title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: In Nov, 2010 National Film Archive of India (NFAI) announced to preserve all the films of Madhur Bhandarkar. Chandni Bar, Page-3, Corporate, Traffic Signal, Fashion and Jail found space in Government's Archival data for Indian films.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: Bhandarkar hails from a Marathi and Konkani speaking Gaud Saraswat Brahmin family. He is a school drop-out. He came from a middle-class family. As a result, Madhur had to take up various jobs. He worked at a video store as an errand boy and dropped off cassettes to people from many walks of life including dance bar girls and film stars. He also sold chewing gum at traffic signals and worked as an assistant to small-time directors for a salary of 1000.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: He is a great devotee of the Hindu God Siddhivinayak and has been walking from his house in Khar, Mumbai to the temple for the past 18 years on every Tuesday. Madhur also regularly visits Vaishno Devi temple in Jammu & Kashmir and the Golden Temple in Amritsar. According to him, the film "Corporate" was his most difficult film as people in corporate world would shun him after he bared Page 3 culture in his earlier film. He took inspiration for "Corporate" from the Coke – Pepsi controversy. He has been invited to deliver lectures on corporate issues to management students after the release of "Corporate". (Interview to TV channel IBN Lokmat on 26 November 2008) Bhandarkar married his girlfriend Renu Namboodiri on 15 December 2003 in Mumbai. They have a daughter named Siddhi.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: While in 2012, Supreme Court justices H L Dattu and C K Prasad passed an order quashing the ongoing criminal proceedings, noting that Preeti Jain did not want to pursue the case against Bhandarkar and that the Mumbai police had earlier called the claim false and thus given him a clean chit. Initially, in 2004, Preeti Jain, a model and actress, accused Madhur Bhandarkar of rape and lodged a complaint with the Versova Police where she alleged that the filmmaker had raped her 16 times between 1999 and 2004 with the promise of casting her in his films. She also alleged that he promised to marry her and produced SMS texts, where he had reportedly asked for sexual favours, as evidence.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: Bhandarkar claimed that the complaint was cheating-related, not about rape. In 2011, a Mumbai court found substance in her complaint and asked Bhandarkar to face the trial. He challenged the lower court's order before the higher court, which too rejected his plea.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: In 2011, the police filed a report where it stated that the claim against the filmmaker was 'maliciously false'. The court rejected this report and held there was prima facie a case against Bhandarkar.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: The Bombay High Court confirmed the magisterial court's decision to continue with Bhandarkar's prosecution. In 2011, the Bombay high court asked the filmmaker to face the trial in the case. He challenged the court's order in Supreme Court. A Supreme Court bench quashed a rape case that had been filed against Bollywood director Madhur Bhandarkar on November 5, 2012.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: However, prior to this, in 2005, in a bizarre turn of events, Preeti was arrested for hiring a contract killer to murder Bhandarkar. She was to pay Rs 75,000 to Naresh Pardeshi, the associate of infamous Mumbai don Arun Gawli to kill the filmmaker. Reports suggest that the model demanded her money back because the execution failed to take place. When Gawli was made aware of this, he instructed his lawyer to file a complaint against her at the Agripada police station. The rape case was cited as one of the reasons why she wanted the filmmaker dead. After a week long probe, the police arrested her while she was on her way to the Versova Police station.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: The initial trial began at a fast-track court in Sewri, which shut down, and consequently, the case was transferred to the sessions court. She was awarded a three-year imprisonment and found guilty of conspiracy, aiding and abetting crime.


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: In most of his films, Bhandarkar's protagonist are females. (Tabu in "Chandni Bar", Raveena Tandon in "Satta", Konkona Sen Sharma in "Page 3", Bipasha Basu in "Corporate", Neetu Chandra in "Traffic Signal", Priyanka Chopra in "Fashion" and Kareena Kapoor in "Heroine".) The exception here being Neil Nitin Mukesh, who was cast as the protagonist in the movie Jail. He has also depicted gay characters in his movies like "Page 3","Traffic Signal" and "Fashion".


title: Madhur Bhandarkar

text: In an interview, he said: "My movies are not exposes, maybe they just hold up a mirror to society. My movies are not judgmental; I just show what happens in our society, sometimes there could be a solution and sometimes there may be none. Life goes on.". Madhur is known for his hard-hitting and realistic films.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: Hello, Love, Goodbye is a 2019 Philippine romantic drama film directed by Cathy Garcia-Molina and produced by Star Cinema. The film follows Joy Fabregas (Kathryn Bernardo), a struggling overseas Filipino worker, and Ethan Del Rosario (Alden Richards), a bartender, as they attempt to reconcile their personal careers and love for each other in Hong Kong. The film was released on July 31, 2019 in the Philippines and started screening internationally on August 1, 2019.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: "Hello, Love, Goodbye" is currently the highest grossing Philippine film of all time. The film received numerous awards and recognition's locally and internationally. The film was also featured in Golden Globe Awards website, and received a nomination at the 9th AACTA Awards for Best Asian Film and won at the National level of the Asian Academy Creative Awards 2020 for Best Picture.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: Joy (Kathryn Bernardo) is a spunky, down-on-her-luck millennial who works as a domestic helper in Hong Kong. While she excels in her job and enjoys the friendship of many other empowered domestic helpers, she plans to leave the city soon.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: In her journey to achieving her goals, Joy meets Filipino bartender Ethan (Alden Richards). Ethan is already building a permanent life in Hong Kong. In a few years, he will officially become a resident in the city. After escaping responsibilities all his life, Ethan now wants to commit to a career and to his family (who also reside in Hong Kong). Joy and Ethan soon develop a friendship. The two become each other's joy against the grime and grind of Hong Kong.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film is starred by Kathryn Bernardo and Alden Richards. Both are affiliated with the two major rival networks in the Philippines: Bernardo with ABS-CBN and Richards with GMA Network. The two also belongs to two different "love teams": Bernardo with Daniel Padilla in Kathniel and Richards with Maine Mendoza in AlDub. Together, they play the role of two Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) in Hong Kong who became romantically involved with each other. Director Cathy Garcia-Molina said that the two main cast members were not subjected to "baby or special treatment" for the film project.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: Filming for "Hello, Love, Goodbye" in Hong Kong has begun by April 2019, amidst the early period of the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, and was completed after a month. Principal photography for the film ended by May 19, 2019, in Sucat, Parañaque. Post-production work for "Hello, Love, Goodbye" was done in Bangkok, Thailand, with ABS-CBN Film Productions collaborating with Thai production firm Kantana Group. It was the first collaboration between the two firms.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: "Hello, Love, Goodbye" premiered in the Philippines on July 31, 2019 in 465 cinemas, a record. The international screenings started on August 1, 2019. The film also made history in Saudi Arabia as the first Filipino film ever to be screened in the cinemas of Jeddah.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film was declared the highest-grossing Filipino film of all time after earning over worldwide gross revenue on September 3, 2019, replacing the film "The Hows of Us" that was also directed by Molina and starred by Bernardo.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film on its opening day earned a total of from over 350 cinemas in the Philippines. Three days after its local release, the film was reported to have earned . After four days, the film earned and was shown in 465 cinemas nationwide. As of August 12, 2019, the film has grossed domestically in 13 days of showing. After 17 days in cinemas, the film has grossed domestically.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film earned in box office receipts abroad on its first week of release. The film was also recognized now the highest-grossing Filipino film in the Middle East for earning over as of August 18. It is also the highest-grossing Filipino film in Australia, New Zealand and United Kingdom earning over , and respectively.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: Filipino film critic Philbert Dy gave the film a rating of 4 out of 5 and praised Bernardo's performance. Oggs Cruz, writing for Rappler, reviewed the film thus, ""Hello, Love, Goodbye" is fine entertainment – one that doesn’t dumb down the issues it puts forward for the sake of a standard happy ending." He pointed out that while the romantic plot was formulaic and characters seemed to have become stereotypical, the film's strengths were its depiction of Hong Kong through the female protagonist's perspective and of the struggles of overseas Filipino workers as domestic helpers. In his review, Armando B. Chavez of Philippine Daily Inquirer said that the love story stood out due to the "backdrop of the plight of OFWs in Hong Kong." He also praised the musical editing, the close-up shots of the protagonists, and performances of Bernardo and Richards, describing them as "tour de force". He wrote, "This is a date movie if ever there’s one. As they say back home, “just feel the feeling.” Sit back, secretly dab the tears away... resistance is futile."


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: Ricky Lo of The Philippine Star gave a generally positive review of the film particularly the comic relief provided by Abella, Bautista, and Entrata. Tito Genova Valiente however disagreed and considered the trio's performances as "aggravating" while praising Bernardo and Richard, stating, "There is Bernardo with perhaps the quietest performance for any actress of her generation. Bernardo can act within a small frame, holding her face solidly as if a slight movement will mar that portrayal... Alden gets the cinematographic love, as well. His Ethan starts fun and ends tragic but with lots of hope, even if it does not matter what happens to that hope. When those tears fall from Richards's eyes, they bring us back to those old, old cinemas of leading men looking beautiful and strong in grief."


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: On August 1, 2019, during the opening week of the film, lead actor Alden Richards and director Cathy Garcia-Molina expressed openness on working on a sequel for the film despite the latter's confirming plans to retire from directing to focus on her family. On August 26, 2019, lead actress Kathryn Bernardo has also expressed similar sentiments on doing a sequel for the film.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: A novel adaptation written of Hello, Love, Goodbye, authored by Palanca awardee Charmaine Lasar and published under ABS-CBN Books, was released on August 26, 2019. The novel also include additional narration on the backstory of Joy, about her life in the Philippines prior to moving to Hong Kong and an epilogue which was not depicted in the film. Behind-the-scenes information, and on-set photos are also included in the novel.


