was extremely difficult to make, as what we now call Tyrian purple required the use of rare sea snails to make the dye. The colour itself reminded the public to how to behave in the presence of the emperors, with respect bordering on worship for the self-proclaimed god-kings.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: A uniquely prestigious use of porphyry was its choice as material for imperial sarcophagi in the 4th and early 5th centuries. That tradition appears to have been started with Diocletian's porphyry sarcophagus in his mausoleum, which was destroyed when the building was repurposed as a church but of which probable fragments are at the Archaeological Museum in Split, Croatia. The oldest and best-preserved ones are now conserved at the Vatican Museums and known as the Sarcophagi of Helena and Constantina.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Nine other imperial porphyry sarcophagi were long held in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. They were described by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the "De Ceremoniis" (mid-10th century), who specified them to be respectively of Constantine the Great, Constantius II, Julian, Jovian, Theodosius I, Arcadius, Aelia Eudoxia, Theodosius II, and Marcian. Of these, most still exist in complete or fragmentary form, despite depredations by later Byzantine Emperors, Crusaders, and Ottoman conquerors. Four presently adorn the facade of the main building of the İstanbul Archaeology Museums, including one whose rounded shape led Alexander Vasiliev to suggest attribution to Emperor Julian on the basis of Constantine Porphyrogenitus's description. Vasiliev conjectures that the nine imperial sarcophagi, including one which carries a "crux ansata" or Egyptian cross, were carved in Egypt before shipment to Constantinople.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: The imperial porphyry sarcophagi tradition was emulated by Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great (454-526), whose mausoleum in Ravenna still contains a porphyry tub that was used as his sarcophagus. Similarly Charles the Bald, King of West Francia and Roman Emperor, was buried at Saint-Denis in a porphyry tub which may be the same one known as "Dagobert's tub" ("cuve de Dagobert"), now in the Louvre.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: The tomb of Peter III of Aragon, in the Monastery of Santes Creus near Tarragona, reuses a porphyry tub or "alveus", which has been conjectured to be originally the sarcophagus of Late Roman Emperor Constans in his mausoleum at Centcelles, a nearby site with a well-preserved 4th-century rotunda.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: In twelfth- and thirteenth-century Sicily, another group of porphyry sarcophagi were produced from the reign of Roger II onward and used for Royal and then Imperial burials, namely those of King Roger II, King William I, Emperor Henry VI, Empress Constance, and Emperor Frederick II. They are all now in the Palermo Cathedral, except William's in Monreale Cathedral. Scholar Rosa Bacile argues that they were carved by a local workshop from porphyry imported from Rome, the latter four plausibly (based on observation of their fluting) all from a single column shaft that may have been taken from the Baths of Caracalla or the Baths of Diocletian. She notes that these Sicilian porphyry sarcophagi "are the very first examples of medieval free-standing secular tombs in the West, and therefore play a unique role within the history of Italian sepulchral art (earlier and later tombs are adjacent to, and dependent on walls)."


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: Six grand porphyry sarcophagi are featured along the walls of the octagonal "Cappella dei Principi" (Chapel of the Princes) that was built as one of two chapels in the architectural complex of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, in Florence, Italy, for the de' Medici family. Purple porphyry was used lavishly throughout the opulent chapel as well, with a revetment of marbles, inlaid with other colored marbles and semi-precious stone, that covers the walls completely. Envisioned by Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1537–1574), it was initiated by Ferdinand I de' Medici, following a design by Matteo Nigetti that won an informal competition held in 1602 by Don Giovanni de' Medici (a son of Cosimo I), which was altered somewhat during execution by Buontalenti.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: The tomb of Napoleon at Les Invalides in Paris, designed by architect Louis Visconti, is centered on the deceased emperor's sarcophagus that often has been described as made of red porphyry although this is incorrect. Napoleon's sarcophagus is made of quartzite, however, its pedestal is made of green andesite porphyry from Vosges.


title: Porphyry (geology)

text: In countries where many automobiles have studded winter tires such as Sweden, Finland, and Norway, it is common that highways are paved with asphalt made of porphyry aggregate to make the wearing course withstand the extreme wear from the spiked winter tires.


