title: Dorothea Jordan

text: During this time, Jordan was granted a yearly stipend of £1,200, though she continued to perform at both Drury Lane and Covent Garden, as well as on provincial tours until her separation with Prince William prior to his marriage to Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen. In 1811, Jordan was given an annual stipend of £4,400 by Prince William and custody of their daughters while he retained custody of their sons. £2,200 of her stipend included money for the care of the children with a stipulation stating that in order to continue receiving that money, and retain custody, Jordan must not return to the stage.


title: Dorothea Jordan

text: In 1814, when her son-in-law, Thomas Alsop, became heavily in debt, Jordan returned to the stage to help pay off that debt. Prince William took legal action and removed their remaining daughters from her care, and ended Jordan's yearly stipend. Jordan had written letters to British theatres and newspapers pleading with them to rehire her, acknowledging her prior affairs and business dealings with some of her past companions.


title: Dorothea Jordan

text: Jordan sold her home in 1815 and moved to Boulogne, France, assuming the alias Mrs James or Madame James or Mrs Johnson. Not having been summoned back to England, she moved to Versailles by the end of the year. Soon after, she moved to Saint-Cloud, near Paris. While in France, she was defrauded by her eldest daughter, Frances and son-in-law, Thomas Alsop after they accumulated large sums of debt in her name. During this time, both her mental and physical health declined, and she suffered from ‘bilious attacks, pains in her side, swollen ankles, shortness of breath and increasing general weakness’. She wrote in a letter "it is not, believe me, the feelings of pride, avarice, or the absence of those comforts I have all my life been accustomed to, that is killing me by inches; it is the loss of my only remaining comfort, the hope I used to live on from time to time, of seeing my children".


title: Dorothea Jordan

text: She died alone on 5 July 1816 from a ruptured blood vessel caused by violent inflammation of the chest. She was buried in the town cemetery.


title: The First (TV series)

text: The First is a television drama series portraying a team of astronauts who prepare to become the first humans to visit Mars, created by Beau Willimon and starring an ensemble cast including Sean Penn, Natascha McElhone, LisaGay Hamilton, Hannah Ware, Keiko Agena, Rey Lucas, James Ransone, Anna Jacoby-Heron, Brian Lee Franklin, Oded Fehr, Norbert Leo Butz, Annie Parisse, Melissa George, Jeannie Berlin, and Bill Camp. The series, a co-production between American streaming service Hulu and British television network Channel 4, debuted on September 14, 2018, in the United States and on November 1, 2018 in the United Kingdom. On January 18, 2019, Hulu canceled the series after one season.


title: The First (TV series)

text: "The First" follows the planning of "the first human mission to Mars, while exploring the challenges of taking the first steps toward interplanetary colonization. The story focuses not only on the astronauts, but also on their families and loved ones, as well as the ground team on Earth."


title: The First (TV series)

text: On May 3, 2017, Hulu and Channel 4 had given the production a straight-to-series order. The show was created by Beau Willimon who was also set to write for the series and executive produce alongside Jordan Tappis. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Westward Productions. The series reportedly has been given a budget of around $54.6 million. On July 16, 2018, it was reported that the series would premiere on September 14, 2018 on Hulu in the United States. On October 22, 2018, it was reported that the series would premiere on November 1, 2018 on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom. On January 18, 2019, Hulu canceled the series after one season.


title: The First (TV series)

text: In September 2017, Sean Penn and Natascha McElhone were cast as the series' leads. In October 2017, it was reported that LisaGay Hamilton, Oded Fehr, James Ransone, and Hannah Ware had also joined the main cast. On November 3, 2017, Anna Jacoby-Heron was cast in a series regular role.


title: The First (TV series)

text: The series was set to finish pre-production and enter principal photography on September 18, 2017 in New Orleans, Louisiana. The shoot was scheduled to last about 85 days though it was later reported that the series would film in the city through March 9, 2018.


title: The First (TV series)

text: On July 16, 2018, a series of "first look" images from the series were released. On July 24, 2018, a teaser trailer for the series was released. On August 28, 2018, the official trailer for the series was released.


title: The First (TV series)

text: On June 9, 2018, creator/executive producer Beau Willimon appeared at the annual ATX Television Festival where he discussed the series and debuted a "first look" at the series through a short trailer featuring narration from cast member Sean Penn. On September 7, 2018, the series took part in the 12th annual PaleyFest Fall Television Previews, which featured a preview screening of the series.


title: The First (TV series)

text: The series has been met with a positive response from critics upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 68% with an average rating of 6.3 out of 10, based on 59 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Sean Penn gives an intensely poignant performance as the driven but conflicted Tom Hagerty in "The First"s rather slow-moving first season." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 61 out of 100 based on 28 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: The First (TV series)

text: John Anderson of the "Wall Street Journal" wrote: "This is not a space show, or at least it won’t be till the end of the season. But it does what it does with a high degree of intelligence. ... There’s nothing pedestrian about The First, though. It orbits high above the cable traffic."


title: The First (TV series)

text: Matt Zoller Seitz of New York Magazine notes that some have given the series negative reviews and says "Not all of the series’ risks pay off, and the overall approach is so counterintuitive that it’s bound to frustrate audiences who expected more of a problem-solving space mission story along the lines of Apollo 13 or The Martian." But gives the series a positive review saying "it weaves a spell that’s somewhere between a ’90s John Wells drama (think ER or The West Wing) and a slowed-down TV answer to Terrence Malick (The Tree of Life especially)."


title: The First (TV series)

text: Willa Paskin of Slate.com wrote: "The First is a glossy, often-inert tale of devotion and spaceflight. Its first two episodes treat inevitabilities as questions, and unfold with the zip of a DVR-ed sporting event for which you already read the box score. ... But The First does get better after its first two episodes (before getting worse again) by jettisoning inevitability. ... As flawed as I found the first season, I’ll admit, it hooked me enough that I’m interested to see how they live life on Mars."


title: The First (TV series)

text: Alan Sepinwall of "Rolling Stone" wrote: "The First is under no burden to be as quippy or feel-good as The Martian, as awestruck as The Right Stuff, as gee-whiz as Apollo 13 or From the Earth to the Moon. But it needs to have some compelling reason to tell this story, in this way, and it never really finds one."


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Manganese dioxide is the inorganic compound with the formula . This blackish or brown solid occurs naturally as the mineral pyrolusite, which is the main ore of manganese and a component of manganese nodules. The principal use for is for dry-cell batteries, such as the alkaline battery and the zinc–carbon battery. is also used as a pigment and as a precursor to other manganese compounds, such as . It is used as a reagent in organic synthesis, for example, for the oxidation of allylic alcohols. is α polymorph that can incorporate a variety of atoms (as well as water molecules) in the "tunnels" or "channels" between the manganese oxide octahedra. There is considerable interest in as a possible cathode for lithium-ion batteries.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Several polymorphs of are claimed, as well as a hydrated form. Like many other dioxides, crystallizes in the rutile crystal structure (this polymorph is called pyrolusite or ), with three-coordinate oxide and octahedral metal centres. is characteristically nonstoichiometric, being deficient in oxygen. The complicated solid-state chemistry of this material is relevant to the lore of "freshly prepared" in organic synthesis. The α-polymorph of has a very open structure with "channels" which can accommodate metal atoms such as silver or barium. is often called hollandite, after a closely related mineral.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Naturally occurring manganese dioxide contains impurities and a considerable amount of manganese(III) oxide. Only a limited number of deposits contain the γ modification in purity sufficient for the battery industry.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Production of batteries and ferrite (two of the primary uses of manganese dioxide) requires high purity manganese dioxide. Batteries require "electrolytic manganese dioxide" while ferrites require "chemical manganese dioxide".


title: Manganese dioxide

text: One method starts with natural manganese dioxide and converts it using dinitrogen tetroxide and water to a manganese(II) nitrate solution. Evaporation of the water leaves the crystalline nitrate salt. At temperatures of 400 °C, the salt decomposes, releasing and leaving a residue of purified manganese dioxide. These two steps can be summarized as:


title: Manganese dioxide

text: In another process manganese dioxide is carbothermically reduced to manganese(II) oxide which is dissolved in sulfuric acid. The filtered solution is treated with ammonium carbonate to precipitate . The carbonate is calcined in air to give a mixture of manganese(II) and manganese(IV) oxides. To complete the process, a suspension of this material in sulfuric acid is treated with sodium chlorate. Chloric acid, which forms in situ, converts any Mn(III) and Mn(II) oxides to the dioxide, releasing chlorine as a by-product.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: A third process involves manganese heptoxide and manganese monoxide. The two reagents combine with a 1:3 ratio to form manganese dioxide:


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Lastly, the action of potassium permanganate over manganese sulfate crystals produces the desired oxide.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Electrolytic manganese dioxide (EMD) is used in zinc–carbon batteries together with zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. EMD is commonly used in zinc manganese dioxide rechargeable alkaline (Zn RAM) cells also. For these applications, purity is extremely important. EMD is produced in a similar fashion as electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) copper: The manganese dioxide is dissolved in sulfuric acid (sometimes mixed with manganese sulfate) and subjected to a current between two electrodes. The MnO dissolves, enters solution as the sulfate, and is deposited on the anode.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: is the principal precursor to ferromanganese and related alloys, which are widely used in the steel industry. The conversions involve carbothermal reduction using coke:


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Manganese dioxide decomposes above about 530 °C to manganese(III) oxide and oxygen. At temperatures close to 1000 °C, the mixed-valence compound forms. Higher temperatures give MnO.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: The reaction of hydrogen chloride with was used by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in the original isolation of chlorine gas in 1774:


title: Manganese dioxide

text: The standard electrode potentials for the half reactions indicate that the reaction is endothermic at pH = 0 (1 M []), but it is favoured by the lower pH as well as the evolution (and removal) of gaseous chlorine.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: This reaction is also a convenient way to remove the manganese dioxide precipitate from the ground glass joints after running a reaction (for example, an oxidation with potassium permanganate).


