title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Meanwhile, in Vietnam, the French war against the Viet Minh continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in 1954, which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. [[Paris]] was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: , officially , was the name for Singapore when it was occupied and ruled by the Empire of Japan, following the fall and surrender of British military forces on 15 February 1942 during World War II.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Japanese military forces occupied it after defeating the combined British, Indian, Australian, Malayan and the Straits Settlements garrison in the Battle of Singapore. The occupation was to become a major turning point in the histories of several nations, including those of Japan, Britain, and Singapore. Singapore was renamed Syonan-to, meaning "Light of the South Island" and was also included as part of the .


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Singapore was officially returned to British colonial rule on 12 September 1945, following the formal signing of the surrender instrument at the Municipal Building, currently known as the City Hall. After the return of the British, there were growing political sentiment amongst the local populace in tandem to the rise of anti-colonial and nationalist fervor, as many felt that the British were no longer competent in the administration and defence of the crown colony and its inhabitants.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Shortly after the war, the Straits Settlements were dissolved and Singapore became a separate crown colony in 1946. It would go on to achieve self-governance in 1959, before becoming a sovereign city-state a few years later in 1965. The day of the surrender of the British to the Japanese in 1942 continues to be commemorated in Singapore with Total Defence Day, which is marked annually on 15 February.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The Japanese captured all of Malaya during the Malayan Campaign in a little more than two months. The garrison defending Singapore surrendered on 15 February 1942, only a week after the invasion of the island commenced. Then British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the fall of Singapore "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history".


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The main army which took Malaya, the 25th Army, was redeployed to other fronts such as the Philippines and New Guinea shortly after the fall of Singapore. The "Kempeitai" (the Japanese military police), which was the dominant occupation unit in Singapore, committed numerous atrocities towards the common people. They introduced the system of ""Sook Ching"", meaning "purging through purification" in Chinese, to get rid of those, especially ethnic Chinese, deemed to be hostile to the Empire of Japan (anti-Japanese elements in the local population). The Sook Ching massacre allegedly claimed the lives of between 25,000 and 55,000 ethnic Chinese in Singapore as well as in neighboring Malaya. These victims, mainly males between the ages of 18 to 50, were rounded up and taken to deserted spots and remote locations around the island, such as Changi Beach, Punggol Point, and Siglap, and killed systematically using machine guns and rifles.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Moreover, the "Kempeitai" established an island-wide network of local informants to help them identify those they suspected as anti-Japanese. These informers were well-paid by the "Kempeitai" and had no fear of being arrested for their loyalty was not in question to the occupation forces. These informers worked at Kempeitai screening centres where the Japanese attempted to single out anti-Japanese elements for execution. Japanese soldiers and Kempeitai officers patrolled the streets often and all commoners had to bow to them with respect when they passed by. Those who failed to do so would be slapped, punished, beaten and some people would even be taken away to imprisonment or even face execution.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: To discourage Western influence, which Japan sought to eliminate from the very start of their invasion, the Japanese set up schools and education institutions and pressured the local people to learn their language (Japanese). Textbooks and language guidebooks were printed in Japanese and radios and movies were broadcast and screened in Japanese. Every morning, school-children had to stand facing the direction of Japan (in the case of Singapore, looking northeast) and sing the Japanese national anthem ("Kimigayo"). Japanese propaganda banners and posters also went up all around Singapore, as did many Japanese Rising Sun flags raised and hung across many major buildings.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Basic resources, ranging from food to medication, were scarce during the occupation. The prices of basic necessities increased drastically over the three and a half years due to hyperinflation. For example, the price of rice increased from $5 per 100 catties (about ) to $5,000 by the end of the occupation between August and September 1945. The Japanese issued ration cards, also known as "Peace Living Certificates" to limit the amount of resources distributed to the civilian population. Adults could purchase of rice per month and children received accordingly. The amount of rice for adults was reduced by 25% as the war progressed, as much of the scarce rice supplies were sent to feed the Japanese military.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The Japanese issued "Banana Money" (so referred to due to the image of a banana tree printed on most of such notes of the currency) as their main currency during the occupation period since British Straits currency became rarer and was subsequently phased out when the Japanese took over in 1942. They instituted elements of a command economy in which there were restrictions on the demand and supply of resources, thus creating a popular black market from which the locals could obtain key scarce resources such as rice, meat, and medicine. The "Banana" currency started to suffer from high inflation and dropped drastically in value because the occupation authorities would simply print more whenever they needed it; consequently on the black market, Straits currency was more widely used.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Food availability and quality decreased greatly. Sweet potatoes, tapiocas and yams became the staple food of most diets of many Singaporeans because they were considerably cheaper than rice and could also be grown fast and easily in backyard gardens. They were then turned into a variety of dishes, as both desserts and all three meals of the day. Such foods helped to fend starvation off, with limited success in terms of nutrients gained, and new ways of consuming sweet potatoes, tapiocas and yams with other products were regularly invented and created to help stave off the monotony. Both the British colonial and Japanese occupation authorities encouraged their local population to grow their own food even if they had the smallest amount of land. The encouragement and production were similar to what occurred with "Victory Gardens" in Western nations (predominantly in Europe) during World War II as food supplies grew ever more scarce. "Ipomoea aquatica", which grew relatively easily and flourished relatively well near water sources, became a popular food-crop just as it did the other vegetables.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: After taking Singapore, the Japanese established the , to educate Malays, Chinese, Indians, and Eurasians in the Japanese language. Faye Yuan Kleeman, the author of "Under an Imperial Sun: Japanese Colonial Literature of Taiwan and the South" wrote that it was the most successful of such schools in Southeast Asia. During the occupation, the Japanese had also opened the Shonan First People's School.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Singapore was the target of various operations masterminded by Allied forces to disrupt Japanese military activities. On 26 September 1943, an Allied commando unit known as Z Force led by Major Ivan Lyon infiltrated Singapore Harbour and sank or damaged seven Japanese ships comprising over . Lyon led another operation, codenamed "Rimau", with the same objective almost a year later and sank three ships. Lyon and 13 of his men were killed fighting the Japanese. The other 10 men who participated in the operation were captured, charged with espionage in a kangaroo court and subsequently executed.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Lim Bo Seng of Force 136 led another operation, code-named "Gustavus", he recruited and trained hundreds of secret agents through intensive military intelligence missions from China and India. He set up the Sino-British guerrilla task force Force 136 in 1942 with Captain John Davis of the Special Operations Executive (SOE).


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Operation Gustavus was aimed at establishing an espionage network in Malaya and Singapore to gather intelligence about Japanese activities, and thereby aid the British in Operation Zipper – the code name for their plan to take back Singapore from the Japanese. Force 136 was eventually disbanded after the war.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: In August 1945, two XE class midget submarines of the Royal Navy took part in Operation Struggle, a plan to infiltrate Singapore Harbour and sabotage the Japanese cruisers and using limpet mines. They inflicted heavy damage on "Takao", earning Lieutenant Ian Edward Fraser the Victoria Cross. From November 1944 to May 1945, Singapore was subjected to air raids by British and American long-range bomber units.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Naval facilities and docks in Singapore were also bombed on eleven occasions by American air units between November 1944 and May 1945. These attacks caused some damage to their targets but also killed a number of civilians. Most Singaporeans, however, welcomed the raids as they were seen as heralding Singapore's liberation from Japanese rule.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: On 6 August 1945, the United States detonated an atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Sixteen hours later, US President Harry S. Truman called again for Japan's surrender and warned it to "expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth." On 8 August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and the next day invaded the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Later that day, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Following those events, Emperor Hirohito intervened and ordered the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War to accept the terms the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration to end the war. After several more days of behind-the-scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'état, Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address across the Empire on 15 August. In the radio address, he announced the surrender of Japan to the Allies.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The surrender ceremony was held on 2 September aboard the United States Navy battleship USS Missouri at which officials from the Japanese government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, thereby ending the hostilities.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: On 12 September 1945, a surrender instrument was signed at the Singapore Municipal Building. That was followed by a celebration at the Padang, which included a victory parade. Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander of South East Asia Command, came to Singapore to receive the formal surrender of the Japanese forces in the region from General Seishirō Itagaki on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi. A British military administration, using surrendered Japanese troops as security forces, was formed to govern the island until March 1946.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: After the Japanese surrendered, there was a state of instability (anomie) in Singapore, as the British had not yet arrived to take control. The Japanese occupiers had a considerably weakened hold over the populace. There were widespread incidents of looting and revenge killing. Much of the infrastructure had been wrecked, including the harbour facilities and the electricity, water supply and telephone services. It took four or five years for the economy to return to prewar levels. When British troops finally arrived, they were met with cheering and fanfare.