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film premiered on pay-per-view channel, KBO from December 13–17, 2019. It also aired again on the second week from December 20–25, 2019, along with the television premiere of "Indak", and on the third week from December 27 – January 1, 2020, along with the television premiere of iWant Original Movie, "Mga Mata sa Dilim".


title: Hello, Love, Goodbye

text: The film premiered on Cinema One on March 15, 2020 and on Kapamilya Channel on June 15, 2020, two days after its launch.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Viola Herms Drath (February 8, 1920 – August 11, 2011) was a Washington, D.C., socialite who was a "notable figure in German-American relations for over thirty years". She died at age 91 by murder at the hands of her second husband.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Drath was born in Düsseldorf, Germany, on February 8, 1920. She is reported to have learned English from vacations and boarding school in Scotland. During her time in Munich, Drath met Lt. Col. Francis S. Drath, who, at the time was the deputy military governor of Bavaria and would later become her first husband, on Lake Constance in Switzerland. Later, she moved to the United States with her first husband.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: In 1946, in Germany, she was a playwright, with one of her early productions, "Farewell Isabell", staged in Straubing's Municipal Theater and in Munich.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: After moving to Lincoln, Nebraska, with her first husband, she attended the University of Nebraska, where she studied for an advanced degree in literature and philosophy. While in Nebraska, she was an editor of "Die Weltpost" in Omaha, commentator for KUON-TV, and correspondent for the "National Observer". Later she was an American correspondent for the German magazine "Madame".


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: In 1968, Drath became a political correspondent for the German newspaper "Handelsblatt". During this time, Drath and her first husband moved to Washington, DC, where Col. Drath was a legislative liaison with the Selective Service. They bought a house at 3206 Q Street, Northwest, in the Georgetown district in northwest Washington, D.C.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Sonia Adler hired Drath to write for the "Washington Dossier", where she wrote about "political gossip, lifestyle advice, and culture, explored a diverse cross-section of the city's fine-art world.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: As a member of the executive committee of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy, she was described as a "notable figure in German-American relations for over thirty years." Her 1988 article for the National Committee, "The Reemergence of the German Question", proposed negotiations on German unification between the two German states and the four Allied Powers.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Drath was a foreign policy adviser during the 1988 Bush campaign, where she helped "lay the groundwork which led to the "2+4" process towards German unification in 1990". In 1989, Drath met with President George H. W. Bush.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: During her life, she authored eight textbooks read in over 150 colleges and universities. She taught at American University and lectured at the University of Southern California. Her articles and commentaries were published in "American Foreign Policy Interests", "The Washington Times", "Commentary", "Businessweek", "The Chicago Tribune", "Strategic Review", "The National Observer", "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", "Das Parlament", and "Der Spiegel".


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: During her life, she was a member of the White House Commission on Remembrance, co-chair of the Berlin Air Lift Diamond Jubilee Committee, coordinator, International Consultative Mechanism on Remembrance, and National Coordinator, National Observance to Mark Iraq Liberation Day.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Drath's first husband, Francis Drath, died on January 11, 1986. In the early 1980s, Viola met Albrecht Gero Muth, 44 years her junior, who was then an unpaid intern from Germany.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Four years after the death of her husband, Drath, then 70 years old, married the 26-year-old Muth. The April 1990 marriage was performed by a Virginia Supreme Court judge.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: After their marriage, Muth fabricated a story that an elderly German Count had fallen from an elephant in India and needed to appoint a successor before dying—from that point forward, Muth insisted on being called Count Albrecht. Following the 2003 completion of the Iraq War, Muth suddenly adopted the rank, and wore the uniform, of a brigadier general in the Iraqi Army, organizing diplomatic events in DC that he claimed were for the new Iraqi regime. In April 2011, Muth somehow arranged a ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery to honor fallen American soldiers in Iraq, supposedly on behalf of the Iraqi regime.


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: Early in the marriage, Muth started a pattern of domestic violence against Drath, inducing repeated police visits to the Q Street home. On August 11, 2011, Drath was found dead in the bathroom of her Q Street home. Muth was held at St. Elizabeths Hospital, where he was initially found incompetent to stand trial after being diagnosed with schizotypal personality disorder and a delusional disorder. In a report submitted to the court, forensic psychologist Mitchell Hugonnet concluded that Muth had narcissistic personality disorder but was not mentally ill. Muth was convicted of murdering her and was sentenced to 50 years in prison. In Judge Russell F. Canan's remarks before sentencing, he described Muth as "a common serial domestic violence abuser, made worse when he drinks, who subjected Ms. Drath to many years of abuse."


title: Viola Herms Drath

text: In 2015, it was announced that Christoph Waltz would direct and star in the film "The Worst Marriage in Georgetown" (later retitled "Georgetown"), which is based on the true crime story of the murder of Viola Drath. The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 27, 2019, and was released theatrically in the United States on May 14, 2021.


title: Ariosophy

text: Armanism and Ariosophy are esoteric ideological systems that were developed largely by Guido von List and Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels respectively, in Austria between 1890 and 1930. The term 'Ariosophy', which means the wisdom of the Aryans, was invented by Lanz von Liebenfels in 1915, and during the 1920s it became the name of his doctrine. For research of the topic, such as Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke's book "The Occult Roots of Nazism", the term 'Ariosophy' is used generically to describe the Aryan/esoteric theories of a subset of the 'Völkische Bewegung'. This broader use of the word is retrospective and it was not generally current among the esotericists themselves. List actually called his doctrine 'Armanism', while Lanz used the terms 'Theozoology' and 'Ario-Christianity' before the First World War.


title: Ariosophy

text: The ideas of Von List and Lanz von Liebenfels were part of a general occult revival that occurred in Austria and Germany during the late 19th and early 20th centuries; a revival that was loosely inspired by Christianity, historical Germanic paganism, and holistic philosophy, as well as by esoteric concepts that were influenced by German romanticism and Theosophy. The connection between this form of Germanic mysticism and historical Germanic culture is evident in the mystics' fascination with runes, in the form of Guido von List's Armanen runes.


title: Ariosophy

text: The ideology regarding the Aryan race (in the sense of Indo-Europeans, runic symbols, the swastika, and sometimes occultism) are important elements of Ariosophy. By 1899 at the earliest or by 1900 at the latest, esoteric notions entered Guido List's thoughts. In April 1903, he sent his manuscript, proposing what Goodrick-Clarke calls a "monumental pseudoscience" concerning the ancient German faith, to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna onwards. These Ariosophic ideas (together with, and influenced by, Theosophy) contributed significantly to an occult counterculture in Germany and Austria. A historic interest in this topic has stemmed from the ideological relationship between Ariosophy and Nazism, and it is obvious in such book titles as:


title: Ariosophy

text: However, Goodrick-Clarke's comprehensive study finds little evidence of direct influence, except in the case of the highly idiosyncratic ancient-German mythos that was elaborated by the "clairvoyant" "SS-Brigadeführer" Karl Maria Wiligut, of which the practical consequences were, first, the incorporation of Wiligut's symbolism into the ceremonies of an elite circle within the SS; and, secondly, the official censure of those occultists and runic magicians whom Wiligut stigmatized as heretics, which may have persuaded Heinrich Himmler to order the internment of several of them. The most notable other case is Himmler's "Ahnenerbe". (For the debate on the direct relations to Nazi ideology, see Religious aspects of Nazism.) Goodrick-Clarke examines what evidence there is for influences on Hitler and other Nazis, but he concludes that "Ariosophy is a symptom of rather than an influence in the way that it anticipated Nazism".


title: Ariosophy

text: While a broad definition of the term 'Ariosophy' is useful for some purposes, various of the later authors, including Ellegaard Ellerbek, Philipp Stauff and Günther Kirchoff, can more exactly be described as cultivating the Armanism of List. In a less broad approach, one could also treat "rune occultism" separately. Although the Armanen runes go back to List, Rudolf John Gorsleben distinguished himself from other "völkisch" writers by making the esoteric importance of the runes central to his world view. Goodrick-Clarke therefore refers to the doctrine of Kummer and Gorsleben and his followers as rune occultism, a description that also fits the eclectic work of Karl Spiesberger. Highly practical systems of rune occultism, influenced mainly by List, were developed by Friedrich Bernhard Marby and Siegfried Adolf Kummer. Also worthy of mention are Peryt Shou, the occult novelist; A. Frank Glahn, noted more for his pendulum dowsing; Rudolf von Sebottendorff and Walter Nauhaus, who built up the Thule Society; and Karl Maria Wiligut, who was the most notable occultist working for the SS.


title: Ariosophy

text: Organisations include: the "Guido von List Society", the "High Armanen Order", the Lumen Club, the "Ordo Novi Templi", the "Germanenorden" (in which a schism occurred) and the Thule Society.


title: Ariosophy

text: Guido von List elaborated a racial religion premised on the concept of renouncing the imposed Semitic creed of Christianity and returning to the native religions of the ancient Indo-Europeans (List preferred the equivalent term "Ario-Germanen", or 'Aryo-Germanics'). List recognised the theoretical distinction between the Proto-Indo-European language and its daughter Proto-Germanic language but frequently obscured it by his tendency to treat them as a single long-lived entity (although this framing is also used in linguistics as the Germanic parent language). In this, he became strongly influenced by the Theosophical thought of Madame Blavatsky, which he blended however with his own highly original beliefs, founded upon Germanic paganism.


title: Ariosophy

text: Before he turned to occultism, Guido List had written articles for German Nationalist newspapers in Austria, as well as four historical novels and three plays, some of which were "set in tribal Germany" before the advent of Christianity. He also had written an anti-semitic essay in 1895. List adopted the aristocratic "von" between 1903 and 1907.


title: Ariosophy

text: List called his doctrine "Armanism" after the "Armanen", supposedly a body of priest-kings in the ancient Aryo-Germanic nation. He claimed that this German name had been Latinized into the tribal name "Herminones" mentioned in Tacitus and that it actually meant the heirs of the sun-king: an estate of intellectuals who were organised into a priesthood called the "Armanenschaft".


title: Ariosophy

text: His conception of the original religion of the Germanic tribes was a form of sun worship, with its priest-kings (similar to the Icelandic "goði") as legendary rulers of ancient Germany. Religious instruction was imparted on two levels. The esoteric doctrine (Armanism) was concerned with the secret mysteries of the gnosis, reserved for the initiated elite, while the exoteric doctrine ("Wotanism") took the form of popular myths intended for the lower social classes.


