title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: When a bill has been passed by both houses following the described process, it is sent to the President for his approval per . The President can assent or withhold his assent to a bill or he can return a bill, other than a money bill which is recommended by the President himself to the houses. However says that prior recommendation of the President or the Governor of a state wherever stipulated is not compulsory for an act of Parliament or of the legislature of a state but the final consent of the President or Governor is mandatory. If the President is of the view that a particular bill passed under the legislative powers of Parliament violates the Constitution, he can return the bill with his recommendations to pass the bill under the constituent powers of Parliament following the Article 368 procedure. The President shall not withhold constitutional amendment bill duly passed by Parliament per . If the President gives his assent, the bill is published in "The Gazette of India" and becomes an act from the date of his assent. If he withholds his assent, the bill is dropped, which is known as absolute veto. The President can exercise absolute veto on aid and advice of the Council of Ministers per Article 111 and Article 74. The President may also effectively withhold his assent as per his own discretion, which is known as pocket veto. The pocket veto has only been exercised once by President Zail Singh in 1986, over the Postal Act which allowed the government to open postal letters without warrant by amending the Indian Post Office Act, 1898. If the President returns it for reconsideration, the Parliament must discuss once again, but if it is passed again and returned to the President, he must give his assent to it. If Parliament is not happy with the President for not assenting a bill passed by it under its legislative powers, the bill can be modified as a constitutional amendment bill and passed under its constituent powers for compelling the president to give assent. In case a constitutional amendment act is violating the basic structure of the Constitution, the constitutional bench of the Supreme Court would quash the act. When Parliament is of the view that the actions of the President are violating the Constitution, impeachment proceedings against the president could be taken up to remove him under where at least two-thirds of the total membership of each house of Parliament should vote in favour of the impeachment when charges against the president are found valid in an investigation.


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: In case of a bill passed by the legislative assembly of a state, the consent of that state's governor has to be obtained. Some times the governor may refer the bill to the president anticipating clash between other central laws or constitution and decision of the president is final per .


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: All decisions of the Union Cabinet are to be assented by the President for issuing gazette order. In case the Cabinet decisions are not in the purview of the established law, the President shall not give assent to the Cabinet decisions. He may indicate that the Union Cabinet has to pass the necessary legislation by the Parliament to clear the Cabinet decision. A minister is not supposed to take any decision without being considered by the Union Council of Ministers per .


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: The purpose of framing the Indian Constitution is to serve with honesty, efficiency and impartiality for the betterment of its citizens by the people who are heading or representing the independent institutions created by the Constitution such as judiciary, legislature, executive, etc. When one or more institutions are failing in their duty, the remaining shall normally take the lead in correcting the situation by using checks and balances as per the provisions available in the Constitution.


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: Generally most acts will come into force, or become legally enforceable in a manner as prescribed in the act itself. Either it would come into effect from the date of assent by the President (mostly in case of ordinances which are later approved by the Parliament), or a specific date is mentioned in the act itself (mostly in the case of finance bills) or on a date as per the wish of the central or the state government as the case may be. In case the commencement of the act is as made as per the wish of the government, a separate Gazette notification is made, which is mostly accompanied by the rules or subordinate legislation in another Gazette notification.


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: Bills which exclusively contain provisions for imposition and abolition of taxes, for appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund, etc., are certified as money bills by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha. Money bills can be introduced only in Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the President per . For every fiscal year, the annual budget or annual financial statement with demand for grants on the recommendation of the President per shall be passed by the Lok Sabha. The Rajya Sabha cannot make amendments to a money bill passed by the Lok Sabha and sent to it. It can, however, recommend amendments in a money bill, but must return all money bills to Lok Sabha within fourteen days from the date of their receipt. The Lok Sabha can choose to accept or reject any or all of the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha with regard to a money bill. If the Lok Sabha accepts any of the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha, the money bill is deemed to have been passed by both houses with amendments recommended by Rajya Sabha and accepted by Lok Sabha. If the Lok Sabha does not accept any of the recommendations of Rajya Sabha, the money bill is deemed to have been passed by both houses in the form in which it was passed by Lok Sabha without any of the amendments recommended by Rajya Sabha. If a money bill passed by the Lok Sabha and transmitted to the Rajya Sabha for its recommendations is not returned to the Lok Sabha within fourteen days, it is deemed to have been passed by both houses at the expiration of the period in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha. When a money bill introduced in the Lok Sabha by the government fails to get its approval, the ruling party is treated as not commanding the majority support in the Lok Sabha or shall be dismissed by the President to pave way for new government / fresh elections or opposition would move no confidence motion.


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: At state level also money bills shall be introduced in the legislative assembly only per on the recommendation of the Governor. When a money bill introduced in the legislative assembly by the state government fails to get its approval, the ruling party is treated as not commanding the majority support in the legislative assembly or shall be dismissed by the governor to pave way for new government / fresh elections or opposition would move no confidence motion.


title: Lawmaking procedure in India

text: When both houses of Parliament are not in session, extant provisions of law are felt inadequate, under compelling circumstances and the President is satisfied for the need of immediate action, he/she may promulgate such required ordinances under of the Constitution. An ordinance has same force and effect as an act of Parliament. Every ordinance shall cease to operate if not passed by the Parliament before the expiration of six weeks from its reassembly. The President shall not issue any ordinance which needs an amendment to the Constitution or which violates the Constitution. When the state assembly is not in session, the Governor of a state can issue ordinances per subject to the approval of the President.


title: Kabedon

text: ' or ' (; , "wall", and , "bang") refers to the action of slapping a wall fiercely, which produces the sound "don". One meaning is the action of slapping the wall as a protest which occurs in collective housing like condominiums when the next room makes noise. Another meaning often appears in shōjo manga or anime when one character forces another against the wall with one hand or leans against the wall and makes the sound of "don", and this has become popular as a "clever move of confession".


title: Kabedon

text: The term first appeared in 2008 when voice actor Ryōko Shintani described it as "lovely situation". It has been popularized in the shōjo manga "L DK" by author Ayu Watanabe; and in April 2014, the manga was adapted into a live-action film. Afterwards, the term started to become familiar to the public and has appeared in multiple shojo manga stories.


title: Kabedon

text: In Japan, mainly appears in plots of girls' manga or anime when a man forces the woman against the wall; at the same time, his hand slaps the wall and surrounds the woman, and the sound of "don" is produced.


title: Kabedon

text: In Japan, the walls of many accommodation buildings are thin and not insulated against sound. As such, simple actions like closing a door or turning on the television can easily be heard by neighbors. When this noise becomes too loud to bear, Japanese people tend to bang their connecting walls in protest.


title: Kabedon

text: The practice of "kabedon" was borrowed into Chinese with the pronunciation "bidong" (, "bìdōng") through television dramas like "My Sunshine". In Hong Kong, the actor Gregory Wong performed the "bidong" in a commercial for Listerine mouthwash.


title: Zadkiel

text: Zadkiel ( , 'God is my Righteousness'), also known as Hasdiel, is the archangel of freedom, benevolence, kindness and mercy, and the patron angel of all who forgive.


title: Zadkiel

text: Zadkiel is also known by a variety of other names. Among them are Hasdiel, Sachiel, Zedekiel, Zadakiel, Tzadkiel, and Zedekul.


title: Zadkiel

text: In rabbinic writings, Zadkiel belongs to the order of Hashmallim. He is considered by some sources to be chief of that order although others name Hashmal or Zacharael. In "Maseket Azilut," it is listed as co-chief with Gabriel of the order of "Shinanim".


title: Zadkiel

text: Zadkiel is one of two standard bearers (along with Jophiel) who follow directly behind Michael as the head archangel enters battle.


title: Zadkiel

text: As an angel of mercy, some texts claim that Zadkiel is the unnamed biblical Angel of the Lord who holds back Abraham to prevent the patriarch from sacrificing his son, and because of this is usually shown holding a dagger. Other texts cite Michael or "Tadhiel" or some other angel as the angel intended, while others interpret the Angel of the Lord as a theophany.


title: Zadkiel

text: In Jewish mysticism and Western ritual magic, Zadkiel is associated with the planet Jupiter. The angel's position in the Sephirot is fourth, which corresponds to Chesed (Kindness). Zadkiel is associated with the colors blue and violet.


title: Kerchief

text: A kerchief (from the Old French "couvrechief", "cover head"), also known as a bandana, bandanna, or "Wild Rag" (in cowboy culture), is a triangular or square piece of cloth tied around the head, face or neck for protective or decorative purposes. The popularity of "head kerchiefs" may vary by culture or religion, often being used as a Christian headcovering by women of the Anabaptist, Eastern Orthodox, and Plymouth Brethren denominations, as well as by some Orthodox Jewish and Muslim women.