title: 2019 Cannes Film Festival

text: The 72nd annual Cannes Film Festival took place from 14 to 25 May 2019. Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñárritu served as jury president. The Palme d'Or went to the South Korean film "Parasite", directed by Bong Joon-ho; Bong became the first Korean director to win the award.


title: 2019 Cannes Film Festival

text: American film director Jim Jarmusch's ensemble zombie comedy film "The Dead Don't Die" served as the opening film of the festival. The festival honoured French filmmaker Agnès Varda, who died in March 2019, featuring her on the official poster of the festival. The photograph used was taken during the filming of her debut film "La Pointe Courte" (1955), which later screened at the Cannes Film Festival.


title: 2019 Cannes Film Festival

text: The Cinéfondation section focuses on films made by students at film schools. The following 17 entries (14 live-action and 3 animated films) were selected out of 2,000 submissions. Six of the films selected represent schools participating in Cinéfondation for the first time.


title: 2019 Cannes Film Festival

text: The Cinéma de la Plage is a part of the Official Selection of the festival. The outdoors screenings at the beach cinema of Cannes are open to the public.


title: 2019 Cannes Film Festival

text: The following films were selected to be screened in the ACID (Association for the Distribution of Independent Cinema) section:


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai is a luxury hotel resort located at the apex of the Palm Jumeirah in the United Arab Emirates. It was the first resort to be built on the island and is themed on the myth of Atlantis but includes distinct Arabian elements. The resort opened on September 24, 2008 as a joint venture between Kerzner International Holdings Limited and Istithmar World.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: The 1,548 room nautically themed resort has two accommodation wings, consisting of the East and the West Tower, linked together by the Royal Bridge Suite. It is complemented by the Aquaventure water park and the Lost Chambers Aquarium, home to over 65,000 marine animals.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: The Poseidon and Neptune Underwater Suites at Atlantis The Palm are two of only a tiny handful of underwater hotel rooms around the world, and regularly appear in lists of the world’s most unique accommodation.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: Measuring 165 square meters/1776 square feet in total, the upper, entrance floor is at ground level while the master bedroom and en-suite bathroom are submerged. The almost floor to ceiling windows in both the bedroom and bathroom face out on to the resort’s Ambassador Lagoon, home to a multitude of exotic sea creatures.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: Atlantis The Palm, opened on 24 September 2008 as a joint venture between Kerzner International Holdings Limited and Istithmar World. In April 2012, Istithmar World acquired Kerzner's 50-percent stake in the property for US$250 million. The property continues to be managed by Kerzner International Resorts. The architect was design firm Wimberly, Allison, Tong and Goo (WATG) an international firm specializing in Luxury Hotels. The principal contract for the project was awarded to Laing O'Rourke, a multinational construction firm based in United Kingdom. Laing O'Rourke was responsible for the design and construction phases of the 23-story hotel and water park.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: After the construction of the hotel carried out by Laing O'Rourke it was officially opened on 24 September 2008.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: As part of the opening, a light show of moving images was illuminated onto the hotel. 100,000 fireworks, around seven times the amount that were used for the opening ceremony of the 2008 Beijing Olympics, were let off, lasting 15 minutes. The display of fireworks across the full stretch of The Palm lit up the entire island and Atlantis, The Palm. Custom-made shells shipped in from across the globe created a light spectacle taking off from the 716 firing locations around the island, including 400 balconies at the resort. Display creator Fireworks by Grucci claims the display set a new world record, but records curator Guinness World Records has yet to announce the status. The launch party costed an estimated £15m in total, with Kylie Minogue earning £2m for a 60-minute performance for the hotel's 2,000 guests.


