title: Bob Daisley

text: Since the 1980s, Daisley has contributed to a wealth of recordings as bassist, lyricist and producer, including albums by Yngwie Malmsteen, Takara, Bill Ward, Black Sabbath and Jeff Watson of Night Ranger. Daisley and Watson teamed up again and formed Mother's Army with vocalist Joe Lynn Turner and drummer Carmine Appice. In 2003, following his second and unsuccessful suit against Ozzy Osbourne, he teamed up with Lee Kerslake, Steve Morse of Deep Purple and Australian rock singer Jimmy Barnes to record an album under the name Living Loud. Six of the album's eleven tracks were covers from "Blizzard of Ozz" and "Diary of a Madman". Don Airey played keyboards on the Living Loud album. On 7 February 2003 Daisley recorded a live show at The Basement in Sydney with Australian blues band The Hoochie Coochie Men, for a live DVD and CD release. Featured were former Deep Purple organist Jon Lord and Jimmy Barnes. In 2007, The Hoochie Coochie Men released the studio album "Danger: White Men Dancing", also featuring Jon Lord. In September 2014, Daisley was hired to produce the debut album of Adelaide-based hard rock band Cherry Grind.


title: Bob Daisley

text: Daisley uses Mark Bass heads, and Picato Strings since 1972. He recorded Ozzy Osbourne's solo debut "Blizzard of Ozz" with a white Gibson EB-3 from 1960 or 1961, through one of Randy Rhoads' Marshall stacks, and continues to use a red 1960 EB-3 to this day. However, the follow-up to "Blizzard", "Diary of a Madman," (and most of the other albums he recorded on) was recorded with a Fender Precision Bass. "No More Tears" was recorded with a P-bass as well, but an early '50s model with a single coil pickup (in sunburst).


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans or Scots Americans (Scottish Gaelic: "Ameireaganaich Albannach"; ) are Americans whose ancestry originates wholly or partly in Scotland. Scottish Americans are closely related to Scotch-Irish Americans, descendants of Ulster Scots, and communities emphasize and celebrate a common heritage. The majority of Scotch-Irish Americans originally came from Lowland Scotland and Northern England before migrating to the province of Ulster in Ireland (see "Plantation of Ulster") and thence, beginning about five generations later, to North America in large numbers during the eighteenth century. Today, the number of Scottish Americans is believed to be around 25 million, and celebrations of ‘Scottishness’ can be seen through major Tartan Day parades and Burns Night celebrations.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Significant emigration from Scotland to America began in the 1700s, accelerating after the Jacobite rising of 1745, the steady degradation of clan structures, and the Highland Clearances. Even higher rates of emigration occurred after these times of social upheaval. In the 1920s, Scotland experienced a reduction in total population of 0.8%, totally absorbing the natural population increase of 7.2%: the USA and Canada were the most common destinations of these emigrants. A common misconception is that most Scottish Americans are descended from Highlanders fleeing persecution or clearance. Instead, by far the commonest Scottish immigrant was an economic migrant from the Lowlands, attracted by the opportunities in North America.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The table shows the ethnic Scottish population in the British colonies from 1700 to 1775. In 1700 the total population of the colonies was 250,888, of whom 223,071 (89%) were white and 3.0% were ethnically Scottish.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The number of Americans of Scottish descent today is estimated to be 20 to 25 million (up to 8.3% of the total US population), and Scotch-Irish 27 to 30 million (up to 10% of the total US population), the subgroups overlapping and not always distinguishable because of their shared ancestral surnames and heritage.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The majority of Scotch-Irish Americans originally came from Lowland Scotland and Northern England before migrating to the province of Ulster in Ireland (see "Plantation of Ulster") and thence, beginning about five generations later, to North America in large numbers during the eighteenth century.


title: Scottish Americans

text: In the 2000 census, 4.8 million Americans self-reported Scottish ancestry, 1.7% of the total US population.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Over 4.3 million self-reported Scotch-Irish ancestry, for a total of 9.2 million Americans self-reporting some kind of Scottish descent.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Self-reported numbers are regarded by demographers as massive under-counts, because Scottish ancestry is known to be disproportionately under-reported among the majority of mixed ancestry, and because areas where people reported "American" ancestry were the places where, historically, Scottish and Scotch-Irish Protestants settled in America (that is: along the North American coast, Appalachia, and the Southeastern United States). Scottish Americans descended from nineteenth-century Scottish emigrants tend to be concentrated in the West, while many in New England are the descendants of emigrants, often Gaelic-speaking, from the Maritime Provinces of Canada, from the 1880s onward.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Americans of Scottish descent outnumber the population of Scotland, where 4,459,071 or 88.09% of people identified as ethnic Scottish in the 2001 Census.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The metropolitan and micropolitan areas with the top percentage of Scottish or Scotch-Irish residents:


title: Scottish Americans

text: As of 2020, the distribution of Scottish Americans across the 50 states and DC is as presented in the following table:


title: Scottish Americans

text: The first Scots in North America came with the Vikings. A Christian bard from the Hebrides accompanied Bjarni Herjolfsson on his voyage around Greenland in 985/6 which sighted the mainland to the west.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The first Scots recorded as having set foot in the New World were a man named Haki and a woman named Hekja, slaves owned by Leif Eiriksson. The Scottish couple were runners who scouted for Thorfinn Karlsefni's expedition in c. 1010, gathering wheat and the grapes for which Vinland was named.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The controversial Zeno letters have been cited in support of a claim that Henry Sinclair, earl of Orkney, visited Nova Scotia in 1398.


title: Scottish Americans

text: In the early years of Spanish colonization of the Americas, a Scot named Tam Blake spent 20 years in Colombia and Mexico. He took part in the conquest of New Granada in 1532 with Alonso de Heredia. He arrived in Mexico in 1534–5, and joined Coronado's 1540 expedition to the American Southwest.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish-American naturalist John Muir is perhaps best known for his exploration of California's Sierra Nevada mountains during the 19th century.


title: Scottish Americans

text: After the Union of the Crowns of Scotland and England in 1603, King James VI, a Scot, promoted joint expeditions overseas, and became the founder of British America. The first permanent English settlement in the Americas, Jamestown, was thus named for a Scot.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The earliest Scottish communities in America were formed by traders and planters rather than farmer settlers. The hub of Scottish commercial activity in the colonial period was Virginia. Regular contacts began with the transportation of indentured servants to the colony from Scotland, including prisoners taken in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.


title: Scottish Americans

text: By the 1670s Glasgow was the main outlet for Virginian tobacco, in open defiance of English restrictions on colonial trade; in return the colony received Scottish manufactured goods, emigrants and ideas. In the 1670s and 1680s Presbyterian Dissenters fled persecution by the Royalist privy council in Edinburgh to settle in South Carolina and New Jersey, where they maintained their distinctive religious culture.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Trade between Scotland and the American colonies was finally regularized by the parliamentary Act of Union of Scotland and England in 1707. Population growth and the commercialization of agriculture in Scotland encouraged mass emigration to America after the French and Indian War, a conflict which had also seen the first use of Scottish Highland regiments as Indian fighters.


title: Scottish Americans

text: More than 50,000 Scots, principally from the west coast, settled in the Thirteen Colonies between 1763 and 1776, the majority of these in their own communities in the South, especially North Carolina, although Scottish individuals and families also began to appear as professionals and artisans in every American town. Scots arriving in Florida and the Gulf Coast traded extensively with Native Americans.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish settlement in colonial America has often been divided by historians into three separate streams—Lowlanders, Highlanders, and Ulster Scots.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Lowland Scots began to migrate to North America in the eighteenth century after the union of England and Scotland. They tended to settle in low-lying coastal areas and cities such as New York and New Jersey. As they were usually well-educated, lowland Scots found work easily, frequently as doctors, schoolmasters, or private tutors for the children of wealthy colonial citizens. Many others were merchants, particularly in the South. Because they were active participants in the British empire (to the point of considering themselves to be "North British" rather than "Scottish"), lowland Scots tended to stay loyal in the Revolution.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Highland Scots started arriving in North America in the 1730s. Unlike their Lowland and Ulster counterparts, the Highlanders tended to cluster together in self-contained communities, where they maintained their distinctive cultural features such as the Gaelic language and piobaireachd music. Groups of Highlanders existed in coastal Georgia (mainly immigrants from Inverness-shire) and the Mohawk Valley in New York (from the West Highlands). By far the largest Highland community was centered on the Cape Fear River, which saw a stream of immigrants from Argyllshire, and, later, other regions such as the Isle of Skye. Highland Scots were overwhelmingly loyalist in the Revolution. Distinctly Highland cultural traits persisted in the region until the 19th century, at which point they were assimilated into Anglo-American culture.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The Ulster Scots, known as the Scots-Irish (or Scotch-Irish) in North America, were descended from people originally from the Scottish Lowlands, as well as the north of England and other regions, who colonized the province of Ulster in Ireland in the seventeenth century. After several generations, their descendants left for America, and struck out for the frontier, in particular the Appalachian mountains, providing an effective "buffer" for attacks from Native Americans. In the colonial era, they were usually simply referred to as "Irish," with the "Scots-" or "Scotch-" prefixes becoming popular when the descendants of the Ulster emigrants wanted to differentiate themselves from the Catholic Irish who were flocking to many American cities in the nineteenth century. Unlike the Highlanders and Lowlanders, the Scots-Irish were usually patriots in the Revolution. They have been noted for their tenacity and their cultural contributions to the United States.


