title: Wharf

text: The word "wharf" comes from the Old English "hwearf", cognate to the Old Dutch word "werf", which both evolved to mean "yard", an outdoor place where work is done, like a shipyard (Dutch: "scheepswerf") or a lumberyard (Dutch: "houtwerf"). Originally, "werf" or "werva" in Old Dutch ("werf", "wer" in Old Frisian) simply referred to inhabited ground that was not yet built on (similar to "yard" in modern English), or alternatively to a "terp". This could explain the name Ministry Wharf located at Saunderton, just outside High Wycombe, which is nowhere near any body of water. In support of this explanation is the fact that many places in England with "wharf" in their names are in areas with a high Dutch influence, for example the Norfolk broads.


title: Wharf

text: In the northeast and east of England the term "staith" or "staithe" (from the Norse for landing stage) is also used. The two terms have historically had a geographical distinction: those to the north in the Kingdom of Northumbria used the Old English spelling "staith", southern sites of the Danelaw took the Danish spelling "staithe". Both originally referred to jetties or wharves. In time, the northern coalfields of Northumbria developed coal staiths specifically for loading coal onto ships and these would adopt the "staith" spelling as a distinction from simple wharves: for example, Dunston Staiths in Gateshead and Brancaster Staithe in Norfolk. However, the term "staith" may also be used to refer only to loading chutes or ramps used for bulk commodities like coal in loading ships and barges.


title: Wharf

text: "Quay", on the other hand, has its origin in the Proto-Celtic language. Before it changed to its current form under influence of the modern French "quai", its Middle English spelling was "key", "keye" or "caye". This in turn also came from the Old Norman "cai" (Old French / French "chai" "wine cellar"), meaning originally "earth bank near a river", then "bank built at a port to allow ship docking". The French term "quai" comes, through Picard or Norman-French, from Gaulish "caio", ultimately tracing back to the Proto-Celtic "*kagio-" "to encompass, enclose". Modern cognates include Welsh "cae" "fence, hedge" and Cornish "ke" "hedge",


title: CPU-Z

text: CPU-Z is a freeware system profiling and monitoring application for Microsoft Windows and Android that detects the central processing unit, RAM, motherboard chip-set, and other hardware features of a modern personal computer or Android device.


title: CPU-Z

text: CPU-Z is more comprehensive in virtually all areas compared to the tools provided in the Windows OS to identify various hardware components, and thus assists in identifying certain components without the need of opening the case; particularly the core revision and RAM clock rate. It also provides information on the system's GPU.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Capital in the Twenty-First Century () is a book written by French economist Thomas Piketty. It focuses on wealth and income inequality in Europe and the United States since the 18th century. It was initially published in French (as "Le Capital au XXIe siècle") in August 2013; an English translation by Arthur Goldhammer followed in April 2014.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The book's central thesis is that when the rate of return on capital ("r") is greater than the rate of economic growth ("g") over the long term, the result is concentration of wealth, and this unequal distribution of wealth causes social and economic instability. Piketty proposes a global system of progressive wealth taxes to help reduce inequality and avoid the vast majority of wealth coming under the control of a tiny minority.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: At the end of 2014, Piketty released a paper where he stated that he does not consider the relationship between the rate of return on capital and the rate of economic growth as the only or primary tool for considering changes in income and wealth inequality. He also noted that is not a useful tool for the discussion of rising inequality of labor income.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: On May 18, 2014, the English edition reached number one on "The New York Times" Best Seller list for best selling hardcover nonfiction and became the greatest sales success ever of academic publisher Harvard University Press. As of January 2015, the book had sold 1.5 million copies in French, English, German, Chinese, and Spanish.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The book has been adapted into a feature documentary film, directed by New Zealand filmmaker Justin Pemberton.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: When initially issued in French in August 2013, Laurent Mauduit characterized it as "a political and theoretical bulldozer". As news spread of its thesis in the English-speaking world, Paul Krugman hailed it as a landmark, while former senior World Bank economist Branko Milanović considers it "one of the watershed books in economic thinking". In response to widespread curiosity abroad aroused by reviews of the original French edition published by Seuil in September 2013, it was translated rapidly into English and its publication date was pushed forward to March 2014 by Belknap. It proved an overnight sensation and ousted Michael Lewis's financial exposé, "Flash Boys: Cracking the Money Code", from the top of the US best-seller list. Within a year of its publication, Stephanie Kelton spoke of a "Piketty phenomenon", and in Germany three books had been published specifically dealing with Piketty's critique.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The central thesis of the book is that inequality is not an accident, but rather a feature of capitalism, and can only be reversed through state interventionism. The book thus argues that, unless capitalism is reformed, the very democratic order will be threatened.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Piketty bases his argument on a formula that relates the rate of return on capital ("r") to economic growth ("g"), where "r" includes profits, dividends, interest, rents, and other income from capital and "g" is measured as growth of society's income or output. He argues that when the rate of growth is low, then wealth tends to accumulate more quickly from "r" than from labor and tends to accumulate more among the top 10% and 1%, increasing inequality. Thus the fundamental force for divergence and greater wealth inequality can be summed up in the inequality "r > g". He analyzes inheritance from the perspective of the same formula.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The book argues that there was a trend towards higher inequality that was reversed between 1930 and 1975 due to unique circumstances: the two world wars, the Great Depression, and a debt-fueled recession destroyed much wealth, particularly that owned by the elite. These events prompted governments to undertake steps towards redistributing income, especially in the post–World War II period. The fast, worldwide economic growth of that time began to reduce the importance of inherited wealth in the global economy.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The book argues that the world today is returning towards "patrimonial capitalism", in which much of the economy is dominated by inherited wealth: the power of this economic class is increasing, threatening to create an oligarchy. Piketty cites novels by Honoré de Balzac, Jane Austen, and Henry James to describe the rigid class structure based on accumulated capital that existed in England and France in the early 1800s.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Piketty proposes that a progressive annual global wealth tax of up to 2%, combined with a progressive income tax reaching as high as 80%, would reduce inequality, although he says that such a tax "would be politically impossible".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Without tax adjustment, Piketty predicts a world of low economic growth and extreme inequality. His data show that over long periods of time, the average return on investment outpaces productivity-based income by a wide margin. He dismisses the idea that bursts of productivity resulting from technological advances can be relied on to return sustained economic growth; we should not expect "a more just and rational order" to arise based on "caprices of technology", and return on investment can increase when technology can be substituted for people.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The book's exceptional success was widely attributed to "being about the right subject at the right time", as "The Economist" put it. Piketty himself recognized there is a common sense that "inequality and wealth in the United States have been widening." The Occupy movement's "We are the 99%" slogan made talk of inequality "the zeitgeist of our age – an age of seemingly permanent crisis and austerity," as Adam Booth put it.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: British author Paul Mason dismissed charges of "soft Marxism" as "completely misplaced", noting that Marx described social relations trying to unveil capitalism's inner tendencies, where Piketty solely relies on social categories and historical data. Piketty rather "placed an unexploded bomb within mainstream, classical economics," he concludes.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Other scholars have built upon Piketty's work, such as historian Walter Scheidel, who concurs with Piketty in his own study of inequality ("The Great Leveler", 2017) that the gap will continue to widen as the decades pass, but contends that Piketty's solutions are untenable.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Paul Krugman called the book a "magnificent, sweeping meditation on inequality" and "the most important economics book of the yearand maybe of the decade." He distinguishes the book from other bestsellers on economics as it constitutes "serious, discourse-changing scholarship". Krugman also wrote:


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: At a time when the concentration of wealth and income in the hands of a few has resurfaced as a central political issue, Piketty doesn't just offer invaluable documentation of what is happening, with unmatched historical depth. He also offers what amounts to a unified field theory of inequality, one that integrates economic growth, the distribution of income between capital and labor, and the distribution of wealth and income among individuals into a single frame. ... "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" is an extremely important book on all fronts. Piketty has transformed our economic discourse; we'll never talk about wealth and inequality the same way we used to.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Steven Pearlstein called it a "triumph of economic history over the theoretical, mathematical modeling that has come to dominate the economics profession in recent years", but also added: "Piketty's analysis of the past is more impressive than his predictions for the future are convincing."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Branko Milanović, a former senior economist at the World Bank, called the book "one of the watershed books in economic thinking."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: British historian Andrew Hussey called the book "epic" and "groundbreaking" and argues that it proves "scientifically" that the Occupy movement was correct in its assertion that "capitalism isn't working".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: According to Robert Solow, Piketty has made a "new and powerful contribution to an old topic: as long as the rate of return exceeds the rate of growth, the income and wealth of the rich will grow faster than the typical income from work".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: French historian and political scientist Emmanuel Todd called "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" a "masterpiece" and "a seminal book on the economic and social evolution of the planet".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: "The Economist" wrote: "A modern surge in inequality has new economists wondering, as Marx and Ricardo did, which forces may be stopping the fruits of capitalism from being more widely distributed. "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" ... is an authoritative guide to the question."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Will Hutton wrote: "Like Friedman, Piketty is a man for the times. For 1970s anxieties about inflation substitute today's concerns about the emergence of the plutocratic rich and their impact on economy and society. ... the current level of rising wealth inequality, set to grow still further, now imperils the very future of capitalism. He has proved it."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Clive Crook, while being strongly critical of the book, acknowledged that "it's hard to think of another book on economics published in the past several decades that's been praised as lavishly".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: In the introduction to the essay collection "After Piketty" (2017), Piketty is praised for arguing, before Donald Trump's election, that those with property will dominate the twenty-first century political economy and set in motion forces to keep the rate of profit high enough to create plutocracy.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: One strand of critique faults Piketty for placing inequality at the center of analysis without any reflection on why it matters.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: According to "Financial Times" columnist Martin Wolf, he merely assumes that inequality matters, but never explains why. He only demonstrates that it exists and how it worsens. Or as his colleague Clive Crook put it: "Aside from its other flaws, "Capital in the 21st Century" invites readers to believe not just that inequality is important, but that nothing else matters. This book wants you to worry about low growth in the coming decades not because that would mean a slower rise in living standards, but because it might ... worsen inequality."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Professor Hannes H. Gissurarson asserts that Piketty is replacing American philosopher John Rawls as the essential thinker of the left. In addition to questioning common measures of wealth distribution, he also criticizes Piketty for being, unlike Rawls, "much more concerned with the rich than with the poor". Hannes admits that the "rapid rise in the income of the super-rich of the world" is happening, but doesn't view this trend as being a problem so long as the poor do not get poorer.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Lawrence Summers criticizes Piketty for underestimating the diminishing returns on capital, which he believes will offset the return on capital and hence set an upper limit to inequality. Summers challenges another of Piketty's assumptions: that returns to wealth are largely reinvested. A declining ratio of saving to wealth would also set upper limits on inequality in society. Of 400 wealthiest Americans in 1982, only one in ten remained on the list in 2012, and an increasing share of wealthiest people have not increased their fortunes. Moreover, top 1% incomes are now mostly salaries, not capital incomes. Most other economists explain the rise of top 1% incomes by globalization and technological change.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: James K. Galbraith criticizes Piketty for using "an empirical measure that is unrelated to productive physical capital and whose dollar value depends, in part, on the return on capital. Where does the rate of return come from? Piketty never says". Galbraith also says: "Despite its great ambitions, his book is not the accomplished work of high theory that its title, length and reception (so far) suggest."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson used the economic histories of Sweden and South Africa to show that social inequality depends much more on institutional factors than Piketty's factors like the difference between rate of return and growth. Cross-country analysis also shows that the top 1%'s share of income does not depend on that difference. The professors write that general laws, which is how they characterize Piketty's postulations, "are unhelpful as a guide to understand the past or predict the future because they ignore the central role of political and economic institutions in shaping the evolution of technology and the distribution of resources in a society". Per Krusell and Anthony Smith criticise Piketty's second law as implausible based on empirically supported theories of savings and that the data supports theories opposed to Piketty's.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Paul Romer criticises that while the data and empirical analysis is presented with admirable clarity and precision, the theory is presented in less detail. In his opinion the work was written with the attitude "Empirical work is science; theory is entertainment" and therefore an example for mathiness.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Lawrence Blume and Steven Durlauf criticized the book in the "Journal of Political Economy" for being "unpersuasive when it turns from description to analysis... Both of us are very liberal (in the contemporary as opposed to classical sense), and we regard ourselves as egalitarians. We are therefore disturbed that Piketty has undermined the egalitarian case with weak empirical, analytical, and ethical arguments."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: German economist Stefan Homburg criticizes Piketty for equating wealth with capital. Homburg argues that wealth does not only embrace capital goods in the sense of produced means of production, but also land and other natural resources. Homburg argues that observed increases in wealth income ratios reflect rising land prices and not an accumulation of machinery. Joseph E. Stiglitz endorses this view, pointing out that "a large fraction of the increase in wealth is an increase in the value of land, not in the amount of capital goods".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: This idea is furthered by Matthew Rognlie, then a graduate student at M.I.T., who published a paper in March 2015 with the Brookings Institution that argues that Piketty did not take the effects of depreciation into account enough in his analysis of the growing importance of capital. Rognlie also found that "surging house prices are almost entirely responsible for growing returns on capital."


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Marxist academic David Harvey, while praising the book for demolishing "the widely-held view that free market capitalism spreads the wealth around and that it is the great bulwark for the defense of individual liberties and freedoms," is largely critical of Piketty for, among other things, his "mistaken definition of capital", which Harvey describes as:


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: ... a process, not a thing ... a process of circulation in which money is used to make more money often, but not exclusively through the exploitation of labor power. Piketty defines capital as the stock of all assets held by private individuals, corporations and governments that can be traded in the market no matter whether these assets are being used or not.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Harvey further argues that Piketty's "proposals as to the remedies for the inequalities are naïve if not utopian. And he has certainly not produced a working model for capital of the twenty-first century. For that, we still need Marx or his modern-day equivalent". Harvey also takes Piketty to task for dismissing Marx's "Das Kapital" without ever having read it.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: IMF economist Carlos Góes researched the basic thesis put forth by the book - that when the rate of return on capital ("r") is greater than the rate of economic growth ("g") over the long term, the result is concentration of wealth – and found no empirical support for it; in fact, an opposite trend was identified in 75% of the countries studied in depth. Piketty's response noted, however, that Góes used measures of income inequality rather than wealth inequality, and inappropriately took the interest rate on sovereign debt as his index of the rate of return on capital, which makes his results not commensurate with those of Piketty's study.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: In a similar vein, philosopher Nicholas Vrousalis faults Piketty's remedies for misconstruing the kind of political "counter-agency" required to remove the inequalities Piketty criticizes and for thinking that they are compatible with capitalism.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Norwegian economist and journalist Maria Reinertsen compares the book to the 2014 book ", "by Ailsa McKay and Margunn Bjørnholt, arguing that, "while "Capital in the Twenty-First Century" barely touches the boundaries of the discipline in its focus on the rich, "Counting on Marilyn Waring" challenges most limits of what economists should care about".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: On May 23, 2014, Chris Giles, economics editor of the "Financial Times" ("FT"), identified what he claims are "unexplained errors" in Piketty's data, in particular regarding wealth inequality increases since the 1970s. The "FT" wrote in part:


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The data ... contain a series of errors that skew his findings. The "FT" found mistakes and unexplained entries in his spreadsheets, similar to those which last year undermined the work on public debt and growth of Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The central theme of Prof Piketty's work is that wealth inequalities are heading back up to levels last seen before World War I. The investigation undercuts this claim, indicating there is little evidence in Prof Piketty's original sources to bear out the thesis that an increasing share of total wealth is held by the richest few.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Piketty wrote a response defending his findings and arguing that subsequent studies (he links to Emmanuel Saez and Gabriel Zucman's March 2014 presentation, "The Distribution of US Wealth, Capital Income and Returns since 1913") confirm his conclusions about increasing wealth inequality and actually show a greater increase in inequality for the United States than he does in his book. In an interview with "Agence France-Presse", he accused the "Financial Times" of "dishonest criticism" and said that the paper "is being ridiculous because all of its contemporaries recognise that the biggest fortunes have grown faster".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: The accusation received wide press coverage. Some sources said the "Financial Times" has overstated its case. For example, "The Economist", a sister publication to the "Financial Times", wrote:


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Mr Giles's analysis is impressive, and one certainly hopes that further work by Mr Giles, Mr Piketty or others will clarify whether mistakes have been made, how they came to be introduced and what their effects are. Based on the information Mr Giles has provided so far, however, the analysis does not seem to support many of the allegations made by the "FT", or the conclusion that the book's argument is wrong.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: Scott Winship, a sociologist at the Manhattan Institute for Policy Research and critic of Piketty, asserts the allegations are not "significant for the fundamental question of whether Piketty's thesis is right or not ... It's hard to think Piketty did something unethical when he put it up there for people like me to delve into his figures and find something that looks sketchy ... Piketty has been as good or better than anyone at both making all his data available and documenting what he does generally".


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: In addition to Winship, the economists Alan Reynolds, Justin Wolfers, James Hamilton and Gabriel Zucman claim that "FT"<nowiki>'s assertions go too far.</nowiki> Paul Krugman noted that "anyone imagining that the whole notion of rising wealth inequality has been refuted is almost surely going to be disappointed". Emmanuel Saez, a colleague of Piketty and one of the economists cited by Giles to discredit him, stated that "Piketty's choice and judgement were quite good" and that his own research supports Piketty's thesis. Piketty released a full point-by-point rebuttal on his website.


title: Capital in the Twenty-First Century

text: A 2017 study in "Social Science History" by University of California Riverside economic historian Richard Sutch concluded "that Piketty's data for the wealth share of the top 10 percent for the period 1870 to 1970 are unreliable ... Piketty's data for the top 1 percent of the distribution for the nineteenth century (1810–1910) are also unreliable ... The values Piketty reported for the twentieth century (1910–2010) are based on more solid ground, but have the disadvantage of muting the marked rise of inequality during the Roaring Twenties and the decline associated with the Great Depression."


title: Jeff Bauman

text: Jeff Bauman (born January 2, 1986) is an American author. He lost both of his legs during the Boston Marathon Bombing attack in 2013 and was the subject of a famous photograph taken in the aftermath of the bombing. The film "Stronger" is based on a memoir of the same name he co-wrote, with actor Jake Gyllenhaal portraying Bauman.


title: Jeff Bauman

text: Jeff Bauman was born on January 2, 1986, and is the son of Jeff Bauman, Sr. and Patty Bauman. Jeff Bauman became engaged to his fiancée Erin Hurley in February 2014 and they married in November 2014. Their daughter, Nora Gail Bauman, was born on July 13, 2014. He worked in the service deli at Costco for three years before the bombing; he returned to his job a year after the blast in June 2014.


title: Jeff Bauman

text: Jeff Bauman had been waiting at the finish line of the 2013 Boston Marathon, cheering for Hurley who was participating in the marathon, with Hurley's two roommates. She was a mile away from the finish when the bombs went off. Carlos Arredondo, who was handing out American flags to the runners, quickly jumped over a fence to reach the blast site. The blast-caused fire in Bauman's shirt was beaten out by Arredondo. He stayed with Bauman and helped carry him to the ambulance. The iconic photograph of Carlos Arredondo in a cowboy hat, helping Bauman was taken by Charles Krupa of the Associated Press during this time.