title: Manganese dioxide

text: The predominant application of is as a component of dry cell batteries: alkaline batteries and so called Leclanché cell, or zinc–carbon batteries. Approximately 500,000 tonnes are consumed for this application annually. Other industrial applications include the use of as an inorganic pigment in ceramics and in glassmaking. It is also used in water treatment applications.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: Excavations at the Pech-de-l'Azé cave site in southwestern France have yielded blocks of manganese dioxide, with lots of scratch marks which date back 50,000 years and have been attributed to Neanderthals . Scientists have conjectured that Neanderthals used this mineral for body decoration, but there are many other readily available minerals that are more suitable for that purpose. Heyes et al. (in 2016) determined that the manganese dioxide lowers the combustion temperatures for wood from above 650 °F to 480 °F, making fire making much easier and this is likely to be the purpose of the blocks.


title: Manganese dioxide

text: A specialized use of manganese dioxide is as oxidant in organic synthesis. The effectiveness of the reagent depends on the method of preparation, a problem that is typical for other heterogeneous reagents where surface area, among other variables, is a significant factor. The mineral pyrolusite makes a poor reagent. Usually, however, the reagent is generated in situ by treatment of an aqueous solution with a Mn(II) salt, typically the sulfate. oxidizes allylic alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes or ketones:


title: Manganese dioxide

text: The configuration of the double bond is conserved in the reaction. The corresponding acetylenic alcohols are also suitable substrates, although the resulting propargylic aldehydes can be quite reactive. Benzylic and even unactivated alcohols are also good substrates. 1,2-Diols are cleaved by to dialdehydes or diketones. Otherwise, the applications of are numerous, being applicable to many kinds of reactions including amine oxidation, aromatization, oxidative coupling, and thiol oxidation.


title: Salem Ilese

text: Ilese was born in Mill Valley, California. Her songwriting career started at the age of 10 when she began classes with Bonnie Hayes (songwriter for Bonnie Raitt and Cher) in San Francisco. She also attended Berklee College of Music.


title: Salem Ilese

text: Her single, "Mad at Disney", was awarded gold by the RIAA. The song peaked at number 67 on the Billboard Global 200 in 2020, and appeared on the Rolling Stone Top 100 Popular Songs in 2020. Additionally, Ilese co-wrote Jamie Miller's "Here's Your Perfect", Bella Poarch's "Build a Bitch," Tomorrow X Together's "Anti-Romantic". Her EP "(L)only Child" was released with a food truck in May 2021.


title: Salem Ilese

text: Her other song, "Crypto Boy", rose in popularity in social media including YouTube Shorts and TikTok.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið (, "Ásatrú Fellowship") is an Icelandic religious organisation of heathenry (in Iceland also called "", "ás faith"). It was founded on the first day of summer (Iceland) 1972, and granted recognition as a registered religious organization in 1973, allowing it to conduct legally binding ceremonies and collect a share of the church tax. The Allsherjargoði is the chief religious official.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The organization was led by farmer and poet Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson from 1972 until his death in 1993. During most of this period membership did not exceed 100 people and after the initial enthusiasm faded, there was little activity. The time of the next high priest, Jörmundur Ingi Hansen (1994–2002), saw considerable growth and activity, including the design of an Ásatrú burial ground. These trends have continued under the present high priest, musician Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson (2003–), and as of January 1, 2018, the organization has 4126 registered members, about one third of whom are women. Since 2002, the number of registered members has grown annually from 8% (2006–2007) to 21% (2011–2012).


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið does not have a fixed religious dogma or theology, but the high priests have tended towards a pantheistic worldview. The central ritual is the communal "blót" feast, but the priests ("goðar") also conduct name-giving ceremonies, coming of age rituals, weddings, and funerals. The organization has on some occasions taken a stance on political issues, including abortion rights, gay marriage, the separation of church and state, and environmental issues. The organisation is a founding member of the European Congress of Ethnic Religions.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The idea to found a folk religious organization came about in late winter 1972 in discussions in a café in Reykjavík. The four men who would become the organization's early leaders and ideologues were Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson, a farmer and a traditionalist poet, Jörmundur Ingi Hansen, a jack of all trades and a prominent person in the Reykjavík hippie movement, Dagur Þorleifsson, a journalist and active member of the Reykjavík theosophy lodge, and Þorsteinn Guðjónsson, leader of Félag Nýalssinna, an organization devoted to the theories of Helgi Pjeturss.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson described the founding of Ásatrúarfélagið as based on a belief in hidden forces in the land and connected to "the desire that Icelanders could have their own faith, and nourish it no less than imported religions". Dagur Þorleifsson emphasized that the religion constituted a movement back to nature, seeking refuge from the ills of industrial civilization. One observer traces the origins of the organization to the countercultural and religious waves of the time, as well as to nationalism and the widespread Icelandic interest in spiritism, theosophy and elves.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The Ásatrú organization was formed on the First Day of Summer 1972 in a meeting at Hótel Borg. In a meeting shortly thereafter Sveinbjörn was chosen as chairman and dubbed "allsherjargoði".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Shortly before Christmas 1972, Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson and Þorsteinn Guðjónsson visited Ólafur Jóhannesson, minister of justice and ecclesiastical affairs, and expressed interest in registering Ásatrúarfélagið as an official religious organization. The minister at first believed that the request was a joke but when Sveinbjörn and Þorsteinn told him that they were serious he requested additional paperwork. According to Sveinbjörn, shortly after he and Þorsteinn exited the ministry, the lights in the center of town went out due to a thunderstorm, leaving the minister sitting in the dark. The newspaper Vísir wrote about this in a jocular tone, noting that "the representatives of the Ásatrúarmenn got rather vague answers from the minister, — and apparently that's what Thor the thunder god thought as well, because as the visit was at an end and the minister stood up to follow the guests to the door there was a terrible thunder in the center of Reykjavík, causing damage close to the office of the ministry".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Sigurbjörn Einarsson, Bishop of Iceland, recommended to the ministry that the organization not be granted recognition. In a written opinion, later published, the bishop pointed out that the Icelandic constitution granted everyone a right to "found organizations to serve god" and that this assumed a monotheistic outlook. Sigurbjörn cited the opinion of legal scholar Einar Arnórsson, published in 1912, that "polytheistic religious organizations founded [in Iceland] would therefore not be protected by the constitution". Sigurbjörn further criticized the application for not including the declaration of an individual stating that he would assume the leadership of the organization. He criticized the organization for having vague teachings and for not including clear documents on them. He also pointed out that the organization had no dedicated house of worship.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In Sigurbjörn's opinion the most significant effort to revive Germanic folk religion happened in Nazi Germany and was connected to the racial ideology of that regime. He pointed out that the present applicants had hitherto considered themselves followers of the "Nýall" theories of Helgi Pjeturss and that these theories contained the same racial elements as the Nazi ideology. The bishop expressed concern over the possible moral teachings of an Ásatrú organization, in particular as regarded individualism, polygamy and security of person. Finally he pointed out that the group applying for recognition was small, consisting of 21 individuals. "Morgunblaðið", Iceland's biggest daily newspaper, declared its agreement with the bishop in an editorial. The paper stated that the Christian faith was the "basis of Icelandic society" and that "Christ is enough, though he was not enough for Hitler, Stalin or their followers".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In the Asatruers' reply to the bishop's criticism they argued that even Christianity had some polytheistic elements and that Ásatrú could include a belief in a Supreme Being. They denied any association with national socialism and argued that it was doubtful that the Third Reich had any genuine Asatruers while it was certain that a number of Christian sects had cooperated with the Nazis.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið was officially recognized as a religious organization by the Icelandic government in May, 1973. This gives it the legal right to perform marriages and other ceremonies and also entitles it to a share of the church tax in proportion to its number of adult members.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In the Althing, Halldór Blöndal and Magnús Jónsson, members of the Independence Party, requested an explanation for why Ólafur Jóhannesson had given legal recognition to Ásatrúarfélagið. The minister defended his decision on the grounds that the constitution granted freedom of association and freedom of religion. Magnús Jónsson argued that the constitution applied freedom of religion only to monotheistic religions and that the recognition of an organization practicing polytheism and idol worship was thus an illegal act. The minister countered that legal scholars had debated whether the clause applied to polytheism.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 1975, the Althing changed the law in a way that made it more difficult for new religious organizations to gain recognition.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: On August 5, 1973, Ásatrúarfélagið held the first public outdoor "blót" (plural same as singular) in Iceland since public "blót" were forbidden by law in the year 1000. The event was held at Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson's farm at Dragháls in pelting rain below a plaster statue of the god Thor made by Jörmundur Ingi Hansen. The blót was described by the newspaper "Vísir" as "vigorous and energetic" while Sigurður A. Magnússon commented that the historic significance of the event had not been matched by the quality of the ceremony, "It could hardly have been simpler or more pedestrian".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið had received extensive media coverage even in its very early formative stages and by the time of the