title: Kerchief

text: A bandana or bandanna (from Sanskrit बन्धन or bandhana, "a bond") is a type of large, usually colourful kerchief, originating from the Indian subcontinent, often worn on the head or around the neck of a person. It is considered to be a hat by some. Bandanas are frequently printed in a paisley pattern and are most often used to hold hair back, either as a fashionable head accessory, or for practical purposes. It is also used to tie around the neck to prevent sunburn, and around the mouth and nose to protect from dust inhalation or to hide the identity of its wearer.


title: Kerchief

text: Bandanas originated in India as bright coloured handkerchiefs of silk and cotton with spots in white on coloured grounds, chiefly red and blue Bandhani. The silk styles were made of the finest quality yarns, and were popular. Bandana prints for clothing were first produced in Glasgow from cotton yarns, and are now made in many qualities. The term, at present, generally means a fabric in printed styles, whether silk, silk and cotton, or all cotton.


title: Kerchief

text: The word bandana stems from the Hindi words 'bāndhnū,' or "tie-dyeing," and 'bāndhnā,' "to tie." These stem from Sanskrit roots 'badhnāti,' "he ties," and Sanskrit 'bandhana' (बन्धन), "a bond." In the 18th and 19th centuries bandanas were frequently known as bandannoes.


title: Kerchief

text: The Oramal is a traditional kerchief used in Central Asia and the Caucasus (note how it is tied, the neck is usually not covered by it). In some countries like Uzbekistan, it was traditionally used only at home, while in public the paranja was more popular. In other countries, like Kazakhstan, it was commonly used in public. In Kyrgyzstan, the white color is an indication that the woman is married.


title: Kerchief

text: Kerchiefs are also worn as headdresses by Austronesian cultures in maritime Southeast Asia. Among Malay men it is known as tengkolok and is worn during traditional occasions, such as weddings (worn by the groom) and the pesilat.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: In computing, half precision (sometimes called FP16) is a binary floating-point computer number format that occupies 16 bits (two bytes in modern computers) in computer memory. It is intended for storage of floating-point values in applications where higher precision is not essential, in particular image processing and neural networks.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Almost all modern uses follow the IEEE 754-2008 standard, where the 16-bit base-2 format is referred to as binary16, and the exponent uses 5 bits. This can express values in the range ±65,504, with the minimum value above 1 being 1 + 1/1024.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Depending on the computer, half-precision can be over an order of magnitude faster than double precision, e.g. 550 PFLOPS for half-precision vs 37 PFLOPS for double precision on one cloud provider.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Several earlier 16-bit floating point formats have existed including that of Hitachi's HD61810 DSP of 1982, Scott's WIF and the 3dfx Voodoo Graphics processor.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: ILM was searching for an image format that could handle a wide dynamic range, but without the hard drive and memory cost of single or double precision floating point. The hardware-accelerated programmable shading group led by John Airey at SGI (Silicon Graphics) invented the s10e5 data type in 1997 as part of the 'bali' design effort. This is described in a SIGGRAPH 2000 paper (see section 4.3) and further documented in US patent 7518615. It was popularized by its use in the open-source OpenEXR image format.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Nvidia and Microsoft defined the half datatype in the Cg language, released in early 2002, and implemented it in silicon in the GeForce FX, released in late 2002. Since then support for 16-bit floating point math in graphics cards has become very common.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: The F16C extension in 2012 allows x86 processors to convert half-precision floats to and from single-precision floats with a machine instruction.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: The format is assumed to have an implicit lead bit with value 1 unless the exponent field is stored with all zeros. Thus only 10 bits of the significand appear in the memory format but the total precision is 11 bits. In IEEE 754 parlance, there are 10 bits of significand, but there are 11 bits of significand precision (log(2) ≈ 3.311 decimal digits, or 4 digits ± slightly less than 5 units in the last place).


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: The half-precision binary floating-point exponent is encoded using an offset-binary representation, with the zero offset being 15; also known as exponent bias in the IEEE 754 standard.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Thus, as defined by the offset binary representation, in order to get the true exponent the offset of 15 has to be subtracted from the stored exponent.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: By default, 1/3 rounds down like for double precision, because of the odd number of bits in the significand. The bits beyond the rounding point are ... which is less than 1/2 of a unit in the last place.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: 65519 is the largest number that will round to a finite number (65504), 65520 and larger will round to infinity. This is for round-to-even, other rounding strategies will change this cutoff.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: ARM processors support (via a floating point control register bit) an "alternative half-precision" format, which does away with the special case for an exponent value of 31 (11111). It is almost identical to the IEEE format, but there is no encoding for infinity or NaNs; instead, an exponent of 31 encodes normalized numbers in the range 65536 to 131008.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: This format is used in several computer graphics environments to store pixels, including MATLAB, OpenEXR, JPEG XR, GIMP, OpenGL, Cg, Direct3D, and D3DX. The advantage over 8-bit or 16-bit integers is that the increased dynamic range allows for more detail to be preserved in highlights and shadows for images, and the linear representation of intensity making calculations easier. The advantage over 32-bit single-precision floating point is that it requires half the storage and bandwidth (at the expense of precision and range).


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Hardware and software for machine learning or neural networks tend to use half precision: such applications usually do a large amount of calculation, but don't require a high level of precision.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: If the hardware has instructions to compute half-precision math, it is often faster than single or double precision. If the systems has SIMD instructions that can handle multiple floating-point numbers within one instruction, half precision can be twice as fast by operating on twice as many numbers simultaneously. However, if there is no hardware support, math must be done by emulation, or by conversion to single or double precision and then back, and is therefore slower.


title: Half-precision floating-point format

text: Support for half precision in the x86 instruction set is specified in the AVX-512_FP16 instruction set extension to be implemented in the future Intel Sapphire Rapids processor.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to the "Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta" (Sutta 16 of the "Dīgha Nikāya"), after attaining "parinirvana", the body of Buddha was cremated and the ashes divided among his lay followers.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to the "Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta", after his "parinirvana" in Kushinagar, the remains of the Buddha were cremated at that location. Originally his ashes were to go only to the Shakya clan, to which the Buddha belonged. However, six other clans and a king demanded the ashes of the Buddha. In order to resolve this dispute, a Brahmin named Drona divided the ashes of the Buddha into eight portions. These portions were distributed as follows: to Ajātasattu, king of Magadha; to the Licchavis of Vesāli; to the Sakyas of Kapilavastu; to the Bulis of Allakappa; to the Koliyas of Rāmagāma; to the brahmin of Veṭhadīpa; to the Mallas of Pāvā; and to the Mallas of Kusinārā. In addition to these eight portions, two other important relics were distributed at that time: Drona (the brahmin who distributed the relics) received the vessel in which the body had been cremated, and the Moriyas of Pipphalivana received the remaining ashes of the funeral pyre.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Each of these ten portions was presumably placed in a reliquary (such as the Kanishka casket or the Bimaran casket) and buried in a tumulus. These tumuli have been expanded or reconstructed over many centuries to form large stupas. Of these, the only one which remains intact is the Ramagrama stupa in Ramgram, Nepal. There is significant evidence to support the authenticity of the stupa at Piprahwa, as well as the Relic Stupa of Vaishali and the Ramabhar Stupa at Kushinagar. Apart from these, archaeological investigations to date have not definitively identified any of the remaining stupas.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The "Lokapannatti", a collection of stories written in the 11th or 12th century, tells the story of Ajātasattu of Magadha (c. 492 – c. 460 BCE) who gathered the Buddha's relics and hid them in an underground stupa. According to this text, the Buddha's relics were protected by spirit-powered mechanical robots until they were disarmed two centuries later by Emperor Ashoka (c. 304 – 232 BCE). According to "Mahāvaṃsa" and "Ashokavadana", Ashoka collected seven of the eight relics of Gautama Buddha, and redistributed them across 84,000 stupas that he ordered to be constructed around the world.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: When the Chinese pilgrims Faxian (337 CE – c. 422 CE) and Xuanzang (602–664 CE) visited India centuries later, they reported that most of the ancient sites were in ruin.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Mahaparinirvana sutra says that of the Buddha's four eye teeth (canines), one was worshipped in Indra's Heaven, the second in the city of Ghandara, the third in Kalinga, and the fourth in Ramagrama by the king of the Nagas. Annually in Sri Lanka and China, tooth relics would be paraded through the streets. In the past relics have had the legal right to own property, and the destruction of stupas containing relics was a capital crime viewed as murder of a living person. A southeast Asian tradition says that, after his "parinirvana", the gods distributed the Buddha's 800,000 body and 900,000 head hairs throughout the universe. In Theravāda, according to the 5th century commentator Buddhaghosa, possessing relics was one of the criteria for what constituted a proper monastery. The adventures of many relics are said to have been foretold by Buddha, as they spread the dharma and gave legitimacy to rulers.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In Buddhist eschatology, it is said that all of Buddha's relics will one day gather at the Bodhi tree, where he attained enlightenment, and will then form his body, sitting cross legged and performing the twin miracle; the disappearance of the relics at this point will signal the coming of Maitreya Buddha. In the Nandimitravadana translated by Xuanzang it is said that the Buddha's relics will be brought to "parinirvana" by sixteen great arhats and enshrined in a great stupa. That stupa will then be worshipped until it sinks into the earth down to the golden wheel underlying the universe. The relics are not destroyed by fire in this version but placed in a final reliquary deep within the earth, perhaps to appear again.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Previous Buddhas also left relics; in the Buddhavamsa it mentions that the Sobhita, Paduma, Sumedha, Atthadassi, Phussa, Vessabhu, and Konagamana, these Buddhas have had their relics dispersed.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The relics of Buddha's noble disciples like Sariputta and Maudgalyāyana, were also preserved enshrined in stupas (as in Sanchi).