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: To keep alive the memory of the Japanese occupation and its lessons learned for future generations, the Singapore government erected several memorials with some at the former massacre sites:


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: Spearheaded and managed by the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the Civilian War Memorial is located in the War Memorial Park at Beach Road. Comprising four white concrete columns, this 61 meters tall memorial commemorates the civilian dead of all races. It was built after thousands of remains were discovered all over Singapore during the urban redevelopment boom in the early 1960s. The memorial was officially unveiled by Singapore's first prime minister Lee Kuan Yew on the 25th anniversary of the start of the Japanese occupation in 1967. It was constructed with part of the S$50 million 'blood debt' compensation paid by the Japanese government in October 1966. Speaking at the unveiling ceremony, Lee said:


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The site of this monument lies within the Hong Lim Complex in Chinatown. The inscription on the monument reads:


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The site of this monument is located in Changi Beach Park (near Camp Site 2) in the eastern part of Singapore. The inscription on the monument reads:


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The site of this monument is located off Punggol Road in northeastern Singapore. The inscription on the monument reads:


title: Japanese occupation of Singapore

text: The Japanese occupation of Singapore has been depicted in media and popular culture, including films, television series and books


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Charlotte York Goldenblatt ( York, formerly MacDougal) is a fictional character on the HBO-produced television series "Sex and the City". She is portrayed by actress Kristin Davis, who received two Screen Actors Guild Awards for her performance.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: The character of Charlotte first appeared in Candace Bushnell's newspaper column "Sex and the City" as a recurring character and friend of Carrie, where she is introduced as an English journalist.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: The television version of Charlotte York is the daughter of Dr. Stephen Foster York and Sandra Whitehead "Muffin" York. She is an art dealer with a Connecticut blue-blooded upbringing. Charlotte graduated from Smith College with a Bachelor of Arts in Art History and a minor in Finance; she lived in Haven-Wesley House and was a member of the College Republicans and Kappa Kappa Gamma (although in real life Smith has no sororities). She is the most conservative and traditional of the group, placing more emphasis on emotional love than lust, believing in many romantic ideals, and always searching for her "knight in shining armor." Presenting a more straightforward attitude about relationships, usually based upon "The Rules" of love and dating, she often scoffs at the lewder, more libertine antics that the show presents (primarily from Samantha).


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Despite her conservative outlook, she has been known to make confessions that surprise even her sexually freer girlfriends (such as her level of dirty talk and oral sex). She gives up her career shortly after marrying her first husband, Trey MacDougal, but divorces him due to irreconcilable differences regarding having children, his dependent relationship with his mother and their incompatible sex life. She receives a Park Avenue apartment as part of the divorce settlement, although this is a battle fiercely fought by Trey's mother, Bunny. Charlotte subsequently marries her divorce lawyer, Harry Goldenblatt, a man who seems the antithesis of all of the qualities she had decided her perfect man would have (he is short, bald and has a very hairy back), but who actually ends up being a funny, devoted partner. She converts to Judaism in order to marry him, and models herself vaguely on Elizabeth Taylor in this aspect; Charlotte also decides to name her dog Elizabeth Taylor. In the series finale, Charlotte and Harry adopt a baby girl, Lily, from China. In the movie, "Sex and the City", she and Harry have a biological baby girl, whom they name Rose.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: In "And Just Like That...", picking up over a decade later, Charlotte and Harry dote on their teen daughters—musically accomplished Lily and independent-minded Rose. She is distraught when Carrie's husband John dies of a heart attack, and Charlotte feels responsible, having pushed Carrie to attend Lily's recital when she otherwise would have been with him; Carrie assures Charlotte she is blameless. Stanford confronts Charlotte, saying she has never accepted him as part of the girls' inner circle. Anthony advises Charlotte after twelve-year-old Rose admits she does not feel like a girl. Charlotte goes into overdrive to make her and Harry's social circle more diverse. To that goal, she cultivates a friendship with Lisa and Herbert Wexley, a socially prominent African-American couple whose son attends Lily's school. Charlotte coordinates Carrie's post-operative care following hip surgery.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: In a Zoom meeting with her mom-friends, Charlotte is shocked to learn that daughter Rose now identifies as non-binary and goes by the name, "Rock". After discussing Rock's gender identity with school personnel, Harry and Charlotte are left confused. Charlotte is dismayed when both Lily and Rock want to update their shared bedroom to reflect each one's individual tastes and ages. Charlotte panics after Lily walks in on her and Harry having oral sex. Charlotte then awkwardly claims she was just checking Harry for cancer, which upsets Lily. Charlotte has a frank talk with Lily after discovering her semi-sexy selfies posted on Instagram. After several rabbis cancel, Charlotte finds a trans rabbi to officiate Rock's "They Mitzvah". At the ceremony, Rock refuses to participate, claiming to not identify with any particular group, religion, gender, non-gender, or anything else. Charlotte, a Jewish convert who never had a Bat Mitzvah, takes Rock's place.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Charlotte is viewed by some to be the most naïve of the four characters, often showing signs of belief in the old-fashioned, "love conquers all" notion. This has earned her the nickname "Park Avenue Pollyanna," coined by Carrie Bradshaw in narrations. Yet, her friends are sometimes envious and even in awe of her overall optimism on love and life, leading Carrie to dedicate her book to Charlotte. Charlotte is fiercely optimistic, although often anxious to make sure everything goes right. She also possesses a supportive personality with regard to her friends, always "being there" for them. Due to her conservative outlook in relationships, however, she sometimes clashes with the sexually liberal Samantha, once asking, after Samantha has sex with Charlotte's brother, "Is your vagina in the New York City guide books? Because it should be; it's the hottest spot in town, it's always open!" Yet in this instance, she apologizes by baking Samantha a basket of muffins, demonstrating her classic graceful and sweet-natured style.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Her belief in romance leads her to decide to not have sex with fiancé Trey until the honeymoon. However, she is confronted by the problems of this when she discovers, the night before the wedding, when she tries to seduce Trey, that he is impotent. Later, she realizes he has problems sleeping with her and they do a lot of work to solve the issue. She is also very loyal to her friends (being uncharacteristically aggressive in cursing at Mr. Big after he abandons Carrie at the altar in the first film) and to her belief in the sanctity of marriage (she is the only friend to chastise and shame Carrie regarding her adulterous affair with Mr. Big). She also faces a comeuppance in her relationship with Harry Goldenblatt. She is not attracted to him but has sex with him and calls it "the best sex of my life". She tries to change him into her ideal man but stops when she sees how much that hurts Harry. Finally, she becomes hysterical after she converts to Judaism and prepares a perfect dinner for Harry, when he won't propose to her, and she insults him by telling him how unsuitable he is for her, which causes him to break up with her. Only when she finally agrees to accept Harry on his own terms, he does propose to her, and they, independent of any of Charlotte's machinations, end up having a relationship that fulfills all of the ideals of romanticism.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: It is revealed throughout the series that Charlotte enjoyed much social acclaim in her younger life, such as being prom queen, varsity cheerleader, track and field captain, teen model, and equestrienne. She is occasionally described as a WASP, an identity she seems to have happily accepted before her conversion to Judaism.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Trey MacDougal (Kyle MacLachlan) is a tall, handsome doctor from an upper-class family with an overbearing, frequently present mother who views Charlotte as a rival for her son's affections. Trey and Charlotte meet after Charlotte has resolved to meet her husband in the coming year. Their initial introduction is one in which he proves her knight in shining armor: having had a horrible date, Charlotte is nearly hit by his taxi. Trey gets out of the taxi to help her, and it is implied that they fell in "love at first sight." Charlotte feels that Trey is an ideal boyfriend/husband-candidate. After only a mere month of dating, Charlotte becomes anxious to receive his proposal. When introduced to the royal MacDougal matriarch, Bunny, Charlotte sees how easily Trey can be manipulated and cannot help noticing his mother's methods. Frustrated with waiting, Charlotte uses Bunny's technique and suggests (at a restaurant) that they should marry, to which Trey casually and characteristically responds, "All righty". Charlotte is furious at this response, because it was hardly the proposal of her dreams—the next day she tells Carrie she proposed to herself. Later, Trey makes up for it by stopping in front of Tiffany & Co. during a walk and suggesting that they look for "the most beautiful engagement ring they have."