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: first public "blót" that attention extended to foreign media and had become disproportionate to the scale of the event with about as many journalists as participants attending.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Early on, the organization had ambitious plans for building a temple, getting a burial ground, and dividing the land into "goðorð", led by individual "goðar" (a nomenclature borrowed from the political system of the Icelandic Commonwealth). However, membership in the organization did not increase as quickly as these goals would have necessitated. In 1973 Ásatrúarfélagið had 58 registered members, in 1974 it had 70 and in 1976 it had 77. As its leaders realized that the organization's more ambitious goals could not be quickly achieved, the society settled down to a low level of activity. In 1983 a "blót" had not been held for three years, but one was arranged to provide the makers of a documentary with material.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: By the mid-80s, membership in the organization started to rise every year. In 1985 there were 74 members and by 1992 membership had risen to 119. At that point the organization decided that the time had come for increased activity. The same year, Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson published his autobiography.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson acted as "allsherjargoði" from 1972 until his death in December 1993. He lived a simple life on a farm without modern luxuries. A popular grandfatherly figure, he was "a little eccentric and shy in his role as a media spokesman". He left a lasting impression in people's minds.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In late 1993, Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson died and in 1994, elections were held for a new "allsherjargoði". The candidates were Jörmundur Ingi Hansen and Haukur Halldórsson. Jörmundur Ingi ran on a platform of continuity while Haukur promised more innovation. Jörmundur Ingi won with 59 votes against 34.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: While Jörmundur was, like Sveinbjörn, an older man knowledgeable in ancient literature, he differed from his predecessor in his greater skill at dealing with the media. Jörmundur's time as allsherjargoði saw a rapid rise in membership in the organization, going from 172 in 1994 to 628 in 2002. Jörmundur's time also saw an increase in the percentage of women members, going from 13% in 1994 to 21% in 2002.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 1999, the organization achieved one of its oldest goals of having a burial ground of its own. The burial ground was designed by Jörmundur Ingi and the first burial took place the same year.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In the summer of 2000, on the occasion of the 1000 year commemoration of the Christianisation of Iceland, the Icelandic state and the Church of Iceland organized a celebration at Þingvellir. Ásatrúarfélagið had its own annual "blót" at Þingvellir at the same time, leading to conflict over the use of facilities with some underlying ideological tensions. In the end, more than 1000 people participated in Ásatrúarfélagið's summer event, more than in any previous ceremony by the organization.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 2000, Ásatrúarfélagið passed the Buddhist Association of Iceland and the Icelandic Bahá'i Community to become Iceland's largest non-Christian religious organization.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 2002, the board of directors sacked Jörmundur and installed Jónína Kristín Berg (born 1962) as temporary allsherjargoði. In 2003, musician Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson (born 1958), was chosen as allsherjargoði. As of 2018, he remains in office. The demographic trends of previous years have continued. The number of members went from 628 in 2002 to 4126 in 2018 (from 0.20% to 1.18% of the population of Iceland) while the percentage of women has gone from 21% in 2002 to 33% in 2018.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 2006, the Ministry of Justice increased the number of Ásatrú priests allowed to conduct legally binding ceremonies (icelandic:vígsluréttindi) from two (the "allsherjargoði" and his substitute) to five. Two of those five priests are women. As of 2018 there are 10 priests who are officially allowed by the government to conduct legally binding ceremonies.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The website of Ásatrúarfélagið (as of 2009) defines "Ásatrú" as belief "in the Icelandic/Nordic folklore, the spirits and entities the folklore represents, in addition to gods and other beings from the Nordic pantheism".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: From the beginning, Ásatrúarfélagið has not had any fixed religious dogma or theology. Individual members have various beliefs (there are, for example, a number of Wiccan members). Though members are not expected to follow the lead of any religious authority, all the high priests have publicly expressed their personal beliefs at one point or another.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson summarized his religious convictions in his autobiography, saying that he had not a simple religious conviction but a "somewhat unquiet faith".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: My faith is based on a constant search but I don't search frantically. It's no use to rush out into space to search for some gods there, if they want to have anything to do with me, they will come. I have often become aware of them, but I don't rush after them or shout at them. I have gotten to know them a bit in myself and also in other people. ... Primarily it is the effects of the great force felt by everyone that make me religious. ... The most remarkable thing about faith is that it gives us growth, the possibility to grow and thrive. And humility cannot be neglected. Without it we cannot live to any useful degree, though of course it has its particular place. But a man who is completely without it is a madman.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In a 1992 interview, Jörmundur Ingi Hansen expressed his views on various theological subjects, including the nature of the gods and the basis of his Ásatrú beliefs.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: From my perspective, the world is split into two in its nature, divided into constructive forces, the æsir, and the destructive forces which we call jötnar. ... Ásatrú or heathenry is basically only to realize this dichotomy and to decide to side with the æsir. The best way to do that, in my opinion, is to be self-consistent, live in harmony with nature, associate with it with respect and to submit to the public order. ... The gods shape the dwelling places of people, the earth and the solar system out of the material that already exists. To that extent we can look on the forces of nature as the gods themselves and to a large extent that is what people did in antiquity.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrú is a pantheistic belief. The earth, the air and the water has great value to us. We are a part of the earth and not its masters.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: I believe in a higher power which appears to us in the multiplicity of nature and of human life. We have manifestations of certain primal forces which we regard as gods and we have a division in the roles of the gods. These are powers that are visible, half-visible and sometimes invisible. One could have a long scholarly discussion on the role of individual gods, but in the end this is a question of a feeling for the different aspects of life.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The central ritual performed by Ásatrúarfélagið is the communal "blót" feast. A "blót" starts with a "goði" hallowing the ceremony with a certain formula and declaring a truce between all present. This is followed by the reciting or chanting of verses from the "Poetic Edda". Next, a drinking horn is passed around and participants drink to the gods, the wights and the ancestors. Libations are offered. This initial part of the ceremony, often conducted outdoors, is followed by a communal feast, typically indoors. The feast is often accompanied by musical performances or other forms of entertainment.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In the early days of the movement, the founders were asked whether they conducted ritual slaughter of animals during "blót". The general response was that while this would not be morally problematic it was not practical. Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson commented:


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: No, for the simple reason that we can't be bothered. It's far easier to just get a carcass so that's what we do. In earlier times it was normal to slaughter the animal in place because people couldn't store meat. But in modern circumstances it's completely unnecessary and too much trouble."


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Nevertheless, during the first public "blót" "a sympathizing visual artist brought along a live cock and had it beheaded in the kitchen, while the lamb was being cooked".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið has since stated that it rejects the use of Ásatrú as a justification for animal sacrifice, as well as for militarism and supremacy ideology.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: The four main "blót" are "Jólablót" ("Yule blót") on the winter solstice, "Sigurblót" ("Victory blót") on the First Day of Summer, "Sumarblót" ("Summer blót") on the summer solstice, and "Veturnáttablót" ("Winter Nights blót") on the First Day of Winter. The organization also holds "Þorrablót" and individual "goðar" hold local "blót" on various occasions.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Other rituals include name-giving ceremonies, "siðfesta" (a coming of age ritual), weddings and burials. The first Ásatrú name-giving ceremony took place in November 1973. Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson performed the first Ásatrú wedding ceremony in August 1977, marrying Dagur Þorleifsson and Ingibjörg Hjartardóttir. Since 1999, the organization has its own burial ground and several burials have taken place.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: As a part of the "Jólablót", children light candles to celebrate the rebirth of the sun. The organization has intermittently run a Sunday school and a youth group.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 2005, a decision was made to sell the organization's property. The property had increased substantially in value since it was bought in 1998. The profit from the sale made building a temple (referred to by the organisation in Icelandic as a "hof") a realistic option and an application for a plot of land was sent to the Reykjavík city council. Processing of the application took longer than the organization had hoped for due to political instability in Reykjavík. In January 2008, a plot of land was finally granted in Öskjuhlíð, a wooded hill in Reykjavík 'The temple will be built into the surrounding cliffs and overlooks the beautiful Nauthólsvík beach. Its design is timeless; being neither contemporary nor reminiscent of the Viking era.' Ásatrúarfélagið commissioned five architects to present proposals for a temple building. Those were ready in September 2008. The organization lost a substantial amount of money in the collapse of the Icelandic banks in October 2008 but proceeded with study of different options for a temple building. The architect Magnús Jensson was chosen; it was announced in February 2015 that the temple construction would start in early 2015, and in 2016 that the temple would be completed in 2017. However, technical problems led to a temporary halt in 2017, and at that time completion was not expected until 2018.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Árni Sverrisson, a member of Ásatrúarfélagið, built a hof at his farm Efri Ás in Skagafjörður from 2010 to 2014. The project started as a small building which eventually grew to 80 square meters. The building was constructed with stone and turf walls, a wooden framework and a turf covered roof. It was named Ásheimar and consecrated by the "goði" Jóhanna Harðardóttir in 2014.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In June 1974 Ásatrúarfélagið issued a press release opposing the legalization of abortion and recommending strict punishment for distributors of narcotics. In April 1975 there was another press release opposing abortion, this time noting that the battle for legalization of abortion could be "traced to international movements opposed to the Nordic nations and in particular to the Nordic race". A few days later, Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson stated that this latter press release did not have its origins in any legal meeting of Ásatrúarfélagið and


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In the following years, Ásatrúarfélagið mostly did not involve itself in political questions, though individual members did. Having been unable to advance his racial ideology within Ásatrúarfélagið, Þorsteinn Guðjónsson in 1982 founded a separate organization, "Norrænt mannkyn" ("Nordic Race"), to lobby for the reduction of immigration and banning of abortion. Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson was active in the peace movement, erecting a "níðstöng" against nuclear power in 1985.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Summarizing her 1991 study of Germanic folk religion, literary scholar Stefanie von Schnurbein describes Ásatrúarfélagið as a "mix of individualistic anarchists, atheistic church opponents, and racist spiritualists". In a 2001 study of Ásatrú in Iceland, anthropologist María Erlendsdóttir disagreed, pointing out that von Schnurbein's field research included only two interviews with members of the organization and arguing that this was "not enough to give sound grounds to her accusations". She further argued that "the heavy accusations of Von Schnurbein contradict certain clues that Ásatrúarfélagið has an open mind to people of other cultures and races" and concluded that "Icelandic paganism in contemporary society has strong roots within folk belief and literary tradition".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In a 2000 study of Ásatrúarfélagið, religious studies scholar Michael Strmiska noted that "Ásatrú movements in America and Scandinavia have been known to espouse racist and Neo-Nazi ideology" but that he was "not aware of any member of Icelandic Ásatrú espousing such sentiments or ideology".