title: Jeff Bauman

text: Bauman's surgery was done on the same day, and he had both his legs amputated above the knee. Since he had lost large amounts of blood, the doctors had to keep resuscitating him, giving him blood and fluids. He underwent another operation at 1 a.m. to drain the internal fluids, formed by the blunt trauma. He was interviewed by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agents and gave a description of Tamerlan Tsarnaev, after he sent word to the authorities after waking up from the operation, that he had seen one of the bombers. His accounts were instrumental in narrowing down the suspects from among the people pictured in the area. He was discharged from the hospital four weeks after the blasts. Bauman was given his new prosthetic legs costing $100,000 each, which were manufactured by Ottobock and had micro-processors to follow his gait. He and Arredondo threw the ceremonial first pitches for the Boston Red Sox a few days later.


title: Jeff Bauman

text: In September 2013, he announced that he would publish a memoir about his experiences at the marathon and his life since then. The book was co-written with author Bret Witter. Photographer Josh Haner of "The New York Times", who documented Bauman's recovery process, won the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for the work. Bauman's book, titled "Stronger", was released in April 2014 to coincide with the first anniversary of the bombings. A film based on the memoir, starring Jake Gyllenhaal as Bauman and Tatiana Maslany as Hurley, and titled "Stronger", was released on September 22, 2017.


title: Erika Mann

text: Erika Julia Hedwig Mann (9 November 1905 – 27 August 1969) was a German actress and writer, daughter of the novelist Thomas Mann.


title: Erika Mann

text: Erika lived a bohemian lifestyle in Berlin and became a critic of National Socialism. After Hitler came to power in 1933, she moved to Switzerland, and married the poet W. H. Auden, purely to obtain a British passport and so avoid becoming stateless when the Germans cancelled her citizenship. She continued to attack Nazism, most notably with her 1938 book "School for Barbarians", a critique of the Nazi education system.


title: Erika Mann

text: During World War II, Mann worked for the BBC and became a war correspondent attached to the Allied forces after D-Day. She attended the Nuremberg trials before moving to America to support her exiled parents. Her criticisms of American foreign policy led to her being considered for deportation. After her parents moved to Switzerland in 1952, she also settled there. She wrote a biography of her father and died in Zurich in 1969.


title: Erika Mann

text: Erika Mann was born in Munich, the first-born daughter of writer and later Nobel Prize winner Thomas Mann and his wife, Katia (née Pringsheim), the daughter of an intellectual German family of Jewish heritage. She was named after Katia Mann's brother Erik, who died early, Thomas Mann's mother , and her great-grandmother Hedwig Dohm. She was baptized Protestant, just as her mother had been. Thomas Mann expressed in a letter to his brother Heinrich Mann his disappointment about the birth of his first child:


title: Erika Mann

text: It is a girl; a disappointment for me, as I want to admit between us, because I had greatly desired a son and will not stop doing so. [...] I feel a son is much more full of poetry ["poesievoller"], more than a sequel and restart for myself under new circumstances.


title: Erika Mann

text: Nevertheless, he later candidly confessed in the notes of his diary, that he "preferred, of the six, the two oldest [Erika and Klaus] and little Elisabeth with a strange decisiveness".


title: Erika Mann

text: In Erika he had a particular trust, which later showed itself in that she exercised a great influence on the important decisions of her father. Her particular role was also known by her siblings, as her brother Golo Mann remembered: "Little Erika must salt the soup". This reference to the twelve-year-old Erika from the year 1917 was an often-used phrase in the Mann family.


title: Erika Mann

text: After Erika's birth came that of her brother Klaus, with whom she was personally close her entire life. They went about "like twins", and Klaus described their closeness as follows: "our solidarity was absolute and without reservation". Eventually there were four more children in total, including Golo, Monika, Elisabeth, and Michael. The children grew up in Munich. On their mother's side the family belonged to the influential urban upper class, and their father came from a commercial family from Lübeck and already had published the successful novel "Buddenbrooks" in 1901. The Mann home was a gathering-place for intellectuals and artists, and Erika was hired for her first theater engagement before finishing her "Abitur" at the Deutsches Theater in Berlin.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1914, the Mann family obtained a villa on 1 Poschingerstraße in Bogenhausen, which in the family would come to be known as "Poschi." From 1912 to 1914, Erika Mann attended a private school with her brother, joining for a year the Bogenhausener Volksschule, and from 1915 to 1920 she attended the Höhere Mädchenschule am St. Annaplatz. In May 1921, she transferred to the Munich-based Luisengymnasium. Together with her brother Klaus, she befriended children in the neighborhood, including Bruno Walter's daughters, Gretel and Lotte Walter, as well as , the son of a Jewish intellectual family.


title: Erika Mann

text: Erika Mann founded an ambitious theater troupe, the Laienbund Deutscher Mimiker. While still a student at the Munich Luisengymnasium, Max Reinhardt engaged her to appear on the stage of the Deutsches Theater in Berlin for the first time. The partially mischievous pranks that she undertook in the so-called "Herzogpark-Bande" ("Herzogpark gang") with Klaus and her friends prompted her parents to send both her and Klaus to a progressive residential school, the , located in Vogelsberg in Oberhessen. This period in Erika Mann's schooling lasted from April to July 1922; subsequently she returned to the Luisengymnasium. In 1924 she passed the Abitur, albeit with poor marks, and began her theatrical studies in Berlin that were again interrupted, because of her numerous engagements in Hamburg, Munich, Berlin and elsewhere.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1924, Erika Mann began theater studies in Berlin and acted there and in Bremen. In 1925, she played in the première of her brother Klaus's play "". The play, about a group of four friends who were in love with each other, opened in October 1925 to considerable publicity. In 1924 the actor Gustaf Gründgens had offered to direct the production and play one of the lead male roles, alongside Klaus, with Erika and Pamela Wedekind as the female leads. During the year they worked on the play together, Klaus was engaged to Wedekind and Erika became engaged to Gründgens. Erika and Pamela were also in a relationship together, as were, for a time, Klaus and Gustaf. For their honeymoon, in July 1926, Erika and Gründgens stayed in a hotel that Erika and Wedekind had used as a couple shortly before, with the latter checking in dressed as a man. Erika's marriage to Gründgens was short-lived and they were soon living apart before divorcing in 1929.


title: Erika Mann

text: Erika Mann would later have relationships with Therese Giehse, Annemarie Schwarzenbach and Betty Knox, with whom she served as a war correspondent during World War II.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1927, Erika and Klaus undertook a trip around the world, which they documented in their book "Rundherum; Das Abenteuer einer Weltreise". The following year, she became active in journalism and politics. She was involved as an actor in the 1931 film about lesbianism, "Mädchen in Uniform", directed by Leontine Sagan, but left the production before its completion. In 1932 she published "Stoffel fliegt übers Meer", the first of seven children's books.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1932, Erika Mann was denounced by the Brownshirts after she read a pacifist poem to an anti-war meeting. She was fired from an acting role after the theatre concerned was threatened with a boycott by the Nazis. Mann successfully sued both the theatre and also a Nazi-run newspaper. Also in 1932 Mann had a role, alongside Therese Giehse, in the film "Peter Voss, Thief of Millions".


title: Erika Mann

text: In January 1933, Erika, Klaus and Therese Giehse founded a cabaret in Munich called "", for which Erika wrote most of the material, much of which was anti-Fascist. The cabaret lasted two months before the Nazis forced it to close and Mann left Germany. She was the last member of the Mann family to leave Germany after the Nazi regime was elected. She saved many of Thomas Mann's papers from their Munich home when she escaped to Zurich. In 1936, "Die Pfeffermühle" opened again in Zurich and became a rallying point for German exiles.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1935, it became apparent that the Nazis were intending to strip Mann of her German citizenship;- her uncle, Heinrich Mann, was the first person to be stripped of German citizenship when the Nazis took office. She asked Christopher Isherwood if he would marry her so she could become a British citizen. He declined but suggested she approach the gay poet W. H. Auden, who readily agreed to a marriage of convenience in 1935. Mann and Auden never lived together, but remained on good terms throughout their lives and were still married when Mann died; she left him a small bequest in her will. In 1936, Auden introduced Therese Giehse, Mann's lover, to the writer John Hampson and they too married so that Giehse could leave Germany. In 1937, Mann moved to New York, where "Die Pfeffermühle" (as "The Peppermill") opened its doors again. There Erika Mann lived with Therese Giehse, her brother Klaus and Annemarie Schwarzenbach, amid a large group of artists in exile that included Kurt Weill, Ernst Toller and Sonia Sekula.


title: Erika Mann

text: In 1938, Mann and Klaus reported on the Spanish Civil War, and her book "", a critique of Nazi Germany's educational system, was published. The following year, they published "Escape to Life", a book about famous German exiles.


title: Erika Mann

text: During World War II, Mann worked as a journalist in London, making radio broadcasts, in German, for the BBC throughout the Blitz and the Battle of Britain. After D-Day, she became a war correspondent attached to the Allied forces advancing across Europe. She reported from recent battlefields in France, Belgium and the Netherlands. She entered Germany in June 1945 and was among the first Allied personnel to enter Aachen.


title: Erika Mann

text: As soon as it was possible, she went to Munich to register a claim for the return of the Mann family home. When she arrived in Berlin on 3 July 1945, Mann was shocked at the level of destruction, describing the city as "a sea of devastation, shoreless and infinite". She was equally angry at the complete lack of guilt displayed by some of the German civilians and officials that she met. During this period, as well as wearing an American uniform, Mann adopted an Anglo-American accent.


title: Erika Mann

text: Mann attended the Nuremberg trial each day from the opening session, on 20 November 1945, until the court adjourned a month later for Christmas. She was present on 26 November when the first film evidence from an extermination camp was shown in the court room. She interviewed the defense lawyers and ridiculed their arguments in her reports and made clear that she thought the court was indulging the behaviour of the defendants, in particular Hermann Göring.