title: Scottish Americans

text: American bluegrass and country music styles have some of their roots in the Appalachian ballad culture of Scotch-Irish Americans (predominantly originating from the "Border Ballad" tradition of southern Scotland and northern England). Fiddle tunes from the Scottish repertoire, as they developed in the eighteenth century, spread rapidly into British colonies. However, in many cases, this occurred through the medium of print rather than aurally, explaining the presence of Highland-origin tunes in regions like Appalachia where there was essentially no Highland settlement. Outside of Gaelic-speaking communities, however, characteristic Highland musical idioms, such as the “Scotch-snap,” were flattened out and assimilated into anglophone musical styles.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Some African American communities were influenced musically by the Scottish American communities in which they were embedded. Psalm-singing and gospel music have become central musical experiences for African American churchgoers and it has been posited that some elements of these styles were introduced, in these communities, by Scots. Psalm-singing, or "precenting the line" as it is technically known, in which the psalms are called out and the congregation sings a response, was a form of musical worship initially developed for non-literate congregations and Africans in America were exposed to this by Scottish Gaelic settlers as well as immigrants of other origins. However, the theory that the African-American practice was influenced mainly by the Gaels has been criticized by ethnomusicologist Terry Miller, who notes that the practice of "lining out" hymns and psalms was common all over Protestant Britain in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and that it is far more likely that Gospel music originated with English psalm singing.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The first foreign tongue spoken by some slaves in America was Scottish Gaelic picked up from Gaelic-speaking immigrants from the Scottish Highlands and Western Isles. There are accounts of African Americans singing Gaelic songs and playing Scottish Gaelic music on bagpipes and fiddle.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The civic tradition of the Scottish Enlightenment contributed to the intellectual ferment of the American Revolution. In 1740, the Glasgow philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued for a right of colonial resistance to tyranny. Scotland's leading thinkers of the revolutionary age, David Hume and Adam Smith, opposed the use of force against the rebellious colonies. According to the historian Arthur L. Herman: "Americans built their world around the principles of Adam Smith and Thomas Reid, of individual interest governed by common sense and a limited need for government."


title: Scottish Americans

text: While John Witherspoon was the only Scot to sign the Declaration of Independence, several other signers had ancestors there. Other founding fathers like James Madison had no ancestral connection but were imbued with ideas drawn from Scottish moral philosophy. Scottish Americans who made major contributions to the revolutionary war included Commodore John Paul Jones, the "Father of the American Navy", and Generals Henry Knox and William Alexander. Another person of note was a personal friend of George Washington, General Hugh Mercer, who fought for Charles Edward Stuart at the Battle of Culloden.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The Scotch-Irish, who had already begun to settle beyond the Proclamation Line in the Ohio and Tennessee Valleys, were drawn into rebellion as war spread to the frontier. Tobacco plantations and independent farms in the backcountry of Virginia, Maryland and the Carolinas had been financed with Scottish credit, and indebtedness was an additional incentive for separation.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Most Scottish Americans had commercial ties with the old country or clan allegiances and stayed true to the Crown. The Scottish Highland communities of upstate New York and the Cape Fear valley of North Carolina were centers of Loyalist resistance. A small force of Loyalist Highlanders fell at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge in 1776. Scotch-Irish Patriots defeated Scottish American Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780. Many Scottish American Loyalists, particularly Highlanders, emigrated to Canada after the war.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Uncle Sam is the national personification of the United States, and sometimes more specifically of the American government, with the first usage of the term dating from the War of 1812.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The American icon Uncle Sam, who is known for embodying the American spirit, was based on a businessman from Troy, New York, Samuel Wilson, whose parents sailed to America from Greenock, Scotland, has been officially recognized as the original Uncle Sam. He provided the army with beef and pork in barrels during the War of 1812. The barrels were prominently labeled "U.S." for the United States, but it was jokingly said that the letters stood for "Uncle Sam." Soon, Uncle Sam was used as shorthand for the federal government.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Trade with Scotland continued to flourish after U.S. independence. The tobacco trade was overtaken in the nineteenth century by the cotton trade, with Glasgow factories exporting the finished textiles back to the United States on an industrial scale.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Emigration from Scotland peaked in the nineteenth century, when more than a million Scots left for the United States, taking advantage of the regular Atlantic steam-age shipping industry which was itself largely a Scottish creation, contributing to a revolution in transatlantic communication.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish emigration to the United States followed, to a lesser extent, during the twentieth century, when Scottish heavy industry declined. This new wave peaked in the first decade of the twentieth century, contributing to a hard life for many who remained behind. Many qualified workers emigrated overseas, a part of which, established in Canada, later went on to the United States.


title: Scottish Americans

text: In the nineteenth century, American authors and educators adopted Scotland as a model for cultural independence. In the world of letters, Scottish literary icons James Macpherson, Robert Burns, Walter Scott, and Thomas Carlyle had a mass following in the United States, and Scottish Romanticism exerted a seminal influence on the development of American literature. The works of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Nathaniel Hawthorne bear its powerful impression. Among the most notable Scottish American writers of the nineteenth century were Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Edgar Allan Poe and Herman Melville. Poet James Mackintosh Kennedy was called to Scotland to deliver the official poem for the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn in 1914.


title: Scottish Americans

text: In the twentieth century, Margaret Mitchell's "Gone With the Wind" exemplified popular literature. William Faulkner won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1949.


title: Scottish Americans

text: There have been a number of notable Scottish Gaelic poets active in the United States since the eighteenth century, including Aonghas MacAoidh and Domhnall Aonghas Stiùbhart. One of the few relics of Gaelic literature composed in the United States is a lullaby composed by an anonymous woman in the Carolinas during the American Revolutionary War. It remains popular to this day in Scotland.


title: Scottish Americans

text: More than 160,000 Scottish emigrants migrated to the U.S. American statesmen of Scottish descent in the early Republic included Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of War Henry Knox, and President James Monroe. Andrew Jackson and James K. Polk were what we now call Scotch-Irish presidents and products of the frontier in the period of Westward expansion. Among the most famous Scottish American soldier frontiersmen was Sam Houston, founding father of Texas.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Other Scotch-Irish presidents included James Buchanan, Andrew Johnson, Chester Alan Arthur, William McKinley and Richard M. Nixon. Ulysses S. Grant, Theodore Roosevelt (through his mother), Woodrow Wilson, Lyndon B. Johnson, and Ronald Reagan were of Scottish descent. By one estimate, 75% of U.S. presidents could claim some Scottish ancestry.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans fought on both sides of the Civil War, and a monument to their memory was erected in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1893. Winfield Scott, Ulysses S. Grant, Joseph E. Johnston, Irvin McDowell, James B. McPherson, Jeb Stuart and John B. Gordon were of Scottish descent, George B. McClellan and Stonewall Jackson Scotch-Irish.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall upheld the martial tradition in the twentieth century. Grace Murray Hopper, a rear admiral and computer scientist, was the oldest officer and highest-ranking woman in the U.S. armed forces on her retirement at the age of 80 in 1986. Isabella Cannon, the former Mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina, served as the first female mayor of a U.S. state capital.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The Scottish-born Alexander Winton built one of the first American automobiles in 1896, and specialized in motor racing. He broke the world speed record in 1900. In 1903, he became the first man to drive across the United States. David Dunbar Buick, another Scottish emigrant, founded Buick in 1903. The Scottish-born William Blackie transformed the Caterpillar Tractor Company into a multinational corporation.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Harley-Davidson Inc (formerly HDI), often abbreviated "H-D" or "Harley", is an American motorcycle manufacturer. The Davidson brothers were the sons of William C Davidson (1846-1923) who was born and grew up in Angus, Scotland, and Margaret Adams McFarlane (1843-1933) of Scottish descent from the small Scottish settlement of Cambridge, Wisconsin. They raised five children together: Janet May, William A., Walter, Arthur and Elizabeth.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans have made a major contribution to the US aircraft industry. Alexander Graham Bell, in partnership with Samuel Pierpont Langley, built the first machine capable of flight, the Bell-Langley airplane, in 1903. Lockheed was started by two brothers, Allan and Malcolm Loughead, in 1926. Douglas was founded by Donald Wills Douglas Sr. in 1921; he launched the world's first commercial passenger plane, the DC-3, in 1935. McDonnell Aircraft was founded by James Smith McDonnell, in 1939, and became famous for its military jets. In 1967, McDonnell and Douglas merged and jointly developed jet aircraft, missiles and spacecraft.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans were pioneers in human spaceflight. The Mercury and Gemini capsules were built by McDonnell. The first American in space, Alan Shepard, the first American in orbit, John Glenn, and the first man to fly free in space, Bruce McCandless II, were Scottish Americans.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The first men on the moon, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, were also of Scottish descent; Armstrong wore a kilt in a parade through his ancestral home of Langholm in the Scottish Borders in 1972. Armstrong's ancestry can be traced back to his eighth paternal great-grandfather Adam Armstrong from the Scottish Borders. His son Adam II and grandson Adam Abraham (b. Cumberland, England) left for the colonies in the 1730s settling in Pennsylvania.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Other Scottish American moonwalkers were the fourth, Alan Bean, the fifth, Alan Shepard, the seventh, David Scott (also the first to drive on the moon), and the eighth, James Irwin.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans Howard Aiken and Grace Murray Hopper created the first automatic sequence computer in 1939. Hopper was also the co-inventor of the computer language COBOL.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Ross Perot, another Scottish American entrepreneur, made his fortune from Electronic Data Systems, an outsourcing company he established in 1962.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Software giant Microsoft was co-founded in 1975 by Bill Gates, who owed his start in part to his mother, the Scottish American businesswoman Mary Maxwell Gates, who helped her son to get his first software contract with IBM. Glasgow-born Microsoft employee Richard Tait helped develop the "Encarta" encyclopedia and co-created the popular board game Cranium.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish Americans have helped to define the modern American diet by introducing many distinctive foods.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Philip Danforth Armour founded Armour Meats in 1867, revolutionizing the American meatpacking industry and becoming famous for hot dogs. Campbell Soups was founded in 1869 by Joseph A. Campbell and rapidly grew into a major manufacturer of canned soups. W. K. Kellogg transformed American eating habits from 1906 by popularizing breakfast cereal. Glen Bell, founder of Taco Bell in 1962, introduced Tex-Mex food to a mainstream audience. Marketing executive Arch West, born to Scottish emigrant parents, developed Doritos.