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Since early on, environmentalism has been important to members of Ásatrúarfélagið and the organization has been active in environmentalist causes. In October 2003, Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson erected a "níðstöng" against the Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant. Jóhanna G. Harðardóttir, a "goði", wrote on the occasion: "We have come to call upon gods and good wights. We intend to ask for mercy for our land and we intend to erect a "níðstöng" to those who dishonor their mother, the earth."


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Since 2007, Ásatrúarfélagið participates in forest reclamation in Heiðmörk with the Icelandic Forestry Association.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: Ásatrúarfélagið has fought for the separation of church and state, and for a share in a fund currently only accessible to the National Church. The Church supports the latter effort. Ásatrúarfélagið cooperates on issues of common concern with other Icelandic religious organizations, in particular the Reykjavík Free Church.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In 2003, Sigurjón Þórðarson, an active member of Ásatrúarfélagið and a "goði", was elected to the Althing for the Liberal Party. When asked if his faith shaped the way he approached laws and the structure of government he replied: "I’m in favour of separating faith and law, but I do think that faith marks the individual."


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: In August 2014 Ásatrúarfélagið issued a statement against the abuse of their name and their religion:


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: We strongly oppose any attempt by individuals to use their association with the Ásatrúarfélag of Iceland to promote attitudes, ideologies and practices rejected by the leadership of the Ásatrúarfélag. We particularly reject the use of Ásatrú as a justification for supremacy ideology, militarism and animal sacrifice.


title: Ásatrúarfélagið

text: It should also be known that visitors have no authority to speak on our behalf. There is no advisor to the Ásatrúarfélag and there is no spokesman other than our allsherjargoði. We respectfully request that visitors not claim any such authority based on their association with us.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne of Brittany (; 25/26 January 1477 – 9 January 1514) was reigning Duchess of Brittany from 1488 until her death, and Queen of France from 1491 to 1498 and from 1499 to her death. She is the only woman to have been queen consort of France twice. During the Italian Wars, Anne also became Queen of Naples, from 1501 to 1504, and Duchess of Milan, in 1499–1500 and from 1500 to 1512.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne was raised in Nantes during a series of conflicts in which the King of France sought to assert his suzerainty over Brittany. Her father, Francis II, Duke of Brittany, was the last male of the House of Montfort. Upon his death in 1488, Anne became duchess regnant of Brittany, countess of Nantes, Montfort, and Richmond, and viscountess of Limoges. She was only 11 at that time, but she was already a coveted heiress because of Brittany's strategic position. The next year, she married Maximilian I of Austria by proxy, but Charles VIII of France saw this as a threat since his realm was located between Brittany and Austria. He started a military campaign which eventually forced the duchess to renounce her marriage.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne eventually married Charles VIII in 1491. None of their children survived early childhood, and when the king died in 1498, the throne went to his cousin, Louis XII. Following an agreement made to secure the annexation of Brittany, Anne had to marry the new king. Louis XII was deeply in love with his wife and Anne had many opportunities to reassert the independence of her duchy. They had two daughters together and, although neither could succeed to the French throne due to the Salic Law, the eldest was proclaimed the heiress of Brittany. Anne managed to have her eldest daughter engaged to Charles of Austria, grandchild of Maximilian I, but after her death in 1514, her daughter married her cousin Francis I of France. This marriage later led to the formal union between France and Brittany.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne is highly regarded in Brittany as a conscientious ruler who defended the duchy against France. In the Romantic period, she became a figure of Breton patriotism and she was honoured with many memorials and statues. Her artistic legacy is important in the Loire Valley, where she spent most of her life. She was notably responsible, with her husbands, for architectural projects in the "châteaux" of Blois and Amboise.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne was born on 25 or 26 January 1477 in the Castle of the Dukes of Brittany in the city of Nantes in what is now the Loire-Atlantique "département" of France, as the eldest child of Duke Francis II of Brittany and his second wife Margaret of Foix, Infanta of Navarre. Four years later (before 10 May 1481), her parents had a second daughter, Isabelle. Her mother died when Anne was little, while her father died when Anne was eleven years old.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: It is likely that she learned to read and write in French, and perhaps a little Latin. Contrary to what is sometimes claimed, it was unlikely that she learned Greek or Hebrew and never spoke or understood the Breton language. She was raised by a governess, Françoise de Dinan, Lady of Chateaubriant and by marriage Countess of Laval. In addition, she had several tutors, including her butler and court poet, Jean Meschinot, who is thought to have taught her dancing, singing and music.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: In this period, the law of succession was unclear, but prior to the Breton War of Succession mainly operated according to semi-Salic Law; i.e., women could inherit, but only if the male line had died out. The Treaty of Guérande in 1365, however, stated that in the absence of a male heir from the House of Montfort, the heirs of Joanna of Penthièvre would succeed. By the time Anne was born, her father was the only male from the Breton House of Montfort, and the Blois-Penthièvre heir was a female, Nicole of Blois, who in 1480 sold her rights over Brittany to King Louis XI of France for the amount of 50,000 écus.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: The lack of a male heir gave rise to the threat of a dynastic crisis in the Duchy, or to its passing directly into the royal domain. To avoid this, Francis II had Anne officially recognised as his heiress by the Estates of Brittany on 10 February 1486; however, the question of her marriage remained a diplomatic issue.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Being the first eldest surviving child and heiress of the Duchy of Brittany, Anne was, above all, the instrument of paternal politics. Francis II indeed promised his daughter to various French or foreign princes in order to obtain military and financial aid, and to strengthen his position against the King of France. The prospect for these princes to add the duchy to their domain thus allowed the Duke of Brittany to initiate several marriage negotiations and to forge various secret alliances which accompanied these matrimonial projects. Anne became the stake of these rival ambitions, and her father, reassured by the signing of these alliances, could afford to refuse various marriage projects and contracts. These political calculations thus led to Anne's engagement with different European princes:


title: Anne of Brittany

text: In 1488, Francis II was defeated at the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier, ending the Mad War ("la Guerre Folle") between Brittany and France. In the Treaty of Sablé (19 August 1488), which concluded the peace settlement, the Duke was forced to accept clauses stipulating that his daughters were not to marry without the approval of the King of France.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: With the death of Francis II soon afterwards (9 September 1488) as a result of a fall from his horse, Brittany was plunged into a fresh crisis, leading to the final Franco-Breton war. On his deathbed, the Duke made his daughter promise never to consent to the subjugation of the Duchy to the Kingdom of France. Before he died, Francis II appointed the Marshal of Rieux guardian of his daughter.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: After fleeing Nantes following the division of her advisors over the issue of her marriage, Anne was crowned Duchess of Brittany in Rennes on 10 February 1489. At the age of thirteen, on 19 December 1490, she was married by proxy to Maximilian I of Austria at Rennes Cathedral. This conferred upon her the title Queen of the Romans. The French regarded it as a serious provocation—it not only violated the Treaty of Sablé (the King of France not having consented to the marriage), but also reintroduced an enemy of the French as ruler of Brittany, which they had wanted to avoid during the 14th and 15th centuries. The marriage also proved ill-timed: the Habsburgs were too busy in Hungary to pay any serious attention to Brittany, and the Castilians were busy fighting in Granada.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Although both Castile and England sent small numbers of troops to supplement the Ducal army, neither wished for open warfare with France. The spring of 1491 brought new successes by the French general La Trémoille (the previous victor of the Battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier), and King Charles VIII of France came to lay siege to Rennes, where Anne stayed, to force her to desist from her Habsburg marriage. Aided by troops from England, the Holy Roman Empire, and Aragon and Castile, Rennes lasted through two months of Charles's siege before falling. During this time, Anne's sister Isabelle died.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Charles VIII entered the city on 15 November, and both parties signed the Treaty of Rennes, ending the fourth military campaign of the French over Brittany. After refusing all proposed marriages with French princes, Anne became engaged to the King on 17 November 1491, in the vault of the Jacobins in Rennes. Then, escorted by her army (ostensibly to show that she had willingly consented to the marriage), Anne went to Langeais to be married. Austria made diplomatic protests (especially before the Holy See), claiming that the marriage was illegal because the bride was unwilling, that she was already legally married to Maximilian, and that Charles VIII was legally betrothed to Margaret of Austria, Maximilian's daughter.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: The official marriage between Anne and King Charles VIII of France was celebrated in the Great Hall of the Château de Langeais on 6 December 1491 at dawn. The ceremony was concluded discreetly and urgently because it was technically illegal until Pope Innocent VIII, in exchange for substantial concessions, validated the union on 15 February 1492, by granting the annulment of the marriage by proxy with Maximilian, and also giving a dispensation for the marriage with Charles VIII, needed because the King and Anne were related in the forbidden fourth degree of consanguinity. The marriage contract provided that the spouse who outlived the other would retain possession of Brittany; however, it also stipulated that if Charles VIII died without male heirs, Anne would marry his successor, thus ensuring the French kings a second chance to annex Brittany permanently.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: By the marriage of 1491, Anne of Brittany became Queen consort of France. Her marriage contract stated that it was concluded to "ensure peace between the Duchy of Brittany and the Kingdom of France". She made Charles VIII her perpetual representative. On 8 February 1492, Anne was crowned Queen of France at St. Denis Basilica. She was the first Queen crowned there and consecrated, "anointed in the head and chest" by André d'Espinay, Archbishop of Bordeaux. Her husband forbade her to use the title of Duchess of Brittany, which became a bone of contention between the two. Gabriel Miron became the Chancellor of the Queen and her first doctor; he signed the marriage contract of the Queen with King Louis XII on 1 January 1499.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne's marriage began badly: she brought two beds with her when she came to marry Charles, and the King and Queen often lived apart; despite this, she was pregnant for most of her married life (with a child every fourteen months on average). When her husband fought in the wars in Italy, the regency powers were exercised by his sister Anne of Beaujeu, who had held this position between 1483 and 1491. Anne of Brittany had a limited role in France and Brittany and sometimes had to accept being separated from her children in infancy. She lived primarily in the royal castles of Amboise, Loches and Plessis or in the towns of Lyon, Grenoble or Moulins (when the king was in Italy). At Amboise, when Charles VIII had work, she mainly resided in the nearby Clos Lucé, the future home of Leonardo da Vinci. She built her chapel.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: When Charles VIII died as the result of an accident on 4 April 1498, Anne was 21 years old and without surviving children. She then personally took charge of the administration of the Duchy of Brittany. She restored the faithful Philippe de Montauban to the chancellery of Brittany, named Jean de Châlon, Prince of Orange, as Hereditary Lieutenant General of Brittany, appointed her squire Gilles of Texue as responsible of the Château de Brest, convened the Estates of Brittany, and ordered production of a gold coin bearing her name.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Around her, there was a famous circle of court poets, among them the Italian humanist Publio Fausto Andrelini from Forlì (who spread the New Learning in France), historian Jean Lemaire de Belges and poet Jean Marot. She also took into her service the most famous musicians of her time: Johannes Ockeghem, Antoine de Févin, Loyset Compère and Jean Mouton. Anne of Brittany was undoubtedly the first Queen of France to appear as a patron sought after by artists and writers of her time.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Three days after her husband's death, the terms of her marriage contract came into force; however, the new King, Louis XII, was already married to Joan, daughter of Louis XI and sister to Charles VIII. On 19 August 1498, at Étampes, Anne agreed to marry Louis XII if he obtained an annulment from Joan within a year. Days later, the process for the annulment of the marriage between Louis XII and Joan of France began. In the interim, Anne returned to Brittany in October 1498.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: If Anne was gambling that the annulment would be denied, she lost: Louis's first marriage was dissolved by Pope Alexander VI before the end of the year. Anne's third marriage contract, signed the day of her marriage (Nantes, 7 January 1499), was concluded under conditions radically different from those of the second. She was no longer a child, but a Dowager Queen, and determined to ensure the recognition of her rights as sovereign Duchess from that point forward. Although her new husband exercised the ruler's powers in Brittany, he formally recognized her right to the title "Duchess of Brittany" and issued decisions in her name. The contract also stipulated that, since Anne personally retained rights to the duchy, the couple's second child, son or daughter, would be Anne's own heir, thus keeping the duchy separate from the throne of France. This clause would not be respected. Anne's second coronation ceremony as Louis XII's consort took place on 18 November 1504, again at St. Denis Basilica.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne lived mainly at the Château de Blois, where the presence of the Duchess of Brittany was visible everywhere. She built the tomb of her parents at Nantes Cathedral (where her heart would also return under the terms of her last will) with the symbols of the four virtues: Courage, Temperance, Justice and Prudence, that she always tried to wear. All Italian arts were appreciated by the Queen. During an illness of Louis XII she made a tour of Brittany (not the Tro Breizh, contrary to what is often said).


