title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Section 406 covers special elections. State jurisdiction is created by a majority vote of adult Indians in a special election. For this special election, the Secretary of the Interior calls the rules and regulations for the election, when the tribal council or other governing body requests to do so.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Amends section 1153 of title 18 of the United States Code. With the new addition, it reads: "weapon assault resulting in serious bodily injury".


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: An Indian, Indian tribe, Indian council, or any group of Indians have a right for the employment of legal counsel, and includes the choice of counsel and the fixing of fees. If any application made requiring the approval of the Secretary of Interior or the Commissioner of Indian Affairs is not granted or denied within 90 days, then the approval shall be deemed to have been granted.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: In this title, there are two materials mentioned to help strengthen the constitutional rights of Native Americans: "Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties" and "Federal Indian Law". This Act only mentions for these documents to be revised and printed on September 1, 1967. However, it is crucial to truly understand what these materials contain.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The "Indian Affairs, Laws and Treaties" material is full of treaties between Natives and the U.S. government. For this bill, however, the protection was originally created by the Treaty of Peace between the Navajo Indian Tribe and the United States. On June 1, 1868, with the signing by 29 Navajo headmen and 10 officers of the United States Army, the sovereignty of the Navajo Tribe was officially recognized. (It was later ratified by the Senate on July 23 and proclaimed by President Andrew Johnson on August 12). With this treaty, it brought the end to a four-year period of the hardships and exile brought upon the Navajo Tribe.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: On May 17, 1968, Congress, with a joint resolution, requested the President for a centennial signing of the treaty. Therefore, President Lyndon B. Johnson established the centennial of the signing of the 1868 Treaty of Peace between the Navajo Indian Tribe and the United States.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The "Federal Indian Law" material, on the other hand, is much broader than the other source. Basically, "Federal Indian Law" contains treaties, statutes, executive orders, administrative decisions and court cases that defines the political and legal status of federally recognized Native Americans. Within this material, the relationship of tribes and the U.S. government is defined as well as what the role of tribes are in states and the federal government. The three fundamental legal principles* in "Federal Indian Law" are:


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Note: The legal principles are sourced from the "Federal Indian Law" material, resourced from the "Federal Indian Law and Policy Affecting American Indian and Alaska Native Education" document


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The 1968 Fair Housing Act is a federal act in the United States intended to protect the buyer or renter of a dwelling from seller or landlord discrimination. Its primary prohibition makes it unlawful to refuse to sell, rent to, or negotiate with any person because of that person's inclusion in a protected class. The goal is a unitary housing market in which a person's background (as opposed to financial resources) does not arbitrarily restrict access. Calls for open housing were issued early in the twentieth century, but it was not until after World War II that concerted efforts to achieve it were undertaken.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The legislation was the culmination of a civil rights campaign against housing discrimination in the United States, including the 1966 Chicago open housing movement, and was approved by President Lyndon B. Johnson one week after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The Fair Housing Act was enacted as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, and codified at 42 U.S.C. 3601-3619, with penalties for violation at 42 U.S.C. 3631. It is enforced by the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The Fair Housing Act (Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968) introduced meaningful federal enforcement mechanisms. It outlaws:


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: When the Fair Housing Act was first enacted, it prohibited discrimination only on the basis of race, color, religion, and national origin. Sex was added as a protected characteristic in 1974. In 1988, disability and familial status (the presence or anticipated presence of children under 18 in a household) were added (further codified in the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990). In certain circumstances, the law allows limited exceptions for discrimination based on sex, religion, or familial status.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: In 2017, a federal judge ruled that sexual orientation and gender identity are protected classes under the Fair Housing Act. As of May 2018, there is an additional pending effort to amend the Fair Housing Act to make this explicit (HR 1447). In a meeting on May 16, 2018 with the National Association of Realtors (NAR), Rep. Dana Rohrabacher (R-Calif.), who was campaigning for his 16th term, said he believed that homeowners should be allowed to refuse to sell their home to gay and lesbian homebuyers. The NAR disagreed and withdrew its endorsement of the Congressman over the matter.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development is the federal executive department with the statutory authority to administer and enforce the "Fair Housing Act". The Secretary of Housing and Urban Development has delegated fair housing enforcement and compliance activities to HUD's Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO) and HUD's Office of General Counsel. FHEO is one of the United States' largest federal civil rights agencies. It has a staff of more than 600 people located in 54 offices around the United States. As of August 2017, the head of FHEO is Assistant Secretary for Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity Anna Maria Farias, whose appointment was confirmed on August 3, 2017.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Individuals who believe they have experienced housing discrimination can file a complaint with FHEO at no charge. FHEO funds and has working agreements with many state and local governmental agencies where "substantially equivalent" fair housing laws are in place. Under such agreements, FHEO refers complaints to the state or locality where the alleged incident occurred, and those agencies investigate and process the case instead of FHEO. That is known as FHEO's Fair Housing Assistance Program (or "FHAP").


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: There is also a network of private, non-profit fair housing advocacy organizations throughout the country. Some are funded by FHEO's Fair Housing Initiatives Program (or "FHIP"), and some operate with private donations or grants from other sources.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Victims of housing discrimination need not go through HUD or any other governmental agency to pursue their rights, however. The "Fair Housing Act" confers jurisdiction to hear cases on federal district courts. The United States Department of Justice also has jurisdiction to file cases on behalf of the United States where there is a pattern and practice of discrimination or where HUD has found discrimination in a case and either party elects to go to federal court instead of continuing in the HUD administrative process.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The Fair Housing Act applies to landlords renting or leasing space in their primary residence only if the residence contains living quarters occupied or intended to be occupied by three or more other families living independently of each other, such as an owner-occupied rooming house. Restrictions on discriminatory advertising do apply to all landlords without reservation.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The "Fair Housing Act" has been strengthened since its adoption in 1968, but enforcement continues to be a concern among housing advocates. According to a 2010 evaluation of Analysis of Impediments (AI) reports done by the Government Accountability Office, enforcement is particularly inconsistent across local jurisdictions.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: As the title states, this section of the bill sets the standard for preventing any kind of threat of force by someone who willfully injures, intimidates, interferes with or even attempts any of these actions upon a person of color (full discrimination set as race, color, religion, or national origin) when the minority in question is:


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Any citizen who has been ordered to discourage these citizens from aiding/encouraging other persons to participate without discrimination in any activities listed above will be:


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Whoever commits or attempts to commit any of these acts will be fined no more than $10,000 or imprisoned no more than 5 years, or both.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Section 232 covers definitions in this title. The definitions that are defined are: civil disorder, commerce, federally protested function, firearm, explosive or incendiary device, and law enforcement officer.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Section 233 covers preemption. None of the provisions contained in the title are intended on the part of Congress to occupy the state or local laws with the same subject matter nor are constructed to invalidate any provision of state law unless it is inconsistent. This section also holds an edit for the United States Code, where a chapter called Civil Disorders is inserted.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: In 1988, Congress voted to weaken the ability of plaintiffs to prosecute cases of housing discrimination. But the Fair Housing Act was also amended in 1988 to allow plaintiffs' attorneys to recover attorney's fees. Additionally, the 1988 amendment added people with disabilities and families with children to the classes covered by the Act.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: In the early 1990s, in "Trouillon v. City of Hawthorne", the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund successfully challenged an urban renewal plan on the basis of race discrimination by bringing suit under the Fair Housing Act. Previous litigation under the Act had largely been limited to discrimination in buying or renting housing.


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: Although he ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, Judge Davis nevertheless disputed the allegations of discrimination. He said he based his ruling in part on the city's failure to prove that the area had a higher crime rate and lower property values than other parts of the city. The city "did not act in bad faith or fraudulently," Davis wrote. It "did not discriminate against any minority or low or moderate income person and did not violate any person's Due Process, Equal Protection or other Civil Rights."


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: The Anti-Riot Act of Title I had been rarely used; it notably had been used to prosecute the Chicago Seven, but had not faced strict legal scrutiny. In the late 2010s, with growing concerns over activities of the far right, white nationalists, and white supremacists, the Anti-Riot Act had been used to prosecute organizers of various rallies that had turned violent, such as the Unite the Right rally in 2017. However, in June 2019, a federal district court in California, overseeing the case of members of the Rise Above Movement related to both the Unite the Right rally and other protests in California, ruled that the Anti-Riot Act was unconstitutional in that it was "overbroad in violation of the First Amendment."


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: There are an estimated 2 million cases of housing discrimination each year according to HUD. The National Fair Housing Alliance, the largest fair housing non-profit in the country, estimates that number to be closer to 4 million per year, excluding instances of discrimination due to disability or familial status. Housing projects have also come under fire by researchers and NGOs alike. Housing advocates Elizabeth Julian and Michael Daniel state:


title: Civil Rights Act of 1968

text: in addition to the inequality in the actual housing provided to low-income African-American families under the federal programs, the neighborhoods in which they receive assistance are usually subject to various adverse conditions not found in the neighborhoods surrounding the housing units in which whites receive the same assistance. The conditions include inferior city-provided facilities and services, little or no new or newer residential housing, large numbers of seriously substandard structures, noxious environmental conditions, substandard or completely absent neighborhood service facilities, high crime rates, inadequate access to job centers, and little or no investment of new capital in the area by public and private entities.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: Who Do We Think We Are is the seventh studio album by the English hard rock band Deep Purple, released in 1973. It was Deep Purple's last album with singer Ian Gillan and bassist Roger Glover until 1984’s "Perfect Strangers".