title: Ariosophy

text: List believed that the transition from Wotanism to Christianity had proceeded smoothly under the direction of the skalds, so that native customs, festivals and names were preserved under a Christian veneer and only needed to be 'decoded' back into their heathen forms. This peaceful merging of the two religions had been disrupted by the forcible conversions under "bloody Charlemagne – the Slaughterer of the Saxons". List claimed that the dominance of the Roman Catholic Church in Austria-Hungary constituted a continuing occupation of the Germanic tribes by the Roman empire, albeit now in a religious form, and a continuing persecution of the ancient religion of the Germanic peoples and Celts.


title: Ariosophy

text: He also believed in the magical powers of the old runes. From 1891 onwards he claimed that heraldry was based on a system of encoded runes, so that heraldic devices conveyed a secret heritage in cryptic form. In April 1903, he submitted an article concerning the alleged Aryan proto-language to the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna. Its highlight was a mystical and occult interpretation of the runic alphabet, which became the cornerstone of his ideology. Although the article was rejected by the academy, it would later be expanded by List and grew into his final masterpiece, a comprehensive treatment of his linguistic and historical theories published in 1914 as "Die Ursprache der Ario-Germanen und ihre Mysteriensprache" ("The Proto-Language of the Aryo-Germanics and their Mystery Language").


title: Ariosophy

text: List's doctrine has been described as gnostic, pantheist and deist. At its core is the mystical union of God, man and nature. Wotanism teaches that God dwells within the individual human spirit as an inner source of magical power, but is also immanent within nature through the primal laws that govern the cycles of growth, decay and renewal. List explicitly rejects a Mind-body dualism of spirit versus matter or of God over or against nature. Humanity is therefore one with the universe, which entails an obligation to live in accordance with nature. But the individual human ego does not seek to merge with the cosmos. "Man is a separate agent, necessary to the completion or perfection of ‘God's work’". Being immortal, the ego passes through successive reincarnations until it overcomes all obstacles to its purpose. List foresaw the eventual consequences of this in a future utopia on earth, which he identified with the promised Valhalla, a world of victorious heroes:


title: Ariosophy

text: List was familiar with the cyclical notion of time, which he encountered in Norse mythology and in the theosophical adaptation of the Hindu time cycles. He had already made use of cosmic rhythms in his early journalism on natural landscapes. In his later works List combined the cyclical concept of time with the "dualistic and linear time scheme" of western apocalyptic which counterposes a pessimism about the present world with an ultimate optimism regarding the future one. In "Das Geheimnis der Runen", List addresses the seeming contradiction by explaining the final redemption of the linear time frame as an exoteric parable that stands for the esoteric truth of renewal in many future cycles and incarnations. However, in the original Norse myths and Hinduism, the cycle of destruction and creation is repeated indefinitely, thus offering no possibility of ultimate salvation.


title: Ariosophy

text: Already in 1893 Guido List together with Fanny Wschiansky, had founded the "Literarische Donaugesellschaft", a literary society .


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1908 the Guido von List Society ("Guido-von-List-Gesellschaft") was founded primarily by the Wannieck family (Friedrich Wannieck and his son Friedrich Oskar Wannieck being prominent and enthusiastic Armanists) as an occult "völkisch" organisation, with the purpose of financing and publishing List's research. The List Society was supported by many leading figures in Austrian and German politics, publishing, and occultism. Although one might suspect a "völkisch" organisation to be antisemitic, the society included at least two Jews among its members: Moritz Altschüler, a rabbinical scholar, and Ernst Wachler. The List Society published List's works under the series "Guido-List-Bücherei" ("GLB").


title: Ariosophy

text: List had established exoteric and esoteric circles in his organisation. The High Armanen Order ("Hoher Armanen Orden") was the inner circle of the Guido von List Society. Founded in midsummer 1911, it was set up as a magical order or lodge to support List's deeper and more practical work. The HAO conducted pilgrimages to what its members considered "holy Armanic sites", Stephansdom in Vienna, Carnuntum etc. They also had occasional meetings between 1911 and 1918, but the exact nature of these remains unknown. In his introduction to List's "The Secret of the Runes", Stephen E. Flowers notes: "The HAO never really crystallized in List's lifetime – although it seems possible that he developed a theoretical body of unpublished documents and rituals relevant to the HAO that have only been put into full practice in more recent years".


title: Ariosophy

text: List died on 17 May 1919, a few months before Adolf Hitler joined a minor Bavarian political party and formed it into the NSDAP. After the Nazis had come to power, several advocates of Armanism fell victim to the suppression of esotericism in Nazi Germany.


title: Ariosophy

text: The main reason for the persecution of occultists was the Nazi policy of systematically closing down esoteric organisations (although Germanic paganism was still practised by some Nazis on an individual basis), but the instigator in certain cases was Himmler's personal occultist, Karl Maria Wiligut. Wiligut identified the monotheistic religion of Irminism as the true ancestral belief, claiming that Guido von List's Wotanism and runic row constituted a schismatic false religion .


title: Ariosophy

text: Among the Listians – Kummer and Marby are not mentioned by Goodrick-Clarke among the signatories who endorsed the List Society around 1905 but both men were indebted to "Listian" ideas – who were subjected to censure were the rune occultists Friedrich Bernhard Marby and Siegfried Adolf Kummer, both of whom were denounced by Wiligut in 1934 in a letter to Himmler. Flowers writes: "The establishment of [an] 'official NS runology' under Himmler, Wiligut, and others led directly to the need to suppress the rune-magical 'free agents' such as Marby". Despite having openly supported the Nazis, Marby was arrested by the Gestapo in 1936 as an anti-Nazi occultist and was interned in Welzheim, Flossenbürg and Dachau concentration camps. Kummer disappears from History after Wiligut's denunciation in 1934, and his fate is unknown. He may have died in a concentration camp. According to Rudgley, "[u]nsubstantiated rumours" have him fleeing Nazi Germany in exile to South America, but "it is more likely that he perished in one of the camps that Marby was to survive or died during the Allied bombing of Dresden."


title: Ariosophy

text: Günter Kirchhoff, a List Society member whom Wiligut had recommended to Himmler on the strength of his researches into prehistory, is reported to have written that Wiligut by intrigue had ensured that Ernst Lauterer (a.k.a. "Tarnhari") – another List Society member, who claimed a secret clan tradition that rivalled Wiligut's own – was committed to a concentration camp as an "English agent". Flowers and Moynihan reproduce Kirchhoff's testimony as reported by both Adolf Schleipfer and researcher Manfred Lenz (but doubted by Wiligut's former secretary Gabriele Dechend).


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1903–04, a Viennese ex-Cistercian monk, Bible scholar and inventor named Jörg Lanz-Liebenfels (subsequently, Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels) published a lengthy article under the Latin title ""Anthropozoon Biblicum"" ("The Biblical Man-Animal") in a journal for Biblical studies edited by Moritz Altschüler, a Jewish admirer of Guido von List. The author undertook a comparative survey of ancient Near Eastern cultures, in which he detected evidence from iconography and literature that seemed to point to the continued survival, into early historical times, of hominid ape-men similar to the dwarfish Neanderthal men known from fossil remains in Europe, or the Pithecanthropus (now called "Homo erectus") from Java. Furthermore, Lanz systematically analysed the Old Testament in the light of his hypothesis, identifying and interpreting coded references to the ape-men that substantiated an illicit practice of interbreeding between humans and "lower" species in antiquity.


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1905 he expanded these researches into a fundamental statement of doctrine titled "Theozoologie oder die Kunde von den Sodoms-Äfflingen und dem Götter-Elektron" (""Theozoology, or the Science of the Sodomite-Apelings and the Divine Electron""). He claimed that "Aryan" peoples originated from interstellar deities (termed Theozoa) who bred by electricity, while "lower" races were a result of interbreeding between humans and ape-men (or Anthropozoa). The effects of racial crossing caused the atrophy of paranormal powers inherited from the gods, but these could be restored by the selective breeding of pure Aryan lineages. The book relied on somewhat lurid sexual imagery, decrying the abuse of white women by ethnically inferior but sexually active men. Thus, Lanz advocated mass castration of racially "apelike" or otherwise "inferior" males. In the same year, Lanz commenced publication of the journal "Ostara" (named after a pagan Germanic goddess of spring) to promote his vision of racial purity.


title: Ariosophy

text: On December 25, 1900, he founded the fascist secret society Order of the New Templars ("Ordo Novi Templi", or ONT) – a project to bring rightwing extremists together and mobilise them in favor of Nazism in Germany by using esotericism to justify violence such as castration of innocent people to establish fascism in Germany and defend it against communism. The ONT was modelled after the catholic military order Knight Templars and similar in its hierarchical structure as the Order of Cistercians which was the group that trained the New Templars founder and political agitator Adolf Lanz. Members used code names so that betrayal was difficult.


title: Ariosophy

text: The ideological association was headquartered at Burg Werfenstein, a castle in Upper Austria overlooking the river Danube. Its declared aim was to use pseudo-science and religion to make people believe in racist concepts. Rituals were designed to beautify life in accordance with Aryan aesthetics, and to express the Order's theological system that Lanz called "Ario-Christianity". The Order was the first to use the swastika in an "Aryan" meaning, displaying on its flag the device of a red swastika facing right, on a yellow-orange field and surrounded by four blue fleurs-de-lys above, below, to the right and to the left.


title: Ariosophy

text: The ONT declined from the mid-1930s and – even though it had pioneered many ideas that the Nazis later adopted – it was suppressed by the Gestapo in 1942. By this time it had established seven communities in Austria, Germany and Hungary. Though suspending its activities in the Greater German Reich, the ONT survived in Hungary until around the end of World War II. It went underground in Vienna after 1945, but was contacted in 1958 by a former Waffen-SS lieutenant, Rudolf Mund, who became Prior of the Order in 1979. Mund also wrote biographies of Lanz and Wiligut.


title: Ariosophy

text: The term "Ariosophy" (wisdom concerning the Aryans) was coined by Lanz von Liebenfels in 1915, with "Theozoology" describing its Genesis and "Ario-Christianity" as the label for the overall doctrine in the 1920s.