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Sometime in the middle of the fifth century, the Chinese pilgrim Daorong traveled to Afghanistan to visit pilgrimage sites. In Nagarahara was a piece of bone from the top of Buddha's skull four inches long. Also in the city was an enshrined staff, and a jeweled reliquary containing some teeth and hair. A shadow was said to have been projected onto a rock wall, said to have belonged to Buddha, as well as a set of footprints, and a site venerated for being where Buddha washed his robe. A temple said to have been built by Buddha is sinking into the ground here, with what is said to be his writing on the wall. A tooth of the Buddha was kept in Baktra. In Bamyan a tooth of Buddha was stored along with the tooth of a cakravartin king. An early masterpiece of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, and one of the earliest representations of the Buddha, the Bimaran casket was discovered in a stupa near Jalabad in eastern Afghanistan. Although the casket bears an inscription saying it contained some of the relics of the Buddha; no relics were discovered when the box was opened.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Buddha's first disciples Trapusa and Bahalika received eight strands of hair from him which they brought to their hometown of Balkh and enshrined in a golden stupa by the gate.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Lu Mountain temple, east of Los Angeles, California, has claimed to receive over 10,000 sarira including two teeth and one hair believed to belong to Gautama Buddha. Most of these relics were donated from monasteries across Vietnam.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: A Buddha relic is kept in Buddha Dhatu Jadi Bangladesh beneath four Buddha statues. The Buddha's Dhatu was given to Ven. U Paññya Jota Mahathero in 1994 by the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee of Myanmar.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Ringsels from Buddha, Nagarjuna, Longchenpa, Marpa, and Milarepa visited Chubachu Bhutan from Bodhgaya Sri Lanka, in October 2013.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: A Buddha relic was enshrined at Sakyamuni Chedai in Oudong in 2002. Fifty years earlier, this relic was transported from Sri Lanka to Phnom Penh, but was transported again after King Sihanouk voiced concerns about urban decay surrounding Phnom Penh. King Sihanouk of Cambodia received a Buddha relic from the French in 1952. Relics present from the 1950s were recently stolen in Odong mountain and remain missing.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: A golden urn said to contain relics of Buddha was snatched from a mountain shrine, sparking a nationwide manhunt, and was recovered on February 5, 2014.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The disappearance of the urn - believed to contain hair, teeth, and bones of Buddha and several small statues - came to light in December and prompted an outcry in the Buddhist-majority country.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to legend, the first Buddha relic in China appeared in a vase in 248 C.E. brought by Kang Senghui to show a local ruler. The king of Wu Sun Quan would unsuccessfully attempt to destroy the tooth, by subjecting it to various tests. In legends Daoxuan is attributed with the transmission of the Buddha relic Daoxuan's tooth, one of the four tooth relics enshrined in the capital Chang'an during the Tang dynasty. He is said to have received the relic during a night visit from a divinity associated with Indra. The emperor Taizong tried to burn a tooth relic but was unable to do so.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to his biography upon his return in 645 C.E. Xuanzang returned from his seventeen-year-long pilgrimage to India with, "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics."