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: Musically, the record showed a move to a more blues-based sound, even featuring scat singing. Although its production and the band's behaviour after its release showed the group in turmoil, with frontman Gillan remarking that "we'd all had major illnesses" and felt considerable fatigue, the album was a commercial success. Deep Purple became the top-selling U.S. artist in 1973. The album featured the energetic hard-rock single "Woman from Tokyo," a live staple of the band's since the album's release.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: "Who Do We Think We Are" was recorded in Rome in July 1972 and Walldorf near Frankfurt in October 1972, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: "Woman from Tokyo," the first track recorded in July, is about touring Japan for the first time (e.g. the lyric "Fly into the Rising Sun"). The only other track released from the Rome sessions is the outtake "Painted Horse." The rest were recorded in Frankfurt after more touring (including Japan, which yielded "Made in Japan"). The group, riven with internal strife, struggled to come up with tracks they agreed upon. Members were not speaking to each other and many songs were finished only after schedules were arranged so they could record parts separately.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: Of "Mary Long," Gillan said: "Mary Whitehouse and Lord Longford were particularly high-profile figures at the time, with very waggy-waggy finger attitudes… It was about the standards of the older generation, the whole moral framework, intellectual vandalism – all of the things that exist throughout the generations… Mary Whitehouse and Lord Longford became one person, fusing together to represent the hypocrisy that I saw at the time."


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: Ian Gillan left the band following this album, citing internal tensions – widely thought to include a feud with guitarist Ritchie Blackmore. However, in an interview supporting the Mark II Purple comeback album "Perfect Strangers", Gillan stated that fatigue and management had a lot to do with it:


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: The last Mark II concert in the 1970s before Gillan and Glover left was in Osaka, Japan on 29 June 1973.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: The original album artwork has many quoted articles from newspapers. One of them is from magazine "Melody Maker" of July 1972, where drummer Ian Paice remarks:


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: On the back cover of earlier pressings, the opening track is listed as "Woman from Tokayo." Coincidentally, Ian Gillan's pronunciation of "Tokyo" does resemble this misspelling.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: Despite the chaotic birth of the album, "Woman from Tokyo" was a hit single and other songs picked up considerable airplay. In the United States, it sold half a million copies in its first three months, achieving a gold record award faster than any Deep Purple album released up to that time.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: It hit number 4 in the UK charts and number 15 in the US charts. These numbers helped make Deep Purple the best-selling artist in the United States in 1973 (with the release of "Made in Japan" and the prior acclaim for "Machine Head" helping considerably).


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: In 2000 "Who Do We Think We Are" was remastered and re-released with bonus tracks. The last bonus track is a lengthy instrumental jam called "First Day Jam" that features Ritchie Blackmore on bass. Roger Glover, the group's usual bassist, was absent, allegedly lost in traffic.


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: The album received mixed reviews. Ann Cheauvy of "Rolling Stone" reviewed the album negatively and, comparing "Who Do We Think We Are" to Deep Purple's breakthrough album "In Rock", wrote that the former "sounds so damn tired in spots that it's downright disconcerting", and "the band seems to just barely summon up enough energy to lay down the rhythm track, much less improvise." In a retrospective critical review, Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic expresses the same opinion and writes that, apart from "Woman from Tokyo", the album's songs are "wildly inconsistent and find the band simply going through the motions", although he does praise "Rat Bat Blue".


title: Who Do We Think We Are

text: On the contrary, reviewer David Bowling writes in the Blogcritics site that "Who Do We Think We Are" "is one of the band’s strongest and stands near the top of the Deep Purple catalogue in terms of quality", providing "some of the best hard rock of the era".


title: I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (Australian TV series)

text: I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! (occasionally shortened to I'm a Celebrity) is an Australian reality television series on Network 10 which is based on the British television show of the same name. The series aired mainly on Network 10 and 10 HD. The series sees celebrities living in the jungle with few creature comforts, and competing in various challenges to earn meals and other luxuries. The celebrities compete for $100,000 to be donated to their chosen charity. The series is set in Kruger National Park, South Africa, and is hosted by Julia Morris and Chris Brown.


text: On 16 July 2015 the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on 31 January 2016. The second season was accompanied by the companion series "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! Now!" (similar to the original British series). It aired on Eleven following each episode of the main series, hosted by comedian and former season one contestant Joel Creasey and "The Bachelor Australia 3" contestant Heather Maltman. "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! Now!" did not air after the main show in later seasons due to low viewing rates. On 1 August 2016 the series was renewed for a third season with Morris and Brown returning as hosts, which premiered on 29 January 2017. A fourth season commenced on 28 January 2018 and concluded 12 March 2018.


text: A fifth season was announced and premiered on 13 January 2019. The show aired over a four-week period instead of the previous six week period. In addition to the normal show, an hour-long companion series called "I'm A Celebrity: 'Saturday Schoolies" aired on Saturdays at 7 pm, hosted by Scott Tweedie, and involved the celebrities completing different tasks and assignments in order to win the 'golden lunchbox'. On 7 February 2019, it was confirmed the show would return for a sixth season, which premiered on 5 January 2020.


text: In May 2020, Network 10 renewed the series for a seventh season and in August 2020 they confirmed that it would continue to air in 2021 despite the COVID-19 pandemic. However, it was unclear whether the series will be able to film in South Africa or change to another production location. In November 2020, it was confirmed the series will be filmed in Australia at a site near Murwillumbah, New South Wales (the site used for many international versions of the show), which premiered on 3 January 2021.


text: The series' eighth season was announced in August 2021 and premiered on 3 January 2022, whilst a ninth season was renewed in October 2022 to premiere in 2023 before Easter.


text: The premise of the show is that there is a group of well known personalities living together in a specially constructed camp site in a jungle. During their time in the jungle they are isolated from the outside world and are not commonly aware of outside events. The contestants compete for $100,000 to be donated to a charity of their choosing, in addition to being personally reimbursed for their participation. While in the jungle, some of the contestants (generally voted by the viewing public) compete in challenges for food and luxuries for the camp. These challenges often involve local wildlife and are meant to take the contestants out of their comfort zone. Each week one or more of the contestants are evicted from the jungle, based on viewer votes. In addition, if the contestants become overwhelmed by their situation they can leave the series by speaking the phrase ""I'm a celebrity...get me out of here!"". However, it is reported that if contestants do quit they will have their income for participating in the series markedly reduced. Throughout the show, additional contestants (called "intruders") enter the competition; and beginning with season two, some contestants are only included temporarily (i.e. having a guest appearance). In the end, a final viewer vote occurs to determine the winner of the series, who is given the title of "King or Queen of the Jungle".


text: The contestants take part in daily trials to earn food. These trials aim to test both physical and mental abilities. The winner is usually determined by the number of stars collected during the trial, with each star representing a meal earned by the winning contestant for their camp mates.


text: In the fifth season, the celebrities participated in the "Sunday Slam", in which every Sunday a celebrity had to complete a gigantic and hilarious obstacle course. These courses sometimes involved competing 'head-to-head' against another celebrity who was in the opposing team. If the celebrity completed the course they would win a 'slam' of meals for their celebrities and if they didn't they would leave with very little food or nothing. The new tucker trial was split into two main parts - "The Course" and "The Slammer". The time spent on the gauntlet determined how steep the Slammer would be. There were a number of challenges in the obstacle course, including a slippery slide, an 'electric forest', a spinning turntable, twin spinning logs, a 'mole hole', 'feathering' chambers and the 'boulder dash'.


text: In Season 6 "Superhero Sundays" were introduced, which involved a group of celebrities participating in superhero themed trials each Sunday. These challenges include Dreadmill, "The Scariest Trial We've Ever Done!" and "Buns of Steel".


text: Any number of celebrities are chosen to take part in the "celebrity chest" challenge to win luxuries for camp. Each challenge involves completing a task to win a chest to take back to camp. However, to win the luxury item in the chest, the campmates must correctly answer a question. If they fail to answer correctly, the luxury item is forfeited and a joke prize is won. The luxury item is "donated" by a celebrity from the outside.


text: This is a challenge where some celebrities have to take part without alerting the other celebrities - if they are successful in their 'missions', they are rewarded.


text: A "mystery box" sees a box delivered to the campsite, each time containing a different gift for the contestants.


text: In season 5 immunity challenges were introduced for the first time ever. These challenges were harder than the "Bushtucker Trials" and the celebrity that won the challenge couldn't be voted out of the jungle by the public.


text: The show is broadcast Sunday to Thursday at 7.30 pm, with a weekly eviction show on Sunday (except for the first week, where the celebrities arrive in the 'jungle'). All shows are presented by Julia Morris & Chris Brown from a nearby studio. The program is live to AEDT States (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory), in other states the program is delayed to accommodate local time zones.


text: In addition to the television broadcast, for the first season a live feed from the camp site aired for an hour after the AEDT airing of the show on Ten's website and mobile app, titled "The Fallout Zone" but more commonly referred to as "FOZ". The content of feed was available on the website after the fact so viewers in other states could watch the show after their airing of the main show. The feed was hosted by comedian Sam Mac and producer Ciaran "The Butcher" Flannery, also known as "The C-Word". On 8 and 12 March 2015, producer Dominic "The Domin8or" Sullivan filled in during Flannery's absence. The duo interact with viewers through Twitter, using the hashtag #FOZ. Mac and Flannery have no control over the shots used in the stream which has resulted in one episode featuring a 20-minute shot of a waterfall and, on 16 February 2015, a 15-minute conversation featuring a sound technician looking for Bob being picked up. On 5 March 2015 the show famously featured audio problems during which Mac and Flannery's voices fluctuated between chipmunk and Darth Vader filters for the first thirty minutes. The show's theme song is Highway to the Fallout Zone sung by Sam Mac. The show did not return for the second season.


text: In addition to the main broadcast, season 5 had a companion show hosted by Scott Tweedie, which aired on Network Ten on Saturdays at 7:00 pm called "I'm A Celebrity: 'Saturday Schoolies"'.