title: Anne of Brittany

text: As Duchess, Anne fiercely defended the independence of her Duchy. She arranged the marriage of her daughter, Claude, heiress of the Duchy, to Charles of Austria. This match would reinforce the Franco-Spanish alliance and ensure French success in the Italian Wars. The marriage contract was signed on 10 August 1501 in Lyon by François de Busleyden, Archbishop of Besançon, William de Croÿ, Nicolas de Rutter and Pierre Lesseman, all ambassadors of Duke Philip of Burgundy, Charles' father. Louis XII assented to this plan publicly, but in private worked to match Claude with the heir to the French throne, Francis of Angoulême. Every time Louis' precarious health threatened his death, steps were taken to cement this match between Claude and Francis. Anne, determined to maintain Breton independence, refused to sanction the marriage until her death, pushing instead for Claude to marry Charles, or for her other daughter, Renée, to inherit the Duchy. When Louis XII definitively settled their daughters' dispositions counter to her wishes, Anne left his side to tour the Duchy, visiting many places she had never been able to see as a child. Officially, it was a pilgrimage to the Breton shrines in thanks for one of Louis' recent recoveries, but in reality it was a political journey: an act of independence that sought to assert her sovereignty within the marriage. Letters imply how much Louis took her absence to heart: according to a July letter from Louise of Savoy to Michelle de Saubonne, Louis "could not be more anxious" for Anne's return and "is as wretched as can be without her." By September, he is reported as asking about her return at least six times a day. From June to September 1505, she made triumphal entries into the cities of the Duchy, where her vassals received her sumptuously. In addition, she ensured the proper collection of taxes.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Exhausted by many pregnancies and miscarriages, Anne died of a kidney-stone attack in the Château de Blois at 6 a.m. on 9 January 1514, after having dictated in her will the customary partition of her body ("dilaceratio corporis", "division of the body" in heart, entrails and bones) with multiple burials, a privilege of the Capetian dynasty, which allowed for multiple ceremonies (funerals of the body - the most important - and heart) and places (the burial of the body and heart).


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne's will also conferred the succession of Brittany upon her second daughter, Renée. Her husband ignored this, confirmed Claude as Duchess, put her under the guardianship of Anne's political rival, Louise of Savoy, and married her to Francis, Louise's son, in the year following Anne's death. When Francis became king in 1515, the Duchy of Brittany was once again the property of the queen consort of France.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: She was buried in the necropolis of Saint Denis. Her funeral was exceptionally long, lasting 40 days, and it inspired all future French royal funerals until the 18th century. On this occasion, the Herald of arms of Brittany Pierre Choqué pronounced for the first time the traditional lament: "La reine est morte!, la reine est morte!, la reine est morte!" (The Queen is dead!, The Queen is dead!, The Queen is dead!). Choqué, in his record of Anne's funeral commissioned by Louis XII, "Récit des Funérailles d'Anne de Bretagne," recorded that two Masses were read, the first by the "Cordeliers" (i.e., Franciscans) and the second by the Jacobins (i.e., Dominicans). Two requiems were also sung, possibly those that survive by Johannes Prioris and Antoine de Févin. Separate mourning motets by other members of the two royal choirs also survive: "Quis dabit oculis" by Costanzo Festa and "Fiere attropos" by Pierre Moulu.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: According to her will, Anne's heart was placed in a raised enamel gold reliquary, then transported to Nantes to be deposited in her parents' tomb in the chapel of the Carmelite friars. This was done on 19 March 1514, but it was later transferred to the Saint-Pierre Cathedral. Anne's reliquary is a bivalvular box oval articulated by a hinge, made of a sheet of gold pushed back and guillochéd, broadside of a gold cordelière and topped by a crown of lily and clover. It is inscribed on the obverse as follows:


title: Anne of Brittany

text: It was made by an anonymous goldsmith of the court of Blois, perhaps drawn by Jean Perréal. In 1792, by order of the National Convention, the reliquary was disinterred and emptied as part of the collection of precious metals belonging to churches. It was sent to Paris to be melted down, but was kept instead in the National Library. It was returned to Nantes in 1819 and kept in various museums; it has been in the Dobrée Museum since 1896. This relic was stolen 13 April 2018 from the Thomas-Dobree museum in Nantes, France. It was recovered undamaged later that month.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: The double mausoleum Louis XII and Anne of Brittany, carved in Carrara marble, was unveiled at Saint Denis Basilica in 1531. The baldachin was in arcades, and in the base of the sarcophagus were depicted the victories of Louis XII (Battle of Agnadello, the triumphal entry into Milan), statues of the Twelve Apostles and the four Cardinal virtues, the work of the Juste brothers, Italian sculptors who received the order in 1515. The "transi" (whose realism was so shocking that it included an open abdomen stitched after the extraction of the entrails) and orans before a Prie-dieu crowning the platform are attributed to Guillaume Regnault. The tomb was desecrated during the Revolution on 18 October 1793 and the bodies were thrown into a mass grave. Alexandre Lenoir saved much of the monument, which was preserved in the Museum of French Monuments in 1795 before being returned to the Royal Basilica under the Second Bourbon Restoration.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne was a highly intelligent woman who spent much of her time on the administration of Brittany. She was described as shrewd, proud and haughty in manner. She made the safeguarding of Breton autonomy, and the preservation of the Duchy outside the French crown, her life's work, although that goal would prove to have failed shortly after her death.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne was also a patron of the arts and enjoyed music. A prolific collector of tapestries, it is very likely that the unicorn tapestries now on view at The Cloisters museum in New York City were commissioned by her in celebration of her wedding to Louis XII. Of her four surviving illuminated manuscript books of hours the most famous is the Grandes Heures of Anne of Brittany. She also patronized printed books and their authors.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: She was a devoted mother, spending as much time as possible with her children. She commissioned a book of prayers for her son, Charles-Orland, to use in teaching him how to pray, and as guidance for his role as future King of France. Unfortunately, Charles-Orland died in 1495, and no other son lived more than a few weeks. She also commissioned a primer, yet extant, for her then 8-year-old daughter Claude. The prevalence of Anne's own coat of arms in the illumination, rather than Louis's, marks this book as a mechanism of transmission of values inter-generationally from mother to daughter, and from queen to queen. Claude, in turn, commissioned another such book for her younger sister, Renée, whom she raised after Anne's death. The contents of these books produced specifically for children—Latin, Biblical scenes, models of proper female behavior—give insight into the priorities of the Princesses' childhood education.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: According to the memoirs of Brantôme, Anne greatly expanded her household and retinue at court, especially in respect to young girls, forming a kind of finishing school, and in having a company of 100 Breton gentlemen at court. These innovations influenced later French courts.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: At her marriage to Charles VIII at age 14, Anne was described as a young and rosy-cheeked girl. By the time of her marriage to Louis, aged 22, after seven pregnancies with no surviving children, she was described as pale-faced and wan. By the end of her life, at 36, she had been pregnant at least 11 times, from which only two children survived to adulthood.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne was trained from a young age to hide her limp, caused by a difference in the length of her legs, linked to a congenital displacement of her hips. She wore special heeled shoes to aid in smoothing her gait. She passed this limp on to her daughter, Claude.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Each miscarriage or stillbirth is said to have delighted the ambitious Louise of Savoy, whose son Francis was the heir presumptive under the Salic Law. There even existed contemporary rumours that Louise used witchcraft to kill Anne's sons.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Through her granddaughter Margaret, Duchess of Savoy (Claude's youngest daughter), Anne of Brittany was the ancestor of Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, House of Savoy the current pretender to the throne of Italy. Through her great-granddaughter Claude, Duchess of Lorraine (daughter of Henry II of France), Anne is also the ancestor of Karl von Habsburg, the current head of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Through her granddaughter Anna d'Este (Renée's eldest daughter), Anne of Brittany is also the ancestor of the House of Guise and Savoy-Nemours.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Anne had inherited from her predecessors the Breton dynastic emblems: a bandwidth Ermine (from John V), a simple Ermine (from John III) and a cord (from Francis II). As a widow of Charles VIII, and inspired by her father, she founded in 1498 the Order of the Ladies of the Cord.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: As a personal emblem, she also used the letter "A" crowned, with the motto "Non mudera" ("I will not change") and a particular form of the father's cord, knotted at 8. Her emblems were joined in the decoration of her castles and manuscripts with those of her husbands: the flaming sword of Charles VIII and the porcupine of Louis XII. She also used the motto "Potius Mori Quam Foedari" ("Rather die than dishonor") (in Breton "Kentoc'h mervel eget bezañ saotret").