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Emperor Wen and Empress Wu of the Sui dynasty both venerated Buddha relics. Daoxuan's (Collection of [the Documents Related to] the Buddho-Taoist Controversies in the Past and the Present; completed 661) recounts that shortly after being born, Emperor Wen was given to a Buddhist "divine nun" until the age of 13. After becoming emperor, Emperor Wen led three Buddha relic redistribution campaigns in 601, 602, and 604. The relics were enshrined across 107 pagodas along with pictures of the divine nun.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 2010 remains of Gautama Buddha's skull were enshrined at Qixia Temple in Nanjing. The partial bone had been held in the Pagoda of King Ashoka, constructed in 1011 under the former Changgan Temple of Nanjing. In 1987 a chamber was unearthed below Famen temple and a finger bone said to belong to Gautama Buddha was discovered. In 2003 the finger bone was one of 64 culturally significant artifacts officially prohibited from leaving China for exhibitions. In 2009, the relic was enshrined in the world's tallest stupa recently built within the domains of Famen Temple.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Two bone fragments believed to belong to Gautama Buddha are enshrined at Yunju temple. According to Tang Dynasty records, China had 19 pagodas of King Ashoka holding Sakyamuni's relics. Seven of these pagodas are believed to have been found. Currently the tooth relic is kept in Beijing while the knuckle of the middle finger is at Xi'an city Shaanxi province.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 1072 the Japanese pilgrim Jojin visited the Buddha's tooth in Kaifeng; an imperial emissary had to open the door to the build that housed it in the hall of seven treasures.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Beijing tooth was discovered in 1900 when it was discovered in the ruins of Zhaoxian pagoda outside of Beijing. The monks of the nearby Lingguang monastery found a box in the rubble with the inscription "The Holy Tooth Relics of Sakyamuni Buddha", written by Shan-hui in 963 C.E. They kept the molar inside their monastery until 1955 when they donated it to the Buddhist Association of China. The Burmese ambassador asked whether Burma could have the relic; to which the Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai had offered. However, when a delegation went to retrieve the tooth it was housed in a golden jeweled casket instead of glass, and only offered to loan it to Burma for eight months. The Beijing tooth temple was reconstructed in 1966 in front of Buddhist delegations from 10 countries.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Buddha belonged to the Shakya clan, whose capital was located at Kapilavastu. During an excavation in 1898, William Claxton Peppe discovered five small vases containing bone fragments, ashes, and jewels in a long-forgotten stupa in Piprahwa, near Birdpur in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh, India. A team led by K.M. Srivastava performed further excavations at the Piprahwa site between 1971 to 1973. The team discovered a casket containing fragments of charred bone and dated them to the 4th or 5th century BCE. Based upon the findings of these excavations, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has identified Piprahwa as Kapilavastu. This conclusion is disputed by some authorities, including the Nepalese Department of Archaeology, which claims Tilaurakot as the historical location of Kapilavastu.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Buddha Relic Stupa was built by Lichhavis in Vaishali as a mud stupa in the 5th century BCE. Noted archaeologists Anant Sadashiv Altekar and Sitaram Rai of the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute led an archaeological excavation of this stupa from 1958-1962. A reliquary was discovered and removed from the core of the stupa; it was dated to the 5th century BCE. It was later determined that this reliquary contained ashes of the Buddha mixed with earth, a copper punch-marked coin, and several other items. The casket was brought to the Patna Museum in 1972, where it remains to this day.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Mortal remains of the Buddha belonging to the third or fourth century were found during an excavation in 1962–1963 at Devni Mori which is a Buddhist archaeological site near Shamalaji in Gujarat. Ashes of Buddha were found in a gold bottle wrapped in silk cloth within a copper bowl that was kept in a casket. The 1,700-year-old casket's inscription in Brahmi script mentions ‘Dashabala Sharira Nilaya’ — which stands for 'abode of the bodily relics of Lord Buddha'. The remains are preserved in the Museum of Department of Archaeology and Ancient History of the Faculty of Arts, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda - Vadodara.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: When the first dome of the Global Vipassana Pagoda was constructed in October 2006 in Mumbai; bone relics of the Buddha were enshrined in the central locking stone of the dome, making it the world's largest structure containing relics of the Buddha. The relics were originally found in the stupa at Bhattiprolu, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, South India. They have been donated by the Mahabodhi Society of India and the prime minister of Sri Lanka to be kept at the Global Vipassana Pagoda. A casket was discovered in Lalitgiri in Orissa believed to contain bones of Buddha.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Culvmsa relays the legend Silakala and King Moggallana who went to India in exile. Silakala became a novice at Bodhgaya where he was given a hair relic; Moggallana took this relic back to Sri Lanka and placed it in a crystal casket, and instigated a regular festival in honor of the hair.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Although king Bimbisaras let the women in his harem visit Buddha in his monastery in the evenings; the women wanted a hair and nail stupa they could use to venerate the Buddha any time. After Bimbisara spoke with Buddha who complied with their request.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In Rajagrha, Buddha went to have his hair shaved, but none of the monks were willing to cut Buddha's hair; so they found a young boy named Upali of the barber cast. In the attempt to cut the hair better he controlled his body posture and breathing going into the fourth level of trance, dhyana. The Buddha's disciple seeing this Ananda took the razor from him; then wondered what to do with the hair; thinking it was an impure thing. Buddha reprimanded him and had Ananda deliver the hair in a pot to the general Gopali who took it into battle, becoming victorious.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to Xuanzang's observation, hundreds of thousands of devotees came daily to venerate the tooth relic in Kanyakubja.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to the Pali Dathavamsa (tooth chronicle) a disciple of Buddha named Khema took a tooth from Buddha's funeral pyre and gave it to Brahmadatta king of Kalinga (India). In Dantapura the tooth is taken by niganthas to King Gushava, then the Hindu emperor Pandu who attempts to destroy it in several different ways. Unable to destroy the tooth the king converts to Buddhism and venerates the tooth.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: One hundred years prior to the visit of Xuanzang the Ephthalite Huns destroyed a number of relics in Kashmir and Gandhara. To escape one of the purges, a monk fled to India and paid pilgrimage to many sacred sites. One day he encountered a herd of wild elephants. He attempted to hide in a tree but was taken by the elephants to one of their young who had a bamboo splinter in his foot. He treated the elephant's wound and it rewarded him with a golden casket containing a tooth of Buddha. On the way back he ferried across a river that threatened to sink them mid-way. The passengers determined it was Nagas wanting the Buddha relic and convinced the monk to throw the tooth in the river. He would spend the next three years learning the proper rituals to tame the Nagas; subduing their king and reclaiming the tooth.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to legend in Japan 552 C.E. there was an attempt to destroy a tooth relic, one of the first of Buddha's to arrive in the country; it was hit by a hammer into an anvil; the hammer and anvil were destroyed but the tooth was not. On January 15, 593, Soga no Umako ordered relics of Buddha deposited inside the foundation stone under the pillar of a pagoda at Asuka-dera. According to Japanese legends the tooth of Indras heaven would be stolen from Drona's turban by a demon called Sokushikki (demon fleet foot); however he was caught by an even faster divinity and the tooth was given to Indra. Although no mention is made of Xuanzang specifically having a tooth, a Japanese tradition claims one was eventually taken by the monk Gishin and kept in Tendai and Fujiwara.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Tongdosa temple, (one of the three Three Jewel Temples of Korea), was founded by Jajang-yulsa after he returned from a pilgrimage to China in 646 AD. The temple houses a robe, begging bowl and a piece of skull said to belong to Buddha. Other temples built by Jajang also house relics. Bongjeongam hermitage is said to possess sarira from Gautama, while Sangwonsa houses bone relics.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Pha That Luang is the most important national symbol of Laos. Buddhist missionaries from the Mauryan Empire are believed to have been sent by the Emperor Ashoka, including Bury Chan or Praya Chanthabury Pasithisak and five Arahata monks who brought a holy relic (believed to be the breast bone) of the Buddha to the stupa.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 2001, Mahindarama Buddhist Temple, located in George Town, became the first temple in Penang to house the relics of the Buddha. The two bone fragments of the Buddha had been presented to the temple's Chief Monk, Ven. E. Indaratana Maha Thera, while he was in India during the previous year. The relics are currently on display within the temple's main prayer hall.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 2012, a small portion of the Buddha's relics was presented by the Thai royal family to Wat Chetawan in Petaling Jaya, Selangor, as a token of goodwill of Thai Buddhists towards Malaysian Buddhists. The relics had been discovered in Uttar Pradesh, India in 1898, before being gifted by India's British authorities to Siam's King Chulalongkorn.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In conjunction with 24 hours Metta around the World 2013, a silver-golden casket containing Gautama Buddha's relics was brought by Ven. Dhammananda from Sri Lanka to be enshrined in Samadhi Vihara, Shah Alam.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to legend, Abtai Sain Khan was given a Buddha relic by the third Dalai Lama. The fourteenth Dalai Lama prayed for this relic during his visit to Mongolia in 2011; its location was kept a close secret for concern it would be taken by the Soviet government.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar houses 8 strands of Buddha's hair taken by his first 2 disciples Tapussa and Bhallika; to the site where three relics of Buddha's previous incarnations had been enshrined. Shwedagon was created with the help of the King of Okkalapa and the Sule nat (spirit). Buddha's hairs are also said to be enshrined at Sule and Botataung Pagodas.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Kanishka casket is said to have contained three bone fragments of the Buddha, which were forwarded to Burma by the British following the excavation, where they still remain in U Khandi's "dazaung" (hall).


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Chakesadhatuvamsa, or chronicle of the six hair relics of the Buddha, was written in Myanmar. The text says that the Buddha gave six hairs to disciples at Venuvana in Rajagrha. These were given to 6 bordering countries who had never seen the Buddha. The stories say that when the Buddha came to Mon State to give sermons, he gave six of his hairs to hermits from Kyaiktiyo, Zinkyaik (to Tissa), Mount Zwegabin (to Thiha), Kaylartha, Kyaikdaeyone and Myathabeik. A pair of belu brothers from Kyaikhtisaung also received a hair. All the hermits and belus enshrined the hair in great stones.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Burmese and Sri Lankan tradition says that Trapusa and Bhallika lost some of the hair relics to the Naga king Jayesana; who took them to worship in his undersea palace.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Hledauk Pagoda in Burma crumbled during an earthquake in 1912; exposing 2 relic chambers. Inside was a vessel containing relics from the Buddha and small figures of bronze representing stages of his lives.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: On his way flying through the air with 499 disciples to Sunaparanta, Buddha stopped at Saccabandha where he talked the heretic teacher of the same name into becoming an arhat. On his way home from Sunapranta Buddha stopped by the banks of the Nammada river where he was welcomed by a devote Buddhist naga king who asked for a memento to honor, so he left an impression of his footprint in the river bank. They visited Saccabandha again who asked for something to honor as well; Buddha obliged by pressing his foot into solid stone.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: According to UNESCO, Ramagrama stupa is the only undisturbed original stupa containing relics of Lord Buddha; built in the 6th century BCE. Nepal believes Tilaurakot to be Kapilavastu, and nominated it along with Lumbini for world heritage status. An excavation at Tilaurakot in 1962 revealed ancient brick structures but no relics. In 1970's thousands of Buddha relics were said to begin growing out of the east side of the stupa of Swayambhunath in Kathmandu. According to Xuanzang, relics of Koṇāgamana Buddha were held in a stupa in Nigalisagar; visited by Ashoka, in what is now southern Nepal.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The stupa built in what is now Peshawar by Kanishka of the Kushan Empire in the second century has been described as one of the tallest in the world and has been visited by early Chinese Buddhist pilgrims such as Faxian, Sung Yun and Xuanxang. In Peshawar, Faxian reported in the fourth century that the Buddha's begging bowl held 4 liters and was made of stone, made of four bowls bestowed upon him by the four guardian gods of the four quarters of mount Vinataka surrounding mount Sumeru. Another legend is of a Yuezhi king who wanted to take away the bowl but could not with the strength of eight elephants, so he constructed a stupa over it.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The stupa was excavated in 1908–1909 by a British archaeological mission; where the Kanishka casket was discovered with three small fragments of bone. Three pieces of bone (approx 1½ in. or 3.8 cm long) were found in a crystal reliquary in a bronze casket bearing an effigy of Kanishka and an inscription recording his gift. They were removed to Mandalay in 1910 by Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 4th Earl of Minto, the Governor-General of India, for safekeeping. They were originally kept in a stupa in Mandalay but it has become dilapidated and is used as housing. The relics are being kept in a nearby monastery until funds can be found to build a new stupa to house the relics next to Mandalay Hill. The crystal reliquary holding the bones is now enclosed in a gold and ruby casket provided by Burmese devotees.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Xuanzang said that the Buddha's begging bowl had found its way to Persia after spending time in many different countries. It is said the bowl will one day be given to Maitreya Buddha. According to Faxian however, Buddha's alms bowl took several hundred years to travel across several countries before being taken by a naga king. The bowl would then reappear at Mount Vinataka, where it would be divided into the original four bowls and given to the four guardian kings to bestow on Maitreya. Maitreya would then press the bowls together forming one again, with the next thousand buddhas repeating this same process; using the same bowl. According to Daoxuan, the Buddha's bowl — given to him at the time he was offered milk rice — was made of clay. It was bestowed by a mountain deity who had been given the bowl by the previous Kassapa Buddha. The bowl was later repaired by Indra and the guardians of the four quarters crafted thousands of stone replicas, which were placed in thousands of stupas all over the world.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 2011 the head of the Buddhist Patriarchy of Sri Lanka met with Kirsan Ilyumzhinov to discuss the movement of relics from Sri Lanka to the Republic of Kalmykia. Former president Kirsan Ilyumzhinov will become the next guardian of these Buddha relics.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The tooth relic is housed in the Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum in the Chinatown district of Singapore. It is claimed the relic was found in a collapsed stupa in Myanmar.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In the Mahavamsa, Ashoka chooses not to retrieve Buddha relics in the possession of Nagas at Ramagrama. It was said that on his deathbed Buddha told a prophecy that of the eight dronas of his body relics, one would be venerated by the Koliyas of Ramagrama, then the relics would belong to the Nagas until being enshrined in Sri Lanka. Ashoka is told more prophecy by arhats, who speak of the future enshrinement of these relics by King Dutthagamani.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The two quarts of relics that were enshrined in the village "Rāmagāma" were, according to The Buddha's determination, destined to be enshrined in the Great Stūpa Ruvanveli. King Dutugemunu who, on the full-moon day of the month of "Āsāëha" (June–July), under the constellation of "Uttarāsāëha", would officiate in the ceremony for the enshrining of the relics in the Great Stūpa, worshipped the "Sangha" (Order of monks) on the day before the full-moon day, reminded them that tomorrow is the appointed day for the enshrining of the relics and requested them to give him the relics. The Saïgha ordered then the novice Arahant "Soõuttara", who was gifted with the six supernormal faculties, to bring the relics, which Arahant "Soõuttara" manages to bring and offer to the "Sangha".