text: The show involved all the celebrities in the jungle and was described as 'jungle detention'. Tweedie gave assignments, in the form of 'fun' games, to the celebrities which pushed them out of their comfort zones. The show was filmed on a classroom set in camp and the celebrities completed tasks to win the 'golden lunchbox', which included a number of school snacks such as an apple, dried mango, a muesli bar, biscuits, chips, chicken, a cheese & lettuce sandwich as well as juice.


text: Throughout the show the public votes on who competes in the following tucker trial and whom to evict from the campsite. Viewers can either vote via SMS (by texting the name of the celebrity to 1995 1010) or vote via Social Media (namely Facebook or Twitter) by using the celebrity's hashtag (#celeb[name]). Voting via social media is limited to 20 votes per account. For tucker trial voting, viewers vote for celebrity they wish to compete. For eviction voting, viewers vote for a celebrity to stay. Voting closes at approximately 7:30pm AEDT for Sunday's eviction vote and at approximately 8pm AEDT for voting on other days.


text: Prior to the premiere of the second season, it was announced that the voting process would change slightly compared to the inaugural season. SMS voting was used for both trial and eviction voting while Twitter voting was used exclusively for trial voting. This change was implemented to even the playing field between celebrities with a larger international fan base (who are more likely to receive Twitter votes from said fan base) and celebrities with a smaller fan base who are only known in Australia. However, this decision was later reversed, allowing Twitter and Facebook votes for the finals.


text: The seventh season was renewed on 11 May 2020 and premiered on 3 January 2021. It was the first series to be filmed in Australia and was pre-recorded due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In a format change (given the pre-recorded production), the celebrities were eliminated in Elimination Trials, with the winner still being determined by public vote between the final seven contestants.


text: In June 2017, Tom Arnold filed a lawsuit against Network Ten and A List Entertainment for defrauding him for being on "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!". Arnold claims that he was promised a payment of $425,000 and a comedy tour in Australia, however he was missing $140,000 in payment and that Network Ten backed out of the comedy tour.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The Battle of Puebla (; ) took place on 5 May, Cinco de Mayo, 1862, near Puebla de Zaragoza during the Second French intervention in Mexico. French troops under the command of Charles de Lorencez repeatedly failed to storm the forts of Loreto and Guadalupe situated on top of the hills overlooking the city of Puebla, and eventually retreated to Orizaba in order to await reinforcements. Lorencez was dismissed from his command, and French troops under Élie Frédéric Forey would eventually take the city, but the Mexican victory at Puebla against a better equipped force provided patriotic inspiration to the Mexicans.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The anniversary of the victory is primarily celebrated in the Mexican state of Puebla, where the holiday is celebrated as "El Día de la Batalla de Puebla" (English: The Day of the Battle of Puebla). There is some limited recognition of the holiday in other parts of the country. In the United States, Cinco de Mayo has evolved into a holiday celebration of Mexican heritage.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The French intervention in Mexico, initially supported by the United Kingdom and Spain, was a consequence of Mexican President Benito Juárez's imposition of a two-year moratorium of loan-interest payments from July 1861 to French, British, and Spanish creditors.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: On December 14, 1861, a Spanish fleet sailed into and took possession of the port of Veracruz. The city was occupied on the 17th. French and English forces arrived on January 7, 1862. On January 10 a manifesto was issued by Spanish General Juan Prim disavowing rumors that the allies had come to conquer or to impose a new government. It was emphasized that the three powers merely wanted to open negotiations regarding their claims of damages.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: On January 14, 1862, a bill of claims was presented to the government in Mexico City. Foreign Minister Manuel Doblado invited the commissioners to travel to Orizaba with two thousand of their own troops for a conference while requesting that the rest of the tripartite forces disembark from Veracruz. The proposal to disembark most of the troops was rejected, but negotiations then resulted in an agreement, ratified on January 23, to move the forces inland and hold a conference at Orizaba. The agreement also officially recognized the government of Juarez along with Mexican sovereignty.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: On April 9, 1862, agreements at Orizaba between the allies broke down, as France made it increasingly clear that it intended to invade Mexico and interfere in its government in violation of previous treaties. The British informed the Mexican government that they now intended to exit the country, and an arrangement was made with the British government to settle its claims. Minister Doblado on April 11 made it known to the French government that its intentions would lead to war.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Certain Mexican officers had been sympathetic to the French since the beginning of the intervention. On April 16, 1862, the French issued a proclamation inviting Mexicans to join them in establishing a new government. On April 17, 1862, Mexican general Juan Almonte, who had been a foreign minister of the conservative government during the Reform War, and who was brought back to Mexico by the French, released his own manifesto, assuring the Mexican people of benevolent French intentions.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The French defeated a small Mexican force at Escamela, and then captured Orizaba. Mexican Generals Porfirio Diaz and Ignacio Zaragoza retreated to "El Ingenio", and then headed towards Puebla.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: General Charles de Lorencez led 6,000 French troops to attack Puebla de Los Angeles in May 1862, certain that the French would win the war in Mexico quickly. Juarez assembled a ragged group of faithful soldiers at his new base of operations in the north and dispatched them to Puebla Britain and Spain bargained with Mexico before withdrawing, but Napoleon III's France opted to take advantage of the available space to create an empire based on Mexico. A well-armed French warship invaded Veracruz late in 1861, landing a sizable French army and forcing President Juarez and his administration into exile.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Almonte now attempted to consolidate the Mexican pro-French movement. The town of Orizaba joined him and so did the port of Veracruz and Isla del Carmen. Colonel Gonzales, Manuel Castellanos, Desiderio Samaniego, , and , and General Antonio Taboada arrived in Orizaba to support Almonte. On April 28, 1862, French forces headed towards Puebla.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: On May 2 the French army and the Mexican troops under Antonio Taboada reached Amozoc, and on the 4th pitched their camp within the sight of Puebla. Lorencez intended on immediately taking the forts of Loreto and Guadalupe, whose possession would assure him control of the city. Juan Almonte and had advised Lorencez to attack an orchard of the Convento del Carmen opposite the fortified heights of Guadalupe and Loreto, which was not done. They had also previously advised Lorencez to simply bypass Puebla and march on to the capital. Mexican historian Francisco Bulnes remarked that Lorencez lacked the men to starve out the city, lacked the artillery to take it by intimidation, lacked the men and artillery to take it by gradual assaults, and could only attempt to storm it in a risky manner that could have scarcely hoped to succeed.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The Mexican Republican army arrived in Puebla on May 3. On the 4th Arteaga's division now under the command of General , occupied the Guadalupe and Loreto Forts. The remainder of the forces took up quarters in the city.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: At half past eleven Lorencez arranged an attack column made up of two battalions of zouaves, one battery commanded by Captain Bernard, and four pieces of Captain Mallat's marine artillery.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The two battalions of zouaves now set their backpacks on the foot of the hill and began their ascent marching in columns by division and between them carrying ten pieces of horse artillery. They headed to their right towards the Fort of Guadalupe. According to a report telegraphed by General Zaragoza to the central government, the fighting broke out at noon. The strategy of attacking the most difficult, fortified, and heavily armed point caught the attention of General Zaragoza, as it now seemed that the French had tossed aside the military maxim of achieving a victory with the least amount of losses possible in favor of bravado. Zaragoza upon noticing that the attack was going to come via a direct assault on the forts, and who had a large body of this troops on standby for attack now changed his strategy. He gave orders for the forts of Loreto and Guadalupe to be reinforced. The French division advanced and when opposite the Guadalupe fort, halted and planted its artillery to fire upon the Guadalupe and the Loreto forts. After shelling them for two hours, a strong column proceeded by sharpshooters advanced upon Fort Guadalupe by the northern side. Felipe Berriozábal was then ordered to reinforce the two hills. A portion of the cavalry was divided into two bodies, one of which was placed under Colonel Alvarez and the other under Colonel Trujano. The rest were to be commanded by Colonel Felix Diaz.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Frances army was extremely advanced compared to Mexico's during the time of the battle. France had way more advanced weaponry such as long rifles that could easily outgun the Mexicans old muskets when they arrived at Puebla on May 4.  They were overconfident to the point that they didn't even care to properly assemble their weaponry. The French attempted to scare the people of the city on the morning of May 5 with loud bugle cries and complex bayonet drills. They were forced to retire, however, as a result of significant casualties, following a full day of warfare that included three miserably failed uphill attacks.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The French in their ascent towards Fort Guadalupe experienced little opposition and only a few casualties from the fort's guns. They had completed half of the ascent when they were met by two battalions of Mexican infantry, which after exchanging shots with French sharpshooters, returned to their position. The French troops continued their ascent while Mexican cavalry under the cover of a maguey field remained still. The Mexican infantry also under the same cover kept firing upon the French. The ascending column now turned diagonally towards the right, as if going between the two forts, and the two forts now took advantage of the opportunity to fire upon the French troops. Finding themselves assailed from all quarters by infantry and cavalry, the French retreated and were pursued by Mexican forces, but the pursuit was given up when another French column came to the support of the retreating troops.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The two French columns now pushed on together towards the Guadalupe and Resurrection chapel. The two columns combined and split into three. This second attack on the east and the north of the city was much more vigorous. The two columns which attempted an assault on the hill from the north again were completely routed. General Diaz with portions of his brigade and other troops and two pieces of artillery checked and drove away the French columns which were marching against the Mexican positions. The third French column which reached the east side just as the others were repulsed was also defeated. The Mexican cavalry then charged upon the remaining French and prevented their reorganization for further assaults.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The French and the Mexicans continue to face each other until seven in the evening when the French returned to their camp at Los Alamos and then to Orizaba on the 8th to await reinforcements which were on their way from France.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The Battle of Puebla was an inspirational event for Mexico during the war, and it proved a stunning revelation to the rest of the world which had largely expected a rapid victory for French arms. The victory filled the government of Benito Juarez with high hopes. Zaragoza received the thanks of congress, and was awarded a sword. Honors and rewards were decreed to the officers and men who took part in the action. Zaragoza sent the government the medals and decorations taken on the battlefield as well of those from prisoners, but President Juarez returned them along with the French prisoners of war. General Zaragoza would not live long after the victory as he died four months later due to typhoid fever.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Only two days after the battle the Mexican General Taboada who had collaborated with the French during the battle wrote to his liberal friend, Tomás O'Horán inviting him to join the French, arguing that they wished to establish a stable government and would bring order to the country.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: O'Horan would reject the offer, even fighting against the ultimately triumphant Siege of Puebla that the French carried out the following year, but O'Horan eventually would defect to join the forces of the Second Mexican Empire.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Slowed by their loss at Puebla, the French forces retreated and regrouped, and the invasion continued after Napoleon III determinedly sent additional troops to Mexico and dismissed General Lorencez. The French were eventually victorious, winning the Second Battle of Puebla on 17 May 1863 and pushing on to Mexico City. When the capital fell, Juárez's government was forced into exile in the remote northern parts of Mexico.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: With the backing of France, the Second Empire of Mexico was established, with the Habsburg Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: General Porfirio Diaz who had played a notable role during the battle would continue to distinguish himself as one of the most important liberal commanders throughout the Second French intervention, and even escaped after being captured by the French. After the end of the Intervention and the fall of the Empire, he would attempt to overthrow the government of Benito Juarez before eventually becoming the President of Mexico in 1876.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The political decision taken by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to implement the "Good Neighbor Policy," which was intended to promote links with Latin American nations and people, was one of the key factors in the  of "Cinco de Mayo" in America. Due to this approach, Cinco de Mayo gained popularity in the 1950s and 1960s and finally became a recognized national holiday. The celebration has changed, notably since a rush of Mexican immigrants entered the country during the Mexican Civil War. With the influx of Mexican immigrants into the American southwest, they joined in the celebrations with their fellow Mexican Americans who were residing there without really understanding the significance of the holiday, and over time the date evolved into a celebration of Mexican ethnic identity rather than the victory over the French forces that had invaded Mexico. Some people even compare how Cinco de Mayo is to Mexican Americans is how St. Patrick's Day is to Irish Americans in the sense of most people don't even know why it is being celebrated but they celebrate regardless.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: On 9 May 1862, President Juárez declared that the anniversary of the Battle of Puebla would be a national holiday, regarded as "Battle of Puebla Day" or "Battle of Cinco de Mayo".