title: Anne of Brittany

text: There is unproven speculation that the tapestries "The Hunt of the Unicorn" relate to her marriage to King Louis.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Even while she was alive, the royal propaganda of Charles VIII and of Louis XII depicted Anne of Brittany as a perfect queen, a symbol of union and peace between the Kingdom of France and the Duchy of Brittany (the popular tradition of the ""Good Duchess""). In the following centuries, historians and popular culture sometimes presented Anne of Brittany in differing fashions, ascribing to her physical and psychological characteristics that are not necessarily supported by historical evidence.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: After her death, she was gradually forgotten until the mid-19th century. After the foundation of the Breton Association in 1843, Breton regionalists sought a figure which could embody their ideal of agrarian and regional renewal, while expressing their attachment to the French nation. Their choice was Anne of Brittany (hence the legend of the ""Duchess in clogs"").


title: Anne of Brittany

text: Many myths now surround Anne of Brittany, as a woman forced into an arranged marriage with Charles VIII, the Duchess of Brittany committed to the independence and happiness of her country, or otherwise of a Queen symbol of union and peace between Brittany and France. It has become an issue between those Breton historians pursuing a mythologizing of their past, and those forging a national historiography with the myth of a French nation one and indivisible.


title: Anne of Brittany

text: This symbolism explains the release of fifty books during the last 200 years giving contrasting visions of Anne: at one extreme there is Georges Minois, who presented her as a person ""limited, petty and vindictive"", and at the other Philippe Tourault, who gave her a ""quite richly and favorable personality, ardently attached to her country and people"".


title: LNER Class A4

text: The Class A4 is a class of streamlined 4-6-2 steam locomotive designed by Nigel Gresley for the London and North Eastern Railway in 1935. Their streamlined design gave them high-speed capability as well as making them instantly recognisable, and one of the class, 4468 "Mallard", holds the world record as the fastest steam locomotive. Thirty-five of the class were built to haul express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line route from London Kings Cross via York to Newcastle, and later via Newcastle to Edinburgh, Scotland. They remained in service on the East Coast Main Line until the early 1960s when they were replaced by Deltic diesel locomotives; they themselves proving to be worthy successors to the A4s. Several A4s saw out their remaining days until 1966 in Scotland, particularly on the Aberdeen – Glasgow express trains, for which they were used to improve the timing from 3.5 to 3 hours.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Gresley introduced the Class A4 locomotives in 1935 to haul streamlined "Silver Jubilee trains" between London King's Cross and Newcastle. The service was named in celebration of the 25th year of King George V's reign.


title: LNER Class A4

text: During a visit to Germany in 1933, Gresley had been inspired by high-speed streamlined "Flying Hamburger" diesel trains. The London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) had considered purchasing similar trains for use from London to Newcastle but the diesel units of the time did not have sufficient passenger carrying capacity and the capital investment in the new technology was prohibitive.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Gresley was sure that steam could do equally well with a decent fare-paying load behind the locomotive. Following trials in 1935 in which one of his A3 Pacifics No. 2750 "Papyrus" recorded a new maximum of and completed the journey in under four hours, the LNER's Chief General Manager Ralph Wedgwood authorised Gresley to produce a streamlined development of the A3. Initially four locomotives were built, all with the word 'silver' in their names. The first was 2509 "Silver Link", followed by 2510 "Quicksilver", 2511 "Silver King" and 2512 "Silver Fox". During a press run to publicise the service, "Silver Link" twice achieved a speed of , breaking the British speed record and sustained an average of , over a distance of .


title: LNER Class A4

text: Following the commercial success of the "Silver Jubilee" train, other streamlined services were introduced: "The Coronation" (London-Edinburgh, July 1937) and the "West Riding Limited" (Bradford & Leeds-London & return, November 1937) for which more A4s were built.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The A4 Pacifics were designed for high-speed passenger services. The application of internal streamlining to the steam circuit, higher boiler pressure and the extension of the firebox to form a combustion chamber all contributed to a more efficient locomotive than the A3; consumption of coal and water were reduced. A further design improvement was fitting a Kylchap double-chimney, first on 4468 "Mallard" in March 1938. The double-chimney improved the capability of the locomotives further, and the last three locomotives of the class (4901 "Capercaillie", 4902 "Seagull" and 4903 "Peregrine") were fitted with the Kylchap exhaust from new and the rest of the class acquired it in the late 1950s.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The class was noted for its streamlined design, which not only improved its aerodynamics, increasing its speed capabilities, but also created an updraught to lift smoke away from the driver's line of vision, a problem inherent in many steam locomotives particularly those operated with short cut off valve events; fitting smoke deflectors was an alternative solution. The distinctive design made it a particularly attractive subject for artists, photographers and film-makers. The A4 Class locomotives were known by train spotters as "streaks".


title: LNER Class A4

text: The streamlining side skirts (valances) designed by Oliver Bulleid to aerofoil shape that were fitted to all the A4 locomotives, were removed during the Second World War to improve access to the valve gear for maintenance and were not replaced. This apart, the A4 was one of few streamlined steam locomotive designs in the world to retain its casing throughout its existence. Many similar designs, including the contemporary Coronation Class, had their streamlining removed or cancelled to cut costs, simplify maintenance and increase driver visibility.


title: LNER Class A4

text: On 3 July 1938, 4468 "Mallard" - the first of the class to enter service with the Kylchap exhaust - pulling six coaches and a dynamometer car, set a world speed record (indicated by the dynamometer) of . Gresley never accepted it as the record-breaking maximum. He claimed this speed could only have been attained over a few yards, though he was comfortable that the German speed record of had been surpassed. Close analysis of the dynamometer roll (currently at the NRM) of the record run confirms that "Mallard"'s speed did in fact exceed that of the German BR 05 002. The "Mallard" record reached its maximum speed on a downhill run and failed technically in due course, whereas 05 002's journey was on level grade and the engine did not yet seem to be at its limit. On the other hand, the German train was four coaches long (197 tons), but Mallard's train had seven coaches (240 tons).


title: LNER Class A4

text: One fact, often ignored when considering rival claims, is that Gresley and the LNER had just one serious attempt at the record, which was far from a perfect run with a 15 mph permanent way check just north of Grantham; despite this a record was set. Gresley planned another attempt in September 1939, but was prevented by the outbreak of World War II. Prior to the record run on 3 July 1938, it was calculated that was possible; Driver Duddington and LNER Inspector Sid Jenkins both said they might well have achieved this figure had they not had to slow for the Essendine junctions.


title: LNER Class A4

text: At the end of "Mallard"'s record run, the middle big end (part of the motion for the inside cylinder) ran hot (indicated by the bursting of a heat-sensitive "stink bomb" placed in the bearing for warning purposes), the bearing metal had melted and the locomotive had to stop at Peterborough rather than continue to London. Deficiencies in the alignment of the Gresley-Holcroft derived motion meant that the inside cylinder of the A4 did more work at high speed than the two outside cylinders – on at least one occasion this led to the middle big end wearing to such an extent that the increased piston travel knocked the ends off the middle cylinder – and this overloading was mostly responsible for the failure.


title: LNER Class A4

text: No other British steam locomotives have a longer or more consistent record of high speed running than the A4s. Instances of 100 mph running by them must exceed those of all other types combined, though 90 mph running was a relatively rare event with steam traction, much less 100 mph. It should also be remembered that A4s operated on the East Coast Main Line which has more opportunities for high speed running (particularly Stoke Bank) than any other in the UK.