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Tradition says that Trapusa and Bahalika visited Sri Lanka and brought a hair relic with them in a golden reliquary to Girihandu. Trapusa and Bhallika had initially been disgusted by the hair and fingernail relics. only after he explains the jataka tale of Sumedha laying his hair at the feet of Dipamkara are they convinced this is meritorious.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Buddha is said to have given hair relics to Maha Sumana the god of Adams peak, which were enshrined at Mahiyangana; he also left a footprint at Sumanakuta.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In 1561 in Portuguese Goa, a tooth taken from Sri Lanka said to belong to the Buddha was crushed, burned in a brazier then tossed into the river in front of a crowd by archbishop Don Gaspar. Don Juan Dharmapala the Christian king of Kotte claimed to have to the Kandy tooth. However, according to the Culavamsa; Konnappu Bandara; who had betrayed the Portuguese also claimed to possess the tooth. He used his possession of the tooth along with his marriage to a Kandyan princess to seize the throne. The celebrated procession of the tooth in Kandy coincides with an earlier celebration dedicated to Vishnu.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Thuparamaya, the first dagoba to be constructed in Sri Lanka, was constructed by King Devanampiyatissa (247-207 BCE) in the city of Anuradhapura. It is said to enshrine the right collarbone of the Buddha.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: When the Danta and Hemamala family arrive in Sri Lanka in 362-409 CE, they deliver one of the four eye teeth relics to King Sirimeghavanna; who places it with the bowl relic. The relics remain together in Anuradhapura for 600 years until being moved to the new capital of Polonnaruva; at which point it becomes the most venerated relic in Sri Lanka. It is believed the bowl produces rainfall, a 14th-century legend says that king Upatissa put an end to a drought by filling the bowl with water, and sprinkling the ground while following a cart with a golden statue of Buddha. It is said the Buddha's disciple Ananda had done with when Vaisali suffered from famine and pestilence from drought. In the twelfth century at Parakkamabahu's festival for the tooth relic, a rain cloud filled the ponds but did not rain on the celebration.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Then king Dutugemunu received from the "Sangha" the Buddha's relics upon his head in a casket and departed from the golden pavilion in the midst of manifold offerings and honours made by gods and "Brahmas". He circumambulated the relic-chamber three times, entered it from the east, and then laid the relic casket on a couch of one "koñi" worth's silver that was arranged in the north side. An image of the Buddha was then, according to the Buddha's determination, created in the lion's reclining posture ("sīhaseyya"), and all the relics were enshrined within that image. When the enshrining of the relics in the Great Stūpa Ruvanveli was completed, the two novices Uttara and Sumana closed the relic chamber with the stone blocks that were previously hidden to be used as a lid.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: In the Thupavamsa numerous types of beings attended the enshrinement of the relics into the Mahathupa; including the Naga king Mahakala who until recently guarded them. The relics were to be placed atop a golden throne crafted by Visvakarman the divine artificer; the throne brought by Indra. Brahma offers his invisible umbrella of sovereignty, with the king Dutthagamani offering his own. The arhat Indagutta creates a metal canopy over the universe, so that Mara will not interfere, as monks chanted the "sutra pitaka". Dutthagamani ceremoniously enters with the urn atop his head; but as he is about to place the urn on the golden throne, the relics rise into the air and form Buddha, with each of the 32 major signs and 8 lesser signs of a great man. In this form he performs the twin miracle of fire and water, fulfilling the fifth of his deathbed resolutions. One hundred and twenty million gods and humans gain "arhatship" from this experience. The relics return to the urn and they are laid to rest and the chamber sealed with forty-meter stone slabs.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: The Piprahwa relics were given to Rama V (the King of Siam) a couple of years after their discovery in 1898, where they still reside. Rama V had "Phu Khao Thong", a man-made mountain constructed at Wat Saket. After 1888 the Stupa would house a Buddha relic from Sri Lanka alongside relics from prisoners. Phra Borommathat Chedi is the oldest stupa containing Buddha relics in Thailand. Wat Phra That Doi Suthep was founded after a monk followed a dream and found a shoulder bone that glowed and replicated itself; leading him to believe it was a Buddha relic. (phra that). Wat Com Ping in northern Thailand claims to enshrine over 50,000 buddha relics. Relics of the head were found in Teankam temple, Lampang province in 2007. The temple was built by King Indraditya in the 12th century.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: An exhibit donated by the Dalai Lama features relics from Gautama Buddha as well as 40 other Buddhist masters from India, Tibet and China; taken with him out of Tibet after the 1959 invasion. The exhibit was the idea of Lama Zopa Rinpoche; it started in 2001 and has toured 61 countries.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: Xa Loi Pagoda served as the headquarters for Buddhism in South Vietnam during the Vietnamese civil war, its construction began in 1956 to house remains of the Buddha. Giác Lâm Pagoda has housed Buddha relics since they were brought to the temple from Sri Lanka by Narada in 1953. Tịnh Xá Trung Tâm founded in 1965 also houses relics.


title: Relics associated with Buddha

text: It is said the placenta of Buddha "ratnavyuha" was taken by Brahma to be enshrined in a stupa. When Buddha left the palace to seek enlightenment he severed his hair with a sword. According to theravada sources, throwing his top knot into the air, and says if he is to be Buddha it will remain in the sky. It stays at a height of one league, until it is taken by Indra to Trayastrimsa heaven. Mulasarvastivada Vinaya recounts how a friend of Kasyapa Buddha named Ghatikara gives him a monastic robe, bowl, razor, girdle, needle and water strainer. In another version the bodhisattva encounters this divinity disguised as a hunter and trades him his Benares silk robes; which are enshrined in a . Alternatively, new robes came to Buddha from ten brothers from Kapilavastu who received hemp robes from their mother, about to parinirvanize they told her to give the robes to the Buddha; foreseeing his birth. The mother gave the robes to her daughter near death; who gave them to a tree spirit to give to the son of Suddhodana. Indra disguises as a hunter, then takes the robes from the tree and gives them to Buddha in exchange for the silk robes; which he enshrines in heaven and dedicates a festival to the robes. The bowl in which Buddha received milk rice after his long fast is said to have floated down the Nairanjana River before sinking down to the naga king Kala putting it with the bowls of the three previous Buddhas.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: "" (; ; ) is the national anthem of Sri Lanka. "Sri Lanka Matha" was composed by Ananda Samarakoon and was originally titled "Namo Namo Matha" ("Salute! Salute! Motherland").