title: Erika Mann

text: When the court adjourned for Christmas, Mann went to Zurich to spend time with her brother, Betty Knox and Therese Giehse. Mann's health was poor and on 1 January 1946, she collapsed and was hospitalised. Eventually, she was diagnosed with pleurisy. After a spell recovering at a spa in Arosa, Mann returned to Nuremberg in March 1946 to continue covering the war crimes trial. In May 1946, Mann left Germany for California to help look after her father who was being treated for lung cancer.


title: Erika Mann

text: From America, Mann continued to comment on, and write about, the situation in Germany. She considered it a scandal that Göring had managed to commit suicide and was furious at the slow pace of the denazification process. In particular, Mann objected to what she considered the lenient treatment of cultural figures, such as the conductor Wilhelm Furtwängler, who had stayed in Germany throughout the Nazi period. Her views on Russia and on the Berlin Airlift led to her being branded a Communist in America. Both Klaus and Erika came under an FBI investigation into their political views and rumored homosexuality. In 1949, becoming increasingly depressed and disillusioned over postwar Germany's occupation, Klaus Mann died by suicide. This event devastated and enraged Erika Mann. In 1952, due to the anti-communist red scare and the numerous accusations from the House Committee on Un-American Activities, the Mann family left the US and she moved back to Switzerland with her parents. She had begun to help her father with his writing and had become one of his closest confidantes. After the deaths of her father and her brother Klaus, Erika Mann became responsible for their works.


title: Erika Mann

text: Mann died in Zürich on 27 August 1969 from a brain tumour and is buried at Friedhof Kilchberg in Zürich, also the site of her parents' graves. She was 63.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: The lord president of the Council is the presiding officer of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom and the fourth of the Great Officers of State, ranking below the Lord High Treasurer but above the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. The Lord President usually attends and is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Privy Council, presenting business for the approval of the sovereign. In the modern era, the incumbent is by convention always a member of one of the Houses of Parliament, and the office is normally a Cabinet position.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: The Privy Council meets once a month, wherever the sovereign may be residing at the time, to give formal approval to Orders in Council. Only a few privy counsellors need attend such meetings, and only when invited to do so at the government's request. As the duties of the Lord President are not onerous, the post has often been given to a government minister whose responsibilities are not department-specific. In recent years it has been most typical for the Lord President also to serve as Leader of the House of Commons or Leader of the House of Lords. The Lord President has no role in the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: Unlike some of the other Great Officers of State, the office of Lord President is not very old (relative to the over 1,000-year history of government in the British Isles), the first certain appointment to the office being that of the Duke of Suffolk in 1529. (Although there is a reference to Edmund Dudley serving as 'president of the council' in 1497, it was only in 1529 that the role was given the style and precedence of a Great Officer of State by Act of Parliament ("An Act that the President of the King's Counsel shall be associate with the Chancellor and Treasurer of England, and the Keeper of the King's Privy Seal").) Prior to 1679 there were several periods in which the office was left vacant.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: In the 19th century, the Lord President was generally the cabinet member responsible for the education system, amongst his other duties. This role was gradually scaled back in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but remnants of it remain, such as the oversight of the governance of various universities.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: During times of National or coalition government the office of Lord President has sometimes been held by the leader of a minority party (e.g. Baldwin 1931–1935, MacDonald 1935–1937, Attlee 1943–1945, Clegg 2010–2015). It has been suggested that the office has been intermittently used for Prime Ministerial deputies in the past.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: A particularly vital role was played by the Lord President of the Council during the Second World War. The Lord President served as chairman of the Lord President's Committee. This committee acted as a central clearing house which dealt with the country's economic problems. This was vital to the smooth running of the British war economy and consequently the entire British war effort.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: Winston Churchill, clearly believing that this wartime co-ordinating role was beneficial, introduced a similar but expanded system in the first few years of his post-war premiership. The so-called 'overlord ministers' included Frederick Leathers as Secretary of State for the Co-ordination of Transport, Fuel and Power and Lord Woolton as Lord President. Woolton's job was to co-ordinate the then separate ministries of agriculture and food. The historian Lord Hennessy of Nympsfield quotes a PhD thesis by Michael Kandiah saying that Woolton was "arguably the most successful of the Overlords" partly because his ministries were quite closely related; indeed, they were merged in 1955 as the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: On several occasions since 1954, non-British Ministers have served briefly as acting Lords President of the Council, solely to preside over a meeting of the Privy Council held in a Commonwealth realm. Examples of this practice are the meetings in New Zealand in 1990 and 1995, when Geoffrey Palmer and James Bolger respectively were acting Lords President.


title: Lord President of the Council

text: Andrea Leadsom's appointment in June 2017 was the first in some time where the post holder was not a full Cabinet member.


title: Self-hatred

text: Self-hatred is personal self-loathing or hatred of oneself, or low self-esteem which may lead to self-harm.


title: Self-hatred

text: The term "self-hatred" is used infrequently by psychologists and psychiatrists, who would usually describe people who hate themselves as "people with low self-esteem". Self-hatred, self-guilt and shame are important factors in some or many mental disorders, especially disorders that involve a perceived defect of oneself (e.g. body dysmorphic disorder). Self-hatred is also a symptom of many personality disorders, including borderline personality disorder, as well as mood disorders like depression. It can also be linked to guilt for someone's own actions that they view as wrongful, e.g., survivor guilt.


title: Self-hatred

text: Self-hatred by members of ethnic groups, gender groups, and religions is postulated to be a result of internalization of hatred of those groups from dominant cultures.


title: Self-hatred

text: Racial stereotyping of African-Americans and negative American media portrayals of Black men and women have spread outside of the U.S., influencing people of all races worldwide, and increasing self-hatred.


title: Self-hatred

text: Self-hating or "anti-Catholic Catholics" are terms of critique by traditionalist or conservative Catholics to describe modernist or liberal Catholics, especially those who seek to reform doctrine, make secularist critiques of the Catholic Church, or place secular principles above Church teachings.


title: Self-hatred

text: Theodor Lessing, in his book, "Jewish Self-Hatred" (1930), identified this as a pathology, “a manifestation of an over identification with the dominant culture and internalization of its prejudices.” There have been studies from sources stated in the scholarly research, “mental illness in Jews often derived from feelings of inferiority and self-hatred resulting from persecution and their subordinate position in society.”


title: Self-hatred

text: The term has been used to label American Jews accused of hiding their identity “by converting or intermarrying and raising their children in another faith” to overcome sociopolitical barriers due to antisemitism in the United States.


title: Self-hatred

text: Internalized homophobia refers to negative stereotypes, beliefs, stigma, and prejudice about homosexuality and LGBT people that a person with same-sex attraction turns inward on themselves, whether or not they identify as LGBT.


title: Self-hatred

text: Self-deprecation is the act of belittling, undervaluing, or disparaging oneself, or being excessively modest. It can be used in humor and tension release.


title: Self-hatred

text: Self-harm is a condition where subjects may feel compelled to physically injure themselves as an outlet for depression, anxiety, or anger, and is related with numerous psychological disorders.


title: Self-hatred

text: In some cases, self-harm can lead to accidental death or suicide. It is not a definitive indicator, however, of a desire either to commit suicide or even of its consideration.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Islam's significance in Germany has largely increased after the labour migration in the 1960s and several waves of political refugees since the 1970s.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to a representative survey, it is estimated that in 2019, there were 5.3–5.6 million Muslims with a migrant background in Germany (6.4–6.7% of the population), in addition to an unknown number of Muslims without a migrant background. A similar survey in 2016 estimated a number of 4.4–4.7 million Muslims with a migrant background (5.4–5.7% of the population) at that time. An older survey in 2009 estimated a total number of up to 4.3 Muslims in Germany at that time. There are also higher estimates: according to the German Islam Conference, Muslims represented 7% of the population in Germany in 2012.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In a 2014 academic publication it was estimated that some 100,000 Germans converted to Islam, numbers which are comparable to that in France and in the United Kingdom.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Islam is the largest minority religion in the country, with the Protestant and Roman Catholic confessions being the majority religions.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Most Muslims in Germany have roots in Turkey, followed by Arab countries, former Yugoslavia (mostly of Kosovo-Albanian or Bosnian origin), Afghanistan and Iran. There are also a significant minority originated from Sub-Saharan Africa (mostly East Africa) and South Asia (mostly Pakistan). The large majority of Muslims live in former West Germany, including West Berlin. However, unlike in most other European countries, sizeable Muslim communities exist in some rural regions of Germany, especially Baden-Württemberg, Hesse and parts of Bavaria and North Rhine-Westphalia. Owing to the lack of labour immigration before 1989, there are only very few Muslims in the former East Germany. Among the German districts with the highest share of Muslim migrants are Groß-Gerau (district) and Offenbach (district) according to migrants data from the census 2011. The majority of Muslims in Germany are Sunnis, at 75%. There are Shia Muslims (7%) and mostly from Iran. The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community organization comprise a minority of Germany's Muslims, numbering some 35,000 members or a little over 1% of the Muslim population, and are found in 244 communities as of 2013.


title: Islam in Germany

text: From the mid-2000s to 2016 there has been a surge migrants to Germany from outside Europe. Of the 680,000 regular migrants, 270,000 were Muslim. Additionally, of the 1,210,000 asylum seekers, 900,000 were Muslim (around 74%). Of the asylum seekers, 580,000 applicants were approved and 320,000 were denied or expected to be denied. According to the Pew Research Center, similar patterns of Muslim migration to Germany should be expected in the future and the Muslim population share is expected to grow.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to the Huffington Post in February 2018 which quired each of the 15 state justice ministries, 12 300 Muslims are in prison and constitute about 20% of the total 65,000 prison population in Germany which constitutes an over-representation. The highest shares are in city states of Bremen (29%), Hamburg (28%) but the share is high also in large states such as Hessen (26%) Baden-Württemberg (26%). The share is lower in the former East Germany.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Muslims first moved to Germany as part of the diplomatic, military and economic relations between Germany and the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century. Twenty Muslim soldiers served under Frederick William I of Prussia, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. In 1745, Frederick II of Prussia established a unit of Muslims in the Prussian army called the "Muslim Riders" and consisting mainly of Bosniaks, Albanians and Tatars. In 1760 a Bosnian Muslim corps was established with about 1,000 men. In 1798 a Muslim cemetery was established in Berlin. The cemetery, which moved in 1866, still exists today. A number of German philosophers expressed sympathy for Islam, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (who particularly admired the Sufi poetry of Hafez) and later Friedrich Nietzsche (in "The Antichrist", he claimed that the Germanic spirit was closer to the Moors of Al-Andalus than that of Greece, Rome and Christianity).