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: They decide not to have sex until they are married, but on the day before their wedding, Charlotte gets drunk and visits Trey's apartment to seduce him. Trey is unable to perform, possibly meaning he is infertile. Charlotte addresses her concern to Carrie before she walks down the aisle, but Carrie attempts to comfort her and the marriage takes place. After they are married, Trey continues to be unable to perform in the bedroom. It is implied that his problem is not impotency, as Charlotte catches him masturbating in the bathroom to pornographic magazines. Because of their sexual problems, the two separate. They later get back together when Trey agrees to address the problem, and though he initially has problems, they eventually are able to have regular sex. After some time, Charlotte finds she has not been able to get pregnant, and discovers that she has some fertility problems. The couple starts trying IVF, but Trey, after initially agreeing to it, ultimately decides that he does not feel ready for children. The two divorce because of their different goals in the marriage.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Harry Goldenblatt (Evan Handler) is Charlotte's divorce lawyer. Although Charlotte is initially put off by Harry's constant sweating, messy eating, shortness, baldness, and hairy body, she ends up sleeping with him when Harry confesses his intense attraction to her. She finds it is the best sex she has ever had. She tries to keep their relationship strictly sexual but soon becomes emotionally attached due to Harry's kindness, cleverness, and obvious love for her. Initially she tries to change him so that he will more closely fit her image of the ideal man, but these attempts cause Harry distress and Charlotte realizes their futility, and gradually accepts Harry for who he is. Charlotte converts to Judaism in response to Harry's avowal that he can only marry a Jewish woman, but she soon ends up ruining the relationship in a fit of anger by demanding he set a wedding date and telling him that everyone wonders why a catch like her is bothering with a schlub like him. Hurt at hearing what he believes to be what Charlotte really thinks about him, Harry breaks up with her. But after several weeks of bad blind dates, Charlotte bumps into Harry at the local synagogue singles' night and admits her wrongs, professing her deep love for him and agreeing finally to accept him as he is, rather than molding him to suit her. She says that she does not care if he ever marries her, as long as she can be with him. Harry is touched and proposes to Charlotte on the spot.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: The movie begins with Charlotte's life with her daughter Lily and husband Harry and they are perfectly happy living in New York. When Carrie's wedding to Big ends in a mess, Charlotte goes with Carrie (along with Samantha and Miranda) to where she was to have her honeymoon with Big. Charlotte is extremely careful in Mexico and refuses to eat any of the food there, instead bringing her own. The full liquid diet turns out to be a bad idea, as she becomes sick and gets diarrhea. Even though she and Harry had given up hoping for another baby, Charlotte unexpectedly discovers she is pregnant, much to her joy. At this moment, it seems that everything Charlotte has ever wanted is finally coming true, and Charlotte becomes "so happy, she's terrified." In the movie it is also revealed that Charlotte always believed Carrie and Big would end up together, and when she sees Big in the street she tells him, "I curse the day you were born." It is then that Charlotte goes into labour, and Big takes her to the hospital and waits until the baby is born. Charlotte and Harry are overjoyed when she gives birth to a baby girl they name Rose. The final scenes of the movie show Harry and Charlotte with their two daughters.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Charlotte is a wealthy museum docent with two children and live-in, full-time help. However, she becomes stressed with motherhood and feels incapable of being a good mother to her children, eventually becoming worried that Harry is sleeping with their nanny. Charlotte later escapes to Abu Dhabi with her friends where she is still unable to ease the stresses of motherhood.


title: Charlotte York Goldenblatt

text: Charlotte's conflicts are resolved when it is revealed that her children's nanny, Erin, is a lesbian, and her stress about motherhood is put to rest after confiding and receiving reassurances from Miranda while the two had a conversation in the private bar of their hotel room. From then on, she uses Carrie's old apartment as an occasional "break" from her family life.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: The next Australian federal election will be held some time in or before 2025 to elect members of the 48th Parliament of Australia. All 151 seats in the House of Representatives and likely 40 of the 76 seats in the Senate will be contested. It is expected that at this election, the Labor government of Prime Minister Anthony Albanese will be seeking re-election to a second term in office, opposed by the Liberal/National Coalition under Leader of the Opposition Peter Dutton.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: At the previous election in May 2022, the Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, formed government winning 77 seats in the House of Representatives, enough for a three-seat majority, whilst the Liberal/National Coalition claimed 58 seats and went into opposition. A record number of 16 seats were won by other parties and independents; four to the Greens, one each to Centre Alliance, Katter's Australian Party and the remaining 10 by independents forming the crossbench.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: In the Senate, Labor made no gains and remained steady at 26 seats overall, whilst the Coalition lost some seats and retained only 32 seats. The Greens made gains and increased their share of seats to 12. One Nation maintained at 2 seats, Centre Alliance and Rex Patrick Team each lost their sole Senate seat, while Jacqui Lambie Network gained a second seat. David Pocock was also elected as an independent Senator, while United Australia Party also gained a Senate seat. This meant the Labor required 13 additional votes to pass legislation.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: The 47th Parliament opened on 26 July 2022. The Liberal Party entered the parliament with a new leader, with former defence and home affairs minister Peter Dutton replacing the outgoing prime minister Scott Morrison.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: The Australian Electoral Commission is required, one year after the first sitting day for a new House of Representatives, to determine the number of members to which each State and Territory is entitled. If the number in any state changes, a redistribution will be required in those states. A redistribution will be postponed if it would begin within one year of the expiration of the House of Representatives.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: Enrollment of eligible voters is compulsory. Voters must notify the AEC within 8 weeks of a change of address or after turning 18. The electoral rolls are closed for new enrollments or update of details about a week after the issue of writs for election. Enrollment is optional for 16- or 17-year-olds, but they cannot vote until they turn 18, and persons who have applied for Australian citizenship may also apply for provisional enrollment which takes effect on the granting of citizenship.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: The election of senators must take place within one year before the terms expire for half-Senate elections, so that the writs for a half-Senate election cannot be issued earlier than 1 July 2024. Since campaigns are for a minimum of 33 days, the earliest possible date for a simultaneous House/half-Senate election is Saturday, 3 August 2024. The latest that a half-Senate election could be held must allow time for the votes to be counted and the writs to be returned before the newly elected senators take office on 1 July 2025. The previous election's writs were returned on 24 June 2022, 34 days after the 2022 federal election. Using this time frame, the last possible date for a half-Senate election to take place is Saturday 24 May 2025.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: A double dissolution (a deadlock-breaking provision to dissolve both houses of parliament) cannot be called within six months before the date of the expiry of the House of Representatives.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: Candidates for either house must be formally nominated with the Electoral Commission. The nomination for a party-endorsed candidate must be signed by the Registered Officer of a party registered under the Electoral Act. 100 signatures of eligible voters are required for an independent candidate as per section 166 of the "Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918". A candidate can nominate for only one electorate, and must pass a number of qualifications.


title: Next Australian federal election

text: A deposit of $2,000 will be required for a candidate for the House of Representatives or the Senate, which is refunded if the candidate is elected or gains at least 4% of the first preference vote. Between 10 and 27 days must be allowed after the issue of writs before the close of nominations.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: White Girl is a 2016 American drama film written and directed by Elizabeth Wood in her directorial debut. It stars Morgan Saylor, Brian Marc, India Menuez, Adrian Martinez, Anthony Ramos, Ralph Rodriguez, Annabelle Dexter-Jones, Chris Noth and Justin Bartha.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2016. It was released on September 2, 2016, by FilmRise.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Leah, a student about to enter her second year of college, moves in with her friend Katie into an apartment in Ridgewood, Queens. One night, out of marijuana, she asks a group of young Latinos on her corner to sell her drugs. They refuse. Later she invites Blue into her apartment, who explains that while he is a dealer, he doesn't do hard drugs. They end up having sex on her roof.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Leah tells him he could be making $60 compared to the $20 he has been selling them for. She invites him to a party thrown by her magazine, where she interns, and Blue is able to mark up his prices to the crowd.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Emboldened by his success, Blue asks for a kilo of cocaine from his supplier Lloyd. He agrees and Blue and Leah go to a restaurant for breakfast. While there, he is approached by one of his regulars, who sets him up, and he is immediately arrested by an undercover police officer. Leah picks up the kilo and quietly leaves.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Leah goes to visit Blue in jail and he tells her he may get 20 years in prison due to priors. She decides to help him, telling him that she has the coke, so the police have no evidence. He asks her to return it to Lloyd and explain. As she approaches Lloyd's, she recognizes the same undercover cop right outside, and decides to run. She then finds Blue a lawyer named George, intending to deal the coke to pay his fee. He is optimistic that they have a very good case.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Approaching her boss, Kelly, Leah sells a third of the kilo. Katie and Blue's friends help move the rest, while Blue believes George is representing him pro bono. As her debts pile up, Lloyd finds her, pressuring her for the rest of the money, so she asks Kelly for a $17,000 loan. He instead helps her throw a rave with a cover charge. The party is a success, but Leah takes too many drugs and wakes up alone with no money.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Leah promises George she will get the rest of the money, but he tells her to forget it. He takes her to dinner, explaining that the legal system is unequal and white men who commit violent crimes are more likely to get off for their crimes than non-violent PoC offenders like Blue. The two end up going to Leah's where she passes out, intoxicated. George uses the opportunity to rape her.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Afterwards, Leah becomes silent and withdrawn, staying in bed. She is surprised one day by Blue who arrives in her apartment and crawls into bed with her. He reveals that the lawyer managed to free him and credits Leah with saving his life. Getting on one knee he proposes to her, to which she does not give a clear answer. (However, the next scene they are happily kissing each other.)