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: "Sri Lanka Matha" was first performed at an official ceremony on 4 February 1949 at the Independence Memorial Hall in Torrington Square during the national day ceremony. The anthem was given full constitutional recognition in the 1978 Second Republican Constitution.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: There are differing accounts as to the origin of the "Sri Lanka Matha". The most widely held view is that Sri Lankan composer Ananda Samarakoon wrote the music and lyrics to the song, inspired/influenced by the Indian Bengali poet Rabindranath Tagore. A minority suggest that Tagore wrote the anthem in full. Some have suggested that Tagore wrote the music whilst Samarakoon wrote the lyrics. Tagore being directly involved in the creation of the song has been denied by some historians like Indian Lipi Ghosh and Sri Lankan Sandagomi Coperahewa. Samarakoon had been a pupil of Tagore at Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan. After returning to Ceylon Samarakoon taught music at Mahinda College, Galle. The song, which was then known as "Namo Namo Mata", was first sung by students at Mahinda College. After it was sung by the choir from Musaeus College, Colombo at a public event it became hugely popular in Ceylon and was widely played on radio.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: Prior to Ceylon's independence (1948) the Lanka Gandharva Sabha had organised a competition to find a national anthem. Among the entries were "Namo Namo Matha" by Samarakoon and "Sri Lanka Matha Pala Yasa Mahima" by P. B. Illangasinghe and Lionel Edirisinghe. The latter won the competition but this was controversial as Illangasinghe and Edirisinghe were members of the judging panel. "Sri Lanka Matha Pala Yasa Mahima" was broadcast by Radio Ceylon on the morning of 4 February 1948, independence day, but it was not sung at the official Freedom Day celebrations. Ceylon continued to use the UK's national anthem as its official national anthem after independence. At the first independence day ceremony held on 4 February 1949 at the Independence Memorial Hall in Torrington Square both "Namo Namo Matha" and "Sri Lanka Matha Pala Yasa Mahima" were sung, in Sinhala and Tamil, as "national songs".


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: More specifically, in 1950 Minister of Finance J. R. Jayewardene requested that the government recognise Samarakoon's "Namo Namo Matha" as the official national anthem. The government appointed a committee headed by Edwin Wijeyeratne, Minister of Home Affairs and Rural Development, to pick a new national anthem. The committee heard several songs but, after much deliberation, picked "Namo Namo Matha". The committee made a minor change to Samarakoon's song, with his approval, changing the tenth line from ""Nawajeewana Damine Newatha Apa Awadi Karan Matha'" to ""Nawa Jeewana Demine Nithina Apa Pubudu Karan Matha"". The committee's decision was endorsed by the government on 22 November 1951. The anthem was translated into the Tamil language by M. Nallathamby. "Namo Namo Matha" was first sung as Ceylon's official national anthem at the independence day ceremony in 1952.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: In the late 1950s controversy arose over its first line, ""Namo Namo Matha, Apa Sri Lanka"". It was deemed to be "unlucky" and blamed for the country's misfortunes including the deaths of two prime ministers. In February 1961 the government changed the line to their present form, ""Sri Lanka Matha, Apa Sri Lanka"", despite Samarakoon's strong opposition. Samarakoon committed suicide in April 1962, leaving a note complaining that its lyrics had been mutilated.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: The Sri Lankan national anthem is available in an identical version in two languages, Sinhala and Tamil, both official languages of the country. It is just one of a number that are sung in more than one language: Belgium (French, Dutch, and German), Canada (English, French and Inuktitut), Finland (Finnish, Swedish), New Zealand (English and Māori), South Africa (Xhosa, Zulu, Sesotho, Afrikaans and English), Suriname (Dutch and Sranan Tongo) and Switzerland (German, French, Italian and Romansh).


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: "Sri Lanka Thaaye", the Tamil version of the Sri Lankan national anthem, is an exact translation of "Sri Lanka Matha", the Sinhala version, and has the same music. Although it has existed since independence in 1948 it was generally only sung in the north and east of the country where the Tamil language predominates. The Sinhala version of the Constitution uses Sinhala lyrics while the Tamil version of the constitution uses Tamil lyrics. Per the constitution both Sinhala and Tamil are official and national languages and thus the anthem could be sung in both languages.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: The majority of Sri Lankans (around 75%) speak the Sinhala language. More specifically, "Tamil is the native language for the Tamil people, who constitute about 15% of Sri Lankans, and for Muslims who are nearly 10%", according to the BBC. Until early 2016, the Sinhala version was the only one to be used during official government events and it was the only version used during international sports and other events. Although the Sinhala version of the anthem was used at official/state events, the Tamil version was "also" sung at "some" events in spite of the unofficial ban which ended in early 2016.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: The Sinhala version of Sri Lanka Matha was used in all parts of the country with the exception of the North and the East which have a large Tamil population. Some reports indicate that the Tamil version was used at official events held in the Tamil speaking regions in the North and East of Sri Lanka. The Tamil version was sung at Tamil medium schools throughout the country. The Tamil version was even used during the period when Sinhala was the only official language of the country (1956–87).


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: On 12 December 2010 "The Sunday Times" reported that the Cabinet of Sri Lanka headed by President Mahinda Rajapaksa had taken the decision to scrap the Tamil translation of "Sri Lanka Matha" at official and state functions, as "in no other country was the national anthem used in more than one language" - even though the national anthems of Belgium, Switzerland, Canada and those of several other countries have more than one language version. The Cabinet's decision had followed a paper on the national flag and national anthem produced by Public Administration and Home Affairs Minister W. D. J. Senewiratne. The paper had drawn on the Singaporean model where the national anthem is sung in the official lyrics and not any translation of the lyrics. Based on this the paper recommended that the Sri Lankan national anthem only be sung in Sinhala and the Tamil translation be abolished. The paper's authors had failed to realise that the official lyrics of the Singaporean national anthem are in Malay, a minority language (75% of Singaporeans are Chinese).


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: Government minister Wimal Weerawansa had labelled the Tamil version a "joke" on Derana TV, and had cited India as an analogy. Some journalists, such as D. B. S. Jeyaraj, claimed that it was wrong of Weerawansa to cite India as an analogy because according to them the Indian national anthem was not in Hindi, which is the most widely spoken language of India, but in Bengali, a minority language. Although sources based on an official Government of India website state that the Indian National anthem was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly of India, the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India on 24 January 1950 does not mention that the National Anthem was "adopted", nor does it mention that it was done so in its Hindi version. In actual practice the unaltered Bengali version is the version sung as the National Anthem, with its words in original Bengali Tatsama, a highly Sanskritized form of Bengali that has Sanskrit words common to both Hindi and Bengali.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: The Cabinet's December 2010 decision to scrap the Tamil translation of the anthem (which was not subsequently enacted) caused much furore in Sri Lanka. Later, the government denied allegations that the Tamil translation was to be abolished. The Presidential Secretariat has stated that there was no basis to the media report and follow up reports which intimated the same. Nevertheless, an unofficial ban on the Tamil version came into being as fearful public officials in Tamil speaking areas stopped using the Tamil version or blocked attempts to use it. The Sri Lankan Army forcefully stopped any use of the Tamil version and taught school children to sing only the Sinhala version.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: In March 2015 newly elected President Maithripala Sirisena announced that he would be issuing a circular which would state that there was no ban on singing the national anthem in Tamil. Sirisena's announcement was attacked by Sinhalese Buddhist nationalists.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: During Sri Lanka's 68th national independence day celebrations on 4 February 2016, the Tamil version of the anthem was sung for the first time since 1949 at an official government event, the independence day celebrations. Lifting of the unofficial ban on the Tamil version had been approved by President Maithripala Sirisena (who had said he would unite the nation after the nearly 26-year civil war that ended in 2009) and by others in the government. This step was viewed as part of the plan for "post-civil war ethnic reconciliation".