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Cinco de Mayo is not the national day of Mexico, as is sometimes misunderstood. The most important national patriotic holiday in Mexico is Independence Day, on 16 September, commemorating the 1810 "Cry of Dolores" call-to-arms, that began the War of Independence. Mexico also observes the culmination of the war of Independence, which lasted 11 years, on 27 September.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Cinco de Mayo is day of celebration for the Hispanics is a tradition that takes place on May 5 to mark the date that Mexico defeated the Second French Empire in the Battle of Puebla in 1862, under the command of General Ignacio Zaragoza. The Mexicans' morale was boosted by their win over the bigger and better armed French army with a smaller, less well-equipped Mexican force.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: Since the 1930s, a re-enactment of the Battle of Puebla has been held each year at Peñón de los Baños, a rocky outcrop close to Mexico City International Airport.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: What most do not realize is that the “Battle of Puebla” is celebrated just as much if not more in America then it is in Mexico, some say it is a way that Mexican Americans can show patriotism towards their roots and traditions, but it has also always been overshadowed by occasions like September 16 Independence Day, which marks the beginning of hostilities against Spanish control in 1810. Contrarily, Cinco de Mayo became popular in the United States in the 1960s when Chicano activists started seeking for a means to celebrate their heritage. The largest Cinco de Mayo festivities currently take place in American cities with sizable Hispanic populations, such Los Angeles, Houston, and San Antonio. It is a common misconception among non-Mexicans that Cinco de Mayo commemorates the declaration of Mexican independence, which occurred around 50 years before the Battle of Puebla. On Cinco de Mayo there are multiple different ways that they celebrate this event, some of these being parades, speeches, and recreations of the 1862 fight. In the middle of the 20th century, Mexican immigrants in the United States began to take pride in their Mexican ancestry by celebrating Cinco de Mayo. The main cause for rejoicing in Mexico is a win in war.


title: Battle of Puebla

text: The American celebration of Cinco de Mayo is more about honoring Mexican culture in general. In 1863, Americans started celebrating as a show of support for Mexico against the French. Critics noted that many American celebrations tended to both perpetuate negative stereotypes of Mexicans and promote excessive drinking, and that enthusiasm for the holiday celebration did not catch on with a wider demographic until it was associated with the promotion of Mexican alcoholic beverages. Commercial interests from both Mexico and the United States have contributed to the promotion of the event with goods and services that highlight Mexican cruises, drinks, and celebrations, with music taking on a more prominent role. Since parades and concerts are held in many American towns the week before May 5, Cinco de Mayo has grown in popularity both north and south of the border and is now included in the calendars of more and more people. For a genuine Cinco de Mayo experience, eat Mole Poblano. Puebla, the location of the conflict with the French, is where the Mole Poblano dish got its start. Order the Mole Poblano at a genuine Mexican restaurant in your community, particularly one run by Mexican-Americans with an actual Mexican chef.


title: So Random!

text: So Random! is an American Disney Channel sketch comedy series that premiered on June 5, 2011. It was announced as an independent series after Demi Lovato left the parent series, "Sonny with a Chance". The series features the actors who acted in "Sonny with a Chance", besides Lovato: Tiffany Thornton, Sterling Knight, Brandon Mychal Smith, Doug Brochu, and Allisyn Ashley Arm along with other featured actors who recur in the series. The series premiere was watched by 4.1 million viewers.


title: So Random!

text: In "Sonny with a Chance", Demi Lovato plays the title character, Sonny Monroe, a new member of the cast of the sketch comedy show "So Random!", which is presented as a show-within-a-show. The series follows the experiences of Sonny, and the rest of the cast. The full length sketch comedy episode format was played within "Sonny with a Chance" during season 2 of the series for the Christmas and Halloween episodes. In November 2010, Lovato underwent treatment for "physical and emotional issues," and in April 2011, they confirmed that they would not be returning to "Sonny with a Chance" for its third season. They stated that returning to acting immediately wouldn't be healthy for their recovery.


title: So Random!

text: Following Lovato's departure from the series, "So Random!" was introduced as its own series that focused more on comedy skits than "Sonny with a Chance." Filming for the season began on January 30, 2011. Each episode features sketch comedy skits with the "So Random!" cast, as well as a musical performance by a guest star. Originally intended to be a third season of "Sonny with a Chance", Disney began to describe the show as a separate series following Lovato's confirmed departure.


title: So Random!

text: Each episode typically consists of five or six sketches. Though it is formatted as a sketch comedy series, "So Random!" retains the fictional universe style of the sitcom it spun off from, with the main cast members playing both the characters they originated on "Sonny with a Chance", in addition to playing the characters appearing in each of the sketches. Such a reference to "Sonny with a Chance" was made when Grady kept hitting the applause button while trying to open a pickle jar, and Zora goes offstage to tell him to stop. She asks what he's doing, and he tells her that he always has a pickle before the show and can't open the jar. Zora opens the jar without difficulty, horrifying Grady. However, the episode "Miss Piggy" would be the first and only episode to feature backstage scenes where Grady, Zora, and a couple other cast members visit Miss Piggy in her dressing room.


title: So Random!

text: Each episode is typically written by two writers (whereas opening segments and sketches in a traditional sketch comedy series are written by a team of up to twelve writers).


title: So Random!

text: Except for Demi Lovato, the main cast of "So Random!" is identical to that of its parent series, "Sonny with a Chance".


title: So Random!

text: The series premiered on Disney Channel on June 5, 2011 and on Family Channel on June 10, 2011. It premiered on July 27, 2011 on Disney Channel (Australia and New Zealand) and on October 31, 2011 on Disney Channel (UK and Ireland).


title: So Random!

text: The series became available to stream on Disney+ on April 3, 2020, however it was listed as "season 3" of "Sonny with a Chance", instead of as a separate series. On July 14 of the following year, both series were separated on the platform.


title: So Random!

text: The series's premiere earned mixed reviews. Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media gave the series four out of five stars, writing, "Sonny spin-off offers family-friendly sketch comedy, an excellent choice for families".


title: Lucien Favre

text: Lucien Favre (; born 2 November 1957) is a Swiss professional football manager and former player who currently manages club Nice. Favre was a playmaker for various Swiss and French clubs, the longest for Servette, with whom he also won the championship. As a manager, he won the Swiss Cup and the Swiss championship with Servette and Zürich. In Germany, Favre also managed Hertha BSC and Borussia Mönchengladbach.


title: Lucien Favre

text: At club level, Favre played for Lausanne-Sports, Neuchâtel Xamax, Toulouse and Servette, earning a reputation as a skillful and intelligent playmaker. When Pierre-Albert Chapuisat destroyed his knee in 1985, he could not play for eight months. It's still considered one of the worst fouls in Swiss footballing history. Favre announced his retirement in 1991.


title: Lucien Favre

text: Favre amassed 24 caps for the Switzerland national team. Notably, he scored his first and only international goal on his debut, netting in Zürich against the Netherlands on 1 September 1981 in the same game, in which both Ruud Gullit and Frank Rijkaard also made their first appearance for their respective country. Favre earned his last cap for Switzerland against Portugal in a 3–1 away loss on 26 April 1989 played in Lisbon.