title: LNER Class A4

text: In August 1936 the Silver Jubilee train on the descent of Stoke Bank headed by 2512 "Silver Fox" driven by George Henry Haygreen achieved a maximum of , then the highest speed attained in Britain with an ordinary passenger train.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The fastest recorded post-war speed with British steam was also recorded by an A4. This occurred on 23 May 1959 on the Stephenson Locomotive Society Golden Jubilee special when 60007 "Sir Nigel Gresley" achieved 112 mph when hauling 400 tons down Stoke Bank. The driver, Bill Hoole, had hoped for an attempt to beat Mallard's record but Alan Pegler, who was on the footplate and mindful of the risks, told him to ease off.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Although A4s were primarily designed for high speed express work they were also capable of high power outputs. In 1940, 4901 "Capercaillie" exerted 2,200 drawbar horsepower on the straight and level track north of York when hauling 21 coaches (730 tons gross) at an average of 75.9 mph for 25 miles. On W.A. Tuplin's method for grading steam locomotive performance based on both power output and duration of effort, this was the highest value ever achieved by any British locomotive, at Grade 26.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The highest recorded power output from an A4 was 2,450 drawbar horsepower when "Mallard" herself was hauling 11 coaches (390 tons tare, 415 tons gross) "up" Stoke Bank at a sustained 80 mph in 1963. O.S. Nock thought this performance superior to Mallard's world record run in 1938. An A4 with the same load on a "good run" would be doing about 50 to 60 mph at the summit of Stoke Bank. On a run on 8 September 1961 "Mallard" had its train travelling at 78 mph.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Although newer Pacifics had been introduced since the war and the streamlined locomotives were never reinstated, the A4s continued on top link duties, notably on the London to Edinburgh services.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Even after the war was over, the A4s still continued to perform non-stop services. In August 1948, 60028 "Walter K. Whigham" managed to perform a non-stop service run from King's Cross to Edinburgh, setting the record for distance travelled for 408.65 miles. It would hold this record until 4472 "Flying Scotsman"'s visit to Australia in 1988.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Improved methods of aligning the Gresley conjugated valve gear in the 1950s led to tighter tolerances for the bearings used within it and, consequently, to almost total eradication of the overloading of the middle cylinder. History repeated itself with the inside big end being replaced by one of the Great Western type, after which there was no more trouble, provided that maintenance routines were respected.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The wholesale application of double Kylchap chimneys to the entire class was entirely due to the persistence of P. N. Townend, the Assistant Motive Power Superintendent at King's Cross from 1956. He, at first, met with considerable resistance from higher authority. When permission was eventually given, it was found that the economy obtained over the single chimney A4s was from six to seven pounds of coal per mile, which more than justified the expense of the conversion.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The first four locomotives included the word 'silver' in their names because they were intended to haul the "Silver Jubilee" train. 2512 "Silver Fox" of this batch carried a stainless-steel fox near the centre of the streamline casing on each side, made by the Sheffield steelmakers Samuel Fox and Company. The next batch of A4s were named after birds, particularly those that were fast flyers, Gresley being a keen bird-watcher. Five (4488–92) were named after British Empire countries to haul the new Anglo-Scottish "Coronation" train; and two (4495/6), intended to haul the new "West Riding Limited", received names connected to the wool trade: "Golden Fleece" and "Golden Shuttle".


title: LNER Class A4

text: 4498 was the hundredth Gresley Pacific to be built and was named after him. Subsequently, some other A4s were later renamed, usually to names of directors of the LNER.


title: LNER Class A4

text: One locomotive was withdrawn and scrapped after being damaged beyond repair in a German bombing raid on York on 29 April 1942 during World War II; this was No. 4469 "Sir Ralph Wedgwood", which at the time had been overhauled and was based at Gateshead. It was running local trains to run it in and was stabled in York North Shed (now the National Railway Museum) where it suffered a direct hit; however, its tender survived and was later coupled to a Thompson A2/1.


title: LNER Class A4

text: The next five withdrawals, in December 1962, were: 60003 "Andrew K. McCosh", 60014 "Silver Link", 60028 "Walter K. Whigham", 60030 "Golden Fleece" and 60033 "Seagull". The rest of the class was withdrawn between 1963 and 1966. The last six in service were: 60004 "William Whitelaw", 60007 "Sir Nigel Gresley", 60009 "Union of South Africa", 60019 "Bittern", 60024 "Kingfisher" and 60034 "Lord Faringdon". 60019 and 60024 were the last to be withdrawn in September 1966.


title: LNER Class A4

text: Six of the locomotives have been preserved; three of them were assigned to sheds in Scotland after the closure of King's Cross shed (34A) to steam in 1964. Four A4s are in the UK and have run on the BR main lines at some point during their preservation career. Another two ("Dominion of Canada" and "Dwight D. Eisenhower") were donated to the Canada and the US, respectively, upon withdrawal by British Railways. Both North American-based A4s, along with the other three British-based A4s were moved to the National Railway Museum, York, in late 2012 on three-year loans as part of the NRM's 2013 celebrations of the 75th anniversary of "Mallard" breaking the world speed record for steam, bringing all six preserved A4s together. During 2013, 4464 'Bittern' underwent a series of high-speed runs, partly in commemoration of Mallards' record, partly to see if mainline speeds for certain heritage steam locomotives could be increased (The current maximum is 75 mph.). During the "Tyne Tees Streak" run, Bittern broke its own 91 mph speed record set just a few months prior by reaching a maximum speed of 93 mph (149.7 km/h).


title: LNER Class A4

text: From 2015 to 2020, "Union of South Africa" was the only A4 operational with a valid mainline certificate until it expired in 2020; 60007 was withdrawn for overhaul on 20 September 2015 and 4464 operated until the end of 2015 at the Watercress Line when it was withdrawn and placed on static display in 2018 Crewe. Union of South Africa was withdrawn in October 2021 due to boiler issues and with the coming expiration of its boiler certificate in early 2022. "Sir Nigel Gresley" returned to the mainline on 21 April 2022 and worked its inaugural railtour on 21 May 2022 following the completion of its major overhaul. As of 2022, 5 of 6 surviving A4's are on static display, the only working one being 60007 Sir Nigel Gresley