title: Atlantis The Palm, Dubai

text: In October 2007, the hotel received a shipment of 28 bottlenose dolphins from the Solomon Islands, to be used as part of their aquarium exhibit, called Dolphin Bay. The move was decried by several environmental groups, particularly for the fact that the export of dolphins had earlier been banned by the Solomon Islands government (after a similar controversial shipment to Mexico). Hotel managers have said that though the dolphins are being trained to interact with visitors, they will not appear in any sort of show or circus-like performance. They have also stated that the health of the dolphins is paramount; because the bottlenose is not an endangered species, their shipment did not pose a problem. The deal was done with the approval of the United Arab Emirates and Solomon Island governments, through the company Solomon Islands Marine Mammal Education Centre and Exporters Limited (who had overturned the earlier ban in court). The amount of money paid for the dolphins has not been disclosed.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: MTS "Oceanos" was a French-built and Greek-owned cruise ship that sank in 1991 when she suffered uncontrolled flooding. Her captain, Yiannis Avranas, and some of the crew were convicted of negligence for fleeing the ship without helping the passengers, who were subsequently rescued thanks to the efforts of the ship's entertainers, who made a mayday transmission, launched lifeboats and helped South African Marines land on the ship from naval helicopters. All 581 passengers and crew survived.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Epirotiki Lines had lost two other ships within the three years preceding the sinking: the company's flagship "Pegasus" only two months before, and MV "Jupiter", three years before.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: "Oceanos" was launched in July 1952 by Forges et Chantiers de la Gironde in Bordeaux, France as "Jean Laborde", the last of four sister ships built for Messageries Maritimes. The ships were used on the Marseilles – Madagascar – Mauritius service. "Jean Laborde" went through many different owners and name changes ("Jean Laborde", "Mykinai", "Ancona", "Eastern Princess") in the succeeding decades. In 1976, she was acquired by Epirotiki Lines of Greece and registered under the name of "Oceanos".


title: MTS Oceanos

text: "Oceanos" was briefly featured in the 1985 film "Sky High" and with another Epirotiki ship, "Apollon XI", in the 1986 film "Hardbodies 2".


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Under charter by TFC Tours, "Oceanos" initially delayed by a bomb threat set out from East London, South Africa on 3 August 1991, and headed for Durban. Captain Yiannis Avranas (born 1940) had been an officer for twenty years and a seaman for thirty. "Oceanos" headed into 40-knot winds and swells. Usually, there would have been a "sail-away" party on deck. However, rough seas caused the party to be held inside in the Four Seasons lounge; most passengers chose to stay in their cabins.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: While trying to make up lost time, "Oceanos" encountered rough seas. The storm worsened as the evening progressed and when the first sitting of dinner was served, the waiters could hardly carry the trays of food without dropping something.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Earlier repairs to the waste disposal system had not been completed, which meant that a vital ventilation pipe which ran through the watertight aft bulkhead and the non-return valves were not replaced. It is believed that after a series of freak waves slammed against the ship, the pipe's shell plating burst open and began filling the compartment with seawater. At about 9:30p.m., a muffled explosion was heard and "Oceanos" lost power. The ship started taking on water, rapidly flooding the engine room.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Once the engines stopped, the ship began to roll so badly that in the lounge, where passengers gathered, crockery and cutlery began sliding off the tables and potted plants fell over.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: No alarm or announcement had been given that the ship was in trouble; with other entertainers working on the cruise, Moss Hills a musician from Zimbabwe and former member of Four Jacks and a Jill who had been performing with his wife Tracy in the lounge, explored below decks, discovered that "Oceanos" appeared to be sinking, and were informed by the cruise director, Lorraine Betts, that the captain had given the order to abandon ship and some crew had already left in a lifeboat. They began launching the remaining lifeboats, with up to 90 people in each, but were unable to start their engines. When the ship's worsening list to starboard made it unsafe to continue, Hills and several passengers went to the bridge to look for the crew, but found it unmanned. They used the radio phone to broadcast a mayday distress call until Moss received a response.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Two small ships in the vicinity were first on the scene, and provided the ship's coordinates to the South African authorities. Rescue helicopters began arriving three hours later, and winched passengers and remaining crew to safety, with Hills continuing in charge of the orderly evacuation. Thirteen of the sixteen were South African Air Force Pumas, nine of which hoisted 225 passengers off the deck. They were assisted by the lifeboats of the Dutch cargo ship "Nedlloyd Mauritius", which had responded to the distress call. An inflatable had to be launched to rescue some passengers who panicked and jumped into the water.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: "Oceanos" sank bow first approximately 45 minutes after the last person was airlifted from the deck. The final minutes of her sinking were captured on video and broadcast by ABC News. All 581 people on board were saved. Entertainment manager Robin Boltman was credited with gathering the passengers in the lounge and playing music to calm them. Among the entertainers onboard was the South African cabaret performer, Alvon Collison, who later reported that he had begun singing an impromptu repertoire as the ship was sinking, in an effort to keep the passengers' spirits up. In his characteristic style, he managed to weave a comical moment into his narrative of the tumultuous events, telling reporters that he had started singing "Bye Bye Miss American Pie", when he suddenly realised that the next line was going to be "This’ll be the day that I die" - and quickly switched to another song