title: Scottish Americans

text: National Tartan Day, held each year on April 6 in the United States and Canada, celebrates the historical links between Scotland and North America and the contributions Scottish Americans and Canadians have made to US and Canadian democracy, industry and society. The date of April 6 was chosen as "the anniversary of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320—the inspirational document, according to U.S. Senate Resolution 155, 1999, upon which the American Declaration of Independence was modeled".


title: Scottish Americans

text: The Annual Tartan Week celebrations come to life every April with the largest celebration taking place in New York City. Thousands descend onto the streets of the Big Apple to celebrate their heritage, culture and the impact of the Scottish Americans in America today.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Hundreds of pipers, drummers, Highland dancers, Scottie Dogs and celebrities march down the streets drowned in their family tartans and Saltire flags whilst interacting with the thousands of onlookers.


title: Scottish Americans

text: NYC is not the only large city to celebrate Tartan Day. Large events also take place in Ohio, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, California, Chicago, Arizona, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Québec, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Scottish culture, food, and athletics are celebrated at Highland Games and Scottish festivals throughout North America. The largest of these occurs yearly at Pleasanton, California, Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina and Estes Park, Colorado. There are also other notable Scottish Festivals in cities like Tulsa, Oklahoma, Ventura, California at the Seaside Highland Games, Atlanta, Georgia (at Stone Mountain Park), San Antonio, Texas and St. Louis, Missouri. In addition to traditional Scottish sports such as tossing the caber and the hammer throw, there are whisky tastings, traditional foods such as haggis, Bagpipes and Drums competitions, Celtic rock musical acts and traditional Scottish dance.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Although Scottish Gaelic had been spoken in most of Scotland at one time or another, by the time of large-scale migrations to North America – the eighteenth century – it had only managed to survive in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland. Unlike other ethnic groups in Scotland, Scottish Highlanders preferred to migrate in communities, and remaining in larger, denser concentrations aided in the maintenance of their language and culture. The first communities of Scottish Gaels began migrating in the 1730s to Georgia, New York and the Carolinas. Only in the Carolinas were these settlements enduring. Although their numbers were small, the immigrants formed a beach-head for later migrations, which accelerated in the 1760s.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The American Revolutionary War effectively stopped direct migration to the newly formed United States, most people going instead to British North America (now Canada). The Canadian Maritimes were a favored destination from the 1770s to the 1840s. Sizable concentrations of Gaelic communities existed in Ontario, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island, with smaller clusters in Newfoundland, Quebec, and New Brunswick. Those who left these communities for opportunities in the United States, especially in New England, were usually fluent Gaelic speakers into the mid-twentieth century.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Of the many communities founded by Scottish Highland immigrants, the language and culture only survives at a community level in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. According to the 2000 census, 1,199 people speak Scottish Gaelic at home.


title: Scottish Americans

text: The direct descendants of Scottish Highlanders were not the only people in the United States to speak the language, however. Gaelic was one of the languages spoken by fur traders in many parts of North America. In some parts of the Carolinas and Alabama, African-American communities spoke Scottish Gaelic, particularly (but not solely) due to the influence of Gaelic-speaking slave-owners. According to musicologist Willie Ruff, jazz musician Dizzy Gillespie spoke often of the Gaelic speaking African-Americans.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Several presidents of the United States have had some Scottish or Scotch-Irish ancestry, although the extent of this varies. For example, Donald Trump's mother was Scottish and Woodrow Wilson's maternal grandparents were both Scottish. Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, Chester A. Arthur and William McKinley have less direct Scottish or Scotch-Irish ancestry.


title: Scottish Americans

text: Some place names of Scottish origin (either named after Scottish places or Scottish immigrants) in the US include:


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita (, “Compendium of "Charaka"”) is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine). Along with the "Sushruta Samhita", it is one of the two foundational texts of this field that have survived from ancient India. It is one of the three works that constitute the Brhat Trayi.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text is based on the "Agnivesha Samhitā", an eighth century BCE encyclopedic medical compendium by Agniveśa. It was revised by Charaka between 100 BCE and 200 CE and renamed "Charaka Samhitā".


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The pre-2nd century CE text consists of eight books and one hundred and twenty chapters. It describes ancient theories on human body, etiology, symptomology and therapeutics for a wide range of diseases. The "Charaka Samhita" also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork of a physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The "Charaka Samhita" states that the content of the book was first taught by Atreya, and then subsequently codified by Agniveśa, revised by Charaka, (a Kashmiri by origin) and the manuscripts that survive into the modern era are based on one completed by . Dṛḍhabala stated in the "Charaka Samhita" that he had to write one third of the book himself because this portion had been lost, and that he also re-wrote the last part of the book.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Based on textual analysis, and the literal meaning of the Sanskrit word "charak", Chattopadhyay speculated that charak does not refer to one person but multiple people. Vishwakarma and Goswami state that the text exists in many versions and entire chapters are missing in some versions.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Dates of composition of the "Charaka Samhita" are uncertain. Meulenbeld's "History of Indian Medical Literature" dates it to be between fourth century BCE to the second century CE, with Charaka's compilation likely between 100 BCE and 200 CE. The Dṛḍhabala revision and completion, the source of current texts, is dated to the 6th century CE.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: In Sanskrit, "" is a term for a wanderer, sannyasi (ascetic), and sometimes used in the context of the ancient tradition of wandering physicians who brought their medical expertise and magico-religious rites from village to village.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Surendranath Dasgupta states that the medical tradition of wandering physicians are traceable to the Atharvaveda, particularly the Caranavaidya shakha – one of the nine known "shakha" of Atharvaveda-based Vedic schools. The name of this school literally means "wandering physicians". Their texts have not survived into the modern era, but manuscripts from two competing schools – Paippalada and Saunakiya, have.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Atharvaveda contains chapters relating to medicine, surgery and magico-religious rites. This Atharvaveda layer of text was likely compiled contemporaneously with Samaveda and Yajurveda, in about 1200 BCE–1000 BCE. Dasgupta and other scholars state that the Atreya-Charaka school and its texts may have emerged from this older tradition, and he cites a series of Atharvaveda hymns to show that almost all organs and nomenclature found in Charaka Samhita are also found in the Vedic hymns.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The extant text has eight "" (books), totalling 120 chapters. The text includes a table of contents embedded in its verses, stating the names and describing the nature of the eight books, followed by a listing of the 120 chapters. These eight books are


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Seventeen chapters of "Cikitsā sthāna" and complete "Kalpa sthāna" and "Siddhi sthāna" were added later by Dṛḍhabala. The text starts with "Sūtra sthāna" which deals with fundamentals and basic principles of Ayurveda practice. Unique scientific contributions credited to the include:


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text asserts that there are four important parts to medical practice – the patient, the physician, the nurse and the medicines. All four are essential to recovery and return to health, states the text. The physician provides knowledge and coordinates the treatment, he is who can "explore the dark interior of the body with the lamp of knowledge", according to the text and Valiathan's translation. The physician must express joy and cheer towards those who can respond to treatment, masterfully avoid and save time in cases where the patient suffers from incurable disease, while compassionate towards all. The nurse must be knowledgeable, skilled at preparing formulations and dosage, sympathetic towards everyone and clean. The patient is responsible for being positive, have the ability to describe how he or she feels, remember and respectfully follow the physician instructions.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita, states Curtin, was among the earliest texts that set a code of ethics on physicians and nurses, attributing "moral as well as scientific authority to the healer". The text, in chapters 8 and 9 of the Vimana Sthana dedicates numerous verses to discussing the code. It mandates that the physician must seek consent before entering a patient's quarters, must be accompanied by a male member of the family if he is attending a woman or minor, must inform and gain consent from patient or the guardians if the patient is a minor, must never resort to extortion for his service, never involve himself in any other activities with the patient or patient's family (such as negotiating loans, arranging marriage, buying or selling property), speak with soft words and never use cruel words, only do "what is calculated to do good to the patient", and maintain the patient's privacy.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: There is no end in the knowledge of medical science, claims verse 3.8.12 of the Charaka Samhita, and the physician must constantly learn and devote himself to it. The text asserts that a physician should discuss his findings and questions with other physicians because "when one discusses with another that is possessed of a knowledge of the same science, such discussion leads to increase of knowledge and happiness". The verses that follow outline that discussions can be hostile or peaceful, the former are unproductive, the latter useful; even if one faces hostile criticism, one must persuade with gentle words and manner, asserts the text.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita, like many ancient Hindu literature, reveres and attributes Hindu gods as the ultimate source of its knowledge. The Charaka Samhita mentions Bharadvaja learning from god Indra, after pleading that "poor health was disrupting the ability of human beings from pursuing their spiritual journey", and then Indra provides both the method and specifics of medical knowledge. The method, asserts the text, revolves around three principles: etiology, symptomology and therapeutics. Thus, states Glucklich, the text presumes proper goals to include both spiritual and physical health.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita, in addition to initial recitations, uses the foundational assumptions and values embedded in various layers of the Vedas. These assumptions include the Vedic doctrine that a human being is a microcosmic replica of the universe, and the ancient Hindu theory of six elements (five Prakriti and one Brahman), three humors (Vata, Pitta, Kapha), three Guṇas (Sattva, Rajas and Tamas) as constituent forces innate in a human body, and others. The Charaka Samhita is premised on the Hindu assumption that Atman (soul) exists, it is immutable, and thereafter the text defines physical and mental diseases as caused by a lack of correlation and imbalance in body, or mind, or both, because of external factors (Prakriti, objects of senses), age or a want of correlation (appropriate harmony, equilibrium) between the three humors or the three "Gunas".