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: Naturally, Sri Lanka Matha was also sung in Sinhalese. Some groups, and Sri Lanka's former President Mahinda Rajapaksa, were opposed to the government officially allowing the Tamil version to be sung.


title: Sri Lanka Matha

text: In 2020, the Sri Lankan government stopped using the Tamil version of the national anthem at the main Independence Day celebration. However, regional independence day celebrations including those with government involvement in regions with significant Tamil populations continue to sing in both Tamil and Sinhala.


title: Sinigang

text: Sinigang is a Filipino soup or stew characterized by its sour and savory taste. It is most often associated with tamarind (Filipino: "sampalok"), although it can use other sour fruits and leaves as the souring agent. It is one of the more popular dishes in Filipino cuisine. The soup is usually accompanied by rice. In 2021, "sinigang" was rated as the world's best vegetable soup by TasteAtlas.


title: Sinigang

text: "Sinigang" means "stewed [dish]", it is a nominalized form of the Tagalog verb "sigang", "to stew". While present nationwide, "sinigang" is seen to be culturally Tagalog in origin, thus the similar sour stews and soups found in the Visayas and Mindanao (like "linarang") are regarded as different dishes and differ in the ingredients used. Fish sauce is a common condiment for the stew.


title: Sinigang

text: "Sinigang" is most often associated with tamarind in modern times, but it originally referred to any meat or seafood cooked in a sour and acidic broth, similar to but differentiated from "paksiw" (which uses vinegar). Other variations of the dish derive their sourness from native ingredients. These souring agents include unripe mangoes, butterfly tree leaves ("alibangbang"), citruses (including the native calamansi and biasong), santol, bilimbi ("kamias" or "iba"), gooseberry tree fruits ("karmay"), binukaw fruits (also "batuan"), and libas fruits, among others. Guava, introduced to the Philippines via the Manila galleons is also used. Seasoning powder or bouillon cubes with a tamarind base are commercial alternatives to using natural fruits.


title: Sinigang

text: "Sinigang" typically uses meat or seafood (e.g., fish, pork, beef, shrimp, or chicken) stewed with tamarind, tomatoes, garlic, and onions. Other vegetables commonly used in the making of sinigang include okra, taro corms ("gabi adds a starchy component to the dish and thickens the broth"), white radish ("labanós"), water spinach ("kangkóng"), yardlong beans ("sitaw") and eggplant ("talóng"). Most Filipinos like to cook sinigang with long green peppers in order to enhance the taste and add a little spice to the dish. Another variation includes adding locally made miso.


title: Sinigang

text: "Sinampalukang manók" or "sinampalukan" is technically not a variation of sinigang, as the chicken has to be sautéed in ginger first instead of all the ingredients being placed simultaneously into the pot and brought to a boil. "Sinampalukan" is also distinguished by its use of shredded tamarind leaves, and is usually made together with ginger, onions, tomatoes, eggplant and other vegetables.


title: Sinigang

text: Other Filipino dishes that are similar to "sinigang" but distinct include "pinangat na isda" from Southern Luzon and "linarang" from Cebu. Both of which also use sour fruits but are restricted to fish or seafood and differ in the other ingredients used.


title: Sinigang

text: There are also similar soured beef stews. They include the "cansi" from the Western Visayas islands which use beef and breadfruit and is soured with batuan or bilimbi fruits. Because it resembles a cross between "bulalo" and "sinigang" it is sometimes known as "sinigang na bulalo". Another soured beef stew is "sinanglaw" from Ilocos which is soured with bilimbi or tamarind, but is unique in that it also includes bitter ingredients like bitter gourd or bile, as is common in Ilocano cuisine.


title: Sinigang

text: Around the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the states of Kelantan and Terengganu, there is a dish called "singgang" that is considered as a close resemblance to "sinigang". The common ingredients found in "singgang" are lemongrass, galangal, garlic, chili and asam gelugur as souring agent. Either "budu" or "tempoyak" would also sometimes be added to further flavourize the dish. "Terengganu's singgang" and "Kelantan's singgang" differs through an addition of turmeric into the former.


title: Sinigang

text: Meanwhile, on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, another dish that is thought to be similar to "singgang" is called "pindang".


title: SolarWinds

text: SolarWinds Corporation is an American company that develops software for businesses to help manage their networks, systems, and information technology infrastructure. It is headquartered in Austin, Texas, with sales and product development offices in a number of locations in the United States and several other countries. The company was publicly traded from May 2009 until the end of 2015, and again from October 2018. It has also acquired a number of other companies, some of which it still operates under their original names, including Pingdom, Papertrail and Loggly. It had about 300,000 customers as of December 2020, including nearly all "Fortune" 500 companies and numerous federal agencies.


title: SolarWinds

text: A SolarWinds product, Orion, used by about 33,000 public and private sector customers, was the focus of a large-scale attack disclosed in December 2020. The attack persisted undetected for months in 2020, and additional details about the breadth and depth of compromised systems continued to surface after the initial disclosure. In February 2021, Microsoft President Brad Smith said that it was "the largest and most sophisticated attack the world has ever seen".


title: SolarWinds

text: SolarWinds began in 1999 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, co-founded by Donald Yonce (a former executive at Walmart) and his brother David Yonce. SolarWinds released its first products, Trace Route and Ping Sweep, earlier in March 1998 and released its first web-based network performance monitoring application in November 2001. According to Michael Bennett, who became the chief executive officer in 2006, the name SolarWinds was chosen by an early employee and the company has nothing to do with solar or wind power. In 2006, the company moved its headquarters to Austin, Texas, where about 300 of the company's total 450 employees were based as of 2011. The company was profitable from its founding through its IPO in 2009.


title: SolarWinds

text: During 2007, SolarWinds raised funding from Austin Ventures, Bain Capital, and Insight Venture Partners. SolarWinds completed an initial public offering of US$112.5 million in May 2009, closing at higher prices after its initial day of trading. The IPO from SolarWinds was followed by another from OpenTable (an online restaurant-reservation service), which was perceived to break a dry spell during the Great Recession, when very few companies went public. Both Bain Capital and Insight Venture Partners backed the IPO and used the opportunity to sell some of their shares during the offering.


title: SolarWinds

text: Analysts and company executives anticipated continued expansion post-IPO, including several acquisitions. In 2010, Bennett retired as CEO and was replaced by the company's former chief financial officer Kevin Thompson. In May 2013, SolarWinds announced plans to invest in an operations hub in Salt Lake City, Utah. It was named by "Forbes" as "Best Small Company in America, citing high-functioning products for low costs and impressive company growth." By 2013, SolarWinds employed about 900 people.


title: SolarWinds

text: Acquisition by private equity technology investment firms Silver Lake Partners and Thoma Bravo, LLC. was announced in late 2015, and by January 2016, SolarWinds was taken private in a $4.5 billion deal. At the time, the company had 1,770 employees worldwide with 510 based in Austin, and reported revenues of about half a billion dollars a year.


title: SolarWinds

text: In November 2017, SolarWinds released AppOptics which integrates much of their software portfolio, including Librato and TraceView, into a single software-as-a-service package. AppOptics included compatibility with Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure.


title: SolarWinds

text: In September 2018, SolarWinds filed for a public offering again, after three years of being owned by private equity firms. SolarWinds completed their public offering on October 19, 2018.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 7, 2020, CEO Kevin Thompson retired, to be replaced by Sudhakar Ramakrishna, CEO of Pulse Secure, effective January 4, 2021.


title: SolarWinds

text: On January 8, 2021, SolarWinds hired former CISA director Chris Krebs to help the company work through the recent cyber attack.


title: SolarWinds

text: In July 2021, SolarWinds separated its managed service provider (MSP) business from the main company. The new separately-traded public company is named N-able.


title: SolarWinds

text: According to "The Wall Street Journal", SolarWinds offers freely downloadable software to potential clients and then markets more advanced software to them by offering trial versions. Following the funding in 2007, SolarWinds acquired several companies including Neon Software and ipMonitor Corp. and opened a European sales office in Ireland.


title: SolarWinds

text: During and after its IPO in 2009, SolarWinds acquired a number of other companies and products, including the acquisition of the New Zealand–based software maker Kiwi Enterprises, which was announced in January 2009.


title: SolarWinds

text: SolarWinds acquired several companies in 2011 and was ranked number 10 on "Forbes" magazine's list of fastest-growing tech companies. In January 2011, it acquired Hyper9 Inc, an Austin-based virtualization management company with undisclosed terms. In July, SolarWinds completed the acquisition of the Idaho-based network security company TriGeo for $35 million. TriGeo's offices in Post Falls were added to the list of SolarWinds location which already included satellite offices in Dallas, Salt Lake City, and Tulsa, as well as operations in Australia, the Czech Republic, India, Ireland, and Singapore. In 2012 SolarWinds acquired the patch management software provider EminentWare, and RhinoSoft, adding the latter company's FTP Voyager product to SolarWinds' product suite.


title: SolarWinds

text: In early 2013, SolarWinds acquired N-able Technologies, a cloud-based information technology services provider. The deal was reportedly valued $120 million in cash. In late 2013, it acquired the Boulder, Colorado–based database performance management company Confio Software. With the $103 million agreement, SolarWinds gained a sales office in London and Confio's main product, Ignite. Between 2014 and 2015, the company acquired the Swedish web-monitoring company Pingdom, the San Francisco–based metrics and monitoring company Librato (for $40 million), and the log management service Papertrail (for $41 million).


title: SolarWinds

text: Between 2015 and 2020, SolarWinds acquired Librato (a monitoring company), Capzure Technology (an MSP Manager software to N-able which SolarWinds had previously acquired), LogicNow (a remote monitoring software company), SpamExperts (an email security company), Loggly (a log management and analytics company), Trusted Metrics (a provider of threat monitoring and management software), Samanage (a service desk and IT asset management provider), VividCortex (a database performance monitor), and SentryOne (a provider of database performance monitoring).