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Walking down the street together, Leah and Blue are surprised when Lloyd attacks them both, wanting his money. Blue first hits him over the head with a broken bottle then beats him to death with a wrench. As Leah looks on, Blue silently realizes she caused the attack by not returning the coke.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Blue is arrested, watching Leah coldly as he is driven away. Leah is last seen in a classroom, just before the credits.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: In February 2015, it was revealed that Elizabeth Wood had directed a film from a screenplay she wrote, with Morgan Saylor and India Menuez starring in the film. Gabriel Nussbaum produced the film, while Christine Vachon, Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman produced the film under their Killer Films and Supermarche banners respectively. Wood began writing the feature before attending Columbia University's screenwriting MFA program. She loosely based the film on her own life.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Sundance Film Festival on January 23, 2016. Shortly after, Netflix acquired worldwide video on demand distribution rights to the film for a seven figure price. In April 2016, FilmRise acquired theatrical distribution rights to the film with a planned late summer-fall 2016 release. The film was released on September 2, 2016. It was released on Netflix on December 2, 2016.


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: "White Girl" received positive reviews from film critics. It holds a 72% approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The site's consensus states: ""White Girl" isn't an easy watch, but it adroitly walks the line between exploitation and drama - and marks an admirably assured debut for writer-director Elizabeth Wood". On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 65 out of 100, based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: Sheila O'Malley for RogerEbert.com opined that the characters are envelope-thin, with the exception of Blue. She also praised the actor's performance but criticized the one given by Morgan Saylor, saying that "it makes for somewhat dreary viewing when the lead character has no apparent personality". O'Malley gave the film two stars. "Vogue" mentioned that "It won’t be news to anyone that young, middle-class white girls enjoy countless privileges unavailable to poor Puerto Rican boys, nor that middle-aged, well-educated white men—like Kelly, like Blue’s lawyer—are the most privileged of all. But to see it dramatized, and in such raw, unremittingly cynical, outrageously graphic detail, is still a disturbing shock to the system."


title: White Girl (2016 film)

text: "The Hollywood Reporter" called it "squalid, shocking and sexy as hell," while "Vice" called the film "the most explosive portrait of NYC youth since "Kids"." Peter Dubruge of "Variety" gave the film a scandalized negative review, writing: "As much as "White Girl" has to offer in raw immediacy, it lacks the distance to offer much in the way of meaningful commentary."


title: 2007 Copa América

text: The 2007 Campeonato Sudamericano Copa América, known simply as the 2007 Copa América or 2007 Copa América Venezuela, was the 42nd edition of the Copa América, the South-American championship for international association football teams. The competition was organized by CONMEBOL, South America's football governing body, and was held between 26 June and 15 July in Venezuela, which hosted the tournament for the first time.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: The competition was won by Brazil (they were also the defending champions), who beat Argentina 3–0 in the final.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: Mexico took third place by beating Uruguay 3–1 in the third-place match. Brazil thus won the right to represent CONMEBOL at the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: As with previous tournaments, all ten members of CONMEBOL participated in the competition. In order to bring the number of competing teams to twelve, CONMEBOL invited Mexico and the United States, the two highest ranking CONCACAF teams in the FIFA World Rankings. Just as in every tournament since 1993, Mexico accepted the invitation without reservation. The United States, on the other hand, rejected the invitation due to scheduling conflicts with the 2007 Major League Soccer season. CONMEBOL then proceeded to invite Costa Rica, the third highest CONCACAF team in FIFA's ranking. In the end, the United States accepted the invitation.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: For this Copa América, the organizing committee decided to choose eight cities to hold the tournament. A total of 14 cities presented proposal before the committee, of which they rejected proposals from Barquisimeto, Maracay, Valencia, Valera, Portuguesa and Miranda for not meeting established requirements. The cities of Barinas, Caracas, Ciudad Guayana, Maracaibo, Maturín, Mérida, Puerto la Cruz and San Cristóbal were selected to host the tournament. Later on, the organizing committee reconsidered the candidacy of Barquisimeto, based on the proposal of a new stadium to be built for the city. With a final nine host cities, the 2007 edition broke the previous records for host cities set by the 2004 Copa América in Peru, which used seven.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: On 30 May 2007, CONMEBOL announced the list of match officials for the competition. The list included one match official from every country (except Paraguay, which had two). From these thirteen, six officiated in the 2006 FIFA World Cup: Carlos Simon, Óscar Ruiz, Carlos Amarilla, Jorge Larrionda, and Armando Archundia.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: The draw for the competition took place on 14 February 2007 in the Teresa Carreño Theater in Caracas.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: The first round, or group stage, saw the twelve teams divided into three groups of four teams. Each group was a round-robin of six games, where each team played one match against each of the other teams in the same group. Teams were awarded three points for a win, one point for a draw and none for a defeat. The teams finishing first, second and two best-placed third teams in each group qualified for the Quarter-finals.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: At the end of the first stage, a comparison was made between the third-placed teams of each group. The two best third-placed teams advanced to the quarter-finals.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: With six goals, Robinho was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 86 goals were scored by 53 different players, with only one of them credited as an own goal.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: The official match ball for the tournament was the Nike "Mercurial Veloci". The ball was presented on 14 February 2007, prior to a friendly match played between Venezuela and New Zealand, by the president of the Venezuelan Football Federation, Rafael Esquivel, to the mayor of Maracaibo, Giancarlo Di Martino – head of the local organising committee.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: Guaky is a scarlet macaw, a bird representative of Venezuela. He wore the traditional jersey Venezuela national football team burgundy and football shoes. Under their wings the characteristic tricolor national flag, with its eight stars on their wings.


title: 2007 Copa América

text: To choose the official mascot held a contest in which proposals received 4,500,000 of Venezuelan children and adolescents at a school. The winning draw corresponded to the 15-year-old Jhoyling Zabaleta. The final design was commissioned to Fractal Studio, bring life and a "strong personality, cheerful and sport" that accompanied the event during its realization. The name of the pet, Guaky was subsequently elected by an online survey, where that option was a 54.17% of preferences.


title: Holding (TV series)

text: Holding is a four-part television series based on the debut novel of the same name by Graham Norton. It premiered on ITV on 14 March 2022 and on Virgin Media More in Ireland on 12 April 2022.


title: Holding (TV series)

text: It was announced in May 2021 that ITV had commissioned a four-part adaptation of Graham Norton's novel. Dominic Treadwell-Collins and Karen Cogan would write the script for ITV's label Happy Prince with Kathy Burke directing and Martina Niland for Port Pictures.


title: Holding (TV series)

text: Alongside the commission in May, Conleth Hill was cast as the lead character PJ Collins. It was later announced in July 2021 that Siobhán McSweeney, Charlene McKenna, Helen Behan, Pauline McLynn, and Brenda Fricker would star alongside Hill with the likes of Clinton Liberty, Amy Conroy, Olwen Fouéré, Eleanor Tiernan, Gary Shelford, Lochlann Ó Mearáin, Sky Yang, and Demi Isaac Oviawe also having joined the cast.


title: Holding (TV series)