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Sushruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita have religious ideas throughout, states Steven Engler, who then concludes "Vedic elements are too central to be discounted as marginal". These ideas appear, for example, in the theoretical foundations and Vedic metaphors used in these texts. In addition, states Engler, the text includes another layer of ideas, where empirical rational ideas flourish in competition or cooperation with religious ideas, as well as the evidence of later additions of some Brahminic ideas.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: There is a close relationship between the philosophic presuppositions and the approach to medicine in Caraka Samhita.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: "Charaka Samhita" dedicates Chapters 5, 6, 25, 26 and 27 to "Aharatattva" (dietetics), stating that wholesome diet is essential for good health and to prevent diseases, while unwholesome food is an important cause of diseases.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text suggests that foods are source of heat, nutritive value as well as physiological substances that act like drugs inside human body. Furthermore, along with medicine, Caraka Samhita in Chapters 26 and 27, states that proper nutrition is essential for expedient recovery from sickness or surgery.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita suggests a regimen of "Mamsa Rasa" (meat soup) during pregnancy from 6th month onwards.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Freshly cut meat is also recommended by the text for treatment of poison: the cut meat is pressed against the affected part or spot of insect or reptile bite to absorb the poison.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Ray et al. list medicinal substances from over one hundred fifty animal origins that are described in Charaka Samhita, and the chapters these are found in. These range from meat of wild animals such as fox and crocodile, to that of freshly cut fish, fish oil, eggs of birds, bee's wax. Additionally, the text describes hundreds of formulations (gruel) it asserts to be of medicinal value from a mixtures of animal products and herb or plant products, as well as inert minerals such as various salts, soots and alkalis.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Numerous chapters in the Charaka Samhita are dedicated to identifying and classifying seeds, roots, flowers, fruits, stems, aromatic leaves, barks of different trees, plants juices, mountain herbs, animal products ranging from their milk to their excretory waste after the animals eat certain diet or grasses, different types of honey, stones, salts and others. The text also describes numerous recipes, detailing how a particular formulation should be prepared. A typical recipe appears in the Cikitsa Sthana book of the Caraka Samhita as follows:


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text, thereafter, asserts that this "Anu-taila" is to be used as a rubbing oil and as nasal drop for a certain class of ailments. Glucklich mentions other medical texts from ancient India which include the use of Anu-taila in skin therapy.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita discusses sexual diseases as well as its theory of treatment of sexual dysfunctions and virility ("Vajikarana"). The text emphasizes methods of body cleansing, sexual health promoting conduct, behavior and diet. Certain herb and mineral combinations are part of its regimen. The text asserts that obesity and a lifestyle lacking exercise is linked to sexual dysfunctions, dedicating many verses to this.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text, states Arnold, contains many verses relating to women's sexual health, suggesting "great antiquity of certain methods and therapeutic agents used in the treatment of gynecological cases", for example the cautery, pessaries, and astringent washes.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: Chapter VIII of the Charaka Samhita's Vimana Sthana book includes a section for the student aiming to become a physician. The text asserts that any intelligent man who knows the challenge and patience necessary to become a physician must first decide on his guru (teacher) and the books he must study. The Charaka Samhita claims, according to Kaviratna and Sharma translation, that "diverse treatises on medicine are in circulation", and the student must select one by reputed scholar known for his wisdom, is free from tautology, ascribed to a Rishi, well compiled and has bhasya (commentaries), which treats nothing but the professed subject, is devoid of slang and unfamiliar words, explain its inferences, is non-contradictory, and is well illustrated.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The teacher for apprenticeship should be one who knows the field, has experience gained from successfully treating diseases, who is compassionate towards who approach him, who lives a life of inner and outer "Shaucha", is well equipped, who knows the characteristics of health and disease, one who is without malice towards anyone, is free of anger, who respects privacy and pain of his patients, is willing to teach, and is a good communicator. When one finds such a teacher, asserts the Caraka Samhita, the student must revere the teacher like a deity or one's own father, because it is by his grace that one becomes educated.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: When the teacher accepts a student as his apprentice, asserts the Charaka Samhita, he should in the presence of fire initiate the student with the following mandates during the period of apprenticeship – "thou shalt be a brahmacharin, wear beard and mustache, thou shalt be always truthful, abstain from meat and unclean diet, never harbor envy, never bear weapons, thou shalt do anything I say except if that may lead to another person's death or to great harm or to a sin, thou shalt behave like my son, never be impatient, always be attentive, behave with humility, act after reflection, and always seek whether sitting or standing the good of all living creatures".


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The most celebrated commentary on this text is the "Carakatātparyaṭīkā" "Commentary on the Meaning of the Caraka" or the "Ayurveda Dīpikā", "The Lamp to Ayurveda" written by Chakrapani Datta (1066). Other notable commentaries are Bhattaraka Harichandra's "Carakanyāsa" ( 4th-6th century), Jejjaṭas "Nirantarapadavyākhyā" (c.875), Shivadasa Sena's "Carakatattvapradīpikā" (c.1460). Among the more recent commentaries are Narasiṃha Kavirāja's "Carakatattvaprakāśa", Gaṅgādhara Kaviratna's "Jalpakalpatāru" (1879) and Yogindra Nath Sen's Charakopaskara (1920).


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The earliest scholarly bhasya (review, commentary) in Sanskrit may be of Bhattar Harichandra's "Carakanyasa" on the redaction by Dṛḍhabala. Two manuscripts of this bhasya have survived into the modern era, and currently stored as number 9290 in Asiatic Society of Kolkata and number 13092 manuscript at the Government East Library, Chennai.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita is among the most important ancient medical treatises. It is one of the foundational texts of the medical tradition in India, alongside the "Susruta Saṃhitā", "the Bheḷa-Saṃhitā", and the medical portions of the Bower Manuscript.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The Charaka Samhita is the oldest known Hindu text on Ayurveda (life sciences), followed by the Sushruta Samhita and Ashtanga Hrdaya. Except for some topics and their emphasis, they discuss many similar subjects such as General Principles, Pathology, Diagnosis, Anatomy, Sensorial Prognosis, Therapeutics, Pharmaceutics and Toxicology. The Sushruta and Caraka texts differ in one major aspect, with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of surgery, while Caraka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text is not only an interesting source of ancient medical practices, it also may be a source of valuable information on ecological, social, and economic conditions in ancient India. The text describes physical geography with words such as "Jangala", "Aanoopa", and "Sadharana", then lists the trees, vegetables, lakes and rivers, bird life and animals found in each of these regions. Many of the drugs mentioned, they state, are linked to region of their origin (e.g. Maghadi from Maghada and Kashmarya from Kashmir). Ray et al. list the numerous mammals, reptiles, insects, fishes, amphibians, arthropods and birds and the respective chapters of Caraka Samhita these are mentioned in.


title: Charaka Samhita

text: The text also states that the food habits of ancient Indians varied by regions. "Mamsa" (meat) was popular with people who lived in Bahlika, Pahlava, Cheena, Shoolika, Yavana and Shaka. People of Prachya preferred Matsya (fish), according to Bhavana and Shreevathsa translation. Those living in Sindhu Desha (now Gujarat and south Pakistan) were habituated to milk, according to Caraka Samhita, while people of Ashmaka and Avantika consumed more oily and sour food. The people of Dakshina Desha (South India) preferred Peya (thin gruel), whereas those of Uttara (North) and Pashchima (West) liked Mantha. Residents of Madhya Desha (Central India) preferred barley, wheat and milk products according to the text.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: Carl Wayne Buntion (March 30, 1944 – April 21, 2022) was an American man convicted of capital murder in Texas and sentenced to death. On April 21, 2022, at the age of 78, he became the oldest inmate to be executed in Texas and the state's first execution of 2022.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: Buntion was born on March 30, 1944. When he was a child, his father murdered a man in front of one of his sons and was violent towards his whole family. In one incident, he smashed his wife's teeth. Buntion sustained broken bones from the abuse, and he said he had post-traumatic stress disorder because of it. One of his brothers served a twenty-year sentence for an unrelated crime.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: Buntion had a lengthy criminal history prior to the murder, starting with a theft conviction in 1961. Over the years, he gathered convictions for burglary, damage to property, and possession of narcotic drugs.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: At the time of the shooting, Buntion had been on parole, after serving thirteen months of a fifteen-year sentence for sexually assaulting a child. On April 10, 1971, his twin brother, Kenneth Buntion, was killed by two police officers during a shootout. At the time, Buntion had supposedly vowed to avenge his brother's death. In addition, he had allegedly told a companion that he would rather shoot it out with police than be sent back to prison.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: On June 27, 1990, Buntion was the passenger in a vehicle that was pulled over by 37-year-old Houston Police Department officer James Irby. Irby began speaking with the driver, and Buntion exited the vehicle and shot Irby once in the head. Irby fell to the ground, and Buntion shot Irby twice in the back. Buntion fled the scene, shooting at others who were nearby. After killing Irby, Buntion also attempted to shoot at a driver during a carjacking attempt, fired at another officer and held another person at gunpoint before he was arrested. Buntion was apprehended in a nearby building.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: In 1991, a jury found Buntion guilty of capital murder and he was sentenced to death on January 24, 1991. The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals vacated Buntion's death sentence in 2009. Buntion went to trial again in 2012. At the trial, his brother testified about their childhood. On March 6, 2012, Buntion was again sentenced to death by a jury.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: In 2020, a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit ruled that "the fact that Buntion has behaved peacefully while in prison does not disprove the jury's probability calculation." The court stated that the U.S. Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of juries weighing future danger.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: Buntion's lawyers appealed to the United States Supreme Court. In October 2021, the Supreme Court denied Buntion's appeal. In a statement following the denial, Justice Stephen Breyer said that Buntion's "lengthy confinement, and the confinement of others like him, calls into question the constitutionality of the death penalty."