title: Islam in Germany

text: The German Empire had over two million Muslim subjects, mostly Sunnis, in overseas colonies. The Majority lived in German East Africa. Several Muslim revolts against German colonial rule occurred, including the Adamawa Campaign, Maji Maji Rebellion and Abushiri revolt.


title: Islam in Germany

text: The Islamic Institut Ma’ahad-ul-Islam was founded in 1927 and is now known under the name "" (Central Islamic Archive Institute) and is the oldest such institution in Germany. Shortly after its founding the Nazi Party came to power the archive was forced to suspend all further work, until after the war.


title: Islam in Germany

text: During World War II Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al-Husseini energetically recruited Muslims from occupied territories into several divisions of the Waffen SS (primarily the 13th "Waffen" Mountain Division of the SS "Handschar" (1st Croatian) and 21st "Waffen" Mountain Division of the SS "Skanderbeg") and some other units.


title: Islam in Germany

text: After the West German Government invited foreign workers ("Gastarbeiter") in 1961, the figure sharply rose to currently 4.3 million (most of them Turkish from the rural region of Anatolia in southeast Turkey). They are sometimes called a parallel society within ethnic Germans.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to the German statistical office 9.1% of all newborns in Germany had Muslim parents in 2005.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In 2017, Muslims and Islamic institutions were targeted by attacks 950 times, where houses are painted with Nazi symbols, hijab-wearing women are harassed, threatening letters are sent and 33 people were injured. In nearly all cases, the perpetrators were right-wing extremists.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In May 2018 a court in Berlin upheld the right to the state's neutrality principle by barring a primary school teacher from wearing a headscarf during classes, where the court spokesman stated that children should be free of the influence that can be exerted by religious symbols.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to a study in 2018 by Leipzig University, 56% of Germans sometimes thought the many Muslims made them feel like strangers in their own country, up from 43% in 2014. In 2018, 44% thought immigration by Muslims should be banned, up from 37% in 2014.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In December 2018, the government of Germany strengthened the control of Saudi, Kuwaiti and Qatari funding for radical mosque congregations. The measure was recommended by an anti-terrorist agency in Berlin (German: "Terrorismus-Abwehrzentrum") which since 2015 had started to monitor Safalist proselytizing funding in the wake of the European migrant crisis to prevent refugees from becoming radicalized. Henceforth Gulf authorities are required to report payments and funding to the German Federal Foreign Office (German: "Auswärtigen Amt").


title: Islam in Germany

text: In December 2018, there were no official statistics on how much funding mosques in Germany received from abroad.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In July 2020, federal state Baden-Württemberg banned face-covering veils for school pupils as an extension of the ban which was already in force for staff.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In addition there are numerous local associations without affiliation to any of these organisations. Two organisations have been banned in 2002 because their programme was judged as contrary to the constitution: The "Hizb ut-Tahrir" and the so-called "Caliphate State" founded by Cemalettin Kaplan and later led by his son Metin Kaplan.


title: Islam in Germany

text: As elsewhere in Western Europe, the rapid growth of the Muslim community in Germany has led to social tensions and political controversy, partly connected to Islamic extremism, and more generally due to the perceived difficulties of multiculturalism and fears of "Überfremdung".


title: Islam in Germany

text: A 2012 poll showed that 18% of the Turks in Germany think of Jews as inferior human beings. A similar study found that most of Germany's native born Muslim youth and children of immigrants have antisemitic views.


title: Islam in Germany

text: A 2017 study on Jewish perspectives on antisemitism in Germany by Bielefeld University found that individuals and groups belonging to the extreme right and extreme left were equally represented as perpetrators of antisemitic harassment and assault, while the largest part of the attacks were committed by Muslim assailants. The study also found that 70% of the participants feared a rise in antisemitism due to immigration citing the antisemitic views of the refugees. Many of this started in 2015 when a large quantity of islamic refugees entered Germany.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, the majority of Islamist organizations in Germany cultivate antisemitic propaganda and distribute it in various ways.


title: Islam in Germany

text: One such issue concerns the wearing of the head-scarf by teachers in schools and universities. The right to practice one's religion, stated by the teachers in question, contradicts in the view of many the neutral stance of the state towards religion. As of 2006, many of the German federal states have introduced legislation banning head-scarves for teachers. However, such a ban in North-Rhein Westphalia was declared as unconstitutional in 2015 by the Federal Constitutional Court.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In the German federal states with the exception of Bremen, Berlin and Brandenburg, lessons of religious education overseen by the respective religious communities are taught as an elective subject in state schools. It is being discussed whether apart from the Catholic and Protestant (and in a few schools, Jewish) religious education that currently exists, a comparable subject of Islamic religious education should be introduced as a regular part of the curricula. In several states, trials for Islamic religious education are being conducted, while in the states of Hessen, Lower-Saxony and Northrhine-Westphalia, Islamic religious education already is integrated as a regular class. The problem that the cooperation with Islamic organisations is hampered by the fact that none of them can be considered as representative of the whole Muslim community.


title: Islam in Germany

text: The discussion of religious (Islamic) education in German schools started in the 1970s, and also symmetrically with issues of Qur'anic classes as well as its deterrent effects on the integration of Turkish students into the country.


title: Islam in Germany

text: The construction of mosques is occasionally resisted by anti Muslim reactions in the neighborhoods concerned. For example, in 2007 an attempt by Muslims to build a large mosque in Cologne sparked a controversy.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Similarly with the Sendlinger Mosque Controversy, and the proposed construction of a training academy in Munich, originally called the "Centre for Islam in Europe, Munich" (ZIE-M), and later the "Munich Forum for Islam".


title: Islam in Germany

text: There are now 18 official mosques in the country that have been established as mosques since time immemorial. Muslim places of worship (such as mosques and other places of worship) are estimated at between 1,000 and 1,200. Most of these mosques are temporarily built and are mostly located in rented places, factories or warehouses. According to the archives of the Central Institute of Islam, the most important mosques in Germany are located in cities such as Hamburg, Berlin, Mannheim, Marl, Dortmund, Cologne, Frankfurt, Wesling, Bonn, Zingen, Fortsheim, as well as mosques. The cities of Aachen and Munich are important mosques in Germany. These mosques are far from the city center and are often located in industrial areas.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In 2010, the German Ministry of Education and Research established Islamic Theological Studies as an academic discipline at public universities in order to train teachers for Islamic religious education and Muslim theologians. Since then, Islamic theological departments have been established at several universities, conducting research and teaching on Islam from a theological perspective.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Concerns of Islamic fundamentalism came to the fore after 11 September 2001, especially with respect to Islamic fundamentalism among second- and third-generation Muslims in Germany - the Hamburg cell, which included Mohamed Atta, was prominent in the planning and execution of 11 September attacks. Also the various confrontations between Islamic religious law (Sharia) and the norms of German "Grundgesetz" and culture are the subject of intense debate. German critics include both liberals and Christian groups. The former claim that Islamic fundamentalism violates basic fundamental rights whereas the latter maintain that Germany is a state and society grounded in the Christian tradition.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to a 2007 Federal Ministry of the Interior report almost half of all young Muslims in Germany support fundamentalist views. About 12% of Muslims in Germany identified with moral-religious criticism against Western societal values in combination with corporal punishment up to and including the death penalty.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to a 2012 poll, 72% of the Turks in Germany believe that Islam is the only true religion and 46% wish that one day more Muslims live in Germany than Christians. According to a 10-year survey by the University of Bielefeld, which dealt with different aspects of attitudes to Islam, "distrust" of Islam is widespread in Germany with only 19 percent of Germans believing that Islam is compatible with German culture.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to 2013 study by Social Science Research Center Berlin, two thirds of the Muslims interviewed say that religious rules are more important to them than the laws of the country in which they live, almost 60 percent of the Muslim respondents reject homosexuals as friends; 45 percent think that Jews cannot be trusted; and an equally large group believes that the West is out to destroy Islam (Christian respondents’ answers for comparison: As many as 9 percent are openly anti-Semitic; 13 percent do not want to have homosexuals as friends; and 23 percent think that Muslims aim to destroy Western culture).


title: Islam in Germany

text: Salafism is a part of the Sunni branch of Islam which is a revival of original Islamic ideals. Salafists strive to live exclusively according to the Quran. According to German authorities, Salafism is incompatible with the principles codified in the Constitution of Germany, in particular democracy, the rule of law and a political order based on human rights. According to the German security service, the Salafist movement attracts rising numbers. In 2011 there were an estimated 3800 Salafists in Germany, which rose to 10300 in September 2017. According to head of security office Hans-Georg Maaßen, the Salafist scene in Germany is not dominated by any one single individual, but instead a great many persons have to be monitored.