text: Principal photography took place on location in West Cork with support from Screen Ireland, beginning in July 2021 and wrapping in October. Filming locations included Drimoleague and Castletownshend.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Roger Bruce Chaffee (; February 15, 1935 – January 27, 1967) was an American naval officer, aviator and aeronautical engineer who was a NASA astronaut in the Apollo program.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where he became an Eagle Scout. He graduated from Central High School in 1953, and accepted a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) scholarship. He began his college education at Illinois Institute of Technology, where he was involved in the fraternity Phi Kappa Sigma. He transferred to Purdue University in 1954, continuing his involvement in Phi Kappa Sigma and obtaining his private pilot's license.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: After graduating from Purdue in 1957 with a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering, Chaffee completed his Navy training and was commissioned as an ensign. He began pilot training at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, flying aircraft such as the T-34, T-28, and A3D. He became quality and safety control officer for Heavy Photographic Squadron 62 (VAP-62). His time in this unit included taking crucial photos of Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis, earning him the Air Medal. He was promoted to lieutenant commander in 1966.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Along with thirteen other pilots, Chaffee was selected to be an astronaut as part of NASA Astronaut Group 3 in 1963. He served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for the Gemini 3 and Gemini 4 missions and received his first spaceflight assignment in 1966 as the third-ranking pilot on Apollo 1. In 1967, he died in a fire along with fellow astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom and Ed White during a pre-launch test for the mission at what was then the Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34, Florida. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and a second Air Medal.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Roger Bruce Chaffee was born on February 15, 1935, in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the second child of Donald Lynn Chaffee (1910–1998) and Blanche May (Mike) Chaffee (; 1912–1996). He had an older sister, Donna, born two years earlier. In January 1935, in their hometown of Greenville, Michigan, his father was diagnosed with scarlet fever, so his mother moved in with her parents in Grand Rapids, where Roger was born. The family spent the next seven years in Greenville before moving to Grand Rapids, where his father took a job as the chief Army Ordnance inspector at the Doehler-Jarvis plant. Chaffee's interest in aerospace was sparked at a young age when his father, a former barnstorming pilot, took him on his first flight at the age of seven. Chaffee was thrilled by the flight and soon after started building model airplanes with his father.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee excelled as a Boy Scout, earning his first merit badge at the age of thirteen. He earned ten more badges that year. Many of these awards were typically earned by the older scouts. He continued his success by earning four more badges at the age of fourteen. He earned four badges for each of the next two years, almost all the badges available at the time. After becoming an Eagle Scout, he managed to earn another ten merit badges, for which he was awarded the bronze and gold palms. Between his camping trips with his family and his involvement with the Boy Scouts, Chaffee developed a passion for the outdoors.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee attended the Dickinson School in Grand Rapids, and later graduated from Central High School in the top 20% of his class in 1953. Turning down a possible appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, he accepted a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (NROTC) scholarship, and in September 1953 enrolled at the Illinois Institute of Technology. He performed well, making the Dean's List and finishing with a B+ average. While enrolled, he joined Phi Kappa Sigma.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee was passionate about flying, and had a strong aptitude for science and engineering. To apply those talents, he transferred to Purdue University in the autumn of 1954 to attend the school's well-known aeronautical engineering program. Before arriving in West Lafayette, he reported for an 8-week tour on as a part of the NROTC program. To qualify, he had to finish training and pass further tests. He initially failed the eye exam, but the physician permitted him to retake it the next morning, and he passed. He was then allowed to tour on "Wisconsin" to England, Scotland, France, and Cuba. Upon his return to American soil, he worked as a gear cutter.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: After starting classes at Purdue, Chaffee sought out a job to complement his coursework and involvement in the Phi Kappa Sigma social fraternity. His first job during his sophomore year was working as a server at one of the women's residences, but he disliked the job and sought new employment. He was hired as a draftsman at a small business near Purdue. As a junior, he was hired as a teaching assistant in the Mathematics Department to teach classes to freshman students. He also joined the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Gamma Tau engineering honor societies.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: In 1955, Chaffee took four flying lessons, but he did not have enough money to get his private pilot's license. Two years later, the NROTC sponsored flight training for him to become a naval aviator. He soloed on March 29, 1957, and obtained his private pilot's license on May 24, 1957. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree, with distinction, in aeronautical engineering at Purdue in 1957.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee met his future wife Martha Louise Horn on a double blind date in September 1955. They started dating, and he proposed to her on October 12, 1956. They married in Oklahoma City, Martha's hometown, on August 24, 1957. Martha was a homemaker. The couple had two children, Sheryl Lyn (born in 1958) and Stephen (born in 1961).


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: After graduation, Chaffee completed his Navy training on August 22, 1957, and received commission as an ensign. Following his honeymoon, he was assigned to the aircraft carrier for a six-week assignment in Norfolk with the Naval Air Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet. By the time Chaffee arrived at the base, the ship had already left port. He temporarily worked at the base until October 1957, when he attended flight school at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. He started his training by flying the T-28 and the T-34. He was posted to Naval Air Station Kingsville, Texas, from August 1958 to February 1959 as a part of Advanced Training Unit 212. In Kingsville, he trained on the F9F Cougar jet fighter. His daughter Sheryl was born the day before he left for his first aircraft carrier training. He was awarded his naval aviator wings in early 1959.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee was transferred to Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida, to continue his training. His first project was not flying, but repairing an A3D twin-engine jet photo reconnaissance plane. This plane was typically flown by pilots with the rank of lieutenant commander or above, but Chaffee became so familiar with the plane from repairing it he became one of the youngest pilots ever to fly it. He joined Attack Squadron 44 (VA-44) in September 1959, and from October 1959 to March 1960 he trained with Heavy Attack Squadron 3 (VAH-3).


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee received a variety of assignments and participated in multiple training duties over the next several years, spending most of his time in photo reconnaissance squadrons. He was stationed at NAS Jacksonville as safety officer and quality control officer for Heavy Photographic Squadron 62 (VAP-62) flying the A3D. He wrote a quality control manual for the squadron, although some of his peers saw this as too demanding. By coincidence, he was assigned to a mission where he flew over Cape Canaveral, during which aerial photographs of future launch sites were taken.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Between April 4, 1960, and October 25, 1962, including during the critical time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Chaffee flew 82 missions over Cuba, sometimes up to three per day, and achieved over 100 flight hours each month. Some of these trips included shuttling three men per plane back and forth to Guantanamo Bay, including the pilot, co-pilot, and the photographer. Some biographies credit him with flying the U-2 plane to spy on Cuba, but this is erroneous since he was a Navy pilot and the U-2 was an Air Force plane.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: After this, Chaffee undertook aircraft carrier flight training, including time spent on performing both day and night flights. He said of day flying, "Setting that big bird down on the flight deck was like landing on a postage stamp"; and of night flying, "Getting catapulted off that flight deck at night is like getting shot into a bottle of ink!" While working in Jacksonville, he concurrently worked on a master's degree. He was on a cruise to Africa when his son Stephen was born in Oklahoma City.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: During Chaffee's Navy service he logged more than 2,300 hours flying time, including more than 2,000 hours in jet aircraft. On February 1, 1966, he was promoted to lieutenant commander.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: In August 1962, Chaffee confided in his family that he had submitted an application for the NASA astronaut training program, and informed his superiors of his desire to train as a test pilot for astronaut status. In mid-1962, he was accepted in the initial pool of 1,800 applicants for the third group of NASA astronauts. After his naval tour was over, and he had racked up over 1,800 hours of flying time, the Navy offered him the opportunity to continue work on his master's degree. In January 1963, he entered the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, to work on his Master of Science degree in reliability engineering.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: While at AFIT, Chaffee continued participating in astronaut candidate testing as the pool of candidates dropped to 271 in mid-1963. It was noted during testing that he had a very small lung capacity but he used it better than most people with greater capacity. On his return from a hunting trip to Fairborn, Ohio, on October 14, 1963, he found a message from NASA in Houston, Texas. He called them back, and discovered he had been chosen as an astronaut. On October 18, 1963, it was officially announced that he was one of fourteen chosen for NASA's third group of astronauts. He said, "I was very pleased with the appointment. I've always wanted to fly and perform adventurous flying tasks all my life. Ever since the first seven Mercury astronauts were named, I've been keeping my studies up."