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: On December 8, 2021, Buntion's lawyers filed a state habeas application which claimed that it would be cruel and unusual punishment to execute Buntion given the amount of time he had spent incarcerated and that he did not pose a danger to other prisoners or staff. The application was dismissed.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: On March 30, 2022, Buntion's lawyers asked the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles to commute Buntion's death sentence to a lesser sentence or to give him a ninety-day reprieve. They argued that Buntion's sentence should be commuted because it was imposed by a jury that wrongly predicted he would pose a future danger to fellow inmates. They also stated that Buntion's physical impairments, including sciatic nerve pain that sometimes required him to use a wheelchair, would prevent him from harming anyone else should he be released. Additionally, the lawyers asked for a ninety-day reprieve to determine if Buntion would have access to his spiritual adviser during the execution based on the recent Supreme Court decision in "Ramirez v. Collier". On April 19, 2022, the Texas Board of Pardons and Paroles rejected Buntion's request for commutation or clemency, voting unanimously against Buntion.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: One week prior to Buntion's scheduled execution, he contracted pneumonia, which makes lethal injection more painful. On his return from the hospital, where he received treatment for pneumonia, Buntion received a head injury when the vehicle he was being transported in came to a sudden stop. In an interview shortly before his execution, Buntion expressed remorse, saying, "Every day for the last 32 years I have regretted what happened."


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: Buntion was executed by a lethal injection of pentobarbital on April 21, 2022, and was pronounced dead at 6:39 p.m. CDT. Prior to his death, Buntion stated "I wanted the Irby family to know one thing: I do have remorse for what I did. I pray to God that they get the closure for me killing their father and Ms. Irby's husband... To all of my friends that stuck with me through all of these years, I am not going to say 'goodbye,' just saying 'so long.' I am ready to go to Heaven, warden." Several dozen motorcyclists, including motorcycle officers from the Houston Police Department and retired officers from motorcycle clubs gathered outside the Huntsville Unit and revved their engines at the time of the execution. Those attending the execution stated they could hear the noise, with some calling it "disrespectful" and "disgusting."


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: In an interview about a week before the execution, Maura Irby, James Irby's widow, stated, "My whole adult life, I've spent saving lives and helping people. So the idea of condoning taking a life has been a challenge. It was from the beginning when we went through the first trial...But it's not about revenge...it's about justice." Following the execution, Maura Irby said "I felt like I took the deepest breath I was able to in the last 32 years. I felt joy." Maura Irby also said that she was sorry someone died, but that she did not think of Buntion as a person but as a thing.


title: Carl Wayne Buntion

text: At one point, Buntion was a member of the Aryan Brotherhood of Texas. During his time on death row, Buntion found religion and spent time reading his Bible. At the time of his death, Buntion had been diagnosed with vertigo, arthritis, sciatic nerve pain, and other chronic illnesses.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat (), also known as hammer-headed fruit bat and big-lipped bat, is a megabat widely distributed in West and Central Africa. It is the only member of the genus Hypsignathus, which is part of the tribe Epomophorini along with four other genera. It is the largest bat in continental Africa, with wingspans approaching , and males almost twice as heavy as females. Males and females also greatly differ in appearance, making it the most sexually dimorphic bat species in the world. These differences include several adaptations that help males produce and amplify vocalizations: the males' larynges (vocal cords) are about three times as large as those of females, and they have large resonating chambers on their faces. Females appear more like a typical megabat, with foxlike faces.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat is frugivorous, consuming a variety of fruits such as figs, bananas, and mangoes, though a few instances of carnivory have been noted. Females tend to travel a consistent route to find predictable fruits, whereas males travel more to find the highest quality fruit. It forages at night, sleeping during the day in tree roosts. Individuals may roost alone or in small groups. Unlike many other bat species that segregate based on sex, males and females will roost together during the day. It has two mating seasons each year during the dry seasons. It is believed to be the only bat species with a classical lek mating system, wherein males gather on a "lek", which in this case is a long and thin stretch of land, such as along a river. There, they produce loud, honking vocalizations to attract females. Females visit the lek and select a male to mate with; the most successful 6% of males are involved in 79% of matings. Offspring are born five or six months later, typically a singleton, though twins have been documented. Its predators are not well-known, but may include hawks. Adults are commonly affected by parasites such as flies and mites.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat is sometimes considered a pest due to its frugivorous diet and its extremely loud honking noises at night. In Nigeria and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, it is consumed as bushmeat. It has been investigated as a potential reservoir of the Ebola virus, with several testing positive for antibodies against the virus. It is not considered a species of conservation concern due to its large range and presumably large population size.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat was described as a new species in 1861 by American scientist Harrison Allen. Allen placed the species into a newly-created genus, "Hypsignathus". The holotype had been collected by French-American zoologist Paul Du Chaillu in Gabon. The genus name "Hypsignathus" comes from the Ancient Greek , meaning "high", and , meaning "jaw". T. S. Palmer speculated that Allen chose the name "Hypsignathus" to allude to the "deeply arched mouth" of the species. The species name is Latin for "having the qualities of a monster".


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: A 2011 study found that "Hypsignathus" was the most basal member of the tribe Epomophorini, which also includes "Epomops", "Micropteropus", "Epomophorus", and "Nanonycteris". Initially, Allen identified the hammer-headed bat as a member of the subfamily Pteropodinae of the megabats. However, in 1997, Epomophorini was recognized as part of the subfamily Epomophorinae. Some taxonomists do not recognize Epomophorinae as a valid subfamily and include its taxa, including the Epomophorini, within Rousettinae.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat is the largest bat in mainland Africa. Males have wingspans up to , and all individuals have forearm lengths exceeding . It has pronounced sexual dimorphism, more so than any other bat species in the world, with males up to twice as heavy as females. The average weight of males is , compared to for females. Other differences between the sexes relate to their social system, in which males produce loud, honking vocalizations. Therefore, males have greatly enlarged larynges, about three times the size of females', extending through most of the thoracic cavity, and measuring half the length of the spine. The larynx is so large, it displaces other organs, including the heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. Males also have resonating chambers to increase the volume of sound production. These chambers are pharyngeal air sacs connected to a large sinus in the humped snout. These numerous adaptations caused scientists Herbert Lang and James Chapin to remark, "In no other mammal is everything so entirely subordinated to the organs of voice".


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Males overall have boxy heads with enormous lips, while the females, with their narrower snouts, have more foxlike faces. Males and females both have dark brown fur, with a paler mantle (sides and back of neck). It has patches of white fur at the base of the ears, though sometimes indistinct. The fur is long and smooth, though somewhat woolly in texture on the mantle. The ears are triangular and blackish-brown, and the eyes are very large. The dental formula is for a total of 28 teeth; very occasionally, individuals have been found with an additional upper premolar on each side of the mouth, for a total of 30 teeth. The skull is larger and more robust than any other megabat in Africa, with a pronounced, massive snout. The tongue is large and powerful, with an expanded, tridentate tip. The tongue has backwards-facing papillae used to extract juice from fruits.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The wings are characterized by low aspect ratio, meaning that it has a smaller wingspan relative to the wing area. The wing loading is considered exceptionally high, meaning that it has a large body weight relative to the wing area. The wings are blackish brown in color. The thumb is approximately long. The wings attach to the hindlimbs at the second toe. It lacks a tail.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Instead of the typical mammalian karyotype where females have two X chromosomes and males have one each of X and Y, males have a single X chromosome and no Y chromosome, known as X0 sex-determination system. Thus, females have 36 chromosomes (34 autosomes and two sex chromosomes), and males have 35 chromosomes (34 autosomes but only one sex chromosome). This is seen in a few other bat genera, including "Epomophorus" and "Epomops".


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Hammer-headed bats are frugivores. Figs make up much of their diet, but mangos, bananas and guavas may also be consumed. There are some complications inherent in a fruit diet such as insufficient protein intake. It is suggested that fruit bats compensate for this by possessing a proportionally longer intestine compared to insectivorous species.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Males and females rely on different strategies for foraging. Females use trap-lining, in which they travel an established route with dependable and predictable food sources, even if the food is lower quality. Males, in contrast, search for areas rich with food, traveling up to to reach particularly good food patches. Upon finding suitable fruit, the hammer-headed bat may eat at the tree or pick the fruit and carry it away to another site for consumption. It chews the fruit, swallowing the juice and soft pulp, before spitting out the rest. The guano (feces) typically contains seeds from ingested fruits, indicating that it may be an important seed disperser.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Van Deusan (1968) reports "H. monstrosus" showing some carnivorous behavior by attacking chickens to drink their blood and scavenging for meat.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Little is known about reproduction in hammer-headed bats. In some populations, breeding is thought to take place semi-annually during the dry seasons. The timing of the dry season varies depending on the locality, but in general the first breeding season is from June to August and the second is from December to February. Females may become pregnant up to twice per year, giving birth after five or six months gestation to one offspring at a time, though twins have been reported. Newborns weigh approximately at birth. Females reach sexual maturity faster than males, and can reproduce at six months. Females reach adult size by nine months of age. In contrast, males are not sexually mature until eighteen months. Males and females are similar in size for their first year of life.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: This species is often cited as an example of classical lek mating, and is perhaps the only bat species with such. The classical lek is defined by four criteria:


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Males form these leks along streams or riverbeds during the mating season, which lasts 1–3 months. Leks consist of 20–135 males in an area about wide and long. Each male claims a display territory of about in diameter, in which he honks repeatedly and flaps his wings while hanging from a branch. Typically, 60–120 honks are produced per minute. Males display for around four hours before foraging, with peaks in lekking activity in the early evening and before dawn. The early evening peak is when the majority of copulation occurs. Females will fly through the lek, selecting a male by landing on a branch next to him. The chosen male emits a "staccato buzz" call, followed immediately by copulation, which lasts 30–60 seconds. After copulation, the female immediately departs, and the male resumes displaying. The males at the center of the lek have the most success, and are responsible for the majority of matings: the top 6% of males have 79% of the total matings. In the before-dawn peak in activity, copulation is less frequent, and males spend time jockeying with each other for the best display territory. As the mating season progresses, the importance of the before-dawn peak lessens.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: However, some populations of hammer-headed bats in West Africa do not use leks. Instead, they have a harem system.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: During the day, the hammer-headed bat roosts in trees, typically above the ground in the forest canopy. Various trees are used for roosting, with no preference for a particular species. It has low fidelity to its roost and will move to a new roost after 5–9 days. It relies on camouflage to hide from predators. It displays a mix of solitary and social behavior. Individuals of both sexes are frequently found roosting alone, though they may roost in small groups of around four individuals. Occasionally, groups of up to twenty-five have been documented. Groups are of mixed sex and age, unlike other bat species which segregate based on sex. While roosting, individuals in a group are approximately apart, with males on the periphery and females nearer the center. During most of the day, individuals sleep with their noses covered by their wings. Members of the same group show little interaction with each other: they do not "squabble", vocalize, or groom each other. Instead, at sunset, individuals groom themselves then set off independently to forage.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: Its predators are not well-documented, but may include avian species such as the long-tailed hawk. It has a diverse array of parasites, including such ectoparasites as the bat fly (Nycteribiidae) "Dipseliopoda arcuata", the spinturnicid mite "Ancystropus aethiopicus", the gastronyssid mite "Mycteronyssus polli", and the teinocoptid mite "Teinocopties auricularis". Internally, it is known to be affected by the liver parasite "Hepatocystis carpenteri". Adults commonly host parasites.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat is a lowland species, always occurring below above sea level. Most records of this species occur in rainforest habitat, including lowland rainforest, swamp forest, riverine forests, and mosaics of forest and grassland. While it has been documented in savanna habitats, these records are rare, and it has been speculated that these individuals are vagrants. It has a wide range in West and Central Africa, including the following countries: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: As a frugivorous species, the hammer-headed bat is sometimes considered a pest of fruit crops. Its ability to produce extremely loud vocalizations means that some consider it one of Africa's most significant nocturnal pests. Humans hunt this large bat and consume it as bushmeat. It is eaten in Nigeria, as well as seasonally in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: The hammer-headed bat has been investigated as a potential reservoir of the Ebola virus. Some individuals have tested seropositive for the virus, meaning that they had antibodies against the virus, though the virus itself was not detected. Additionally, nucleic acid sequences associated with the virus have been isolated from its tissues. However, the natural reservoirs of ebolaviruses are still unknown as of 2019. Megabats like the hammer-headed bat tend to be over-sampled relative to other potential Ebola virus hosts, meaning that they may have an unwarranted amount of research attention, and , no bat hunter or researcher is known to be the index case ("patient zero") in an Ebola outbreak.


title: Hammer-headed bat

text: , the hammer-headed bat is evaluated as a least-concern species by the IUCN—its lowest conservation priority. It meets the criteria for this classification because it has a wide geographic range; its population is presumably large; and it is not thought to be experiencing rapid population decline. It is not a common bat species in captivity, though it is kept at the Wrocław Zoo in Poland as of 2020, and was kept at the Bronx Zoo and San Diego Zoo Safari Park in the 1970s and 1980s. In captivity, hammer-headed bats, particularly males, are vulnerable to stress-related illness, especially when moved or placed in new enclosures.


title: 32X

text: The 32X is an add-on for the Sega Genesis video game console. Codenamed "Project Mars", it was designed to expand the power of the Genesis and serve as a transitional console into the 32-bit era until the release of the Sega Saturn. The 32X uses its own ROM cartridges and has its own library of games. It was distributed under the name in Japan and South Korea, Genesis 32X in North America, Mega 32X in Brazil, and Mega Drive 32X in all other regions.


title: 32X

text: Sega unveiled the 32X at the Consumer Electronics Show in June 1994, and presented it as a low-cost option for 32-bit games. It was developed in response to the Atari Jaguar and concerns that the Saturn would not make it to market by the end of 1994. Though the 32X was conceived as a new, standalone console by Sega of Japan, at the suggestion of Sega of America executive Joe Miller and his team, it became an add-on for the Genesis and made more powerful. The final design contained two 32-bit central processing units and a visual display processor.


title: 32X

text: The 32X failed to attract third-party video game developers and consumers because of the announcement of the Saturn's simultaneous release in Japan. Sega's efforts to rush the 32X to market cut into time for game development, resulting in a weak library of 40 games that did not fully use the hardware, including Genesis ports. Sega produced 800,000 32X units and sold an estimated 665,000 by the end of 1994, selling the rest at steep discounts until it was discontinued in 1996 as Sega turned its focus to the Saturn.


title: 32X

text: The 32X is considered a commercial failure. Initial reception was positive, highlighting the low price and power expansion to the Genesis. However, later reviews, both contemporary and retrospective, were mostly negative because of its shallow game library, poor market timing and its market fragmentation of the Genesis.


title: 32X

text: Sega released the Mega Drive, a 16-bit video game console, in 1988. It was released in North America as the Genesis in 1989, with releases in other regions a year later. In 1991, Sega released an add-on for the Genesis, the Sega CD, which did not meet commercial expectations. Sega began to develop a second add-on that would bridge the gap between the Genesis and its upcoming Sega Saturn, serving as a less expensive entry into the 32-bit era. Sega was determined to release the new add-on before the end of 1994. According to former Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske, "Initially, the argument was that we could get another year of life out of the Genesis before we had to introduce the Saturn. Japan disagreed with me on that, so as kind of a stopgap measure, the 32X came up."


title: 32X

text: During the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1994, Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller took a phone call in his Las Vegas hotel suite from Sega president Hayao Nakayama, in which Nakayama stressed the importance of coming up with a quick response to the Atari Jaguar. Included on this call were Sega of America producer Scot Bayless, Sega hardware team head Hideki Sato, and Sega of America vice president of technology Marty Franz. One potential idea for this came from a concept from the Japanese team. This concept, later known as "Project Jupiter" and referred to by former Sega of America producer Michael Latham as "Genesis 2", was an entirely new independent console. Project Jupiter was initially slated to be a new version of the Genesis, with an upgraded color palette and a lower cost than the upcoming Saturn, as well as with some limited 3D capabilities thanks to integration of ideas from the development of the Sega Virtua Processor chip. Miller pushed for a different strategy — according to Latham, Miller dismissed Project Jupiter as "just a horrible idea. If all you're going to do is enhance the system, you should make it an add-on. If it's a new system with legitimate new software, great. But if the only thing it does is double the colors..." Miller said his idea was to leverage the existing Genesis as a way to keep from alienating Sega customers, who would otherwise be required to discard their Genesis systems entirely to play 32-bit games, and to control the cost of the new system in the form of an add-on. From these discussions, Project Jupiter was discontinued and the new add-on, codenamed "Project Mars", was advanced.


title: 32X

text: At the suggestion from Miller that his American team would be able to design the system, the 32X was designed as a peripheral for the existing Genesis, expanding its power with two 32-bit SuperH-2 processors, the same as those that would be used in the Saturn but with a lower clock speed. The SH-2 had been developed in 1993 as a joint venture between Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi. The original design for the 32X add-on, according to Bayless, was created on a cocktail napkin, but Miller denied this. In another account, Bayless claimed that Franz began designing the 32X on a hotel notepad, drawing two SH-2 processors with separate framebuffers.


title: 32X

text: Although the new unit was a stronger console than originally proposed, it was not compatible with Saturn games. This was justified by Sega's statement that both platforms would run at the same time, and that the 32X would be aimed at players who could not afford the more expensive Saturn. Bayless praised the potential of this system at this point, calling it "a coder's dream for the day" with its twin processors and 3D capabilities. Sega of America headed up the development of the 32X, with some assistance from Sato's team in Japan. Shortages of processors due to the same 32-bit chips being used in both the 32X and the Saturn hindered the development of the 32X, as did the language barrier between the teams in Japan and the United States.


title: 32X

text: Before the 32X was launched, the release date of the Saturn was announced for November 1994 in Japan, coinciding with the 32X's target launch date in North America. Sega of America was tasked with marketing the 32X with the Saturn's Japan release occurring simultaneously. Their answer was to describe the 32X a "transitional device" between the Genesis and the Saturn; Bayless said this "just made us look greedy and dumb to consumers".


title: 32X

text: The unveiling of the 32X to the public came at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in June 1994 in Chicago. Promoted as the "poor man's entry into 'next generation' games", 32X was marketed for its US$159 price point as a less-expensive alternative to the Saturn. However, Sega would not answer as to whether or not a Genesis console equipped with a Sega CD and a 32X would be able to run Saturn software. Trip Hawkins, founder of The 3DO Company, was willing to point out that it would not, stating, "Everyone knows that 32X is a Band-Aid. It's not a 'next generation system.' It's fairly expensive. It's not particularly high-performance. It's hard to program for, and it's not compatible with the Saturn." In response to these comments, Sega executive Richard Brudvik-Lindner pointed out that the 32X would play Genesis games, and had the same system architecture as the Saturn.