title: Islam in Germany

text: According to German Federal Agency for Civic Education, the Salafist movement in Germany is centered in the Frankfurt Rhine-Main metropolitan area, North Rhine-Westphalia and Berlin. In these areas, mosques and charismatic imams are the driving factors behind recruitment to the Salafist movement.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In 2016, the interior ministry of North Rhine-Westphalia reported that the number of mosques with a Salafist influence had risen from 30 to 55, which indicated both an actual increase and improved reporting.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In February 2017, the German Salafist mosque organisation "Berliner Fussilet-Moscheeverein" was banned by authorities. Anis Amri, the perpetrator of the 2016 Berlin truck attack, was said to be among its visitors. In March 2017, the German Muslim community organisation "Deutschsprachige Islamkreis Hildesheim" was also banned after investigators found that its members were preparing to travel to the conflict zone in Syria to fight for the Islamic State. According to the Federal Agency for Civic Education, these examples show that Salafist mosques not only concern themselves with religious matters, but also prepare serious crimes and terrorist activities.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Turkish and Kurdish Islamist groups are also active in Germany, and Turkish and Kurdish Islamists have co-operated in Germany as in the case of the Sauerland terror cell. Political scientist Guido Steinberg stated that many top leaders of Islamist organizations in Turkey fled to Germany in the 2000s, and that the Turkish (Kurdish) Hizbullah has also "left an imprint on Turkish Kurds in Germany." Also many Kurds from Iraq (there are about 50,000 to 80,000 Iraqi Kurds in Germany) financially supported Kurdish-Islamist groups like Ansar al Islam. Many Islamists in Germany are ethnic Kurds (Iraqi and Turkish Kurds) or Turks. Before 2006, the German Islamist scene was dominated by Iraqi Kurds and Palestinians, but since 2006 Kurds and Turks from Turkey are dominant.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In 2016, the German security service estimated that about 24 000 Muslims were part of Islamists movements in Germany, of which 10 000 belonged to the Salafist scene.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In 2016, 90 mosques were monitored by the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution for their islamist ideology. These were mostly Arabic-language "backyard mosques" where self-appointed imams exhorted their followers to wage jihad.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Since the start of 2017 until April 2018, 80 Islamist extremists without German citizenship were deported to their home countries.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In March 2018, there were 760 islamists in Germany classified as dangerous by police authorities, of which more than half were on German territory and 153 of the latter were in prison.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In recent years, Mosques in Germany have been receiving larger quantities of hate mail as well as threats.


title: Islam in Germany

text: A group of men were walking the streets of Wuppertal carrying vests labelled "Sharia Police". They wanted to talk to young Muslims and discourage them from visiting betting halls, brothels and stop them from drinking alcohol. They were charged with breaching the regulation against carrying political uniforms but were acquitted by the district court in Wuppertal. The prosecutor appealed the decision to the German Federal Court of Justice, which annulled the acquittal in January 2018. In the retrial, the men were convicted and sentenced to pay fines as their garments suggested militancy due to the violent nature of similarly named organisations in the Middle East.


title: Islam in Germany

text: In July 2010, Germany outlawed the Internationale Humanitäre Hilfsorganisation e.V. (IHH Germany), saying it had used donations to support Hamas, which is considered by the European Union and Germany to be a terrorist organization, while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian help. German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, "Donations to so-called social welfare groups belonging to Hamas, such as the millions given by IHH, actually support the terror organization Hamas as a whole." IHH e.V. was believed by the German Authorities to have collected money in mosques and to have sent $8.3 million to organizations related to Hamas.


title: Islam in Germany

text: Studies show that while not all Muslims are religious, Muslim youths are markedly more religious than non-Muslim youths. A study comparing Turkish Muslim youths living in Germany and German youth found that the former were more likely to attend religious services regularly (35% versus 14%).


title: Islam in Germany

text: 41% of young Turkish Muslim boys and 52% of the girls said they prayed "sometimes or regularly"; 64% of boys and 74% of girls said they wanted to teach their children religion.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Bangalore Saroja Devi (born 7 January 1938) is an Indian actress who has acted in Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Hindi films. She acted in around 200 films in over six decades. She is known by the epithets ""Abhinaya Saraswathi"" (Saraswathi of acting) in Kannada and ""Kannadathu Paingili"" (Kannada's Parrot) in Tamil. She is one of the most successful actresses in the history of Indian cinema.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: At the age of 17, Saroja Devi got her big break with her movie, the Kannada film "Mahakavi Kalidasa" (1955). In Telugu cinema, she made her debut with "Panduranga Mahatyam" (1957), and starred in a number of successful films until the late 1970s. The Tamil film "Nadodi Mannan" (1958) made her one of the top actresses in Tamil cinema. After her marriage in 1967, she continued to be the second in demand actress in Tamil films till 1974, but she continued to be one of the top actresses in Telugu and Kannada cinema from 1958 until the 1980s. She also starred in Hindi films until the mid-1960s, starting with "Paigham" (1959).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: She played the lead heroine in 161 consecutive films in 29 years between 1955 and 1984. Saroja Devi received the Padma Sri, the fourth-highest civilian honour, in 1969 and Padma Bhushan, third highest civilian award, in 1992 from the Government of India, honorary doctorate from Bangalore University and Kalaimamani award from Tamil Nadu.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi was born in Bangalore, Kingdom of Mysore (now Bengaluru, Karnataka) on 7 January 1938 in a Vokkaliga family. Her father Bhairappa was a police officer in Mysore, and her mother Rudramma was a homemaker. She was their fourth daughter. Bhairappa asked her to learn dancing, and encouraged her to take up acting as a career. A young Saroja Devi was accompanied often by her father to studios and he would patiently tie on her salangais and massage her swollen feet after her dancing stints. Her mother gave her a strict dress code: no swimsuits and no sleeveless blouses, which she followed for the rest of her career. She was first spotted by B.R. Krishnamurthy when she was singing at a function at the age of 13, but she declined the film offer.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi's debut movie and also her first major success was Honnappa Bhagavatar's Kannada film "Mahakavi Kalidasa" (1955), in which she played a supporting role. The film won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Kannada. Next, she acted in B. R. Panthulu's Tamil film "Thangamalai Ragasiyam" (1957), in which she performed a dance sequence.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Subsequently, she was noted by M. G. Ramachandran (MGR), who cast her as the female lead in "Nadodi Mannan" (1958), the movie that made her one of the most popular actresses in Tamil Nadu. She was then signed up for the Hindi film "Paigham" (1959), in which her co-stars included Dilip Kumar. She went on to work in other leading Hindi actors, including Rajendra Kumar in "Sasural" (1961), Sunil Dutt in "Beti Bete" (1964) and Shammi Kapoor in "Pyaar Kiya To Darna Kya" (1963). She also shot a few scenes with Raj Kapoor for "Nazrana" (1961), but was replaced by Vyjayanthimala after a conflict with the director C. V. Sridhar.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Following the success of "Nadodi Mannan", she was also cast opposite the leading Tamil actors of that time: with Gemini Ganesan in "Kalyana Parisu" (1959), with Sivaji Ganesan in "Bhaaga Pirivinai" (1959) and again with MGR in "Thirudadhe" (1961). Her involvement in Tamil films also continued with superhits like "Palum Pazhamum" (1961), "Vazhkai Vazhvatharke" (1964), "Aalayamani" (1962), "Periya Idathu Penn" (1963), "Puthiya Paravai" (1964), "Panakkara Kudumbam" (1964), "Enga Veetu Pillai" (1965) and "Anbe Vaa" (1966). She came to be known as a "lucky mascot" for MGR films and acted with him in 26 films.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Her early successes in Kannada cinema included "Chintamani" (1957), "School Master" (1958) and "Jagajyothi Basveshwara" (1959). Her role as a patriotic anti-British queen in the Kannada "Kittooru Rani Chennamma" (1961) was widely acclaimed. In 1964, she and Kalyan Kumar acted in the first full-fledged Kannada colour movie "Amarashilpi Jakanachaari".


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi also achieved success in Telugu films, starring opposite N. T. Rama Rao in "Seetarama Kalyanam" (1961), "Jagadeka Veeruni Katha" (1961) and "Daagudu Moothalu" (1964). "Amara Shilpi Jakkanna" (1964, remake of Kannada film) and "Rahasyam", her film "Pelli Kaanuka" (1960) with Akkineni Nageswara Rao, were also successful. The first Telugu film featured dubbing; wherein, Krishna Kumari dubbed her voice in "Panduranga Mahatyam" (1957). But in the subsequent years, Saroja Devi learnt Telugu language. Her Hindi films included "Sasural" (1960), "Opera House" (1961), "Pareeksha", "Hong Kong" (1962) and "Pyar Kiya To Darna Kya" (1963), which became successful. In 1962 she was crowned "Chaturbhaasha Taare", because of her popularity in these four languages.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: The pair of MGR-Saroja Devi gave 26 back-to-back hit films together, which included 1: "Nadodi Mannan" (1958), 2: "Thirudathe" (1961), 3: "Thaai Sollai Thattadhe" (1961), 4: "Paasam" (1962), 5: "Kudumba Thalaivan" (1962), 6: "Maadappura" (1962), 7: "Thayai Katha Thanayan" (1963), 8: "Dharmam Thalai Kaakkum" (1963), 9: "Needhikkuppin Paasam" (1963), 10: "Dheiva Thaai" (1964), 11: "Padagotti" (1964), 12: "Aasai Mugam" (1965), 13: "Nadodi" (1966), 14: "Thali Bhagyam" (1966), 15: "Naan Aanaiyittal" (1966), 16: "Petralthan Pillaiya" (1966) and 17: "Arasa Kattalai" (1967). Her best performances opposite MGR were the "rich girl" roles: 18: "Panathottam" (1963), 19: "Periya Idathu Penn" (1963), 20: "Panakkara Kudumbam" (1964), 21: "En Kadamai" (1964), 22: "Thaayin Madiyil" (1964), 23: "Enga Veettu Pillai" (1965), 24: "Kalangarai Vilakkam" (1965), 25: "Anbe Vaa" (1966) and 26: "Parakkum Paavai" (1966). The women adored her dressing sense and her saris and blouses, ornaments, hairstyles were copied by girls and women.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: In the 1960s, Saroja Devi became a fashion icon among the South Indian women, who mimicked her saris, blouses, jewellery, hairstyles and mannerisms. In particular, her saris and jewellery from the Tamil movies "Enga Veettu Pillai" (1965) and "Anbe Vaa" (1966) were popularized widely in magazines.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: The pairing of Sivaji Ganesan and Saroja Devi gave 22 back-to-back hit movies: 1: "Thangamalai Ragasiyam" (1957), 2: "Sabaash Meena" (1958), 3: "Engal Kudumbam Perisu" (1958), 4: "Bhaaga Pirivinai" (1959), 5: "School Master (Hindi)" (1959), 6: "Irumbu Thirai" (1960), 7: "Vidivelli" (1960), 8: "Palum Pazhamum" (1961), 9: "Paarthaal Pasi Theerum" (1962), 10: "Valar Pirai" (1962), 11: "Aalayamani" (1962), 12: "Kulamagal Radhai" (1963), 13: "Iruvar Ullam" (1963), 14: "Kalyaniyin Kanavan" (1963) and 15: "Puthiya Paravai" (1964)