title: Lucien Favre

text: Favre's coaching career started in 1991 as the under-14 assistant manager with Echallens. The following year, he took over the under-17 team before being appointed manager of the first team in 1993. Under his leadership, Favre's young squad surprisingly earned promotion to the Nationalliga B. The promotion is still the most outstanding achievement in the club's history.


title: Lucien Favre

text: After four years with Echallens, Favre was named Academy Manager of Neuchâtel Xamax. The move allowed him to experience the overall operation of a professional club.


title: Lucien Favre

text: In January 1997, Favre was appointed manager of Yverdon Sport, who was struggling at the bottom of the Nationalliga B at that stage. In 1999, he guided his side to the Nationalliga A. The following season, they unexpectedly achieved fifth-placed finish in the table, still Yverdon's best ranking in the top-flight to date.


title: Lucien Favre

text: In the summer of 2000, Favre decided to join Servette, a long-established club based in Geneva, where he had already won the league as a player. The highlights of his spell in Geneva were a 5–2 league win against Neuchâtel Xamax, a victory in the Swiss Cup final in 2001, as well as a superb run in the UEFA Cup, after finishing fifth. Servette eliminated Slavia Prague, Real Zaragoza and Hertha BSC (with a 3–0 away win in Olympiastadion), before going out against Valencia (0–3 and 2–2) in the last 16. in the 2001–02 Swiss Cup, Servette forfeit a match 3–0.


title: Lucien Favre

text: In 2003, Favre was appointed Zürich manager. His first match as Zürich manager was a 2–1 loss to Basel. In the 2003–04 season, Zürich finished in fifth place, one place below a 2004–05 UEFA Cup spot, and lost in the semi–finals of the Swiss Cup 6–5 to Grasshoppers. He won the Swiss Cup in 2005 beating Luzern in the final. The following season, Zürich ended their 25-year wait for a league title with a dramatic final day victory against Basel to win the Swiss Super League. They were also knocked out of the UEFA Cup in the first round. During the 2006–07 season, Zürich were eliminated from the UEFA Champions League in the second qualifying round. On 29 May 2007, after securing another Swiss title, he was awarded the Swiss Manager of the Year award for the second year in a row.


title: Lucien Favre

text: On 1 June 2007, German Bundesliga club Hertha BSC announced that Favre had agreed to sign a three-year deal as its head coach. He started the 2007–08 season with a 3–0 win against SpVgg Unterhaching in the first round of the DFB-Pokal.


title: Lucien Favre

text: During the 2008–09 season, he guided Hertha to an excellent fourth-place position, having at his disposal just the 13th-largest budget of the 2008–09 Bundesliga. Hertha played in the UEFA Cup and were eliminated in the group stage. In February 2009, one of the highlights of his spell in Germany was the brilliant tactical display of Hertha against Bayern Munich in a full Olympiastadion (almost 75,000 spectators). This performance allowed them to beat the erstwhile reigning German champions 2–1 to take Hertha temporarily top of the Bundesliga. Favre extended his contract for an additional year.


title: Lucien Favre

text: The 2009–10 season, however, did not look as promising for Hertha – its increasing financial difficulties prevented them from recruiting efficiently. Furthermore, three of the club's top players left in the summer: Josip Šimunić, Andriy Voronin and Marko Pantelić. At the end of September 2009, Hertha were struggling in the league and Favre was relieved of his duties by the club. Favre's final match was a 5–1 loss to 1899 Hoffenheim. Favre finished with a record of 40 wins, 20 draws, and 34 losses.


title: Lucien Favre

text: On 14 February 2011, Favre was named as the successor of Michael Frontzeck as head coach of Borussia Mönchengladbach. He took over when the team was sitting at the bottom of the league with only 16 points after 22 match days, seven points adrift of Bundesliga safety. He instigated an immediate improvement in form and although the club still struggled, they eventually managed a narrow win against VfL Bochum in a two-legged relegation play-off to secure their place in the Bundesliga.


title: Lucien Favre

text: In the following season, the team surpassed all expectations by finishing in fourth place, thereby qualifying for the early stages of the 2012–13 UEFA Champions League. However, they were beaten in the play-off round by Dynamo Kyiv. The team's brand of fluid, counter-attacking football impressed pundits and press alike and was typified by an emphatic double win over Bayern Munich both home and away. Favre's Gladbach were not as successful in the 2012–13 Bundesliga, however, falling to eighth. Some suggested that the added weight of playing in Europe coupled with the sales of numerous key players, such as Marco Reus, was to blame for this. The next season saw Gladbach rise to sixth, largely due to the astute signings of Max Kruse, Raffael and Christoph Kramer.


title: Lucien Favre

text: During the 2013–14 season, Borussia Mönchengladbach were knocked out of the DFB-Pokal in the first round when SV Darmstadt 98 defeated Mönchengladbach in a shoot–out.


title: Lucien Favre

text: The 2014–15 Bundesliga season was Favre's most successful season to date, with Gladbach finishing in third place and directly qualifying for the 2015–16 UEFA Champions League group stage. Favre's side were defensively brilliant and their passing style of play saw them record several notable victories, including a 2–0 away win against Bayern Munich and a comprehensive 3–0 victory at home to Bayer Leverkusen that ultimately sealed their qualification to the Champions League.


title: Lucien Favre

text: After losing the first five league games of the 2015–16 season, Favre resigned on 20 September 2015. His final match was a 1–0 loss to 1. FC Köln the previous day. During his time at Gladbach, Favre revived a fallen giant of football, taking them from certainties for relegation to the pinnacle of world football in the Champions League. Favre finished with a record of 88 wins, 49 draws, and 52 losses.


title: Lucien Favre

text: On 24 May 2016, Favre was appointed as Nice manager, replacing Claude Puel. This appointment was widely considered as a coup for Nice by the French media. He brought in only one backroom staff, Adrian Ursea. In his first season, Nice finished third and qualified for the Champions League, their best league position in decades.


title: Lucien Favre

text: On 22 May 2018, Favre was appointed as manager of Borussia Dortmund, with a contract lasting until 30 June 2020. During his debut season, he became the first-ever manager to remain unbeaten in his first 15 Bundesliga matches with the club. This includes a 4–1 win against RB Leipzig, a 7–0 win against 1. FC Nürnberg, and a 4–0 win against Atlético Madrid. On 3 August 2019, Dortmund won the German Super Cup. He was sacked on 13 December 2020 after a string of poor results, including a 5–1 thumping at home against newly-promoted VfB Stuttgart. Favre finished with a record of 67 wins, 17 draws, and 23 losses.


title: Lucien Favre

text: Favre's teams play a dynamic, quick and attacking-minded football where ball possession and change of tempo alternate. This attractive style of play has brought results in every club he has managed. Furthermore, Favre is very skillful tactically, leaving his opponents struggling to penetrate his well-organized sides. His teams tend to shoot less than others but have a high conversion rate, also with shots coming from outside the box. Favre likes the opponents conversion rate to be on the low end. His teams stick out at the wrong end of expected goals statistics. Favre has a reputation of predicting well how opposing teams, coaches or players tend to react in certain situations. To play this style Favre pays attention to details and technique especially one-to-one.


title: Lucien Favre

text: Favre is also well known for his ability to develop talented young players and introduce them into the first team. Under his leadership, Blerim Džemaili, Almen Abdi, Steve von Bergen and Gökhan Inler all made their debut with the Switzerland national team before signing for foreign clubs. In 2007, Zürich became Swiss champions with an average age of 21.5 years. He is also credited with raising the game of German starlet Marco Reus, whose fine performances procured a call up to the Germany national team and a high-priced move to league champions Borussia Dortmund; Marc-André ter Stegen, who eventually joined Barcelona; and Christoph Kramer. Another example of his ability to develop youngsters into widely sought after, talented players is seen in Granit Xhaka, who initially struggled when he joined Gladbach but, under Favre's tutelage, eventually thrived, becoming one of the best central midfielders in Germany and sealing a move to Arsenal for a fee reported to be in excess of €30 million.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty () is a team game played with sticks and a ball. Shinty is now played mainly in the Scottish Highlands and amongst Highland migrants to the big cities of Scotland, but it was formerly more widespread in Scotland, and was even played in northern England into the second half of the 20th century and other areas in the world where Scottish Highlanders migrated.


title: Shinty

text: While comparisons are often made with field hockey the two games have several important differences. In shinty a player is allowed to play the ball in the air and is allowed to use both sides of the stick, called a "caman", which is wooden and slanted on both sides. The stick may also be used to block and to tackle, although a player may not come down on an opponent's stick, a practice called hacking. Players may also tackle using the body as long as it is shoulder-to-shoulder.


title: Shinty

text: The game was derived from the same root as the Irish game of hurling and the Welsh game of bando, but has developed unique rules and features. These rules are governed by the Camanachd Association. A composite rules shinty–hurling game has been developed, which allows Scotland and Ireland to play annual international matches.


title: Shinty

text: Another sport with common ancestry is bandy, which is played on ice. In Scottish Gaelic the name for bandy is "ice shinty" (camanachd-deighe) and in the past bandy and shinty (and shinney) could be used interchangeably in the English language.


title: Shinty

text: Hurling, an Irish pastime for at least 2,000 years similar to shinty, is derived from the historic game common to both peoples. Shinty/Hurling appears prominently in the legend of Cúchulainn, the Celtic mythology hero. A similar game is played on the Isle of Man known as cammag, a name cognate with camanachd. The old form of hurling played in the northern half of Ireland, called "commons", resembled shinty more closely than the standardised form of hurling of today. Like shinty, it was commonly known as camánacht and was traditionally played in winter. It is still played regularly on St Stephen's Day in St John's.