title: 32X

text: In August of that year, "GamePro" highlighted the advantages of the upcoming add-on in its 32-bit processors and significantly lower price, noting that "[n]o doubt gotta-get-it-now gamers will spend the big bucks to grab Saturn or PlayStation systems and games from Japan. For the rest of us, however, 32X may well be the system of choice in '94." In promotion for the new system, Sega promised 12 games available at launch and 50 games due for release in 1995 from third-party developers.


title: 32X

text: The 32X was released on November 21, 1994, in North America, in time for the holiday season that year. As announced, it retailed for $159.99, and had a reasonably successful launch in the marketplace. Demand among retailers was high, and Sega could not keep up with orders for the new system. Over 1,000,000 orders had been placed for 32X units, but Sega had only managed to ship 600,000 units by January 1995. In the United States, nearly 500,000 units were sold by Christmas 1994, exceeding Sega's initial sales projection. Launching at about the same price as a Genesis console, the price of the 32X was less than half of what the Saturn's price would be at launch. Despite Sega's initial promises, only six games were available at its North American launch, including "Doom", "Star Wars Arcade", "Virtua Racing Deluxe", and "Cosmic Carnage". Although "Virtua Racing" was considered strong, "Cosmic Carnage" "looked and played so poorly that reporters made jokes about it". Games were available at a retail price of $69.95. Advertising for the system included images of the 32X being connected to a Genesis console to create an "arcade system". Japan received the 32X on December 3, 1994. The PAL release came in January 1995, at a price of £169.99, and also experienced initial high demand.


title: 32X

text: Despite the lower price console's positioning as an inexpensive entry into 32-bit gaming, Sega had a difficult time convincing third-party developers to create games for the new system. Top developers were already aware of the coming arrival of the Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64, and PlayStation, and did not believe the 32X would be capable of competing with any of those systems. The quick development time of the 32X also made game development difficult, according to Franz. Not wanting to create games for an add-on that was "a technological dead-end", many developers decided not to make games for the system. Problems plagued games developed in-house due to the time crunch to release the 32X. According to Bayless, "games in the queue were effectively jammed into a box as fast as possible, which meant massive cutting of corners in every conceivable way. Even from the outset, designs of those games were deliberately conservative because of the time crunch. By the time they shipped they were even more conservative; they did nothing to show off what the hardware was capable of." Kalinske has stated that Sega of America did not receive enough support from Japan in game development. Development kits came out very late, leaving little time for game development before the 32X release.


title: 32X

text: Journalists were similarly concerned about Sega's tactic of selling two similar consoles at different prices and attempting to support both, likening Sega's approach to that of General Motors and segmenting the market for its consoles. In order to convince the press that the 32X was a worthwhile console, Sega flew in journalists from all around the country to San Francisco for a party at a local nightclub. The event featured a speech from Kalinske, live music with a local rapper praising the 32X, and 32X games on exhibition. However, the event turned out to be a bust, as journalists attempted to leave the party due to its loud music and unimpressive games on display, only to find that the buses that brought them to the nightclub had just left and would not return until the scheduled end of the party.


title: 32X

text: Though the system had a successful launch, demand soon disappeared. Over the first three months of 1995, several of the 32X's third party publishers, including Capcom and Konami, cancelled their 32X projects so that they could focus on producing games for the Saturn and PlayStation. The 32X failed to catch on with the public, and is considered a commercial failure. By 1995, the Genesis had still not proven successful in Japan, where it was known as Mega Drive, and the Saturn was beating the PlayStation, so Sega CEO Hayao Nakayama decided to force Sega of America to focus on the Saturn and cut support for Genesis products, executing a surprise early launch of the Saturn in the early summer of 1995. Sega was supporting five different consoles before this—Saturn, Genesis, Game Gear, Pico, and the Master System—as well as the Sega CD and Sega 32X add-ons. Sales estimates for the 32X stood at 665,000 units at the end of 1994. Despite assurances from Sega that many games would be developed for the system, in early 1996, Sega finally conceded that it had promised too much out of the add-on and decided to discontinue the 32X in order to focus on the Saturn. In September 1995, the retail price for the 32X dropped to $99, and later the remaining inventory was cleared out of stores at $19.95, with 800,000 units sold in total.


title: 32X

text: The Sega Neptune is an unproduced two-in-one Genesis and 32X console which Sega planned to release in fall 1995, with the retail price planned to be something less than US$200. It was featured as early as March 1995, with "Sega Magazine" saying the console "shows [Sega's] commitment to the hardware", and that the system would be compatible with the Mega-CD. Sega cancelled the Neptune in October 1995, citing fears that it would dilute their marketing for the Saturn while being priced too close to the Saturn to be a viable competitor. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" used the Sega Neptune as an April Fools' Day prank in its April 2001 issue. The issue included a small article in which the writers announced that Sega had found a warehouse full of old Sega Neptunes, and were selling them on a website for $199.


title: 32X

text: The 32X can be used only in conjunction with a Genesis system. It is inserted into the system like a standard game cartridge. The add-on requires its own separate power supply, a connection cable linking it to the Genesis, and an additional conversion cable for the original model of the Genesis. As well as playing its own library of cartridges, the 32X is backwards-compatible with Genesis games, and can also be used in conjunction with the Sega CD to play games that use both add-ons. The 32X also came with a spacer so it would fit properly with the second model of the Genesis; an optional spacer was offered for use with the Sega Genesis CDX system, but ultimately never shipped due to risks of electric shock when the 32X and CDX were connected. Installation of the 32X also requires the insertion of two included electromagnetic shield plates into the Genesis' cartridge slot.


title: 32X

text: Seated on top of a Genesis, the 32X measures . The 32X contains two Hitachi SH-2 32-bit RISC processors with a clock speed of 23 MHz, which Sega claimed would allow the system to work 40 times faster than a stand-alone Genesis. Its graphics processing unit is capable of producing 32,768 colors and rendering 50,000 polygons per second, which provides a noticeable improvement over the polygon rendering of the Genesis. The 32X also includes 256 kilobytes of random-access memory (RAM), along with 256 kilobytes of video RAM. Sound is supplied through a pulse-width modulation sound source. Input/output is supplied to a television set via a provided A/V cable that supplies composite video and stereo audio, or through an RF modulator. Stereo audio can also be played through headphones via a headphone jack on the attached Genesis.


title: 32X

text: The 32X library consists of 40 games, including six that required both the 32X and Sega CD. Among them were ports of arcade games "After Burner", "Space Harrier", and "Star Wars Arcade", a sidescroller with a hummingbird as a main character in "Kolibri", and a 32X-exclusive "Sonic the Hedgehog" spinoff, "Knuckles' Chaotix". Several of the games released for the 32X are enhanced ports of Genesis games, including "NFL Quarterback Club" and "World Series Baseball '95". In a retrospective review of the console, "Star Wars Arcade" was considered the best game for the 32X by "IGN" for its cooperative play, soundtrack, and faithful reproduction of the experiences of "Star Wars". In a separate review, "IGN"s Levi Buchanan praised the 32X game "Shadow Squadron" as superior to "Star Wars Arcade". "Retro Gamer" writer Damien McFerran, however, praised "Virtua Fighter" as "the jewel in the 32X's crown", and "GamesRadar+" named "Knuckles' Chaotix" as the best game for the system. "Next Generation" called "Virtua Fighter" "the colorful wreath on 32X's coffin", reflecting the consensus among contemporary critics that the game was at once arguably the 32X's best release and a clear harbinger of the platform's imminent discontinuation, since it was inferior to the already-released Saturn version of "Virtua Fighter Remix", as well as the forthcoming Saturn release of "Virtua Fighter 2". In response to fan inquiries, Sega stated that the 32X architecture was not powerful enough to handle a port of "Virtua Fighter 2".


title: 32X

text: Despite its 32-bit processing and potential for better graphics and sound than the Genesis, most games did not take advantage of the 32X hardware. "Doom" for the 32X received near-perfect reviews, but was later criticized as inferior to versions for the PC and the Atari Jaguar, with missing levels, poor graphics and audio, jerky movement, and windowed gameplay. Franz believes few developers were willing to invest in designing games to work with the 32X's improved audio abilities. One cause was the rush to release games for the 32X launch; former Sega of America executive producer Michael Latham said it took "a lot of convincing" to release the 32X launch game "Cosmic Carnage." With "Doom", id Software programmer John Carmack had to cut a third of the levels to have the game ready for the 32X launch. Because of time limitations, game designs were intentionally conservative and did not show what the 32X hardware was able to do. In an interview at the end of 1995, Sega vice president of marketing Mike Ribero insisted that Sega was not abandoning the 32X, but acknowledged that first-party support had been lackluster: "I won't lie to you, we screwed up with 32X. We overpromised and underdelivered."


title: 32X

text: Initial reception to the 32X and its games upon the launch of the add-on was very positive. Four reviewers from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" scored the add-on 8, 7, 8, and 8 out of 10 in their 1995 Buyer's Guide, highlighting the add-on's enhancements to the Genesis but questioning how long the system would be supported. "GamePro" commented that the 32X's multiple input and power cords make it "as complicated as setting up your VCR" and noted some performance glitches with the prototype such as freezes and overheating, but expressed confidence that the production models would perform well and gave the add-on their overall approval. Reviews of its launch games, such as "Doom", were likewise positive.


title: 32X

text: By late 1995, feedback to the add-on had soured. In its 1996 Buyer's Guide, "Electronic Gaming Monthly"'s four reviewers scored the add-on 3, 3, 3, and 2 out of 10, criticizing the game library and Sega's abandonment of the system in favor of the Saturn. A review in "Next Generation" panned the 32X for its weak polygon processing, the tendency of developers to show off its capabilities with garishly colored games, and its apparent function as "simply a way of grabbing extra 1994 mind and market share while waiting for Saturn". The review gave it one out of five stars. "Game Players" assessed it as so much less powerful than the Saturn and PlayStation that its lower price could not be considered an enticement, and said that the vast majority of its games could have been done just as well on the Super NES. Additionally commenting that both first party and third party software support had been weak, they concluded, "The lack of support [and] good games, and the release of Saturn make the 32X a system that never was."