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: After 1968, Saroja Devi's career in Tamil cinema gradually declined, and she became more active in Kannada movies. With her marriage in 1967 and the rise of younger heroines like K. R. Vijaya and Jayalalithaa producers stopped pairing her opposite MGR. Her last film with MGR was "Arasa Kattalai" (1967), which also starred Jayalalithaa. She continued starring in Tamil movies opposite Sivaji Ganesan after her marriage: 16: "En Thambi" (1968), 17: Anbalippu (1969), 18: Anjal Petti 520 (1969), 19: Arunodhayam (1971), 20: Thenum Paalum (1971), 21: Paarambariyam (1993) and 22: "Once More" (1997).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: She worked with Gemini Ganesan in "Pen Endral Pen" (1967), "Panama Pasama" (1968), "Thamarai Nenjam" (1968), "Ainthu Latcham" (1969), "Thanga Malar" (1969), "Kula Vilakku" (1969), "Malathi" (1970) and "Kann Malar" (1970).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: With Ravichandran she acted in the successful films "Odum Nadhi" (1969), "Snegithi" (1970), "Malathi" (1970), and "Pathu Matha Bandham" (1974).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: With R. Muthuraman, she starred in "Arunodhayam" (1971), "Uyir" (1971) and "Pathu Matha Bandham" (1974), which was her last Tamil film as a lead actor until 1985.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: She continued to be among the highest-paid actresses in Kannada and Telugu films. She was cast opposite the leading actor Dr. Rajkumar in several Kannada films, including "Mallammana Pavada" (1969), "Nyayave Devaru" (1971), "Sri Srinivasa Kalyana" (1974), "Babruvahana" (1977) and "Bhagyavantharu" (1977). Her other successful films from this period include "Thande Makkalu" (1971), "Papa Punya" (1971), "Gunavanthudu" (1975), "Katha Sangama" (1976), "Sri Renukadevi Mahathme" (1977), with Chiranjeevi, then with Vishnuvardhan in "Shani Prabhava" (1977) and "Rudranaga" (1984).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: In Telugu cinema, she was cast opposite N. T. Rama Rao in films like "Bhagyachakram" (1968), "Uma Chandi Gowri Sankarula Katha" (1968), "Vijayam Manade" (1970), "Mayani Mamatha" (1970), Shakuntala and "Daana Veera Soora Karna" (1979).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: In her long career she chiefly opted for romantic films only in the 1960s and later sentimental and socially relevant films right from the late 1960s to the 1980s. "Sri Renukadevi Mahathme", a Kannada film released in 1977 was Saroja Devi's 150th film in her career and by 1984, she had completed 161 films as the main lead heroine, without ever playing supporting roles. Yarivanu, in Kannada, was the 161st film, in which she played the main lead heroine.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi signed up for the film "Ladies Hostel" in 1985, but stopped shooting after her husband fell ill. He subsequently died in 1986, and she did not shoot or even meet non-family people for one year after his demise. She resumed shooting only in 1987. "Ladies Tailor" proved a successful film, but Saroja Devi refused to sign up for any more films. She completed the eight films that she had accepted before 1986, and these were released during 1987–1990. These included "Thaimel Aanai" (1988) and "Dharma Devan" (1989).


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: After completing her pending projects, Saroja Devi took a break of about five years from films. She returned to acting on the insistence by film producers and her fans, but, contrary to her previous record, she no longer accepted romantic roles. She starred opposite Sivaji Ganesan in "Parambariyam" (1993) in a lead role as a matron, and then performed a few roles as a supporting actress. In Kannada films, her notable supporting performances included her roles in "Anuraga Sangama" (1995) and "Agni IPS" (1997). She and Sivaji Ganesan acted in the Tamil film "Once More" (1997), which also includes scenes from their 1963 film "Iruvar Ullam". Her latest film in Tamil was the film "Aadhavan" (2009), in which she played a judge's mother.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Twice in 1998 and 2005, Saroja Devi chaired film juries: the 45th National Film Awards and the 53rd National Film Awards jury. She served as the vice-president of Kannada Chalanchitra Sangha, and as a member of Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams's local advisory committee. She runs a successful business. She also served as the Chairperson of the Karnataka Film Development Corporation, which had been set up as a private limited company by her and a few other film personalities in 1972.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi is now settled in Bangalore, where she is involved in social work. She has organized many donation camps in the name of her husband and her mother. She is also involved with charitable trusts, rehabilitation centers and health programs.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: On 1 March 1967, Saroja married Sri Harsha, an engineer. Sri Harsha, an engineer, worked for Bharat Electronics, a Public Sector company. At that time, Saroja was facing a financial crisis and income tax troubles. Her husband helped her overcome these problems, and taught her how to manage her finances.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Sri Harsha supported Devi's acting career after marriage. When Saroja was asked in an interview as to how she did not discontinue acting due to her mother's insistence after 1967, she said: "Dilip Kumar once said he has asked Saira Banu to not to stop acting profession. The story was mentioned by Rajesh Khanna to my husband Sri Harsha, not to stop me from acting.". Sri Harsha died in 1986 due to various health problems.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: Saroja Devi's children included her daughter Bhuvaneshwari and two grandchildren Indira and Gautam. Bhuvaneshwari was her niece, and had been adopted by her. Bhuvaneshwari died young, and Saroja Devi sponsors the "Bhuvaneshwari Award" for literature in her memory.


title: B. Saroja Devi

text: In 2010, "Bharathiya Vidya Bhavan" instituted Padma Bhushan B. Saroja Devi National Award, a lifetime achievement award to honour artists in the field of performing arts, annually. The recipients of the award including K. J. Yesudas, Vyjayantimala, Anjali Devi, Ambareesh, Jayanthi and others.


title: Nicholas Guest

text: Nicholas Haden-Guest (born May 5, 1951), known as Nicholas Guest, is an American actor who has appeared in various movie and television roles, including that of headmaster Patrick James Elliot in the teen sitcom "USA High". Since 2000, he has primarily worked as a voice actor.


title: Nicholas Guest

text: Guest was born in New York City, the son of Peter Haden-Guest, a British United Nations diplomat who later became the 4th Baron Haden-Guest, and his second wife, Jean Pauline Hindes, a former vice president of casting at CBS. Guest's maternal grandparents were Jewish immigrants from Russia. His paternal grandfather, the 1st Baron Haden-Guest, was a Labour Party politician who was a convert to Judaism, and his paternal grandmother's father was Colonel Albert Goldsmid, a British officer who founded the Jewish Lads' and Girls' Brigade and the Maccabaeans. Both of Guest's parents had become atheists, and Guest had no religious upbringing. More than a decade before he was born, his uncle David Guest, a lecturer and Communist Party member, was killed in the Spanish Civil War fighting in the International Brigades.


title: Nicholas Guest

text: Nicholas Guest spent parts of his childhood in the United Kingdom. He is the brother of actor Christopher Guest, the brother-in-law of actress Jamie Lee Curtis and the half brother of the British-American writer Anthony Haden-Guest.


title: Nicholas Guest

text: Guest married Jill Ellen Demby on May 11, 1980, but they divorced in 1989. With Demby he had his first daughter, Julia Demby Haden-Guest (born on September 23, 1988). On November 26, 1989, he married Pamela Ann Guest (née Seamon), an actress and casting director, with whom he had his second daughter, Elizabeth Ann Haden-Guest (born on May 30, 1990), also an actress.


title: Nicholas Guest

text: Guest is heir presumptive to the title of Baron Haden-Guest in the British peerage. This is because the children of his brother Christopher Guest and Jamie Lee Curtis (Lord and Lady Haden-Guest), Annie Guest and Ruby Guest, are doubly ineligible to succeed to the title, being both female and adopted. Should he succeed to the barony, he will be the 6th Baron Haden-Guest. As the child of a baron, he is styled ""The Honourable" Nicholas Guest".