title: Shinty

text: The origins of the name shinty are uncertain. There is a theory that the name was derived from the cries used in the game; "shin ye", "shin you" and "shin t'ye", other dialect names were "shinnins", "shinnack" and "shinnup", or as Hugh Dan MacLennan proposes from the Scottish Gaelic "sìnteag". However, there was never one all encompassing name for the game, as it held different names from glen to glen, including cluich-bhall ("play-ball" in English) and in the Scottish Lowlands, where it was formerly referred to as "Hailes", "common"/"cammon" ("caman"), "cammock" (from Scottish Gaelic "camag"), "knotty", carrick and various other names, as well as the terms still used to refer to it in modern Gaelic, "camanachd" or "iomain". Shinty was once a popular game in lowland Scotland, as shown by its name Shintie, a term which took that form around 1700, displacing the earlier Shinnie – of which there is a written record about 100 years earlier. Shinnie may also derive from "shin" in English, with the affix "ie", a common termination to the name of many games in Scotland.


title: Shinty

text: The objective of the game is to play a small ball into a goal, or "hail", erected at the ends of a by pitch. The game is traditionally played on grass, although as of 2009 the sport may be played on artificial turf. The pitch also has marks indicating a area around the goals, the penalty and centre spots (along with their associated arcs/circles of radius), and corner arcs at the corners of the rectangular pitch of radius. The goals, at opposite ends of the field, measure wide and high and a net is affixed to catch the ball when a goal is scored.


title: Shinty

text: The ball is a hard solid sphere of around half the diameter of a tennis ball, consisting of a cork core covered by two pieces of leather stitched together. The seam is raised. It is very similar to a hurling sliotar in that it resembles an American baseball with more pronounced stitching. The permitted circumference is between and weight between . The ball is usually white, but there is no statutory colour, black being a common colour for Kyles Athletic, and fluorescent balls now being available.


title: Shinty

text: The ball is played using a "caman", which is a stick about long with two slanted faces. The stick has a wedge shaped head, roughly triangular in cross section, which must be able to pass through a ring in diameter. Unlike the Irish "camán", it has no blade. The "caman" is traditionally made of wood, traditionally ash but now more commonly hickory, and must not have any plate or metal attached to it. The "caman" would be made from any piece of wood with a hook in it, hence "caman", from the Scottish and Irish Gaelic word "cam", meaning bent or crooked. It can also be called a stick or club. The slant of the face will vary according to the position that the stick is used for. It can be made according to the player's height.


title: Shinty

text: A player can play the ball in the air and is allowed to use both sides of the stick. The stick may also be used to block and to tackle, although a player may not bring their stick down on an opponent's stick, which is defined as hacking. A player may tackle an opponent using the body as long as it is shoulder-to-shoulder as in Association Football (soccer).


title: Shinty

text: A player may only stop the ball with the stick, the chest, two feet together or one foot on the ground. Only the goalkeeper may use his hands, but only with an open palm since he is not allowed to catch it. Playing the ball with the head constitutes a foul whether intentional or not, as it is considered dangerous play. Other examples of dangerous play, which will be penalised, are a player, while grounded, playing the ball, or a player recklessly swinging the caman in the air in a way which might endanger another player.


title: Shinty

text: Fouls are penalised by a free-hit, which is indirect unless the foul is committed in the penalty area, commonly referred to as "The D". This results in a penalty hit from .


title: Shinty

text: A ball played by a team over the opposing bye line results in a goal hit from the edge of the D, while a ball played by a team over their own line results in a corner. A ball hit over the sideline results in a shy: a shinty shy involves the taker tossing the ball above his head and hitting the ball with the shaft of the caman, and the ball must be directly overhead when struck.


title: Shinty

text: The winner of a game is the team that scores the most goals. A team scores a goal "when the whole of the ball has passed over the goal-line and under the cross-bar". A goal can only be scored with the caman; there is no goal when the ball "has been kicked, carried or propelled by hand or arm by a player of the attacking side." A goal can not be scored directly from a free-hit.


title: Shinty

text: Teams consist of 12 players (men) or 10 players (women), including a goalkeeper. A match is played over two halves of 45 minutes. With the exception of the goalkeeper, no player is allowed to play the ball with his hands. There are also variants with smaller sides, with some adjustments in the field size and duration of play.


title: Shinty

text: As with sports such as football, shinty originally did not have substitutes. These were introduced in the 1960s, progressively expanding to allow a maximum of three substitutions per game. As of 2011, a rule change allowed for rolling substitutions to be made at senior level.


title: Shinty

text: In common with many sports, it became formalised in the Victorian Era and the first organised clubs were established in cities such as Glasgow and London where there were thousands of Gaels resident.


title: Shinty

text: In 1887, a historic game was played between Glenurquhart Shinty Club and Strathglass Shinty Club in Inverness. This game was attended by thousands of people and was a major milestone in developing a set of common rules. This fixture was to be repeated on 12 January 2007 in Inverness as the opening centrepiece of the Highland 2007 celebrations in Scotland, but was postponed due to a waterlogged pitch.


title: Shinty

text: The modern sport is governed by the Camanachd Association (). The association came into being in the late Victorian era in as a means of formulating common rules to unite the various different codes and rules which differed between neighbouring glens. Its first meeting was held in Kingussie in 1893.


title: Shinty

text: The Camanachd Association maintained its initial structure for much of its first century. The 'Future of Shinty' Report published in 1981 led to a complete restructuring of the way in which shinty was organised and managed. That led to the move away from a dependence on volunteers to govern the sport, to the Association's first salaried employees.


title: Shinty

text: There are shinty clubs in Aberdeen, Aberdour (Fife), Edinburgh, Glasgow, Perth, Cornwall, Oxford and even London. University Shinty is a popular section of the sport, with almost all Scotland's main universities possessing a team. Historically, Glasgow University, Aberdeen University and Edinburgh University have vied for supremacy, but in recent years, Strathclyde University, Robert Gordon University, Dundee University, and the University of St. Andrews have risen to prominence. Clubs compete in various competitions, both cup and league, on a national and also North/South basis. While the top Premier Division has been played on a Scotland-wide basis since 1996, the lower leagues are based on geography. Many clubs run second teams that also compete in these leagues against clubs with only one senior side.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty was traditionally played through the winter, based around the tradition of the "Iomain Challainn", where New Year was marked by a game between neighbouring parishes. The summer was left free for seasonal work and friendly tournaments. The Winter season always ran over, however, and many teams would find themselves finishing the previous season only weeks before the next one would start.


title: Shinty

text: In 2003, shinty clubs voted for a trial period of two years of a summer season from March to October, with a view to moving permanently to summer shinty if the experiment was judged to be a success. Despite opposition from the "Big Two", Kingussie and Newtonmore, and other small groups in the game, an EGM in November 2005 voted by an overwhelming majority (well over the required two thirds) to make summer shinty the basis upon which the game would proceed.


title: Shinty

text: There have been teething problems since the move to summer shinty, with a couple of teams being culpable for the season running over into November and December. Season 2010 saw the league season finished by the first weekend in October, almost on schedule.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty does still get played during the winter, in University Shinty which has teams compete for the second most valuable trophy in Scottish sport – the Littlejohn Vase – and in New Year fixtures, the most prestigious of which is the Lovat Cup, played between Beauly and Lovat.


title: Shinty

text: League shinty was originally organised on a regional basis, with distinct competitions for the North District and at one time, two separate leagues for Argyll (the Dunn League) and the Southern League, for clubs in Glasgow and Edinburgh and the surrounding areas. Over time, there have been moves to amalgamate leagues and, since the 1980s, a push for national competition at the highest levels. In the modern era of league shinty, Kingussie have been unsurpassed in their domination of the sport; according to the Guinness Book of Records 2005, Kingussie is world sport's most successful sporting team of all time, winning 20 consecutive league championships and going 4 years without losing a single fixture in the early 1990s.


title: Shinty

text: Kingussie's unmatched run of dominance was ended on 2 September 2006 by rivals Newtonmore, who defeated Oban Camanachd 2–0 to ensure that Kingussie could not catch the team at the top of the Premier Division. However, Newtonmore were unable to replace their neighbours as champions, as the first post-Kingussie champions were confirmed as Fort William, who sealed the title on 30 September 2006 having won their games in hand over Newtonmore. Kingussie regained the title in 2007. Since 2010, Newtonmore have been the dominant league force.


title: Shinty

text: Cup shinty has always been seen as being more important than league shinty and the premier national competition remains the Scottish Cup or the Camanachd Association Challenge Cup, the Camanachd Cup for short. Until 1983 the competition was designed to ensure the final was between the North and South.


title: Shinty

text: The Macaulay Cup still preserves a guaranteed North/South Final. There are national equivalents for the Camanachd Cup for intermediate and junior teams. There are regional cups for both senior and junior teams; the MacTavish Cup is the senior cup for the North and the Glasgow Celtic Society Cup is the one for the South.


title: Shinty

text: In recognition of shinty's shared roots with hurling, an annual international between the two codes from Scotland and Ireland is played on a home and away basis using composite rules. In recent years, the Irish have had the upper hand, but the Scots won the fixture narrowly in 2005 and again in 2006, this time at Croke Park, Dublin, albeit with the Irish fielding weaker players from the second tier Christy Ring Cup. Scotland made it four in a row when they won in 2008.


title: Shinty

text: Canadian Gaelic-speaking pioneers in Nova Scotia adapted shinty, which was traditionally a winter sport, to the much colder Canadian climate by wearing ice skates while playing on frozen lakes. This led to the creation of the modern winter sport known as ice hockey.


title: Shinty

text: The game of shinny in Canada is a synonym for street hockey, pond hockey or any informal game of hockey. It derives its name from shinty, although a myth there perpetuates that it came from children tying Eaton's catalogues around their legs to protect their shins from flying pucks or slashing.