title: 32X

text: Retrospectively, the 32X is widely criticized as having a shallow library with a lack of support and a poor idea in the wake of the release of the Sega Saturn in Japan. "1UP.com"'s Jeremy Parish stated that the 32X "tainted just about everything it touched." "GamesRadar+" also panned the system, placing it as their ninth-worst console with reviewer Mikel Reparaz criticizing that "it was a stopgap system that would be thrown under the bus when the Sega Saturn came out six months later, and everyone seemed to know it except for die-hard Sega fans and the company itself." "<nowiki>Retro Gamer'</nowiki>"s Damien McFerran offered some praise for the power increase of the 32X to offer ports of "Space Harrier", "After Burner", and "Virtua Fighter" that were accurate to the original arcade versions, as well as the add-on's price point, stating, "If you didn't have deep enough pockets to afford a Saturn, then the 32X was a viable option; it's just a shame that it sold so poorly because the potential was there for true greatness." Levi Buchanan, writing for "IGN", saw some sense in the move for Sega to create the 32X but criticized its implementation. According to Buchanan, "I actually thought the 32X was a better idea than the SEGA CD... The 32X, while underpowered, at least advanced the ball. Maybe it only gained a few inches in no small part due to a weak library, but at least the idea was the right one."


title: 32X

text: In particular, the console's status as an add-on and poor timing after the announcement of the Saturn has been identified by reviewers as being responsible factors for fracturing the audience for Sega's video game consoles in terms of both developers and consumers. "Allgame"'s Scott Alan Marriott states that "[e]very add-on whittled away at the number of potential buyers and discouraged third-party companies from making the games necessary to boost sales." "GamePro" criticized the concept of the add-on, noting the expenses involved in purchasing the system. According to reviewer Blake Snow, "Just how many 16-bit attachments did one need? All in all, if you were one of the unlucky souls who completely bought into Sega's add-on frenzy, you would have spent a whopping $650 for something that weighed about as much as a small dog." Writing for "GamesRadar+", Reparaz noted that "developers—not wanting to waste time on a technological dead-end—abandoned the 32X in droves. Gamers quickly followed suit, turning what was once a promising idea into an embarrassing footnote in console history, as well as an object lesson in why console makers shouldn't split their user base with pricey add-ons." Reparaz went on to criticize Sega's decision to release the 32X, noting that "(u)ltimately, the 32X was the product of boneheaded short-sightedness: its existence put Sega into competition with itself once the Saturn rolled out." Writing for "IGN", Buchanan points out, "Notice that we haven't seen many add-ons like the 32X since 1994? I think the 32X killed the idea of an add-on like this—a power booster—permanently. And that's a good thing. Because add-ons, if not implemented properly, just splinter an audience."


title: 32X

text: Former executives at Sega have mixed opinions of the 32X. Bayless believes firmly that the 32X serves as a warning to the video game industry not to risk splintering the market for consoles by creating add-ons, and was critical of the Kinect and PlayStation Move for doing so. Franz places the 32X's commercial failure on its inability to function without an attached Genesis and lack of a CD drive, despite its compatibility with the Sega CD, stating, "The 32X was destined to die because it didn't have a CD drive and was an add-on. An add-on device is never as well thought out as a built-from-scratch device." Miller, on the other hand, remembers the 32X positively, stating, "I think the 32X actually was an interesting, viable platform. The timing was wrong, and certainly our ability to stick with it, given what we did with Saturn, was severely limited. There were a whole bunch of reasons why we couldn’t ultimately do what we had to do with that platform, without third party support and with the timing of Saturn, but I still think the project was a success for a bunch of other reasons. In hindsight, it was not a great idea for a whole bunch of other reasons."


title: Niles Crane

text: Niles Crane (born 1957) is a fictional character on the American sitcom "Frasier", a spin-off of the television show "Cheers". He was portrayed by David Hyde Pierce. Niles is the younger brother of Frasier Crane (played by Kelsey Grammer).


title: Niles Crane

text: Pierce was hired because "Frasier" producers saw his headshot and commented on how much he looked like a young Grammer. Unlike Frasier, part of whose background comes from "Cheers", Niles's background is established over the course of "Frasier".


title: Niles Crane

text: Pierce has said that his character was originally explained to him as "what Frasier would be if he had never gone to Boston and never been exposed to the people at Cheers."


title: Niles Crane

text: It has been suggested that "the difference between the brothers is that Frasier knows they're being pretentious; Niles honestly doesn't".


title: Niles Crane

text: Niles was born in Seattle, Washington, in 1957, to Hester Crane, a psychiatrist, and Martin Crane, a police officer. Like his older brother Frasier, Niles was named for one of his mother's lab rats. Also like Frasier, Niles was an unusually sensitive child and a frequent target for bullies. As a result, he was quite close to his older brother, and at the same time fiercely competitive with him. Like Frasier, Niles prefers fine arts, music, and intellectual pursuits to physical activities like sports. He is also an established philanthropist.


title: Niles Crane

text: After attending the private Bryce Academy with Frasier, Niles's success in school led to matriculation at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut as an undergraduate, where he was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, and studied for a year at the University of Cambridge in Cambridge, England as a graduate student. According to the Season 2 episode "The Club", at some point during his young adulthood when Richard Nixon was campaigning for president, he was arrested for "mooning" Nixon, which according to Niles was a result of him "young and firm and in love with an anarchist".


title: Niles Crane

text: Niles describes his profession as "the saving grace of my life", and is greatly respected professionally. He has a Jungian practice, and specializes in marriage and family therapy. (While substituting for his brother on the radio, he says, "While Frasier is a Freudian, I am a Jungian. So there'll be no blaming mother today!") Niles is an authority on clinical psychosis, has had his research published in several psychiatric journals, serves on the board of the American Psychiatric Association, and four of his patients have been elected to political office.


title: Niles Crane

text: Niles often compares his own career to that of his brother, and early in Frasier's career as a talk show host makes frequent jokes about the "fast-food approach to psychiatry" that Frasier practices through his radio show. Niles sometimes admits, however, that he envies how his "big shot radio host" brother is well-known, Frasier's face appears on "the side of buses", and he helps many "people who need it", while no one appreciates his own work.


title: Niles Crane

text: Niles, like Frasier, is haughty, snobby and fussy, has gourmet tastes, and was described by an interviewer at the "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" as obsessive-compulsive. He frequently wears double breasted suits and Trafalgar limited-edition suspenders. Although Frasier also plays the piano, when they make music together Niles plays while Frasier sings. He is an admirer of the fine arts including opera, theatre, and classical music, drinks fine wine, and enjoys French cuisine which he himself cooks, and frequently obsesses about knowing the right people and climbing the social ladder. At Cafe Nervosa, the coffee house he frequents with Frasier and other friends and family members, Niles's usual is a latte with a "whisper" of cinnamon, and occasionally chocolate shavings or nutmeg. According to Daphne, he would "eat a worm if [she] gave it a French name," while Frasier at one point says, "I'm a teamster compared to you!"


title: Niles Crane

text: Also like his brother, Niles is highly intelligent. His IQ is 156, well over the Mensa threshold, and much higher than Frasier's (129). Unlike Frasier, however, Niles has a long list of phobias and medical conditions, many of which are clearly psychosomatic. Most prominently, he is quite mysophobic, given to wiping his hands after human contact and wiping down chairs in public places before sitting on them; it is revealed in one episode that the root of this is a babysitter (Ronee Lawrence) who told him scary stories about earwigs that would crawl in through his ears and eat his brains, and lay their eggs on furniture. (When he tells this and other contamination horror stories to a group of fourth-graders, they think he is wonderful for knowing such "cool" facts.) His nose begins to bleed whenever he tells a lie or acts against his code of ethics, and he faints at the sight of his own blood. When extremely stressed, Niles is prone to panic attacks and fits of hyperventilation. On more than one occasion, he's fainted. In one episode, he discloses that stress makes him want to hide under a piano. While divorcing his wife Maris Crane, he suffers from stress-induced narcolepsy.


title: Niles Crane

text: Physically weak and very uncoordinated, Niles is seemingly hopeless at sports and video games, barely able to catch objects even after simple throws (unless Daphne, or occasionally Martin, is doing the throwing; then he is remarkably nimble). However, in some episodes he is shown to be fair at basketball. On one occasion, while attending a basketball game, he is invited onto the floor to attempt a shot from half-court; he makes the basket, astonishing himself, Frasier, and Martin, and earns the temporary nickname "Half-Court Crane." The brothers are often seen coming or going to squash matches, though Martin once commented in disbelief, "You "have" to wonder what goes on at that squash court!" Accompanying Martin on the shooting range one day, Niles discovers that he is an excellent marksman. He is a fair fencer, and has had some lessons in kickboxing. On other occasions he has expressed interest in lifting weights and taking karate lessons, but these ventures are typically laughed at by his father and brother and often amount to nothing. He is also a master speller, having come close to winning the national spelling competition as a youth and spell-checking the graffiti in a bathroom stall at a local coffee bar with a red marker.


title: Niles Crane

text: When Niles suffers a walking heart attack, he is not aware of it for several days, because he experiences referred pain and believes he has a toothache. After a dental checkup finds nothing wrong, Frasier's producer Roz Doyle tells him that it is probably a sinus infection, but he considers the remote chance that the problem may be his heart. When a number of extremely unlikely events occur to or around him, he consults a doctor and immediately enters a hospital for surgery.