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: All Souls College (official name: College of the Souls of All the Faithful Departed) is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Unique to All Souls, all of its members automatically become fellows (i.e., full members of the college's governing body). It has no undergraduate members, but each year, recent graduate and postgraduate students at Oxford are eligible to apply for a small number of examination fellowships through a competitive examination (once described as "the hardest exam in the world") and, for those shortlisted after the examinations, an interview.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: The college entrance is on the north side of High Street, whilst it has a long frontage onto Radcliffe Square. To its east is the Queen's College, whilst Hertford College is to the north of All Souls.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: The college was founded by Henry VI of England and Henry Chichele (fellow of New College and Archbishop of Canterbury), in 1438, to commemorate the victims of the Hundred Years' War. The Statutes provided for a warden and forty fellows; all to take Holy Orders: 24 to study arts, philosophy and theology; and 16 to study civil or canon law.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Today the college is primarily a graduate research institution, with no undergraduate members. All Souls did formerly have undergraduates: Robert Hovenden (Warden of the college from 1571 to 1614) introduced undergraduates to provide the fellows with "servientes" (household servants), but this was abandoned by the end of the Commonwealth. Four Bible Clerks remained on the foundation until 1924.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: For over five hundred years All Souls College admitted only men; women were first allowed to join the college as fellows in 1979, the same year as many other previously all-male colleges in the university.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: The All Souls College Library (formerly known as the Codrington Library) was founded through a 1710 bequest from Christopher Codrington (1668–1710), a fellow of the college and a wealthy slave and sugar plantation owner. Codrington was an undergraduate at Oxford and later became colonial governor of the Leeward Islands. Christopher Codrington was born in Barbados, and amassed a fortune from his sugar plantation in the West Indies.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Under the terms of his will Codrington bequeathed books worth £6,000 to the college in addition to £10,000 in currency for the library to be rebuilt and endowed. The new library was completed in 1751 to the designs of Nicholas Hawksmoor and has been in continuous use since then. Today the library comprises some 185,000 items, about a third of which were published before 1800. The collections are particularly strong in law and history (especially military history).


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Sir Christopher Wren was a fellow from 1653, and in 1658 produced a sundial for the college. This was originally placed on the south wall of the Chapel, but in 1877 was moved to the quadrangle (above the central entrance to the Codrington Library).


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: In 2020, the College decided to cease referring to the Library as ‘The Codrington Library’ as part of a set of "steps to address the problematic nature of the Codrington legacy", which comes from wealth derived from slave plantations.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Built between 1438 and 1442, the college chapel remained largely unchanged until the Commonwealth. Oxford, having been a largely Royalist stronghold, suffered under the Puritans' wrath. The 42 misericords date from the Chapel's building, and show a resemblance to the misericords at St Mary's Church, Higham Ferrers. Both may have been carved by Richard Tyllock. During the 1660s a screen was installed in the Chapel, which was based on a design by Wren. However, this screen needed to be rebuilt by 1713. By the mid-19th century the Chapel was in great need of renovation, and so the current structure is heavily influenced by Victorian design ideals.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: All services at the chapel are according to the "Book of Common Prayer"; the "King James Bible" is also used rather than more modern translations.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: All Souls is one of the wealthiest colleges in Oxford, with a financial endowment of £420.2 million (2018). However, since the college's principal source of revenue is its endowment and it does not earn income from tuition fees, it only ranked 19th (in 2007) among Oxford colleges in total income. All Souls is a registered charity under English law.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: In the three years following the award of their bachelor's degrees, students graduating from Oxford and current Oxford postgraduate students having graduated elsewhere are eligible to apply for examination fellowships (sometimes informally referred to as "prize fellowships") of seven years each. While tutors may advise their students to sit for the All Souls examination fellowship, the examination is open to anybody who fulfils the eligibility criteria and the college does not issue invitations to candidates to sit. Every year in early March, the college hosts an open evening for women, offering women interested in the examination fellowship an opportunity to find out more about the exam process and to meet members of the college.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Each year several dozen candidates typically sit the examination. Two examination fellows are usually elected each year, although the college has awarded a single place or three places in some years, and on rare occasions made no award.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: The competition, offered since 1878 and open to women since 1979, is held over two days in late September, with two papers of three hours each per day. It has been described in the past as "the hardest exam in the world".


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Two papers (the 'specialist papers') are on a single subject of the candidate's choice; the options are classics, English literature, economics, history, law, philosophy, and politics. Candidates may sit their two specialist papers in different specialist subjects, provided each paper is in one subject only (for example, a candidate might sit one paper in History and one paper in Politics). Candidates who choose Classics have an additional translation examination on a third day.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Two papers (the 'general papers') are on general subjects. For each general examination, candidates choose three questions from a list. Past questions have included:


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Before 2010 candidates also faced another examination, a free-form "Essay" on a single, pre-selected word.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Four to six finalists are invited to a viva voce or oral examination. Previously, these candidates were then invited to dinner with about 75 members of the college. The dinner did not form part of the assessment, but was intended as a reward for those candidates who had reached the latter stages of the selection process. However, the dinner has been discontinued as the college felt candidates worried too often that it was part of the assessment process.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: About a dozen examination fellows are at the college at any one time. There are no compulsory teaching or requirements, although examination fellows must pursue a course of study or research at some point within their first two years of fellowship. They can study anything for free at Oxford with room and board. As "Londoners" they can pursue approved non-academic careers if desired, with a reduced stipend, as long as they pursue academia on a part-time basis and attend weekend dinners at the college during their first academic year. each examination fellow receives a stipend of £14,842 annually for the first two years; the stipend then varies depending on whether the fellow pursues an academic career.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: There are also a number of professorial fellows who hold their fellowships by virtue of their University post.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Fellows of the college include the Chichele professors, who hold statutory professorships at the University of Oxford named in honour of Henry Chichele, a founder of the college. Fellowship of the college has accompanied the award of a Chichele chair since 1870.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Following the work of the 1850 Commission to examine the organisation of the university, the college suppressed ten of its fellowships to create the funds to establish the first two Chichele professorships: The Chichele Professor of International Law and Diplomacy, established in 1859 and first held by Mountague Bernard, and the Chichele Professor of Modern History, first held by Montagu Burrows.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Probably the best known former Chichele Professor is Sir Isaiah Berlin. Perhaps the best known former Professor of the History of War was Cyril Falls.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: The Chichele Lectures are a prestigious series of lectures formally established in 1912 and sponsored by All Souls College. The lectures were initially restricted to foreign history, but have since been expanded to include law, political theory, economic theory, as well as foreign and British history. Traditionally the lectures were delivered by a single speaker, but it is now common for several speakers to deliver lectures on a common theme.


title: All Souls College, Oxford

text: Every hundred years, and generally on 14 January, there is a commemorative feast after which the fellows parade around the college with flaming torches, singing the "Mallard Song" and led by a "Lord Mallard" who is carried in a chair, in search of a legendary mallard that supposedly flew out of the foundations of the college when it was being built. During the hunt the Lord Mallard is preceded by a man bearing a pole to which a mallard is tied – originally a live bird, latterly either dead (1901) or carved from wood (2001). The last mallard ceremony was in 2001 and the next is due in 2101. The precise origin of the custom is not known, but it dates from at least 1632. A benign parody of this custom has been portrayed as the Unseen University's "Megapode chase" in Sir Terry Pratchett's 2009 novel "Unseen Academicals".


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: A wealthy executive named Kingo Gondo (Toshiro Mifune) is in a struggle to gain control of a company called National Shoes. One faction wants the company to make cheap, low quality shoes for the impulse market as opposed to the sturdy and high quality shoes currently being produced. Gondo believes that the long-term future of the company will be best served by well made shoes with modern styling, though this plan is unpopular because it means lower profits in the short term. He has secretly set up a leveraged buyout to gain control of the company, mortgaging all he has.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: Just as he is about to put his plan into action, he receives a phone call from someone claiming to have kidnapped his son, Jun. Gondo is prepared to pay the ransom, but the call is dismissed as a prank when Jun comes in from playing outside. However, Jun's playmate, Shinichi, the child of Gondo's chauffeur, is missing and the kidnappers have mistakenly abducted him instead.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: In another phone call the kidnapper reveals that he has discovered his mistake but still demands the same ransom. Gondo is now forced to make a decision about whether to pay the ransom to save the child or complete the buyout. After a long night of contemplation Gondo announces that he will not pay the ransom, explaining that doing so would not only mean the loss of his position in the company, but cause him to go into debt and throw the futures of his wife and son into jeopardy. His plans are weakened when his top aide lets the "cheap shoes" faction know about the kidnapping in return for a promotion should they take over. Finally, under pressure from his wife and the chauffeur, Gondo decides to pay the ransom. Following the kidnapper's instructions, the money is put into two small briefcases and thrown from a moving train; Shinichi is found unharmed.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: Gondo is forced out of the company and his creditors demand the collateral in lieu of debt. The story is widely reported however, making Gondo a hero, while the National Shoe Company is vilified and boycotted. Meanwhile, the police eventually find the hideout where Shinichi was kept prisoner. The bodies of the kidnapper's two accomplices are found there, killed by an overdose of heroin. The police surmise that the kidnapper engineered their deaths by supplying them with uncut drugs. Further clues lead to the identity of the kidnapper, a medical intern at a nearby hospital, but there is no hard evidence linking him to the accomplices' murders.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: The police lay a trap by first planting a false story in the newspapers implying that the accomplices are still alive, and then forging a note from them demanding more drugs. The kidnapper is then apprehended in the act of trying to supply another lethal dose of uncut heroin to his accomplices, after testing the strength on a drug addict who overdoses and dies. Most of the ransom money is recovered, but too late to save Gondo's property from auction. With the kidnapper facing a death sentence, he requests to see Gondo while in prison and Gondo finally meets him face to face. Gondo has gone to work for a rival shoe company, earning less money but enjoying a free hand in running it. The kidnapper at first feigns no regrets for his actions. As he reveals that envy from seeing Gondo's house on the hill every day led him to conceive of the crime, his emotions gradually gain control over him and he ends up breaking down emotionally before Gondo after finally facing his failure.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: "High and Low" was filmed at Toho Studios and on location in Yokohama. The film includes stock music from "The H-Man" (1958).


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: Kurosawa included cameos by many of his popular stock performers, making its star-studded cast one of the film's best-remembered highlights.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: The film foregrounds the modern infrastructure of the economic miracle years and the run-up to the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, including rapid rail lines and the proliferation of personal automobiles.


title: High and Low (1963 film)

text: "High and Low" was released in Japan on 1 March 1963. The film was released by Toho International with English subtitles in the United States on 26 November 1963.