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Phase one of training for the third group of astronauts began in 1964 in lecture halls. Lectures in several fields were supplemented with trips to locations with geological significance so the astronauts gained hands-on experience. As well as piloting the spacecraft, the astronauts were to perform scientific experiments and measurements on the Moon. The astronauts traveled to the Grand Canyon to learn about geography and to Alaska, Iceland, and Hawaii to learn about rock formations and lava flows.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: The second phase was contingency training, which focused on astronauts learning the skills required to survive if the landing did not occur where planned. The group started their training by being dropped off in the middle of the jungle in Panama. They performed the survival training in pairs, carrying only their parachutes and survival kits. Chaffee, with help from his Boy Scout training, foraged for enough food to survive during the three-day training mission. Following the jungle training, the astronauts traveled to an entirely different environment: the desert of Reno, Nevada. For clothing, the astronauts had only long underwear, shoes, and robes they manufactured from their parachutes. Lizards and snakes were the main source of food, and the astronauts used their parachutes as makeshift tents for shelter for the two days of desert training.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: The third and final phase was operational training for the astronauts. This focused on giving them hands-on experience using the instruments and equipment required during their spaceflight. They received training in the effects of microgravity and rapid acceleration. The astronauts spent time in simulators, aboard cargo planes that simulated weightlessness, underwater to practice extravehicular activities (EVAs), and on visits to manufacturing plants to check on the progress of the hardware.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Every astronaut was required to have a specialty, and Chaffee's specialty was communications. He focused on the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF), which the astronauts needed for navigation in space.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: At the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Chaffee served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) in March 1965 for Gemini 3. Later that year, he was CAPCOM, along with Virgil "Gus" Grissom and Eugene Cernan, for the Gemini 4 mission, in which Ed White performed the first spacewalk by an American. As CAPCOM, Chaffee relayed information between the crew members and the Director of Flight Operations, Chris Kraft. He never got a seat on a Gemini mission, but was assigned to work on flight control, communications, instrumentation, and attitude and translation control systems in the Apollo program. During this time, along with Grissom, he also flew chase planes at an altitude of between to take motion pictures of the launch of an uncrewed Saturn 1B rocket.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee received his first spaceflight assignment in January 1966, when he was selected for the first crewed Apollo-Saturn flight, AS-204. At the time, he was the youngest American astronaut to be selected for a mission. Joining Command Pilot Grissom and Senior Pilot White, he replaced the injured Donn F. Eisele in the third-ranked pilot position. Eisele required surgery for a dislocated shoulder, which he sustained aboard the KC-135 weightlessness training aircraft. He was reassigned to a second Apollo crew, commanded by Wally Schirra.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: The crew announcement was made public on March 21, 1966. The two-week flight of Apollo1 was to test the spacecraft systems and the control and ground tracking facilities. While Chaffee had monitored the manufacture of the Gemini spacecraft, he had not witnessed the building of the Apollo spacecraft. Three days after being selected for the Apollo1 crew, he flew to the North American Aviation Plant in Downey, California, to see it.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Later in April, the crew traveled to Chapel Hill, North Carolina, to study stars that were programmed into their flight computer. In October, the six crewmembers planned to test the spacecraft in sea level and altitude conditions. The failure of an oxygen regulator prevented them from performing the vacuum test, but they managed to complete the sea level test. They also performed egress tests, where capsule simulators were dropped in the Gulf of Mexico under various conditions and the crew had to exit the spacecraft. The crew was able to spend time with their families at Christmas. Chaffee entered a local Christmas decoration contest and he received first prize. Four Purdue astronauts were requested to attend the Rose Bowl as guests of honor. Grissom, Gene Cernan, Armstrong, and Chaffee attended the game on January 2. Progress on pre-mission activities was nearing completion; NASA announced on January 23, 1967, that February 21 would be the target launch date. The primary and backup crews moved back to the Cape for the last few weeks of training. They had their own living quarters, a private waiter and chef, and gymnasium to remain fit.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: On January 27, 1967, Grissom, White and Chaffee were participating in a "plugs-out" countdown demonstration test at Cape Kennedy in preparation for the planned February 21 launch. Chaffee was sitting at the right side of the cabin. His main role was to maintain communications with the blockhouse. A momentary power surge was detected at 23:30:55 GMT, which was believed to accompany an electrical short in equipment located on the lower left side of the cabin, the presumed ignition source for the fire. At 23:31:04 GMT, a voice was heard declaring, "[We]'ve got a fire in the cockpit." Most investigative listeners believe that voice was Chaffee's.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Assigned emergency roles called for Grissom, in the left-hand seat, to open the cabin pressure vent valve, after which White in the center seat was to open the plug door hatch, while Chaffee in the right-hand seat was to maintain communications. Grissom was prevented from opening the valve by the intensity of the fire, which started in that region and spread from left to right. Despite this, White removed his restraints and apparently tried in vain to open the hatch, which was held closed by the cabin pressure. The increasing pressure finally burst the inner cabin wall on the right-hand side at 23:31:19 GMT. After approximately thirty seconds of being fed by a cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at pressures of , and now fed by nitrogen-buffered ambient air, the primary fire decreased in intensity and started producing large amounts of smoke, which killed the astronauts. Chaffee lost consciousness because of a lack of oxygen which sent him into cardiac arrest. He died from asphyxia due to the toxic gases from the fire, with burns contributing to his death.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Failed oxygen and ethylene glycol pipes near the fire's origin point continued burning an intense secondary fire which melted through the cabin floor. By the time firefighters were able to open the hatch, the fire had extinguished itself. The back of Chaffee's couch was found in the horizontal position, with the lower portion angled towards the floor. His helmet was closed and locked, his restraints were undone, and the hoses and electrical connections to the suit remained connected. As he was farthest from the origin of the fire, he suffered the least burn and suit damage.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Shortly after the AS-204 fire in 1967, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Spaceflight George Mueller announced the mission would be officially designated as Apollo 1. The capsule underwent a significant redesign as a result of the disaster. The atmosphere in the cabin was changed from 100% oxygen to a 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen environment at launch. The astronauts' spacesuits, originally made of nylon, were changed to beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon. There were other changes, including replacing flammable cabin materials with self-extinguishing ones, and covering plumbing and wiring with protective insulation.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee and Grissom were buried in Arlington National Cemetery, while White was buried at West Point Cemetery. Chaffee's widow received $100,000 from the life insurance portion of the contract the astronauts signed with two publishing firms so they would have exclusive rights to stories and photographs of the astronauts and their families. She also received $16,250 per year for the life of the contract.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee is memorialized in many ways, from the Chaffee Crater on the far side of the Moon, to the Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium in his hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Another memorial is a hill on Mars, Chaffee Hill, south-southwest of Columbia Memorial Station, part of the Apollo 1 Hills. "Regor" ("Roger" spelled backwards), is a seldom-used nickname for the star Gamma Velorum. Grissom used this name, plus two others for White and himself, on his Apollo1 mission planning star charts as a joke, and the succeeding Apollo astronauts kept using the names as a memorial. A terrestrial memorial is Chaffee Island, an artificial island off Long Beach, California, created in 1966 for drilling oil (along with White, Grissom and Freeman Islands). A park in Fullerton, California, was named after Chaffee; parks were also named after his fellow Apollo1 comrades. Chaffee is named with his Apollo1 crewmates on the Space Mirror Memorial, which was dedicated in 1991. Chaffee's name is included on the plaque left on the Moon with the "Fallen Astronaut" statue in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: The Roger B. Chaffee scholarship named for him has been awarded annually since 1967 to exceptional students in the Kent Intermediate School District for high school seniors who will be pursuing a career in math and science. Chaffee Hall, an engineering building, was dedicated to him at his alma mater, Purdue University, in 1968. Grissom High School, Ed White Middle School and Chaffee Elementary School in Huntsville, Alabama, were named for the Apollo1 astronauts.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Roger That! is an annual event sponsored by the Grand Rapids Public Museum and Grand Valley State University that celebrates space exploration and the life of Grand Rapids native, Roger B. Chaffee, a former American naval officer and aviator aeronautical engineer, and NASA astronaut in the Apollo program.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: Chaffee was awarded the Navy Air Medal for his involvement in Heavy Photographic Squadron 62. He completed 82 classified missions "of paramount military importance to the security of the United States". The Apollo1 crew was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal posthumously in a 1969 presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo 11 crew. He was posthumously awarded a second Air Medal. He was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1983 and into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame, on October 4, 1997. Chaffee and White were awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously in 1997 (Grissom received the medal in 1978). He was later awarded the NASA Ambassador of Exploration Award for involvement in the U.S. space program in 2007.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: On the television show "" a fictional 24th century spacecraft was named after him, designed by Doug Drexler. They named it after Chaffee as a reminder about the dangers of space exploration. "Star Trek" and NASA have a long history of collaborations going back to the late 1960s when the television show made its debut.


title: Roger B. Chaffee

text: In 2018 a life-size bronze statue of Chaffee was unveiled outside the Grand Rapids Children's Museum in Chaffee's hometown. His wife, other family members, and astronaut Jack Lousma (a Grand Rapids native) were present for the event.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness, to make the thickness uniform, and/or to impart a desired mechanical property. The concept is similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. Roll stands holding pairs of rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel, into products such as structural steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock), bar stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished casting products into finished products.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: There are many types of rolling processes, including "ring rolling", "roll bending", "roll forming", "profile rolling", and "controlled rolling".


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: The invention of the rolling mill in Europe may be attributed to Leonardo da Vinci in his drawings. The earliest rolling mills in crude form but the same basic principles were found in Middle East and South Asia as early as 600 BCE. Earliest rolling mills were slitting mills, which were introduced from what is now Belgium to England in 1590. These passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls (slitters) to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670. In 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill at Pontypool to roll 'Pontypool plates' – blackplate. Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make tinplate. The earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops (for barrels) and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. 1679.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to the Swedish engineer Christopher Polhem in his "Patriotista Testamente" of 1761, where he mentions rolling mills for both plate and bar iron. He also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 or more bars at the same time.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals. Another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill. A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands; Ford's tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Rolling mills for lead seem to have existed by the late 17th century. Copper and brass were also rolled by the late 18th century.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Until well into the eighteenth century, rolling mills derived their power from water wheels. The first recorded use of a steam engine directly driving a mill is attributed to John Wilkinson's Bradley Works where, in 1786, a Boulton and Watt engine was coupled to a slitting and rolling mill. The use of steam engines considerably enhanced the production capabilities of the mills, until this


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Modern rolling practice can be attributed to the pioneering efforts of Henry Cort of Funtley Iron Mills, near Fareham in Hampshire, England. In 1783, a patent number was issued to Henry Cort for his use of grooved rolls for rolling iron bars. With this new design, mills were able to produce 15 times more output per day than with a hammer. Although Cort was not the first to use grooved rolls, he was the first to combine the use of many of the best features of various ironmaking and shaping processes known at the time. Thus modern writers have called him "father of modern rolling".