title: Ariosophy

text: This terminology was taken up by a group of occultists, formed in Berlin around 1920 and referred to by one of its main figures, Ernst Issberner-Haldane, as the 'Swastika-Circle'. Lanz's publisher, Herbert Reichstein, made contact with the group in 1925 and formed it into an institute with himself as director. This association was named the Ariosophical Society in 1926, renamed the "Neue Kalandsgesellschaft" (from "Kaland", Guido von List's term for a secret lodge or conventicle) in 1928, and renamed again as the "Ariosophische Kulturzentrale" in 1931, the year in which it opened an Ariosophical School at Pressbaum that offered courses and lectures in runic lore, biorhythms, yoga and Qabalah.


title: Ariosophy

text: The institute maintained a friendly collaboration with Lanz, its guiding intellect and inspiration, but also acknowledged an indebtedness to List, declaring itself as the successor to the "Armanen" priest-kings and their hierophantic tradition. Reichstein's circle therefore establishes the historical precedent for a broad conception that was followed by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke in 1985 when he redefined Ariosophy as a general term to describe Aryan-centric occult theories and hermetic practices, including both Lanz's Ario-Christianity and the earlier Armanism of List, as well as later derivatives of either or both systems. If the term is employed in this extended sense, then Guido von List, and not Lanz von Liebenfels, was the founder of Ariosophy.


title: Ariosophy

text: The justification for the broad definition is that List and Lanz were mutually influencing. The two men joined one another's societies; List figures in Lanz's pedigree of initiated predecessors; and Lanz is cited several times by List in "The Religion of the Aryo-Germanic Folk: Esoteric and Exoteric" (1910).


title: Ariosophy

text: Although List had been concerned "to awaken German nationalist consciousness", the High Armanen Order had addressed itself to the upper and middle class Germans in Austria, and here List had preferred the "role of the mystagogue" over political activism. List's disciples, however, became active in the "Reichshammerbund" and the "Germanenorden", two "historically significant", "virulently antisemitic groups" in Germany. Both groups were organized by the political activist Theodor Fritsch, a major figure in German antisemitism. Fritsch, born 1852, was the son of Saxon peasants, and he was concerned about the "small tradesmen and craftsmen" and their threat from what he perceived to be the large 'Jewish' industry.


title: Ariosophy

text: The List-inspired Germanenorden (Germanic Order or Teutonic Order, not to be confused with the medieval German order of the Teutonic Knights) was a "völkisch" secret society in early 20th-century Germany. It was founded in Berlin in 1912 by Theodor Fritsch and several prominent German occultists including Philipp Stauff, who held office in the List Society and High Armanen Order as well as Hermann Pohl, who became the Germanenorden's first leader. The group was a clandestine movement aimed at the upper echelons of society and was a sister movement to the more mainstream Reichshammerbund.


title: Ariosophy

text: The order, whose symbol was a swastika, had a hierarchical fraternal structure similar to Freemasonry. Local groups of the sect met to celebrate the summer solstice, an important neopagan festivity in "völkisch" circles (and later in Nazi Germany), and more regularly to read the Eddas as well as some of the German mystics.


title: Ariosophy

text: In addition to occult and magical philosophies, it taught to its initiates nationalist ideologies of Nordic racial superiority and antisemitism, then rising throughout the Western world. As was becoming increasingly typical of "völkisch" organisations, it required its candidates to prove that they had no non-Aryan bloodlines and required from each a promise to maintain purity of his stock in marriage.


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1916, during World War I, the Germanenorden split into two parts. Eberhard von Brockhusen became the Grand Master of the "loyalist" Germanenorden. Pohl, previously the order's Chancellor, founded a schismatic offshoot: the Germanenorden Walvater of the Holy Grail. He was joined in the same year by Rudolf von Sebottendorff (formerly Rudolf Glauer), a wealthy adventurer with wide-ranging occult and mystical interests. A Freemason and a practitioner of sufism and astrology, Sebottendorff was also an admirer of Guido von List and Lanz von Liebenfels. Convinced that the Islamic and Germanic mystical systems shared a common Aryan root, he was attracted by Pohl's runic lore and became the Master of the Walvater's Bavarian province late in 1917. Charged with reviving the province's fortunes, Sebottendorff increased membership from about a hundred in 1917 to 1500 by the autumn of the following year.


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1918 Sebottendorff made contact with Walter Nauhaus, a member of the Germanenorden who headed a "Germanic study group" called the "Thule Gesellschaft" (Thule Society). The name of Nauhaus's original Thule Society was adopted as a cover-name for Sebottendorff's Munich lodge of the Germanenorden Walvater when it was formally dedicated on August 18, 1918, with Pohl's assistance and approval. Sebottendorff states that the group was run jointly by himself and Nauhaus.


title: Ariosophy

text: Deriving elements of its ideology and membership from earlier occult groups founded by List (Guido von List Society, established 1908) and by Lanz von Liebenfels (the Order of the New Templars, established 1907), the Thule Society was dedicated to the triune god Walvater, identified with Wotan in triple form. For the Society's emblem Sebottendorff selected the oak leaves, dagger and swastika. The name Thule (an island located by Greek geographers at the northernmost extremity of the world) was chosen for its significance in the works of Guido von List. According to Thule Society mythology, Thule was the capital of Hyperborea, a legendary country supposedly in the far North polar regions, originally mentioned by Herodotus, citing (among other sources)


title: Ariosophy

text: Egyptian ones. In 1679, Olaf Rudbeck equated the Hyperboreans with the survivors of Atlantis, who were first mentioned by Plato, again following Egyptian sources. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) began his work "Der Antichrist" ("The Antichrist") in 1895 with, "Let us see ourselves for what we are. We are Hyperboreans."


title: Ariosophy

text: From a historian's perspective, the importance of the Thule Society lies in its organising the discussion circle that led to the German Workers' Party ("Deutsche Arbeiter-Partei", or DAP), founded in January 1919. The Thule Society's Karl Harrer was a co-founder, along with Anton Drexler (the party's first chairman). Later the same year, Adolf Hitler joined the DAP, which was renamed as the National Socialist German Workers' Party ( (NSDAP) or Nazi party, registered from 20 February 1920) on April 1, 1920. Some conspiracy-theorists argue that the NSDAP, when under Hitler's leadership, was a political front for the Thule Society. However, against this theory stands Harrer's and Drexler's resistance to Hitler. After unsuccessful challenges to his growing power, both men resigned from the party, Harrer in 1920 and Drexler in 1923.


title: Ariosophy

text: Speculative authors assert that a number of high Nazi Party officials had been members of the Thule Society (including such prominent figures as Max Amann, Dietrich Eckart, Rudolf Hess, Alfred Rosenberg and Gottfried Feder). Eckart, the wealthy publisher of the newspaper "Auf gut Deutsch" ("In Plain German"), has been represented as a committed occultist and the most significant Thule influence on Hitler. He is believed to have taught Hitler a number of persuasive techniques, and so profound was his influence that the second volume of Hitler's book "Mein Kampf" was dedicated to him. However, although Eckart attended Thule Society meetings, he was not a member and there is nothing to indicate that he trained Hitler in techniques of a mystical nature. Examining the membership lists, Goodrick-Clarke notes that Hess, Rosenberg and Feder were – like Eckart – guests of the Thule Society in 1918 but not actual members. He also describes a Thule Society membership roll including Hans Frank and Heinrich Himmler as "spurious". There is no evidence that Hitler himself had any connection with the Society, even as an associate or visitor. However, a member of the Thule Society, dentist Dr. Friedrich Krohn, did choose the swastika symbol for the Nazi party (although the design was revised at Hitler's insistence).


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1923, Sebottendorff was expelled from Germany as an undesirable alien; around 1925, the Thule Society disbanded. In 1933, Sebottendorff returned to Germany and published "Bevor Hitler kam: Urkundliches aus der Frühzeit der nationalsozialistischen Bewegung von Rudolf von Sebottendorff". The book was banned by the Bavarian Political Police on March 1, 1934; Sebottendorff was arrested by the Gestapo, interned in a concentration camp, then expelled to Turkey yet again, where he committed suicide by drowning in the Bosphorus on May 9, 1945, as the Nazis surrendered to the Allies.


title: Ariosophy

text: Rudolf John Gorsleben was associated with the Thule Society during the Bavarian Soviet Republic of 1919 and, along with Dietrich Eckart, he was taken prisoner by the Communists, narrowly escaping execution. He threw himself into the ferment of Bavaria's "völkisch" politics and formed a close working relationship with the local Germanenorden before devoting himself to literary pursuits.


title: Ariosophy

text: On 29 November 1925, Gorsleben founded the Edda Society ("Edda-Gesellschaft"), a mystic study group, at Dinkelsbühl in Franconia. He himself was Chancellor of the Society and published its periodical "Deutsche Freiheit" ("German Freedom"), later renamed "Arische Freiheit" ("Aryan Freedom"). Assisted by learned contributors to his study-group, Gorsleben developed an original and eclectic mystery religion founded in part upon the Armanism of List, whom he quoted with approval.


title: Ariosophy

text: Grand Master of the Society was Werner von Bülow (1870–1947). The treasurer was Friedrich Schaefer from Mühlhausen, whose wife, Käthe, kept open house for another occult-"völkisch" circle (the 'Free Sons of the North and Baltic Seas') that gathered around Karl Maria Wiligut in the early 1930s. Mathilde von Kemnitz, a prolific "völkisch" writer who married General Erich Ludendorff in 1926, was an active member of the Edda Society.


title: Ariosophy

text: When Rudolf John Gorsleben died from heart disease in August 1930, the Edda Society was taken over by Bülow who had designed a 'world-rune-clock' that illustrated the correspondences between the runes, the gods and the zodiac, as well as colours and numbers. Bülow also took over the running of Gorsleben's periodical and changed its name from "Arische Freiheit" to "Hag All All Hag", and then "Hagal".


title: Ariosophy

text: In the later 20th century, Germanic neopagan movements oriented themselves more towards polytheistic reconstructionism, turning away from theosophic and occult elements, but elements of Ariosophical mysticism continue to play a role in some white supremacist organizations. Alleged mystical or shamanic aspects of historical pre-Christian Germanic culture, summarized as seidr are also practiced in Odinism (Freya Aswynn, Nigel Pennick, Karl Spiesberger, see also Germanic Runic Astrology, "The Book of Blotar").