title: LNER Class A4

text: The distinctive shape of the A4 has made it an obvious choice for model manufacturers, with examples being made in the majority of the popular scales, including a wooden example for the Brio wooden railway. One of the first two Hornby Dublo locomotive models produced, in 1938, was an A4. In 1999 a 'Super Detail' Hornby A4 was released, later complemented by a budget 'Railroad' model Hornby also produced an 'OO'-scale live steam version in September 2003, that used an electrically heated boiler to produce steam – not previously possible in such a small model. Trix produced an 'OO' scale model A4 from 1970; it was re-branded as a Liliput model in 1974 and survives to this day in modified form as a Bachmann model – Kader, Bachmann's parent company, had bought Liliput in 1993. Dapol currently produce several versions of the A4 class in N gauge and have also expanded their Black label range to include the A4 class as well.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Fecal incontinence (FI), or in some forms encopresis, is a lack of control over defecation, leading to involuntary loss of bowel contents, both liquid stool elements and mucus, or solid feces. When this loss includes flatus (gas), it is referred to as anal incontinence. FI is a sign or a symptom, not a diagnosis. Incontinence can result from different causes and might occur with either constipation or diarrhea. Continence is maintained by several interrelated factors, including the anal sampling mechanism, and incontinence usually results from deficiency of multiple mechanisms. The most common causes are thought to be immediate or delayed damage from childbirth, complications from prior anorectal surgery (especially involving the anal sphincters or hemorrhoidal vascular cushions), altered bowel habits (e.g., caused by irritable bowel syndrome, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, food intolerance, or constipation with overflow incontinence), and receptive anal sex. An estimated 2.2% of community dwelling adults are affected. However, reported prevalence figures vary. A prevalence of 8.39% among non-institutionalized U.S adults between 2005 and 2010 has been reported, and among institutionalized elders figures come close to 50%.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Fecal incontinence has three main consequences: local reactions of the perianal skin and urinary tract, including maceration (softening and whitening of skin due to continuous moisture), urinary tract infections, or decubitus ulcers (pressure sores); a financial expense for individuals (due to cost of medication and incontinence products, and loss of productivity), employers (days off), and medical insurers and society generally (health care costs, unemployment); and an associated decrease in quality of life. There is often reduced self-esteem, shame, humiliation, depression, a need to organize life around easy access to a toilet and avoidance of enjoyable activities. FI is an example of a stigmatized medical condition, which creates barriers to successful management and makes the problem worse. People may be too embarrassed to seek medical help, and attempt to self-manage the symptom in secrecy from others.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: FI is one of the most psychologically and socially debilitating conditions in an otherwise healthy individual, but it is generally treatable. More than 50% of hospitalized seriously ill patients rated bladder or fecal incontinence as "worse than death". Management may be achieved through an individualized mix of dietary, pharmacologic, and surgical measures. Health care professionals are often poorly informed about treatment options, and may fail to recognize the effect of FI.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: FI affects virtually all aspects of peoples' lives, greatly diminishing physical and mental health, and affecting personal, social and professional life. Emotional effects may include stress, fearfulness, anxiety, exhaustion, fear of public humiliation, feeling dirty, poor body-image, reduced desire for sex, anger, humiliation, depression, isolation, secrecy, frustration and embarrassment. Some people may need to be in control of life outside of FI as means of compensation. The physical symptoms such as skin soreness, pain and odor may also affect quality of life. Physical activity such as shopping or exercise is often affected. Travel may be affected, requiring careful planning. Working is also affected for most. Relationships, social activities and self-image likewise often suffer. Symptoms may worsen over time.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: FI is a sign or a symptom, not a diagnosis, and represents an extensive list of causes. Usually, it is the result of a complex interplay of several coexisting factors, many of which may be simple to correct. Up to 80% of people may have more than one abnormality that is contributing. Deficits of individual functional components of the continence mechanism can be partially compensated for a certain period of time, until the compensating components themselves fail. For example, obstetric injury may precede onset by decades, but postmenopausal changes in the tissue strength reduce in turn the competence of the compensatory mechanisms. The most common factors in the development are thought to be obstetric injury and after effects of anorectal surgery, especially those involving the anal sphincters and hemorrhoidal vascular cushions. The majority of incontinent persons over the age of 18 fall into one of several groups: those with structural anorectal abnormalities (sphincter trauma, sphincter degeneration, perianal fistula, rectal prolapse), neurological disorders (multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, spina bifida, stroke, etc.), constipation/fecal loading (presence of a large amount of feces in the rectum with stool of any consistency), cognitive and/or behavioral dysfunction (dementia, learning disabilities), diarrhea, inflammatory bowel diseases (e.g. ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease), irritable bowel syndrome, disability related (people who are frail, acutely unwell, or have chronic/acute disabilities), and those cases which are idiopathic (of unknown cause). Diabetes mellitus is also known to be a cause, but the mechanism of this relationship is not well understood.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Anorectal anomalies and spinal cord defects may be a cause in children. These are usually picked up and operated upon during early life, but continence is often imperfect thereafter.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: The functioning of the anal canal can be damaged, traumatically or atraumatically. The resting tone of the anal canal is not the only factor which is important; both the length of the high pressure zone and its radial translation of force are required for continence. This means that even with normal anal canal pressure, focal defects such as the keyhole deformity can be the cause of substantial symptoms. External anal sphincter (EAS) dysfunction is associated with impaired voluntary control, whereas internal anal sphincter (IAS) dysfunction is associated with impaired fine tuning of fecal control. Lesions which mechanically interfere with, or prevent the complete closure of the anal canal can cause a liquid stool or mucous rectal discharge. Such lesions include piles (inflamed hemorrhoids), anal fissures, anal cancer or fistulae. Obstetric injury may tear the anal sphincters, and some of these injuries may be occult (undetected). The risk of injury is greatest when labor has been especially difficult or prolonged, when forceps are used, with higher birth weights or when an midline episiotomy is performed. Only when there is post operative investigation of FI such as endoanal ultrasound is the injury discovered. FI is a much under-reported complication of surgery. The IAS is easily damaged with an anal retractor (especially the Park's anal retractor), leading to reduced resting pressure postoperatively. Since the hemorrhoidal vascular cushions contribute 15% of the resting anal tone, surgeries involving these structures may affect continence status. Partial internal sphincterotomy, fistulotomy, anal stretch (Lord's operation), hemorrhoidectomy or transanal advancement flaps may all lead to FI post operatively, with soiling being far more common than solid FI. The "keyhole deformity" refers to scarring within the anal canal and is another cause of mucus leakage and minor incontinence. This defect is also described as a groove in the anal canal wall, and may occur after posterior midline fissurectomy or fistulotomy, or with lateral IAS defects. Rare causes of traumatic injury to the anal sphincters include military or traffic accidents complicated by pelvic fractures, spine injuries or perineal lacerations, insertion of foreign bodies in the rectum, and sexual abuse. Nontraumatic conditions causing anal sphincter weakness include scleroderma, damage to the pudendal nerves and IAS degeneration of unknown cause. Radiation induced FI may involve the anal canal as well as the rectum, when proctitis, anal fistula formation and diminished function of internal and external sphincter occur. Irradiation may occur during radiotherapy, e.g. for prostate cancer.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Many people with FI have a generalized weakness of the pelvic floor, especially puborectalis. A weakened puborectalis leads to widening of the anorectal angle, and impaired barrier to stool in the rectum entering the anal canal, and this is associated with incontinence to solids. Abnormal descent of the pelvic floor can also be a sign of pelvic floor weakness. Abnormal descent manifests as descending perineum syndrome (>4 cm perineal descent). This syndrome initially gives constipation, and later FI. The pelvic floor is innervated by the pudendal nerve and the S3 and S4 branches of the pelvic plexus. With recurrent straining, e.g. during difficult labour or long term constipation, then stretch injury can damage the nerves supplying levator ani. The pudendal nerve is especially vulnerable to irreversible damage, (stretch induced pudendal neuropathy) which can occur with a 12% stretch. If the pelvic floor muscles lose their innervation, they cease to contract and their muscle fibres are in time replaced by fibrous tissue, which is associated with pelvic floor weakness and incontinence. Increased pudendal nerve terminal motor latency may indicate pelvic floor weakness. The various types of pelvic organ prolapse (e.g. external rectal prolapse, mucosal prolapse and internal rectal intussusception & solitary rectal ulcer syndrome) may also cause coexisting obstructed defecation.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: The rectum needs to be of a sufficient volume to store stool until defecation. The rectal walls need to be "compliant" i.e. able to distend to an extent to accommodate stool. Rectal sensation is required to detect the presence, nature and amount of rectal contents. The rectum must also be able to evacuate its contents fully. There must also be efficient co-ordination of rectal sensation and relaxation of the anal canal. If the sensory nerves are damaged, detection of stool in the rectum is dulled or absent, and the person will not feel the need to defecate until too late. Rectal hyposensitivity may manifest as constipation, FI, or both. Rectal hyposensitivity was reported to be present in 10% of people with FI. Pudendal neuropathy is one cause of rectal hyposensitivity, and may lead to fecal loading/impaction, megarectum and overflow FI. Normal evacuation of rectal contents is 90-100%. If there is incomplete evacuation during defecation, residual stool will be left in the rectum and threaten continence once defecation is finished. This is a feature of people with soiling secondary to obstructed defecation. Obstructed defecation is often due to anismus (paradoxical contraction or relaxation failure of the puborectalis). Whilst anismus is largely a functional disorder, organic pathologic lesions may mechanically interfere with rectal evacuation. Other causes of incomplete evacuation include non-emptying defects like a rectocele. Straining to defecate pushes stool into the rectocele, which acts like a diverticulum and causes stool sequestration. Once the voluntary attempt to defecate, albeit dysfunctional, is finished, the voluntary muscles relax, and residual rectal contents are then able to descend into the anal canal and cause leaking.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Continence requires conscious and subconscious networking of information from and to the anorectum. Defects/brain damage may affect the central nervous system focally (e.g. stroke, tumor, spinal cord lesions, trauma, multiple sclerosis) or diffusely (e.g. dementia, multiple sclerosis, infection, Parkinson's disease or drug-induced). FI (and urinary incontinence) may also occur during epileptic seizures. Dural ectasia is an example of a spinal cord lesion that may affect continence.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Liquid stool is more difficult to control than formed, solid stool. Hence, FI can be exacerbated by diarrhea. Some consider diarrhea to be the most common aggravating factor. Where diarrhea is caused by temporary problems such as mild infections or food reactions, incontinence tends to be short lived. Chronic conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome or Crohn's disease, can cause severe diarrhea lasting for weeks or months. Diseases, drugs, and indigestible dietary fats that interfere with the intestineal absorption may cause steatorrhea (oily rectal discharge & fatty diarrhea) and degrees of FI. Respective examples include cystic fibrosis, orlistat, and olestra. Postcholecystectomy diarrhea is diarrhea that occurs following gall bladder removal, due to excess bile acid. Orlistat is an anti-obesity (weight loss) drug that blocks the absorption of fats. This may give side effects of FI, diarrhea and steatorrhea.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: This may occur when there is a large mass of feces in the rectum (fecal loading), which may become hardened (fecal impaction). Liquid stool elements are able to pass around the obstruction, leading to incontinence. Megarectum (enlarged rectal volume) and rectal hyposensitivity are associated with overflow incontinence. Hospitalized patients and care home residents may develop FI via this mechanism, possibly a result of lack of mobility, reduced alertness, constipating effect of medication and/or dehydration.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: The mechanisms and factors contributing to normal continence are multiple and inter-related. The puborectalis sling, forming the anorectal angle (see diagram), is responsible for gross continence of solid stool. The IAS is an involuntary muscle, contributing about 55% of the resting anal pressure. Together with the hemorrhoidal vascular cushions, the IAS maintains continence of flatus and liquid during rest. The EAS is a voluntary muscle, doubling the pressure in the anal canal during contraction, which is possible for a short time. The rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR) is an involuntary IAS relaxation in response to rectal distension, allowing some rectal contents to descend into the anal canal where it is brought into contact with specialized sensory mucosa to detect consistency. The rectoanal excitatory reflex (RAER) is an initial, semi-voluntary contraction of the EAS and puborectalis which in turn prevents incontinence following the RAIR. Other factors include the specialized anti-peristaltic function of the last part of the sigmoid colon, which keeps the rectum empty most of the time, sensation in the lining of the rectum and the anal canal to detect when there is stool present, its consistency and quantity, and the presence of normal rectoanal reflexes and defecation cycle which completely evacuates stool from the rectum and anal canal. Problems affecting any of these mechanisms and factors may be involved in the cause.


title: Fecal incontinence

text: Identification of the exact causes usually begins with a thorough medical history, including detailed questioning about symptoms, bowel habits, diet, medication and other medical problems. Digital rectal examination is performed to assess resting pressure and voluntary contraction (maximum squeeze) of the sphincter complex and puborectalis. Anal sphincter defects, rectal prolapse, and abnormal perineal descent may be detected. Anorectal physiology tests assess the functioning of the anorectal anatomy. Anorectal manometry records the pressure exerted by the anal sphincters and puborectalis during rest and during contraction. The procedure is also able to assess sensitivity of the anal canal and rectum. Anal electromyography tests for nerve damage, which is often associated with obstetric injury. Pudendal nerve terminal motor latency tests for damage to the pudendal motor nerves. Proctography, also known as defecography, shows how much stool the rectum can hold, how well the rectum holds it, and how well the rectum can evacuate the stool. It will also highlight defects in the structure of the rectum such as internal rectal intussusception. Dynamic pelvic MRI, also called MRI defecography is an alternative which is better for some problems but not as good for other problems. Proctosigmoidoscopy involves the insertion of an endoscope (a long, thin, flexible tube with a camera) into the anal canal, rectum and sigmoid colon. The procedure allows for visualization of the interior of the gut, and may detect signs of disease or other problems that could be a cause, such as inflammation, tumors, or scar tissue. Endoanal ultrasound, which some consider to be the gold standard for detection of anal canal lesions, evaluates the structure of the anal sphincters, and may detect occult sphincter tears that otherwise would go unseen.