title: Shinty

text: London Camanachd is a shinty club first established in the Victorian era. Competing in English and Scottish competitions such as the English League, the Bullough Cup and most recently competed in the Camanachd Cup in 1994. They went into abeyance in 1995, but were reconstituted in 2005. They played the first officially recognised shinty match outside Scotland in 80 years on 22 July 2006 against the Highlanders. They compete annually in the English Shinty Championships against Cornwall, Oxford, Devon and Bristol as well as playing shinty-hurling matches and organising sporadic friendlies against visiting teams.


title: Shinty

text: On 28 December 2010 Ireland held its first dedicated shinty match in Westmeath, with players who have played the Compromise rules Shinty/Hurling.


title: Shinty

text: A Cornwall Shinty Club was established in 2012 playing their first game on 21 April 2012 against London; the match finished a draw. They also entered the St Andrew's Sixes tournament in 2012. Following this, in December 2012, two more Cornish clubs were created; the first being the Combined Universities of Cornwall and the second being Mabe. These two teams put forward their best players to play for the Cornwall Shinty Club.


title: Shinty

text: There was a team in Northallerton in the 1970s, which competed in six-a-sides; and on 1 August 2012 a re-vamped Northallerton Shinty Club was formed. The club is hoping to draw in a few former players, but wants to focus on raising awareness of the game in Yorkshire and bringing new local players into the game.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty was previously played widely in England in the 19th century and early 20th century, with teams such as London Scots, Bolton Caledonian and Cottonopolis; Nottingham Forest F.C. was established by shinty players.


title: Shinty

text: Since 2012 London has hosted the annual "London Shinty Festival" which has been attended by Cornwall, London, Oxford_Shinty_Club, St Andrews university ladies team, and the Scots. It is an open tournament held in late September after the Shinty season is finished to allow any traveling teams the opportunity to attend.


title: Shinty

text: Since 2013, a combined English Shinty Association side has entered the Bullough cup, being beaten in 2013 by Tayforth and then in 2014 by Ballachulish.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty is played in the British Army, with The Scots Shinty Club keeping alive the tradition of the game being played in the Forces.


title: Shinty

text: Shinty is also being revived among the Scottish diaspora in North America, where it was originally played in the 18th and 19th century by Scottish immigrants, but died out. More recent teams such as Northern California Camanachd Club (NCCC), Central California Cammanchd (CCC), and Oregon Shinty-Camanachd (OSC) play at Highland Games and other venues across the USA.


title: Shinty

text: Local papers, such as the West Highland Free Press, The Buteman, the Oban Times and the Dunoon Observer and Argyllshire Standard, have in-depth shinty reports. The Inverness-based media reduce shinty coverage to one summary of the whole weekend's action as do national newspapers, such as the Sunday Herald and the Sunday Post. The only significant national press coverage is of the Camanachd Cup final. Regional newspaper "The Press and Journal" runs shinty coverage twice a week (Mondays and Fridays).


title: Shinty

text: The first-ever shinty match broadcast live on television was the 1964 Celtic Society Cup Final in 1964. Although Camanachd Cup finals and internationals have been shown over the years, 2006 marked the first-ever regular TV deal for shinty with matches being shown on the BBC Sports show Spòrs. This was then followed by the STV show "An Caman".


title: Shinty

text: 2009 saw the Camanachd Association sign a deal with BBC Alba to broadcast all national finals as well as the Marine Harvest Festival. The MacAulay Cup and Camanachd Cup final were also shown on BBC Two. There is also an increasing amount of shinty on the internet, with various clips garnering attention on video sites such as YouTube. 2011 was a disappointing year for TV coverage outside of the usual games, but 2012 saw several games filmed live on BBC Alba.


title: Shinty

text: The sport is featured on BBC Radio nan Gaidheal by the programme, Spòrs na Seachdain, although English-language radio interest is usually restricted to the big events in the year. Commentary on the Camanachd Cup Final is provided in both English and Gaelic.


title: Christian universalism

text: Christian universalism is a school of Christian theology focused around the doctrine of universal reconciliation – the view that all human beings will ultimately be saved and restored to a right relationship with God. "Christian universalism" and "the belief or hope in the universal reconciliation through Christ" are concepts that can even be understood as synonyms. Opponents of this school, who hold that eternal damnation is the ultimate fate of some or most people, are sometimes called "infernalists."


title: Christian universalism

text: The term "Christian universalism" was used in the 1820s by Russell Streeter in the "Christian Intelligencer" of Portland, Maine—a descendant of Adams Streeter who had founded one of the first Universalist Churches on September 14, 1785. Christian universalists impute that in Early Christianity (prior to the 6th century), this was the most common interpretation of Christianity.


title: Christian universalism

text: As a formal Christian denomination, Christian universalism originated in the late 18th century with the Universalist Church of America. There is currently no single denomination uniting Christian universalists, but a few denominations teach some of the principles of Christian universalism or are open to them.


title: Christian universalism

text: Unitarian Universalism historically grew out of Christian universalism but is not an exclusively Christian denomination. It formed from a 1961 merger of two historically Christian denominations, the Universalist Church of America and the American Unitarian Association, both based in the United States. In the academic world, theologians such as Karl Barth and Jürgen Moltmann are typically held to have supported a theology of universal reconciliation.


title: Christian universalism

text: In his "Plain Guide to Universalism", the universalist Thomas Wittemore wrote, "The sentiment by which Universalists are distinguished, is this: that at last every individual of the human race shall become holy and happy. This does not comprise the whole of their faith, but, merely that feature of it which is peculiar to them and by which they are distinguished from the rest of the world."


title: Christian universalism

text: In 1899 the Universalist General Convention, later called the Universalist Church of America, adopted the Five Principles: the belief in God, belief in Jesus Christ, the immortality of the human soul, that sinful actions have consequence, and universal reconciliation.


title: Christian universalism

text: Christian Universalists disagree on whether or not Hell exists. However, they do agree that if it does, the punishment there is corrective and remedial, and does not last forever.


title: Christian universalism

text: Purgatorial Universalism was the belief of some of the early church fathers, especially Greek-speaking ones such as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Gregory of Nyssa. It asserts that the unsaved will undergo Hell, but that Hell is remedial (neither everlasting nor purely retributive) according to key scriptures and that after purification or conversion all will enter Heaven.


title: Christian universalism

text: Fourth-century Christian theologian and Bishop Diodorus of Tarsus wrote: "For the wicked there are punishments, not perpetual, however, lest the immortality prepared for them should be a disadvantage, but they are to be purified for a brief period according to the amount of malice in their works. They shall therefore suffer punishment for a short space, but immortal blessedness having no end awaits them… the penalties to be inflicted for their many and grave sins are very far surpassed by the magnitude of the mercy to be shown to them."


title: Christian universalism

text: Ilaria Ramelli, a scholar of the Early Patristic history writes, "In the minds of some, universal salvation is a heretical idea that was imported into Christianity from pagan philosophies by Origen" (). Ramelli argues that this view is mistaken and that Christian theologians were the first people to proclaim that all will be saved and that their reasons for doing so were rooted in their faith in Christ.


title: Christian universalism

text: Christian Universalists assert that the doctrine of eternal Hell was not a part of Christ's teachings nor even the early church, and that it was added in. The first clear mention of endless misery is to be found in a work from 155–165 AD by Tatian. According to Theologian Edward Beecher in the first four centuries there were six main theological schools and only one of them advocated the idea of eternal Hell.


title: Christian universalism

text: Christian universalists point towards mistranslations of the Greek word ( – an epoch of time), as giving rise to the idea of eternal Hell. Dr. Ken Vincent writes "When it () was translated into Latin Vulgate, became which means 'eternal'." He also states that the first written record of the idea of an eternal Hell comes from Tertullian, who wrote in Latin.


title: Christian universalism

text: The second major source of the idea of Hell as eternal was the 4th-century theologian Augustine. According to author Steve Gregg, it was Tertullian's writings, plus Augustine's views and writings on eternal Hell which "overwhelmed" the other views of a temporary Hell. First Augustine's views of Hell were accepted in the early Latin Church, out of which rose the Roman Catholic church. Up until The Reformation Augustine's view of Hell as eternal was not questioned.


title: Christian universalism

text: About the word as having connotations of "age" or "temporal", the 19th-century theologian Marvin Vincent wrote:


title: Christian universalism

text: Author Thomas Talbott states that if one believes in the idea of eternal Hell or that some souls will be destroyed, one must either let go of the idea that it is God's wish and desires to save all beings, or accept the idea that God wants to, but will not "successfully accomplish his will and satisfy his own desire in this matter."


title: Christian universalism

text: Author David Burnfield defends the postmortem view, that God continues to evangelize to people even after they die (1 Chronicles 16:34; Isaiah 9:2; Romans 8:35-39; Ephesians 4:8-9; 1 Peter 3:18-20; 4:6).


title: Christian universalism

text: According to the "New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge" (1912), over the first five hundred years of Christian history there are records of at least six theological schools: four of these schools were Universalist (one each in Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea, and Edessa–Nisibis), one taught conditional immortality (in Ephesus), and the last taught eternal Hell (in Carthage or Rome).


title: Christian universalism

text: An important figure in early American Christian Universalism was George de Benneville, a French Huguenot preacher and physician who was imprisoned for advocating Universalism and later emigrated to Pennsylvania where he continued preaching on the subject. De Benneville was noted for his friendly and respectful relationship with Native Americans and his pluralistic and multicultural view of spiritual truth which was well ahead of his time. One of his most significant accomplishments was helping to produce the Sauer Bible, the first German language Bible printed in America. In this Bible version, passages teaching universal reconciliation were marked in boldface.


title: Christian universalism

text: Other significant early modern Christian Universalist leaders include Elhanan Winchester, a Baptist preacher who wrote several books promoting the universal salvation of all souls after a period in Purgatory, who founded the first Universalist church in Philadelphia, and founded a church that ministered to African American slaves in South Carolina; Hosea Ballou, a Universalist preacher and writer in New England; and Hannah Whitall Smith, a writer and evangelist from a Quaker background who was active in the Holiness movement as well as the women's suffrage and temperance movements.