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: The first rail rolling mill was established by John Birkenshaw at Bedlington Ironworks in Northumberland, England, in 1820, where he produced fish-bellied wrought iron rails in lengths of 15 to 18 feet. With the advancement of technology in rolling mills, the size of rolling mills grew rapidly along with the size of the products being rolled. One example of this was at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851, where a plate 20 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 7/16 of an inch thick, and weighing 1,125 pounds, was exhibited by the Consett Iron Company. Further evolution of the rolling mill came with the introduction of three-high mills in 1853 used for rolling heavy sections.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature of the material. After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains an equiaxed microstructure and prevents the metal from work hardening. The starting material is usually large pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting products, such as ingots, slabs, blooms, and billets.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: If these products came from a continuous casting operation, the products are usually fed directly into the rolling mills at the proper temperature. In smaller operations, the material starts at room temperature and must be heated. This is done in a gas- or oil-fired soaking pit for larger workpieces; for smaller workpieces, induction heating is used. As the material is worked, the temperature must be monitored to make sure it remains above the recrystallization temperature.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: To maintain a safety factor a "finishing temperature" is defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 °C (90 to 180 °F) above the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature does drop below this temperature the material must be re-heated prior to additional hot rolling.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Hot-rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties or deformation-induced residual stresses. However, in certain instances non-metallic inclusions will impart some directionality and workpieces less than thick often have some directional properties. Non-uniform cooling will induce a lot of residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have a non-uniform cross-section, such as I-beams. While the finished product is of good quality, the surface is covered in mill scale, which is an oxide that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed via pickling or the smooth clean surface (SCS) process, which reveals a smooth surface. Dimensional tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of the overall dimension.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Hot-rolled mild steel seems to have a wider tolerance for the level of included carbon than does cold-rolled steel, and is, therefore, more difficult for a blacksmith to use. Also for similar metals, hot-rolled products seem to be less costly than cold-rolled ones.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross-sections, such as rail tracks. Other typical uses for hot-rolled metal:


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Rolling mills are often divided into roughing, intermediate and finishing rolling cages. During shape rolling, an initial billet (round or square) with edge of diameter typically ranging between 100 and 140 mm is continuously deformed to produce a certain finished product with smaller cross section dimension and geometry. Starting from a given billet, different sequences can be adopted to produce a certain final product. However, since each rolling mill is significantly expensive (up to 2 million euros), a typical requirement is to reduce the number of rolling passes. Different approaches have been achieved, including empirical knowledge, employment of numerical models, and Artificial Intelligence techniques. Lambiase et al. validated a finite element model (FE) for predicting the final shape of a rolled bar in round-flat pass. One of the major concerns when designing rolling mills is to reduce the number of passes. A possible solution to such requirements is the slit pass, also called split pass, which divides an incoming bar in two or more subparts, thus virtually increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported by Lambiase.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Another solution for reducing the number of passes in rolling mills is the employment of automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase and Langella. subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based on Artificial Intelligence and particularly an integrated system including an inferential engine based on Genetic Algorithms a knowledge database based on an Artificial Neural Network trained by a parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically design rolling mills.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room temperature), which increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. It also improves the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances. Commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products are usually smaller than the same products that are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the workpieces and their greater strength, as compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are used. Cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: "full-hard", "half-hard", "quarter-hard", and "skin-rolled". Full-hard rolling reduces the thickness by 50%, while the others involve less of a reduction. Cold rolled steel is then annealed to induce ductility in the cold rolled steel which is simply known as a "Cold Rolled and Close Annealed". Skin-rolling, also known as a "skin-pass", involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5–1%. It is used to produce a smooth surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the yield point phenomenon (by preventing Lüders bands from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at the surface and thereby reduces the possibility of formation of Lüders bands. To avoid the formation of Lüders bands it is necessary to create substantial density of unpinned dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also used to break up the spangles in galvanized steel. Skin-rolled stock is usually used in subsequent cold-working processes where good ductility is required.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Other shapes can be cold-rolled if the cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse dimension is relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations, usually along the lines of sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and finishing.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon encapsulated in the steel makes it easier to process, but at the cost of being more expensive.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Typical uses for cold-rolled steel include metal furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables, chairs, motorcycle exhaust pipes, computer cabinets and hardware, home appliances and components, shelving, lighting fixtures, hinges, tubing, steel drums, lawn mowers, electronic cabinetry, water heaters, metal containers, fan blades, frying pans, wall and ceiling mount kits, and a variety of construction-related products.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Roll forming, roll bending or plate rolling is a continuous bending operation in which a long strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands, each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-section profile is obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: There are three main processes: 4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, each of which has as different advantages according to the desired specifications of the output plate.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material having a rectangular cross-section. The material is fed in between two "rollers", called "working rolls", that rotate in opposite directions. The gap between the two rolls is less than the thickness of the starting material, which causes it to deform. The decrease in material thickness causes the material to elongate. The friction at the interface between the material and the rolls causes the material to be pushed through. The amount of deformation possible in a single pass is limited by the friction between the rolls; if the change in thickness is too great the rolls just slip over the material and do not draw it in. The final product is either sheet or plate, with the former being less than thick and the latter greater than; however, heavy plates tend to be formed using a press, which is termed "forging", rather than rolling.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Often the rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal. Lubrication is often used to keep the workpiece from sticking to the rolls. To fine-tune the process, the speed of the rolls and the temperature of the rollers are adjusted.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: For thin sheet metal with a thickness less than , the rolling is done in a "cluster mill" because the small thickness requires a small diameter rolls. To reduce the need for small rolls "pack rolling" is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to increase the effective starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are trimmed and slitted with circular or razor-like knives. Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several sheets. Aluminum foil is the most commonly produced product via pack rolling. This is evident from the two different surface finishes; the shiny side is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet of foil.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of a ring. The starting material is a thick-walled ring. This workpiece is placed between two rolls, an inner "idler roll" and a "driven roll", which presses the ring from the outside. As the rolling occurs the wall thickness decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to form various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is circumferential, which gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be as large as and face heights as tall as . Common applications include railway tyres, bearings, gears, rockets, turbines, airplanes, pipes, and pressure vessels.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: "Controlled rolling" is a type of thermomechanical processing which integrates controlled deformation and heat treating. The heat which brings the workpiece above the recrystallization temperature is also used to perform the heat treatments so that any subsequent heat treating is unnecessary. Types of heat treatments include the production of a fine grain structure; controlling the nature, size, and distribution of various transformation products (such as ferrite, austenite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite in steel); inducing precipitation hardening; and, controlling the toughness. In order to achieve this the entire process must be closely monitored and controlled. Common variables in controlled rolling include the starting material composition and structure, deformation levels, temperatures at various stages, and cool-down conditions. The benefits of controlled rolling include better mechanical properties and energy savings.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Forge rolling is a longitudinal rolling process to reduce the cross-sectional area of heated bars or billets by leading them between two contrary rotating roll segments. The process is mainly used to provide optimized material distribution for subsequent die forging processes. Owing to this a better material utilization, lower process forces and better surface quality of parts can be achieved in die forging processes.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Basically any forgeable metal can also be forge-rolled. Forge rolling is mainly used to preform long-scaled billets through targeted mass distribution for parts such as crankshafts, connection rods, steering knuckles and vehicle axles. Narrowest manufacturing tolerances can only partially be achieved by forge rolling. This is the main reason why forge rolling is rarely used for finishing, but mainly for preforming.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: A "rolling mill", also known as a "reduction mill" or "mill", has a common construction independent of the specific type of rolling being performed:


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets in a billet mill or large sections in a structural mill. The output from a strip mill is coiled and, subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators. Billets, for re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either a merchant, bar or rod mill. Merchant or bar mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels, beams, rounds (long or coiled) and hexagons.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Mills are designed in different types of configurations, with the most basic being a "two-high non-reversing", which means there are two rolls that only turn in one direction. The "two-high reversing" mill has rolls that can rotate in both directions, but the disadvantage is that the rolls must be stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to rolling speed between each pass. To resolve this, the "three-high" mill was invented, which uses three rolls that rotate in one direction; the metal is fed through two of the rolls and then returned through the other pair. The disadvantage to this system is the workpiece must be lifted and lowered using an elevator. All of these mills are usually used for primary rolling and the roll diameters range from .