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Hills later said that searching for Captain Avranas, he had discovered him smoking on the fantail and he said "I think he was in deep, deep shock." Hills reportedly rescued Avranas' dog and released his canary. A South African Navy Diver testified that the captain had insisted on being taken ashore by the first helicopter. Boltman told a newspaper: "Later in the morning, Captain Avarnasi ("sic") even contacted me from shore to ask how things were going."


title: MTS Oceanos

text: Captain Avranas received extensive media coverage as an example of unprofessional behaviour whilst in command. He stated that he left the ship first to arrange for a rescue effort, and then supervised the rescue from a helicopter because "the batteries on the crew's walkie-talkies had died, meaning that he had no communications with his crew or with other rescue craft". He was quoted soon after the sinking as saying, "When I order abandon the ship, it doesn't matter what time I leave. Abandon is for everybody. If some people like to stay, they can stay." In 1992, he and five other officers were convicted of negligence by a Greek board of inquiry for fleeing the ship without helping the passengers.


title: MTS Oceanos

text: "Dateline NBC" aired a documentary of the incident on 23 May 2010. The sinking is the subject of a song called "Oceanos" by Celtic rock band Coast. It was also discussed in an episode of "Nova" on 18 April 2012, entitled, "Why Ships Sink", which focused mainly on the "Costa Concordia" accident (whose commanding officer also fled while passengers were still aboard). Hills was interviewed in the special, and related that some years later he had been on board when the MS "Achille Lauro" of Star Lauro sank. The rescue featured in episode 4 of "Shockwave", first aired 21 December 2007. The NPR radio show and podcast "Snap Judgment" featured an account of the sinking by Moss Hills. The show "Extreme Weather: The Survivors" featured a segment on the sinking. In 2022, Moss Hills – who later became a cruise director – was interviewed by Jane Garvey for BBC Radio 4's series "Life Changing".


title: MTS Oceanos

text: The "Oceanos" wreck lies at a depth of between and , about offshore. Divers have visited her, but strong currents make the dive difficult. Photographs taken in 2002 show that the bridge section has collapsed.


title: Ziegler–Nichols method

text: The Ziegler–Nichols tuning method is a heuristic method of tuning a PID controller. It was developed by John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols. It is performed by setting the "I" (integral) and "D" (derivative) gains to zero. The "P" (proportional) gain, formula_1 is then increased (from zero) until it reaches the ultimate gain formula_2, at which the output of the control loop has stable and consistent oscillations. formula_2 and the oscillation period formula_4 are then used to set the P, I, and D gains depending on the type of controller used and behaviour desired:


title: Ziegler–Nichols method

text: The ultimate gain formula_5 is defined as 1/M, where M = the amplitude ratio, formula_6 and formula_7.


title: Ziegler–Nichols method

text: These 3 parameters are used to establish the correction formula_8 from the error formula_9 via the equation:


title: Ziegler–Nichols method

text: The Ziegler–Nichols tuning (represented by the 'Classic PID' equations in the table above) creates a "quarter wave decay". This is an acceptable result for some purposes, but not optimal for all applications.