title: Ariosophy

text: The Guido von List Society was re-established in the late 1960s through contacts between the German/Austrian occultist Adolf Schleipfer (1947–) and the still-living last president of the Society, Hanns Bierbach. Schleipfer had discovered some of List's works in an antique bookstore in the mid-1960s, and was inspired to found the runic and Armanist magazine "Irminsul" in hopes of attracting suitable people for a revived Listian order. He was appointed the new president and continued to publish "Irminsul" as the ""Voice of the Guido von List Society.""


title: Ariosophy

text: Schleipfer also attended meetings of a related organisation, the "Gode-Orden" (Gothi-Order), which propagated a similar mixture of occult "völkisch" thinking. There he met his wife "Sigrun Schleipfer", née Hammerbacher (1940–2009), daughter of the "völkisch" writer and former NSDAP district leader, Dr. "Hans Wilhelm Hammerbacher". In 1976 the Schleipfers founded the "Armanen-Orden" (Armanen Order) as the reorganised Guido von List Society. Since then, Adolf and Sigrun have served as the Grandmasters of the Order, although they have divorced and Sigrun now refers to herself as "Sigrun von Schlichting" or "Sigrun Freifrau von Schlichting". They also revived the High Armanen Order (HAO) and brought it to "an unprecedented level of activity".


title: Ariosophy

text: The Armanen-Orden is a neopagan esoteric society and religious order reviving the occult teachings of Guido von List. Its internal structure is organized in nine grades, inspired by Freemasonry. The order is modelled on, but not limited to, the precepts of List, and its principles as formulated in its brochures are as follows:


title: Ariosophy

text: The Armanen-Orden celebrates seasonal festivities in a similar fashion as Odinist groups do and invites interested people to these events. The highlights are three 'Things' at Ostara (Easter), Midsummer and Fall (Wotan's sacrificial death), which are mostly celebrated at castles close to sacred places, such as the Externsteine. The author Stefanie von Schnurbein attended a Fall Thing in 1990 and gives the following report in "Religion als Kulturkritik" ("Religion and Cultural Criticism"):


title: Ariosophy

text: In 1977 Sigrun Schleipfer founded the "Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung der Burgen" (Society for the Conservation of Castles), which proclaims castles to be among the "last paradises of the romantic era" in this cold modern age and had as its primary aim the purchase and restoration of a castle for the Order. In 1995, the society finally acquired the castle of Rothenhorn in Szlichtyngowa (Poland), a run-down structure dating back to the 12th century, though most of the complex dates from the 16th century.


title: Ariosophy

text: Over many years, Adolf and Sigrun have republished all of List's works (and many others relating to the Armanen runes) in their original German. Adolf Schleipfer has also contributed an article to "The Secret King", a study of Karl Maria Wiligut by Stephen Flowers and Michael Moynihan, in which he points out the differences between Wiligut's beliefs and those that are accepted within Odinism or Armanism.


title: Ariosophy

text: After the war, Lanz von Liebenfels was first brought to a wider (and scholarly) attention with Wilfried Daim's book "Der Mann, der Hitler die Ideen gab" ("The Man Who Gave Hitler His Ideas") (1957). Although the book was not always taken seriously within academia, for some time Lanz was seen as one of the most important influences on Hitler. Since the 1990s, however, historians have cast doubt on Lanz' significance. The historian Brigitte Hamann, who has written "", is of the view that Lanz partly influenced Hitler's diction, but had only marginal influences on Adolf Hitler's religious views.


title: Ariosophy

text: Some of Lanz's proposals for racial purification anticipate the Nazis. The sterilisation of those deemed to be genetically "unfit" was in fact implemented under the Nazi eugenics policies, but its basis lay in the theories of scientific racial hygienists. The Nazi eugenics programme has no proven connection with Lanz's mystical rationale. Eugenic ideas were widespread in his lifetime, whereas he himself was banned from publishing in the Third Reich and his writings were suppressed.


title: Ariosophy

text: Following Goodrick-Clarke's caution in assessing the relation between the two, Adolf Hitler cannot be considered a pupil of Lanz von Liebenfels, as Lanz himself had claimed. However, it has been suggested with some evidential basis that the young Hitler did read and collect Lanz's "Ostara" magazine while living in Vienna:


title: Ariosophy

text: Nevertheless: "It also remains a fact that Hitler never mentioned the name of Lanz in any recorded conversation, speech, or document. If Hitler had been importantly influenced by [Lanz], he cannot be said to have ever acknowledged this debt".


title: Manish Makhija

text: Manish Makhija (sometimes spelled Munish Makhija, born 7 October 1968), is an Indian video jockey, and Mumbai-based restaurateur, who is most known for his characters Udham Singh on Channel V's "The Udham Singh Show" (1997), and Munna on UTV Bindass's "Cash Cab – Meter Chalu Hai".


title: Manish Makhija

text: Makhija was born and brought up in Delhi where his father and mother worked for the Indian Postal Department.


title: Manish Makhija

text: He received his B.A. political science degree from Delhi's Kirori Mal College. He subsequently studied for an L.L.B. at Delhi University, but dropped out.


title: Manish Makhija

text: He first made his mark and gained popularity with Channel V show, 'The Udham Singh Show', where he anchored the show as Udham Singh in Hariyanvi style. The show started as an offshoot of an ad campaign launched by the channel during the general elections in the late 1990s asking youngsters to cast their vote. Later a campaign to persuade watchers to vote for the Viewers' Choice Award, featured a caricature of a Haryanvi Jat election officer from Meham in Haryana, the show was soon a hit.


title: Manish Makhija

text: In 2003, he started working along Pooja Bhatt's in her directorial debut "Paap" (2004), he sourced two soundtracks from the Pakistani band, Junoon and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan’s nephew Rahat Fateh Ali Khan, who sang "Laagi Tumse Mann Ki Lagan" for the film, he also did a small role in the film. Thereafter he appeared in small roles in films like "Rog" and "Dhoka" (2007), and he assisted her in "Rog" (2005). Thereafter he worked with Tehelka.com for a while, before moving to Goa, where he opened a lounge bar, The Other Side, at Morgem Beach in Goa.


title: Manish Makhija

text: Later in 2008, he also hosted a popular reality quiz show for UTV Bindass called "Cash Cab – Meter Chalu Hai "


title: Manish Makhija

text: He has also featured in a feature film Luv Shuv Tey Chicken Khurana in the role of a local mafia in the UK.


title: Manish Makhija

text: He was earlier married to Neha Gupta. He later married Indian movie actress, producer and director, Pooja Bhatt, daughter of Mahesh Bhatt in August 2003, whom he had met a few months earlier, while working with her in her film, "Paap" (2004), where in also did a small role. In December, 2014 the couple decided to part ways after 11 years of marriage. The actress took to micro-blogging site Twitter to announce their decision. In a series of tweets, Pooja wrote, "To all those who care & especially those that don't my husband Munna & Me have decided to part ways after 11 glorious years of marriage. Our split as some might call it is amicable & we hold each other in the highest esteem for now and forever." He has since reunited with his family and is playing an active role in the life of his son.


title: Mountain Cur

text: The Mountain Cur is a type of working dog that is bred specifically for treeing and trailing small game, like squirrel and raccoons. They are also used for hunting and baying big game like bear and wild boar as well as being an all-purpose farm dog. Curs are a member of the Hound group, and the Mountain Cur is one of several varieties of cur. It can also be used as a water dog. Mainly bred in Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee, it has been registered with the United Kennel Club since 1998. The Mountain Cur Breeders' Association was formed in 1957.


title: Mountain Cur

text: The Mountain Cur was brought to America nearly two hundred years ago from Europe by the colonizers of the mountains in Ohio, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, then later Arkansas and Oklahoma, to guard family and property as well as chase and tree game. These dogs enabled the colonizers to provide meat and pelts for personal use or trade, making them valuable in the frontier. With the advent of World War II, many of the families who had bred them left rural areas to work in factories in the war effort. By the end of the 1940s the breed was becoming rare. Four individuals, Hugh Stephens and Woody Huntsman of Kentucky, Carl McConnell of Virginia, and Dewey Ledbetter of Tennessee are given credit for saving the breed from dying out and setting the Mountain Cur breed standard. In 1956, these four founded the Original Mountain Cur Breeders' Association. Soon after, controversy over the breed standard caused Hugh Stephen and Carl McConnell to leave the OMCBA to found the Stephen Stock Mountain Cur Association.


title: Mountain Cur

text: Explorer and frontiersman of the Appalachian mountains Daniel Boone bred and raised Mountain Curs. Like many other settlers of early America, he heavily relied on the breed while blazing trails through the Appalachians, providing protection to his family and helping hunt wild game. He is said to have even carried young pups in protective baskets while on these expeditions.


title: Mountain Cur

text: In the 1980s and 1990s, the Mountain View Cur was developed from the Mountain Cur by Michael and Marie Bloodgood of Afton, New York after World War II.


title: Mountain Cur

text: Mountain Curs are short-coated dogs which come in blue, black, yellow, brown, or brindle coloration. Some individuals will also show white markings on the face or chest. The weight is usually between 30 and 60 pounds, and height is 18-26 inches for males and 16-24 inches for females.