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: To minimize the roll diameter a "four-high" or "cluster" mill is used. A small roll diameter is advantageous because less roll is in contact with the material, which results in a lower force and power requirement. The problem with a small roll is a reduction of stiffness, which is overcome using "backup rolls". These backup rolls are larger and contact the back side of the smaller rolls. A four-high mill has four rolls, two small and two large. A cluster mill has more than four rolls, usually in three tiers. These types of mills are commonly used to hot roll wide plates, most cold rolling applications, and to roll foils.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one pass. In a traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are several "stands" (>=2 stands) and reductions take place successively. The number of stands ranges from 2 to 18.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: A continuous mill has a looping tower which allows the mill to continue rolling slowly the strip in the tower, while a strip welder joins the tail of the current coil to the head of the next coil. At the exit end of the mill there is normally a flying shear (to cut the strip at or near the weld) followed by two coilers; one being unloaded while the other winds on the current coil.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Looping towers are also used in other places; such as continuous annealing lines and continuous electrolytic tinning and continuous galvanising lines.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is great enough cracking and tearing can occur.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: When cold rolling, virtually all of the strip thickness variation is the result of the eccentricity and out-of-roundness of the Back-up Rolls from about Stand 3 of the Hot Strip Mill through to the Finished Product.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: The Back-up Roll eccentricity can be up to 100 μm in magnitude per stack. The eccentricity can be measured off-line by plotting the force variation against time with the Mill on creep, no strip present, and the Mill Stand below face.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: A modified Fourier analysis was employed by the 5 Stand Cold Mill at Bluescope Steel, Port Kembla from 1986 until that Cold Mill ceased production in 2009. Within each coil, the exit thickness deviation times 10 for every meter of strip was stored in a file. This file was analyzed separately for each frequency/wavelength from 5 m to 60 m in steps of 0.1 m. To improve the accuracy, care was taken to use a full multiple of each wavelength (100*). The calculate amplitudes were plotted against the wavelength, so that the spikes could be compared to the expected wavelengths created by the Backup Rolls of each Stand.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: If a Mill Stand is fitted with Hydraulic Pistons in series with, or instead of the electrically driven Mechanical Screws, then it is possible to eliminate the effect of that Stands Back-up Roll eccentricity. While rolling, the eccentricity of each Back-up Roll is determined by sampling the roll force and assigning it to the corresponding portion of each Back-up Roll’s rotational position. These recordings are then used to operate the Hydraulic Piston so as to neutralize the eccentricities.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: In a flat metal workpiece, the flatness is a descriptive attribute characterizing the extent of the geometric deviation from a reference plane. The deviation from complete flatness is the direct result of the workpiece relaxation after hot or cold rolling, due to the internal stress pattern caused by the non-uniform transversal compressive action of the rolls and the uneven geometrical properties of the entry material. The transverse distribution of differential strain/elongation-induced stress with respect to the material's average applied stress is commonly referenced to as shape. Due to the strict relationship between shape and flatness, these terms can be used in an interchangeable manner.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: In the case of metal strips and sheets, the flatness reflects the differential fiber elongation across the width of the workpiece. This property must be subject to an accurate feedback-based control in order to guarantee the machinability of the metal sheets in the final transformation processes. Some technological details about the feedback control of flatness are given in.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Profile is made up of the measurements of crown and wedge. Crown is the thickness in the center as compared to the average thickness at the edges of the workpiece. Wedge is a measure of the thickness at one edge as opposed to the other edge. Both may be expressed as absolute measurements or as relative measurements. For instance, one could have 2 mil of crown (the center of the workpiece is 2 mil thicker than the edges), or one could have 2% crown (the center of the workpiece is 2% thicker than the edges).


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: It is typically desirable to have some crown in the workpiece as this will cause the workpiece to tend to pull to the center of the mill, and thus will run with higher stability.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Maintaining a uniform gap between the rolls is difficult because the rolls deflect under the load required to deform the workpiece. The deflection causes the workpiece to be thinner on the edges and thicker in the middle. This can be overcome by using a crowned roller (parabolic crown), however the crowned roller will only compensate for one set of conditions, specifically the material, temperature, and amount of deformation.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Other methods of compensating for roll deformation include continual varying crown (CVC), pair cross rolling, and work roll bending. CVC was developed by SMS-Siemag AG and involves grinding a third order polynomial curve into the work rolls and then shifting the work rolls laterally, equally, and opposite to each other. The effect is that the rolls will have a gap between them that is parabolic in shape, and will vary with lateral shift, thus allowing for control of the crown of the rolls dynamically. Pair cross rolling involves using either flat or parabolically crowned rolls, but shifting the ends at an angle so that the gap between the edges of the rolls will increase or decrease, thus allowing for dynamic crown control. Work roll bending involves using hydraulic cylinders at the ends of the rolls to counteract roll deflection.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Another way to overcome deflection issues is by decreasing the load on the rolls, which can be done by applying a longitudinal force; this is essentially drawing. Other method of decreasing roll deflection include increasing the elastic modulus of the roll material and adding back-up supports to the rolls.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: It is important to note that one could have a flatness defect even with the workpiece having the same thickness across the width. Also, one could have fairly high crown or wedge, but still produce material that is flat. In order to produce flat material, the material must be reduced by the same percentage across the width. This is important because mass flow of the material must be preserved, and the more a material is reduced, the more it is elongated. If a material is elongated in the same manner across the width, then the flatness coming into the mill will be preserved at the exit of the mill.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Thus if formula_1 is initial thickness and formula_2 is final thickness, then the draught is given by


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: The maximum draught that can be achieved via rollers of radius with coefficient of static friction between the roller and the metal surface is given by


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: This is the case when the frictional force on the metal from inlet contact matches the negative force from the exit contact.


title: Rolling (metalworking)

text: Many surface defects can be scarfed off the surface of semi-finished rolled products before further rolling. Methods of scarfing have included hand-chipping with chisels (18th and 19th centuries); powered chipping and grinding with air chisels and grinders; burning with an oxy-fuel torch, whose gas pressure blows away the metal or slag melted by the flame; and laser scarfing.


title: Lovefool

text: "Lovefool" is a song written by Peter Svensson and Nina Persson for Swedish rock band the Cardigans' third studio album, "First Band on the Moon" (1996). It was released as the album's lead single in Sweden in mid-1996 and on 9 September 1996 in the United Kingdom. In the United States, the song was serviced to radio in August 1996. A few months after its release, the track was included in the Baz Luhrmann film "Romeo + Juliet", helping the song gain international recognition.


title: Lovefool

text: "Lovefool" peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart following a re-release in 1997 and achieved moderate success on other European charts. In North America, it reached number three in Canada and number two on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 Airplay Chart (it did not appear on the Hot 100 due to rules in place at the time). In Australasia, the song topped the New Zealand Singles Chart and climbed to number 11 in Australia, earning gold sales certifications in both regions.


title: Lovefool

text: Persson wrote the lyrics to the song at an airport while waiting for a plane. She later said that the song is "quite a sad love song; the meaning of it is quite pathetic, really." She also added that "the biggest hits are the ones that are the easiest to write".


title: Lovefool

text: She said that, at the time, the song "was slower and more of a bossa nova". Persson noted that the band knew the potential commercial appeal of the song, saying, "We definitely were aware that it was a single and a catchy song when we wrote it, but the direction it took is not something we could have predicted. It wasn't necessarily our character; it felt like a bit of a freak on the record — which, objectively, it still is. But then when we were recording, by chance, our drummer started to play that kind of disco beat, and there was no way to get away from it after that".


title: Lovefool

text: "Lovefool" is a song that is performed in several keys and modulates based on chorus and verse. The chorus is in the key of A major using a I–IV–ii–V chord progression. The verses use a i–iv–VII–III chord progression in A minor. It is written in common time and moves at 112 beats per minute. The song's middle 8 is four bars long.


title: Lovefool

text: The song was initially a hit in several European countries, reaching number 15 on the Swedish Singles Chart and peaking at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart during its first release in 1996. Following its appearance in "Romeo + Juliet", the song gained international attention, eventually reaching a new peak of number two on the UK Singles Chart following a re-release in April 1997. It then achieved international success, becoming a number-one hit in New Zealand and peaking just outside the top 10 in Australia at number 11. "Lovefool" became a crossover hit in the US after peaking at number nine on the "Billboard" Modern Rock Tracks chart, reaching number two on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. It reached number one on the Top 40 Mainstream chart and number two on the Adult Top 40, staying there for eight nonconsecutive weeks. The single was not eligible to chart on the Hot 100 at the time since singles not made commercially available in the US were ineligible to chart.


title: Lovefool

text: In Persson's words, the immense commercial success of "Lovefool" "freaked [her] out". She explained, "We were kind of snobs. We felt like these things were glitzy, and we felt like, 'No, no, we're a rock band!'"