title: Christian universalism

text: The Unity School of Christianity, founded in 1889 by Charles and Myrtle Fillmore, has taught some Universalist beliefs such as God's total goodness, the divine nature of human beings, and the rejection of the traditional Christian belief that God condemns people to Hell.


title: Christian universalism

text: The Universalist Church of America gradually declined in the early to mid 20th century and merged with the American Unitarian Association in 1961, creating the modern-day Unitarian Universalist Association, which does not officially subscribe to exclusively Christian theology. Christian Universalism largely passed into obscurity for the next few decades with the end of the Universalist Church as a separate denomination. However, the Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship remains as an organization for Christians from the Unitarian Universalist tradition and liberal Christians interested in Unitarianism and Universalism.


title: Christian universalism

text: Some Christians from a Pentecostal background who were involved in the Latter Rain Movement of the 1940s and 1950s came to believe in the ideas of Christian Universalism on their own, separately from the Universalist Church tradition. They emphasized the teachings of universal reconciliation and theosis. These ideas were spread primarily through newsletters and traveling evangelists from the 1950s to 1980s, and were not typically identified by the term "Universalism". The only significant organization representing these beliefs that emerged within the Charismatic tradition was the Home Missions Church, a loosely organized network of ministers and house churches founded in 1944.


title: Christian universalism

text: In 2007, the Christian Universalist Association was founded by thirteen ministers from diverse denominational backgrounds as an ecumenical organization promoting a revival of Christian universalism.


title: Christian universalism

text: Yale Professor of Philosophy Keith DeRose points out that in the Christian Scriptures there are verses which point to universal reconciliation and verses which point to destruction or eternal punishment for some. If looking only to scripture, he argues that Universalism is not only based in scripture, but has a stronger scriptural backing than the position of destruction or eternal damnation. Like early Christians, he points to Purgatorial Hell, a temporary place of cleansing of sin that will be necessary for some as a way to reconcile these seeming differences.


title: Christian universalism

text: There are three general types of Christian Universalism today – Evangelical Universalism, Charismatic Universalism, and Liberal Christian Universalism – which by themselves or in combination with one another describe the vast majority of currently existing and identifiable versions of Christian Universalist belief and practice.


title: Christian universalism

text: The type of Christian Universalism that departs the least from orthodox or traditional Protestant Christian doctrine is Evangelical (Christian) Universalism, also called Biblical or Trinitarian Universalism. Evangelical Universalists hold to conservative positions on most theological or doctrinal issues except for the doctrine of hell, in which case they assert universal reconciliation instead of eternal torment. They tend to emphasize the substitutionary atonement of Jesus Christ for the sins of all humanity as the basis for their Universalism.


title: Christian universalism

text: In 2006 a mainstream evangelical writer, revealed as Robin Parry in 2009, under the pseudonym of "Gregory MacDonald" (taken from the names, Gregory of Nyssa and George MacDonald) released a book, "The Evangelical Universalist". In 2008 this inspired the creation of a forum, featuring "Gregory MacDonald" and Thomas Talbott, to discuss Evangelical Universalism and related topics. Evangelical Universalists derive a large part of their beliefs from Evangelicalism and Reformed theology. Many of them come from an Evangelical Christian background, but they may or may not identify with this movement and seek to remain with it.


title: Christian universalism

text: Some Evangelical Universalists avoid using the word "Universalism" to describe their beliefs, perhaps because of the negative connotations of this word among conservative Christians. Alternative terms that are in use among Evangelical Universalists include the "Larger Hope" or "Blessed Hope" and the "Victorious Gospel".


title: Christian universalism

text: Some Christians with a background in the Charismatic movement or Pentecostalism have developed a version of Universalism which could be called Charismatic (Christian) Universalism. Charismatic Universalists usually do not call their theology "Universalism" but commonly refer to their specific beliefs by the terms "Reconciliation" (shorthand for universal reconciliation, the doctrine of apocatastasis) and "Sonship" (shorthand for "Manifest Sonship" which is a variant of the doctrine of theosis). The term "Feast of Tabernacles" is used by some Charismatic Universalists as a term for their post-Pentecostal spiritual tradition, reflecting a symbolic interpretation of this Jewish festival as an entrance into a fuller knowledge and relationship with God and understanding of God's plan for humanity.


title: Christian universalism

text: Charismatic Universalism is marked by its emphasis on theosis; the idea that the return of Christ is a body of perfected human beings who are the "Manifested Sons of God" instead of a literal return of the person of Jesus; the idea that these Sons will reign on the earth and transform all other human beings from sin to perfection during an age that is coming soon (a version of millennialism); and the absolute sovereignty of God, the nonexistence or severe limitation of human free will, and the inevitable triumph of God's plan of universal reconciliation. Some see similarities to the teachings of Jacob Arminius, a Dutch theologian who tried to modify John Calvin's teachings about predestination.


title: Christian universalism

text: Many Charismatic Universalists meet in house churches or do not belong to a church at all. Most of the evidence of Universalism existing as a school of thought within the Charismatic movement is found in a large number of internet-based ministries that are informally networked with one another.


title: Christian universalism

text: Liberal Christian Universalists include some members of mainline Protestant denominations, some people influenced by the New Age and New Thought movements, some people in the emerging church movement, some Unitarian Universalists who continue to follow Jesus as their primary spiritual teacher, and some Christians from other religious backgrounds.


title: Christian universalism

text: Liberal Christian Universalism emphasizes the all-inclusive love of God and tends to be more open to finding truth and value in non-Christian spiritual traditions compared to the attitude of other forms of Christian Universalism, while remaining generally Christ-centered. In contrast to Evangelical Universalism, Liberal Christian Universalism views the Bible as an imperfect human document containing divine revelations, is not necessarily Trinitarian, and often downplays or rejects blood atonement theology in its view of the crucifixion of Jesus. Some Liberal Christian Universalists believe in mystical philosophies such as panentheism and process theology, Gnostic or New Age ideas such as the preexistence and reincarnation of the soul, and New Thought ideas such as the law of attraction.


title: Christian universalism

text: The Unitarian Universalist Christian Fellowship is an organization for Liberal Christian Universalists, especially those who belong to the Unitarian Universalist Association. The Liberal Catholic Church, the Catholic Universalist Church and the Unity Church are liberal Christian denominations which teach some Universalist beliefs.


title: Christian universalism

text: Former Pentecostal Bishop Carlton Pearson's "Gospel of Inclusion" appears to be a hybrid between Charismatic and Liberal Christian Universalism. He is now a minister in the United Church of Christ, a liberal Christian denomination, but continues to believe in some ideas and practices of Pentecostal or Charismatic forms of Christianity. Pearson has also incorporated some New Age and New Thought teachings into his message. Brian McLaren is a Christian leader in the emerging church movement who is sympathetic to the idea of Universalism but does not embrace it.


title: Christian universalism

text: A number of ministers and evangelists connected with Restoration Nation conferences are Universalists who draw from both the Evangelical and Charismatic traditions. One notable example is Robert Rutherford, a minister from Georgia (USA) who was a finalist on The Learning Channel's 2006 reality TV series "The Messengers". Another example is Dick King, an independent Charismatic Baptist pastor in North Little Rock, Arkansas, whose church left the Southern Baptist Convention in 2004.


title: Christian universalism

text: The conversion of Bishop Carlton Pearson to a form of Universalism and his subsequent excommunication by the Joint College of African-American Pentecostal Bishops in 2004 caused Christian Universalism to gain increased media attention because of Pearson's popularity and celebrity status.


title: Christian universalism

text: Since 2007, the Christian Universalist Association has ordained more than 30 ministers in the United States and other countries who believe in Christian universalism.


title: Christian universalism

text: There are many religious issues on which Christian Universalists disagree with each other, depending on their theological background and denominational tradition. Some examples include:


title: Duplicate (1998 film)

text: Duplicate is a 1998 Indian Hindi-Language action comedy film directed by Mahesh Bhatt. It stars Shahrukh Khan opposite Juhi Chawla and Sonali Bendre. In this film, Shah Rukh Khan plays a dual role, as Bablu, an aspiring chef and Manu, a notorious gangster. It marked Khan's first of many collaborations with Dharma Productions. Upon release, the film received mixed reviews from critics, and was an average success at the box office. At the 43rd Filmfare Awards, the film received 2 nominations – Best Comedian (Khan) and Best Lyricist (Javed Akhtar for "Mere Mehboob Mere Sanam").


title: Duplicate (1998 film)

text: Bablu, a bubbly and childish young man, is an aspiring chef who always prays to God whenever he gets the chance to be one. Meanwhile, Manu who is a very big gangster and a exact duplicate of Bablu is getting chased by the police. Coming back to Bablu, he gets hired as the head chef at a hotel and meets the charming Sonia Kapoor, the hotel catering manager and the hotel's owner who has a crush on Sonia. Bablu falls in love with her as they interact with one another.


title: Duplicate (1998 film)

text: One day, when Bablu takes Sonia out for lunch trying to express his feelings, he gets arrested because the police mistake Bablu for Manu. Bablu is able to prove his true identity, but not before Manu hears of his duplicate and decides to take his place by trying to kill him. But Bablu manages to save himself, yet Manu threatens that they have to switch places if he wants to survive so Bablu unwillingly accepts. Soon due to his womanizing nature, Manu flirts with Sonia, but ultimately fails at trying to kiss her. Soon Lily, who is Manu's girlfriend tries to flirt with Bablu thinking him to be Manu but also fails. Soon after, Bablu, who is a very kind man, starts teaching all of Manu's gang members, including Lily about morals.