title: Ziegler–Nichols method

text: It yields an aggressive gain and overshoot – some applications wish to instead minimize or eliminate overshoot, and for these this method is inappropriate. In this case, the equations from the row labelled 'no overshoot' can be used to compute appropriate controller gains.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: In the United States, there are both federal and state laws prohibiting treason. Treason is defined on the federal level in Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution as: "only in levying War against [the United States], or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort." Most state constitutions include similar definitions of treason, specifically limited to levying war against the state, "adhering to the enemies" of the state, or aiding the enemies of the state, and requiring two witnesses or a confession in open court. Fewer than 30 people have ever been charged with treason under these laws.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: In Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution, treason is specifically limited to levying war against the U.S., or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Under U.S. Code Title 18, the penalty is death, or not less than five years' imprisonment (with a minimum fine of $10,000, if not sentenced to death). Any person convicted of treason against the United States also forfeits the right to hold public office in the United States.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: The terms used in the definition derive from English legal tradition, specifically the Treason Act 1351. "Levying war" means the assembly of armed people to overthrow the government or to resist its laws. "Enemies" are subjects of a foreign government that is in open hostility with the United States. Treason does not distinguish between participants and accessories; all persons who rebel or intentionally give aid to hostilities are subject to the same charge.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: No person has been executed for treason by the federal government under the Constitution. The small handful of people who have been convicted of the offense at the federal level — such as two militants from the Whiskey Rebellion (John Mitchell and Philip Weigel, who were both pardoned by President George Washington) and several people after World War II — have mostly been pardoned or released.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Constitutionally, U.S. citizens owe allegiance to at least two government entities: the United States of America and their state of legal residence. They can therefore potentially commit treason against either, or against both. At least 14 people have been charged with treason against various states; at least six were convicted, five of whom were executed. Only two prosecutions for treason against a state were ever carried out in the U.S.: one against Thomas Dorr and the other after John Brown's conspiracy. It has often been discussed, both legally and in matter of policy, if states should punish treason.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Four of the 13 colonies had enacted treason statutes by 1800, and four more had done so by 1820. The remaining four colonies had treason laws by 1862. In 2013, 43 states had treason laws, although 21 of them define this crime solely in their constitutions.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: The constitution of Alabama defines treason in similar terms to the United States Constitution.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Not less than 10 years and not more than 99 years' imprisonment (eligible for parole after lesser of one-half of sentence or 15 years) or life imprisonment (eligible for parole after 10 years).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: A treason conviction also results in loss of voting rights for life without the possibility of voting restoration.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: Arkansas legislation defines treason similarly to the United States Constitution, limiting it to "levying war against the state" or giving "aid and comfort" to the enemies of the state. Also similarly, conviction requires the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confession in open court.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Death, or life imprisonment without the possibility of parole (eligible for parole after 30 years if the defendant was under 18).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: Treason against the state of California is defined similarly to the United States Constitution. The California Constitution states that "treason against the State consists only in levying war against it, adhering to its enemies, or giving them aid and comfort. A person may not be convicted of treason except on the evidence of two witnesses to the same overt act or by confession in open court." This is reiterated in Section 37 of the California Penal Code.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: The constitution of Delaware defines treason in similar terms to the United States Constitution.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Not less than 5.5 years and not more than 30 years' imprisonment (minimum sentencing guidelines).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: The state constitution of Idaho specifically disallows gubernatorial respite or reprieve for a conviction for treason.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: After escaping custody on charges of treason against Missouri and fleeing to Illinois, Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith were charged with treason in Illinois, which at that time was a capital offense. Augustine Spencer swore out a warrant alleging that the Smith brothers had committed treason by "calling out the Legion to resist the force under the command of the Governor." On June 24, 1844, a warrant was issued charging that "Joseph Smith, late of the county aforesaid, did, on or about the nineteenth day of June. A. D. 1844, at the county and state aforesaid, commit the crime of treason against the government and people of the State of Illinois." (Ludlow, pp. 1346–1348)


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Bail could not be granted for a charge of treason, so Smith was placed in jail where he was accompanied by his brother, Hyrum Smith, and other associates. On June 27, Smith and Hyrum were killed by a mob in jail while they were awaiting trial. (Ludlow, p. 860)