title: Mountain Cur

text: Mountain Curs are intelligent, easily trained, and neither vicious nor shy. They are known to try to please their humans and are able to get along well with children and other pets. Since these curs were bred to work, if deprived of the opportunity to hunt, guard, or work around a farm, they will sometimes grow anxious and bored. However, when they have a job to do, they are generally happy and obedient.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Pitso 'Jingles' Mosimane (born 26 July 1964) is a South African professional football manager and a former player. He is the current manager of Saudi Arabian club Al-Ahli Jeddah. He is considered as one of the greatest coaches in Africa and he is the most successful black football coach in the world. He is the former coach of Mamelodi Sundowns, SuperSport United, and Al Ahly.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Born in Kagiso, Mosimane is one of the longest serving and most decorated coaches in all of South African football, having won multiple major trophies with SuperSport United between 2001 and 2007 and Mamelodi Sundowns between 2012 and 2020.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Mosimane started his senior career at Jomo Cosmos, then he played for Mamelodi Sundowns and Orlando Pirates, before joining Greek club Ionikos to play under coach Nikos Alefantos. He later joined Belgian team KFC Rita Berlaar and Qatari club Al Sadd.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Mosimane was an assistant coach to the under-11 players during his tenure with the Belgian club KFC Rita Berlaar, then he returned to South Africa to coach Mamelodi Sundowns reserves.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Mosimane joined Supersport United as an assistant coach to Bruce Grobbelaar, then he became the head coach from 2001 until 2007, where he finished second in 2001–02 and 2002–03 in the Premier Soccer League.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Mosimane served as the caretaker coach of the South African national team, nicknamed as Bafana Bafana, for seven games in 2007, prior to the appointment of Carlos Alberto Parreira as head coach of the national team, whom Mosimane served as an assistant coach under during the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He also served as assistant to Joel Santana during the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, Parreira's successor and later predecessor.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 15 July 2010, Mosimane was named as the new head coach of South Africa and was handed a four-year contract. He won his first game in charge in a 1–0 win over World Cup quarter-finalists Ghana. South Africa failed to qualify for the 2012 African Cup of Nations after Mosimane mistakenly played for a draw in the final qualifier against Sierra Leone, when in fact a victory was required.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: In 2012, Mosimane became the manager of Mamelodi Sundowns. He won the 2016 CAF Champions League with Mamelodi Sundowns after defeating Egypt's Zamalek 3–1 on aggregate, making them the 2nd South African side to win it after Orlando Pirates in 1995.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: In December 2016, Mosimane was ranked as the 10th best coach in the world for 2016, according to the International Federation of Football History and Statistics (IFFHS).


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 5 January 2017, Mosimane won the Coach of the Year accolade at the 2016 Glo-CAF awards in Abuja, Nigeria after guiding Mamelodi Sundowns to league glory in 2015–16 and claiming the Telkom Knockout trophy which meant Mosimane stood alone as the only coach to have made a clean sweep of all domestic trophies in the PSL era.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 6 April 2019, Mosimane led his team Mamelodi Sundowns to a 5–0 win against Egyptian club Al Ahly in the 2018–19 CAF Champions League quarter-finals, in which he won 5–1 on aggregate to reach the semi-finals.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: Mosimane is generally regarded as the most successful manager in South African football history, winning five ABSA Premiership titles with Mamelodi Sundowns. In late September 2020, Mosimane resigned as Mamelodi Sundowns coach.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 30 September 2020, Mosimane was announced to be the head coach of Al Ahly. He was the first non-Egyptian African to manage the club.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 27 November 2020, Mosimane led Al Ahly to their 9th CAF Champions league title, after winning the 2020 final against their rivals Zamalek, and to qualify to the 2020 FIFA Club World Cup, where they eventually finished in third place after beating Palmeiras on penalties. On 6 December 2020, he led Al Ahly to win the Egyptian Cup. In May 2021, he guided the football club to win the African Super Cup against RS Berkane in Doha, Qatar.


title: Pitso Mosimane

text: On 17 July 2021, Al Ahly won their second CAF Champions league title under Mosimane and their 10th in total after a 3–0 win over Kaizer Chiefs in the final. Rory Smith argued that this eight-month tenure, in which Al Ahly won three trophies, made Mosimane one of the best managers in world football for the year. In December 2021, he won another African Super Cup in Qatar against Raja Casablanca. On 13 June 2022, Al Ahly accepted Mosimane's request to step down as their manager.


title: College of Charleston

text: The College of Charleston (CofC or Charleston) is a public university in Charleston, South Carolina. Founded in 1770 and chartered in 1785, it is the oldest university in South Carolina, the 13th oldest institution of higher learning in the United States, and the oldest municipal college in the country. The founders of the institution include three future signers of the Declaration of Independence (Thomas Heyward Jr., Arthur Middleton, and Edward Rutledge), and three future signers of the United States Constitution (Charles Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and John Rutledge).


title: College of Charleston

text: The College of Charleston was founded in 1770, making it the 13th-oldest institution of higher education and oldest municipal college in the United States. The General Assembly of South Carolina granted the college a charter in March 1785. The original structure, located at the site of what is now Randolph Hall, was similar to a military barracks in structure. The college opened in 1790 and held its first commencement in 1794. A second charter was issued in 1791 asserting that the college would not descriminate based on religion. In 1837, the city of Charleston assumed control. The first president of the college was Reverend Robert Smith who served from 1790 until 1797.


title: College of Charleston

text: The College of Charleston consists of seven academic schools, as well as the Honors College and the Graduate School.


title: College of Charleston

text: The College of Charleston's main campus in downtown Charleston includes 156 buildings, a mix of modern and historic buildings constructed from 1770 to 2009. The average building is more than 100 years old. Twenty buildings are under historic, protective easements. The College of Charleston downtown campus is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: College of Charleston

text: Outside of downtown Charleston, the campus includes the Grice Marine Lab on James Island, the J. Stewart Walker Sailing Center and the Patriots Point Athletic Complex in Mount Pleasant and the Stono Preserve.


title: College of Charleston

text: The Mace Brown Museum of Natural History is a public natural history museum located on the campus. The museum has more than 30,000 vertebrate and invertebrate fossils. The collection's focus is on the paleontology of North American mammals, and specifically the South Carolina Lowcountry.


title: College of Charleston

text: The Bully Pulpit Series is hosted jointly by the College of Charleston's Departments of Political Science and Communication. The series welcomes presidential candidates from the two major political parties to the campus. Candidates speak with students and Charleston community members on such topics as the frequency of press conferences, the candidate's relationship with journalists and the power of the president to persuade. Major candidates that appeared during the 2008 Presidential primaries included Senator John McCain, Congressman Ron Paul, President Barack Obama and Senator John Edwards. During that season, the series was sponsored by the Allstate Insurance Company and attendance on the Bully Pulpit events drew over 6,000 attendees. During the 2016 Presidential primaries, the major candidates who participated in the series included Senator Lindsey Graham and former Maryland governor Martin O'Malley. The series hosted a slew of candidates during the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. The candidates who appeared were: Mayor Pete Buttigieg, Representative Beto O'Rourke, Secretary Julian Castro, Senator Amy Klobuchar, Senator Bernie Sanders, former vice president and eventual president Joe Biden, and Representative Tulsi Gabbard.


title: College of Charleston

text: The institution's 19 varsity sports teams participate in the NCAA Division I Colonial Athletic Association and are known as the Cougars. The Cougars compete at a variety of athletics facilities in the Charleston area, including the TD Arena (formerly the Carolina First Arena), the J. Stewart Walker Sailing Complex, Johnson Center Squash Courts, Patriots Point Athletic Complex and the Links at Stono Ferry. College of Charleston athletics are supported by the College of Charleston Athletic Club, which was established in 1974. During the 1970–71 school year, College of Charleston students voted to change the nickname from the Maroons to the Cougars, in honor of a cougar that had recently arrived at the Charles Towne Landing zoo. Clyde the Cougar is the current mascot. Oliver Marmol, the new manager of the St. Louis Cardinals is a former College of Charleston baseball player.


title: College of Charleston

text: Greek life has been active on campus for 120 years. In 2017, four fraternities were shut down by the college for alcohol, drugs and a sexual assault.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: Jamaal Lascelles (; born 11 November 1993) is an English professional footballer who plays as a centre-back and captains club Newcastle United. Lascelles previously played for Nottingham Forest, where he was developed through its youth academy.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: Lascelles was born in Derby, Derbyshire. His father Tim Lascelles was a professional basketballer that played for Derby Trailblazers. He began his career at Nottingham Forest, progressing through the club's youth system. In January 2011, the club rejected a £5 million offer from Arsenal for him. He signed his first professional contract in March 2011. Lascelles made his first-team debut on 31 January 2012, starting in a 2–0 defeat to Burnley.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: In March 2012, Lascelles joined League One club Stevenage, on loan until the end of the 2011–12 season. He made his debut for Stevenage on 13 March 2012, coming on as a 69th-minute substitute in a 1–0 home win over Oldham Athletic, playing in the right-back position. He made his first starting appearance in Stevenage's 6–0 away victory at Yeovil Town on 14 April 2012, scoring the club's fourth goal with a header from Luke Freeman's cross. Lascelles also provided the assist for Patrick Agyemang's goal in the same game. He remained as a first-team regular from then onwards, playing the remaining four games of the regular season as Stevenage secured a League One play-off spot. Lascelles also played in both play-off matches, as Stevenage lost 1–0 on aggregate to Sheffield United. He made nine appearances during his two-month loan spell, scoring once.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 7 August 2012, Lascelles signed a new four-year contract with Nottingham Forest. He made a total of three appearances in all competitions in the 2012–13 season.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: Lascelles broke into the starting line-up in the 2013–14 season, forming a central defensive partnership with Jack Hobbs and making a total of 29 league appearances. On 22 January 2014, Everton were fined £45,000 by the FA over an "unauthorised approach" to Lascelles in 2010 while he was still a youth player at Nottingham Forest. Lascelles was warned as to his future conduct. On 18 March, Lascelles extended his contract in a new four-and-a-half-year deal. A reported £4 million bid from Queens Park Rangers was rejected by the club in July.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 9 August 2014, Lascelles signed a contract with Premier League club Newcastle United, joining on the same day as Forest teammate Karl Darlow. As part of the deal, both players were loaned back to Nottingham Forest for the 2014–15 season.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: Lascelles returned to Newcastle for the 2015–16 season and made his debut for the club on 25 August 2015, against Northampton Town in the League Cup. He made his league debut on 3 October, as a substitute in a 6–1 defeat at Manchester City. Lascelles found first-team football hard to come by and did not make his first league start for Newcastle until 23 January 2016, when he played in the 2–1 defeat to Watford, capping his performance with a goal. Lascelles publicly criticised the mentality of his teammates after a 3–1 loss to Southampton on 11 April 2016, questioning their character and desire. Following injuries to first choice centre-backs Chancel Mbemba and Fabricio Coloccini, Lascelles was given regular minutes under new manager Rafael Benítez and gradually stepped up his game, grabbing his second goal for the club in the 3–0 win over Swansea City on 16 April. Lascelles totalled 18 appearances in his first Premier League season, but could not prevent the club getting relegated.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 4 August 2016, Lascelles was chosen by Benítez to become the new Newcastle United team captain, succeeding the departed Fabricio Coloccini. Benítez had been impressed by Lascelles' willingness to speak up in the dressing room, in particular his criticism of more senior players in the defeat to Southampton. Despite requiring a double hernia operation, Lascelles played through the pain barrier for the last four months of the 2016–17 season, determined to see the campaign out and ultimately captaining the club to promotion back to the Premier League. His solid performances at the beginning of the 2017–18 season led to him being nominated for the September Premier League Player of the Month award, which was eventually won by Harry Kane. On 6 October 2017, he signed a new six-year contract with Newcastle, keeping him at the club until 2023.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: In October 2017, he had a training ground fight with teammate Mohamed Diamé. The two players later apologised and offered to take the entire first-team squad and staff out for lunch.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 27 February 2021, he scored his first goal of the 2020–21 season, in a 1–1 home draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 28 May 2013, he was named in manager Peter Taylor's 21-man squad for the 2013 FIFA U-20 World Cup. He made his debut on 16 June, in a 3–0 win in a warm-up game against Uruguay.


title: Jamaal Lascelles

text: On 27 February 2014, Lascelles received his first under-21 call-up for the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualifying match against Wales. He made his debut, and only under-21 appearance, starting in the qualifying match against Moldova on 9 September 2014.


title: Executive departments of the Philippines

text: The executive departments of the Philippines are the largest component of the executive branch of the government of the Philippines. These departments comprise the largest part of the country's bureaucracy.


text: All departments are listed by their present-day name with their English names on top and Filipino names at the bottom. Department heads are listed at the Cabinet of the Philippines article.


text: The departments listed below are defunct agencies which have been abolished, integrated, reorganized or renamed into the existing executive departments of the Philippines.


title: Representation theory

text: Representation theory is a branch of mathematics that studies abstract algebraic structures by "representing" their elements as linear transformations of vector spaces, and studies modules over these abstract algebraic structures. In essence, a representation makes an abstract algebraic object more concrete by describing its elements by matrices and their algebraic operations (for example, matrix addition, matrix multiplication). The theory of matrices and linear operators is well-understood, so representations of more abstract objects in terms of familiar linear algebra objects helps glean properties and sometimes simplify calculations on more abstract theories.


title: Representation theory

text: The algebraic objects amenable to such a description include groups, associative algebras and Lie algebras. The most prominent of these (and historically the first) is the representation theory of groups, in which elements of a group are represented by invertible matrices in such a way that the group operation is matrix multiplication.


title: Representation theory

text: Representation theory is a useful method because it reduces problems in abstract algebra to problems in linear algebra, a subject that is well understood. Furthermore, the vector space on which a group (for example) is represented can be infinite-dimensional, and by allowing it to be, for instance, a Hilbert space, methods of analysis can be applied to the theory of groups. Representation theory is also important in physics because, for example, it describes how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system.


title: Representation theory

text: Representation theory is pervasive across fields of mathematics for two reasons. First, the applications of representation theory are diverse: in addition to its impact on algebra, representation theory:


title: Representation theory

text: Second, there are diverse approaches to representation theory. The same objects can be studied using methods from algebraic geometry, module theory, analytic number theory, differential geometry, operator theory, algebraic combinatorics and topology.


title: Representation theory

text: The success of representation theory has led to numerous generalizations. One of the most general is in category theory. The algebraic objects to which representation theory applies can be viewed as particular kinds of categories, and the representations as functors from the object category to the category of vector spaces. This description points to two obvious generalizations: first, the algebraic objects can be replaced by more general categories; second, the target category of vector spaces can be replaced by other well-understood categories.


title: Representation theory

text: Let "V" be a vector space over a field F. For instance, suppose "V" is R or C, the standard "n"-dimensional space of column vectors over the real or complex numbers, respectively. In this case, the idea of representation theory is to do abstract algebra concretely by using "n" × "n" matrices of real or complex numbers.


title: Representation theory

text: There are three main sorts of algebraic objects for which this can be done: groups, associative algebras and Lie algebras.


title: Representation theory

text: This generalizes to any field F and any vector space "V" over F, with linear maps replacing matrices and composition replacing matrix multiplication: there is a group GL("V",F) of automorphisms of "V", an associative algebra End("V") of all endomorphisms of "V", and a corresponding Lie algebra gl("V",F).


title: Representation theory

text: There are two ways to say what a representation is. The first uses the idea of an action, generalizing the way that matrices act on column vectors by matrix multiplication. A representation of a group "G" or (associative or Lie) algebra "A" on a vector space "V" is a map


title: Representation theory

text: is linear (over F). Second, if we introduce the notation "g" · "v" for formula_3 ("g", "v"), then for any "g", "g" in "G" and "v" in "V":


title: Representation theory

text: where "e" is the identity element of "G" and "g""g" is the product in "G". The requirement for associative algebras is analogous, except that associative algebras do not always have an identity element, in which case equation (1) is ignored. Equation (2) is an abstract expression of the associativity of matrix multiplication. This doesn't hold for the matrix commutator and also there is no identity element for the commutator. Hence for Lie algebras, the only requirement is that for any "x", "x" in "A" and "v" in "V":


title: Representation theory

text: The second way to define a representation focuses on the map "φ" sending "g" in "G" to a linear map "φ"("g"): "V" → "V", which satisfies


title: Representation theory

text: The vector space "V" is called the representation space of "φ" and its dimension (if finite) is called the dimension of the representation (sometimes "degree", as in ). It is also common practice to refer to "V" itself as the representation when the homomorphism "φ" is clear from the context; otherwise the notation ("V","φ") can be used to denote a representation.


title: Representation theory

text: When "V" is of finite dimension "n", one can choose a basis for "V" to identify "V" with F, and hence recover a matrix representation with entries in the field F.


title: Representation theory

text: An effective or faithful representation is a representation ("V","φ"), for which the homomorphism "φ" is injective.


title: Representation theory

text: If "V" and "W" are vector spaces over F, equipped with representations "φ" and "ψ" of a group "G", then an equivariant map from "V" to "W" is a linear map "α": "V" → "W" such that


title: Representation theory

text: Equivariant maps for representations of an associative or Lie algebra are defined similarly. If "α" is invertible, then it is said to be an isomorphism, in which case "V" and "W" (or, more precisely, "φ" and "ψ") are "isomorphic representations", also phrased as "equivalent representations". An equivariant map is often called an "intertwining map" of representations. Also, in the case of a group , it is on occasion called a -map.


title: Representation theory

text: Isomorphic representations are, for practical purposes, "the same"; they provide the same information about the group or algebra being represented. Representation theory therefore seeks to classify representations up to isomorphism.


title: Representation theory

text: If formula_10 is a representation of (say) a group formula_11, and formula_12 is a linear subspace of formula_13 that is preserved by the action of formula_11 in the sense that for all formula_15 and formula_16, formula_17 (Serre calls these formula_12 "stable under" formula_11), then formula_12 is called a "subrepresentation": by defining formula_21 where formula_22 is the restriction of formula_23 to formula_12, formula_25 is a representation of formula_11 and the inclusion of formula_27 is an equivariant map. The quotient space formula_28 can also be made into a representation of formula_11. If formula_13 has exactly two subrepresentations, namely the trivial subspace {0} and formula_13 itself, then the representation is said to be irreducible; if formula_13 has a proper nontrivial subrepresentation, the representation is said to be reducible.


title: Representation theory

text: The definition of an irreducible representation implies Schur's lemma: an equivariant map formula_33 between irreducible representations is either the zero map or an isomorphism, since its kernel and image are subrepresentations. In particular, when formula_34, this shows that the equivariant endomorphisms of formula_13 form an associative division algebra over the underlying field F. If F is algebraically closed, the only equivariant endomorphisms of an irreducible representation are the scalar multiples of the identity.


title: Representation theory

text: Irreducible representations are the building blocks of representation theory for many groups: if a representation formula_13 is not irreducible then it is built from a subrepresentation and a quotient that are both "simpler" in some sense; for instance, if formula_13 is finite-dimensional, then both the subrepresentation and the quotient have smaller dimension. There are counterexamples where a representation has a subrepresentation, but only has one non-trivial irreducible component. For example, the additive group formula_38 has a two dimensional representation


title: Representation theory

text: If ("V","φ") and ("W","ψ") are representations of (say) a group "G", then the direct sum of "V" and "W" is a representation, in a canonical way, via the equation


title: Representation theory

text: The direct sum of two representations carries no more information about the group "G" than the two representations do individually. If a representation is the direct sum of two proper nontrivial subrepresentations, it is said to be decomposable. Otherwise, it is said to be indecomposable.


title: Representation theory

text: In favorable circumstances, every finite-dimensional representation is a direct sum of irreducible representations: such representations are said to be semisimple. In this case, it suffices to understand only the irreducible representations. Examples where this "complete reducibility" phenomenon occur include finite groups (see Maschke's theorem), compact groups, and semisimple Lie algebras.


title: Representation theory

text: In cases where complete reducibility does not hold, one must understand how indecomposable representations can be built from irreducible representations as extensions of a quotient by a subrepresentation.


title: Representation theory

text: Suppose formula_43 and formula_44 are representations of a group formula_11. Then we can form a representation formula_46 of G acting on the tensor product vector space formula_47 as follows:


title: Representation theory

text: If formula_49 and formula_50 are representations of a Lie algebra, then the correct formula to use is


title: Representation theory

text: This product can be recognized as the coproduct on a coalgebra. In general, the tensor product of irreducible representations is "not" irreducible; the process of decomposing a tensor product as a direct sum of irreducible representations is known as Clebsch–Gordan theory.