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Death, or life imprisonment. In Louisiana, all life imprisonment sentences exclude the possibility of parole.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: The state constitution of Maine defines treason in similar terms to the United States Constitution.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after serving not less than 15 years and not more than 25 years.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Not less than 10 years and not more than 30 years' imprisonment (eligible for parole after serving one-half of sentence) or life imprisonment (eligible for parole after serving 30 years).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Joseph Smith and five others were charged with treason under Missouri law in 1838, spending over five months in prison, but escaped while awaiting trial. Joseph Smith and Hyrum Smith were later charged with treason against Illinois (above)


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Not less than 2 years and not more than 10 years' imprisonment (if imprisonment is imposed).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: 15-40 years in prison or Life imprisonment and a $100,000 fine. Though treason doesn't have a New York Penal Law Statute, it is punished as a class A-1 felony.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: During the War of 1812, Mark Lynch, Aspinwall Cornell, and John Hagerman sold supplies to British ships. However, the court dismissed the indictments because it was deemed the war was against the United States and not the state of New York.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Article I, Section 29, of the State Constitution is similar to Article III, Section 3 of the United States Constitution, limiting the legal definition of "treason" to levying war against the State or giving "aid and comfort" to the enemies of the State. Conviction requires two witnesses to the act itself, or a confession in open court.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: John Sevier, then governor of the State of Franklin and later the first governor of the State of Tennessee, was charged with treason against the State of North Carolina in October 1788. After being transported to North Carolina, he was freed. The charge was never brought to trial.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Thomas Wilson Dorr was convicted of treason against Rhode Island in 1844 for leading a rebellion against the state government, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Dorr served twelve months of his sentence. He was released in 1845 after the Rhode Island state legislature passed an Act of General Amnesty. In January 1854 the legislature passed an act annulling the verdict of the Rhode Island Supreme Court.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Death or not more than 30 years' imprisonment (if committed during time of war) or not more than 20 years' imprisonment (if not committed during time of war).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: The state constitution of South Dakota defines treason in similar terms to the United States Constitution.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Tennessee has repealed its treason law. However, a person convicted of treason can never be eligible to vote in Tennessee.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: levying war or conspiring to levy war against the state, or adhering to the enemy. This definition, in Title 13, Chapter 75, § 3401 of Vermont Statutes, echoes the definition found in the United States Constitution.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Death by electrocution. Vermont criminal law maintains capital punishment specifically for treason. No other crime is punishable by death. The method of execution is specified as electrocution. Vermont's electric chair, last used in 1954, is stored in the Vermont History Center in Barre, Vermont.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Not less than 20 years' imprisonment or life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after serving 15 years (if imprisonment is imposed).


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: John Brown was charged with treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia, along with conspiracy and first-degree murders after he led his raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859. In "Virginia v. John Brown", he was found guilty on all three charges and hanged. Edwin Coppie (also known as Edwin Coppock) and Aaron Dwight Stevens were also charged, convicted, and hanged for treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia and other crimes. The charges of treason against John Anthony Copeland Jr. and Shields Green were dropped, since their lawyer argued successfully that since they were not citizens of the United States, according to the Dred Scott decision, they could not commit treason; they were convicted and hanged for other crimes. Albert Hazlett and John E. Cooke were charged with treason against the Commonwealth of Virginia and found not guilty of treason, but were convicted of other crimes.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Definition: The state constitution and statutory law of Washington define treason in similar terms to the United States Constitution, except that adhering to enemies and giving them aid are distinct forms of treason, not elements of a single form.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after serving 20 years, or any term of years. Treason is a "Class A" felony under sentencing guidelines, and current guidelines provide for a maximum sentence of life in prison and/or a $50,000 fine.


title: Treason laws in the United States

text: Penalty: Life imprisonment with the possibility of parole after serving 10 years or not less than 3 years and not more than 10 years' imprisonment (latter sentence able to be imposed at discretion of jury or court if defendant pleads guilty).