title: Representation theory

text: In the case of the representation theory of the group SU(2) (or equivalently, of its complexified Lie algebra formula_52), the decomposition is easy to work out. The irreducible representations are labeled by a parameter formula_53 that is a non-negative integer or half integer; the representation then has dimension formula_54. Suppose we take the tensor product of the representation of two representations, with labels formula_55 and formula_56 where we assume formula_57. Then the tensor product decomposes as a direct sum of one copy of each representation with label formula_53, where formula_53 ranges from formula_60 to formula_61 in increments of 1. If, for example, formula_62, then the values of formula_53 that occur are 0, 1, and 2. Thus, the tensor product representation of dimension formula_64 decomposes as a direct sum of a 1-dimensional representation formula_65 a 3-dimensional representation formula_66 and a 5-dimensional representation formula_67.


title: Representation theory

text: Representation theory is notable for the number of branches it has, and the diversity of the approaches to studying representations of groups and algebras. Although, all the theories have in common the basic concepts discussed already, they differ considerably in detail. The differences are at least 3-fold:


title: Representation theory

text: Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to geometry and crystallography. Representations of finite groups exhibit many of the features of the general theory and point the way to other branches and topics in representation theory.


title: Representation theory

text: Over a field of characteristic zero, the representation of a finite group "G" has a number of convenient properties. First, the representations of "G" are semisimple (completely reducible). This is a consequence of Maschke's theorem, which states that any subrepresentation "V" of a "G"-representation "W" has a "G"-invariant complement. One proof is to choose any projection "π" from "W" to "V" and replace it by its average "π" defined by


title: Representation theory

text: The finite-dimensional "G"-representations can be understood using character theory: the character of a representation "φ": "G" → GL("V") is the class function "χ": "G" → F defined by


title: Representation theory

text: where formula_70 is the trace. An irreducible representation of "G" is completely determined by its character.


title: Representation theory

text: Maschke's theorem holds more generally for fields of positive characteristic "p", such as the finite fields, as long as the prime "p" is coprime to the order of "G". When "p" and |"G"| have a common factor, there are "G"-representations that are not semisimple, which are studied in a subbranch called modular representation theory.


title: Representation theory

text: Averaging techniques also show that if F is the real or complex numbers, then any "G"-representation preserves an inner product formula_71 on "V" in the sense that


title: Representation theory

text: Unitary representations are automatically semisimple, since Maschke's result can be proven by taking the orthogonal complement of a subrepresentation. When studying representations of groups that are not finite, the unitary representations provide a good generalization of the real and complex representations of a finite group.


title: Representation theory

text: Results such as Maschke's theorem and the unitary property that rely on averaging can be generalized to more general groups by replacing the average with an integral, provided that a suitable notion of integral can be defined. This can be done for compact topological groups (including compact Lie groups), using Haar measure, and the resulting theory is known as abstract harmonic analysis.


title: Representation theory

text: Over arbitrary fields, another class of finite groups that have a good representation theory are the finite groups of Lie type. Important examples are linear algebraic groups over finite fields. The representation theory of linear algebraic groups and Lie groups extends these examples to infinite-dimensional groups, the latter being intimately related to Lie algebra representations. The importance of character theory for finite groups has an analogue in the theory of weights for representations of Lie groups and Lie algebras.


title: Representation theory

text: Representations of a finite group "G" are also linked directly to algebra representations via the group algebra F["G"], which is a vector space over F with the elements of "G" as a basis, equipped with the multiplication operation defined by the group operation, linearity, and the requirement that the group operation and scalar multiplication commute.


title: Representation theory

text: Modular representations of a finite group "G" are representations over a field whose characteristic is not coprime to |"G"|, so that Maschke's theorem no longer holds (because |"G"| is not invertible in F and so one cannot divide by it). Nevertheless, Richard Brauer extended much of character theory to modular representations, and this theory played an important role in early progress towards the classification of finite simple groups, especially for simple groups whose characterization was not amenable to purely group-theoretic methods because their Sylow 2-subgroups were "too small".


title: Representation theory

text: As well as having applications to group theory, modular representations arise naturally in other branches of mathematics, such as algebraic geometry, coding theory, combinatorics and number theory.


title: Representation theory

text: A unitary representation of a group "G" is a linear representation "φ" of "G" on a real or (usually) complex Hilbert space "V" such that "φ"("g") is a unitary operator for every "g" ∈ "G". Such representations have been widely applied in quantum mechanics since the 1920s, thanks in particular to the influence of Hermann Weyl, and this has inspired the development of the theory, most notably through the analysis of representations of the Poincaré group by Eugene Wigner. One of the pioneers in constructing a general theory of unitary representations (for any group "G" rather than just for particular groups useful in applications) was George Mackey, and an extensive theory was developed by Harish-Chandra and others in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Representation theory

text: A major goal is to describe the "unitary dual", the space of irreducible unitary representations of "G". The theory is most well-developed in the case that "G" is a locally compact (Hausdorff) topological group and the representations are strongly continuous. For "G" abelian, the unitary dual is just the space of characters, while for "G" compact, the Peter–Weyl theorem shows that the irreducible unitary representations are finite-dimensional and the unitary dual is discrete. For example, if "G" is the circle group "S", then the characters are given by integers, and the unitary dual is Z.


title: Representation theory

text: For non-compact "G", the question of which representations are unitary is a subtle one. Although irreducible unitary representations must be "admissible" (as Harish-Chandra modules) and it is easy to detect which admissible representations have a nondegenerate invariant sesquilinear form, it is hard to determine when this form is positive definite. An effective description of the unitary dual, even for relatively well-behaved groups such as real reductive Lie groups (discussed below), remains an important open problem in representation theory. It has been solved for many particular groups, such as SL(2,R) and the Lorentz group.


title: Representation theory

text: The duality between the circle group "S" and the integers Z, or more generally, between a torus "T" and Z is well known in analysis as the theory of Fourier series, and the Fourier transform similarly expresses the fact that the space of characters on a real vector space is the dual vector space. Thus unitary representation theory and harmonic analysis are intimately related, and abstract harmonic analysis exploits this relationship, by developing the analysis of functions on locally compact topological groups and related spaces.


title: Representation theory

text: A major goal is to provide a general form of the Fourier transform and the Plancherel theorem. This is done by constructing a measure on the unitary dual and an isomorphism between the regular representation of "G" on the space L("G") of square integrable functions on "G" and its representation on the space of L functions on the unitary dual. Pontrjagin duality and the Peter–Weyl theorem achieve this for abelian and compact "G" respectively.


title: Representation theory

text: Another approach involves considering all unitary representations, not just the irreducible ones. These form a category, and Tannaka–Krein duality provides a way to recover a compact group from its category of unitary representations.


title: Representation theory

text: If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general theory is known with an analogue of the Plancherel theorem or Fourier inversion, although Alexander Grothendieck extended Tannaka–Krein duality to a relationship between linear algebraic groups and tannakian categories.


title: Representation theory

text: Harmonic analysis has also been extended from the analysis of functions on a group "G" to functions on homogeneous spaces for "G". The theory is particularly well developed for symmetric spaces and provides a theory of automorphic forms (discussed below).


title: Representation theory

text: A Lie group is a group that is also a smooth manifold. Many classical groups of matrices over the real or complex numbers are Lie groups. Many of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields.


title: Representation theory

text: The representation theory of Lie groups can be developed first by considering the compact groups, to which results of compact representation theory apply. This theory can be extended to finite-dimensional representations of semisimple Lie groups using Weyl's unitary trick: each semisimple real Lie group "G" has a complexification, which is a complex Lie group "G", and this complex Lie group has a maximal compact subgroup "K". The finite-dimensional representations of "G" closely correspond to those of "K".


title: Representation theory

text: A general Lie group is a semidirect product of a solvable Lie group and a semisimple Lie group (the Levi decomposition). The classification of representations of solvable Lie groups is intractable in general, but often easy in practical cases. Representations of semidirect products can then be analysed by means of general results called "Mackey theory", which is a generalization of the methods used in Wigner's classification of representations of the Poincaré group.


title: Representation theory

text: A Lie algebra over a field F is a vector space over F equipped with a skew-symmetric bilinear operation called the Lie bracket, which satisfies the Jacobi identity. Lie algebras arise in particular as tangent spaces to Lie groups at the identity element, leading to their interpretation as "infinitesimal symmetries". An important approach to the representation theory of Lie groups is to study the corresponding representation theory of Lie algebras, but representations of Lie algebras also have an intrinsic interest.


title: Representation theory

text: Lie algebras, like Lie groups, have a Levi decomposition into semisimple and solvable parts, with the representation theory of solvable Lie algebras being intractable in general. In contrast, the finite-dimensional representations of semisimple Lie algebras are completely understood, after work of Élie Cartan. A representation of a semisimple Lie algebra 𝖌 is analysed by choosing a Cartan subalgebra, which is essentially a generic maximal subalgebra 𝖍 of 𝖌 on which the Lie bracket is zero ("abelian"). The representation of 𝖌 can be decomposed into weight spaces that are eigenspaces for the action of 𝖍 and the infinitesimal analogue of characters. The structure of semisimple Lie algebras then reduces the analysis of representations to easily understood combinatorics of the possible weights that can occur.


title: Representation theory

text: There are many classes of infinite-dimensional Lie algebras whose representations have been studied. Among these, an important class are the Kac–Moody algebras. They are named after Victor Kac and Robert Moody, who independently discovered them. These algebras form a generalization of finite-dimensional semisimple Lie algebras, and share many of their combinatorial properties. This means that they have a class of representations that can be understood in the same way as representations of semisimple Lie algebras.


title: Representation theory

text: Affine Lie algebras are a special case of Kac–Moody algebras, which have particular importance in mathematics and theoretical physics, especially conformal field theory and the theory of exactly solvable models. Kac discovered an elegant proof of certain combinatorial identities, Macdonald identities, which is based on the representation theory of affine Kac–Moody algebras.


title: Representation theory

text: Lie superalgebras are generalizations of Lie algebras in which the underlying vector space has a Z-grading, and skew-symmetry and Jacobi identity properties of the Lie bracket are modified by signs. Their representation theory is similar to the representation theory of Lie algebras.