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 13, 2020, "The Washington Post" reported that multiple government agencies were breached through SolarWinds's Orion software (archived website copy). The company stated in an SEC filing that fewer than 18,000 of its 33,000 Orion customers were affected, involving versions 2019.4 through 2020.2.1, released between March 2020 and June 2020. According to Microsoft, hackers acquired superuser access to SAML token-signing certificates. This SAML certificate was then used to forge new tokens to allow hackers trusted and highly privileged access to networks. The Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency issued Emergency Directive 21–01 in response to the incident, advising all federal civilian agencies to disable Orion.


title: SolarWinds

text: APT29, aka Cozy Bear, working for the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR), was reported to be behind the 2020 attack. Victims of this attack include the cybersecurity firm FireEye, the US Treasury Department, the US Department of Commerce's National Telecommunications and Information Administration, as well as the US Department of Homeland Security. Prominent international SolarWinds customers investigating whether they were impacted include the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Parliament, UK Government Communications Headquarters, the UK Ministry of Defence, the UK National Health Service (NHS), the UK Home Office, and AstraZeneca. FireEye reported the hackers inserted "malicious code into legitimate software updates for the Orion software that allow an attacker remote access into the victim's environment" and that they have found "indications of compromise dating back to the spring of 2020". FireEye named the malware SUNBURST. Microsoft called it Solorigate.


title: SolarWinds

text: The attack used a backdoor in a SolarWinds library; when an update to SolarWinds occurred, the malicious attack would go unnoticed due to the trusted certificate. In November 2019, a security researcher notified SolarWinds that their FTP server had a weak default password of "solarwinds123", warning that "any hacker could upload malicious [code]" that would then be distributed to SolarWinds customers. "The New York Times" reported SolarWinds did not employ a chief information security officer and that employee passwords had been posted on GitHub in 2019.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 15, 2020, SolarWinds reported the breach to the Securities and Exchange Commission. However, SolarWinds continued to distribute malware-infected updates, and did not immediately revoke the compromised digital certificate used to sign them.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 16, 2020, German IT news portal Heise.de reported that SolarWinds had for some time been encouraging customers to disable anti-malware tools before installing SolarWinds products.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 17, 2020, SolarWinds said they would revoke the compromised certificates by December 21, 2020.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 21, 2020, Attorney General William Barr stated that he believed that the SolarWinds hack appears to have been perpetrated by Russia, contradicting speculations by President Donald Trump that China, not Russia, might be to blame.


title: SolarWinds

text: In late December 2020, Trustwave, a cybersecurity firm, reached out to SolarWinds to report new security flaws they had discovered in software produced by SolarWinds. Although these vulnerabilities hadn't been taken advantage of by hackers, it raised questions concerning the network security of SolarWinds' customers.


title: SolarWinds

text: The magnitude of the monetary damage has yet to be calculated, but on January 14, 2021, CRN.com reported that the attack could cost cyber insurance firms at least $90 million.


title: SolarWinds

text: On March 1, 2021, SolarWinds CEO, Sudhakar Ramakrishna, blamed a company intern for using an insecure password ("solarwinds123") on their update server. Speculation that this led to the attack is discounted by the company and security professionals. More than the intern using a weak password, experts noted that the main issue this fact highlights is the poor security culture the company has.


title: SolarWinds

text: On December 19, 2020, Microsoft said that its investigations into supply chain attacks at SolarWinds had found evidence of an attempted supply chain attack distinct from the attack in which SUNBURST malware was inserted into Orion binaries (see previous section). This second attack has been dubbed SUPERNOVA.


title: SolarWinds

text: Security researchers from Palo Alto Networks said the SUPERNOVA malware was implemented stealthily. SUPERNOVA comprises a very small number of changes to the Orion source code, implementing a web shell that acts as a remote access tool. The shell is assembled in-memory during SUPERNOVA execution, thus minimizing its forensic footprint.


title: SolarWinds

text: Unlike SUNBURST, SUPERNOVA does not possess a digital signature. This is among the reasons why it is thought to have originated with a different group than the one responsible for SUNBURST.


title: SolarWinds

text: SolarWinds's share price fell 25% within days of the SUNBURST breach becoming public knowledge, and 40% within a week. Insiders at the company had sold approximately $280 million in stock shortly before this became publicly known, which was months after the attack had started. A spokesperson said that those who sold the stock had not been aware of the breach at the time.


title: SolarWinds

text: In November 2021 Microsoft issued an alert in relation to the advanced persistent threat (APT) actor Nobelium (aka APT29; Cozy Bear) that was responsible for the 2020 SolarWinds supply chain attack is targeting cloud service providers (CSPs), managed service providers (MSPs), and other IT service providers. Microsoft Threat Intelligence Center (MSTIC) released a range of recommendations for service providers and downstream businesses to implement in order to address the threat.


title: SolarWinds

text: In January 2021, a class action lawsuit was filed against SolarWinds in relation to its security failures and subsequent fall in share price. SolarWinds has attempted to have this case dismissed and in March 2022, a judge ruled that the class action lawsuit may move forward.


title: Championnat National 2

text: The Championnat National 2, commonly known as National 2 and formerly known as Championnat de France Amateur (CFA), is a football league competition. The league serves as the fourth tier of the French football league system behind Ligue 1, Ligue 2, and the Championnat National. Contested by 64 clubs, the Championnat National 2 operates on a system of promotion and relegation with the Championnat National and the Championnat National 3, the fifth division of French football. Seasons run from August to May, with teams in four groups playing 32 games each totalling 1280 games in the season. Most games are played on Saturdays and Sundays, with a few games played during weekday evenings. Play is regularly suspended the last weekend before Christmas for two weeks before returning in the second week of January.


title: Championnat National 2

text: The Championnat de France amateur was initially founded by the French Football Federation in 1927 and was composed of the regional amateur league champions. The league served as the first division of French football until 1929 before the league was converted to the professional league that exists today in 1932. The current incarnation of the league is a simple rebrand of the CFA, which was founded in 1993 as National 2 and lasted for five years before being converted to the CFA name in 1998 and the National 2 name in 2017. Some clubs that participate in the league are semi-professional. The matches in the league attract on average between 800 and 1,000 spectators per match. However, this average is dragged down by the minuscule turnouts for the pros' home reserve matches.


title: Championnat National 2

text: The amateur championship of France was created in 1993 under the name "National 2" as an heir to the now-defunct Division 3. The league's debut coincided with the creation of the Championnat National, the third division of French football, which is commonly known as "National". For the first three years of the competition, an amateur champion was crowned in France regardless of whether the club was amateur or a reserve team. In 1998, the French Football Federation changed the competition's format creating two separate tables; one for the amateur clubs and another for the reserve teams of professional clubs. The dual tables allowed the league to declare a champion for the amateurs and the reserves with four team tournaments being held following the conclusion of league play to determine the champions. At the same time the competition was renamed Championnat de France Amateur (CFA). In 2001, the federation ended this style and reverted to the original format allowing both the amateur clubs and reserve teams to be grouped together based on their regional location. The winner of each group would then earn promotion to the Championnat National, unless the club is a reserve team. Meanwhile, the reserve teams continued to use the previous format with the best reserve teams of each group being inserted into a tournament to decide the reserves' champion.


title: Championnat National 2

text: In 2017 the FFF reorganised amateur football along the lines of the 2016 reorganisation of the Regions of France, creating Championnat National 2 and Championnat National 3 to replace CFA and CFA2. For National 2 this was in effect just a change of name, whilst National 3 saw a major restructure.


title: Championnat National 2

text: Sixty-four clubs participate each season. The clubs are split into four parallel groups of 16 with their group affiliation being loosely based on the regional location. The league is open to the best reserve teams in France and amateur clubs in France, although only the amateur clubs are eligible for promotion to the Championnat National. During the course of a season, usually from August to May, each club plays the others in their respective group twice, once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents, for a total of 30 games. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. At the end of each season, the club with the most points, regardless of the group, is crowned champion and promoted to the Championnat National. If points are equal, head-to-head match results, followed by the goal difference, and then goals scored determine the winner. If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position. If there is a tie for the championship or for relegation, a play-off match at a neutral venue decides rank. The three other highest-placed amateur teams in the other groups are also promoted, while the 3 lowest-placed teams from each group are relegated to the Championnat National 3 and the eight winners of the eight groups and the top four second-place finishers from the Championnat National 3 are promoted in their place.


title: Vaquero

text: The vaquero (; , , ) is a horse-mounted livestock herder of a tradition that has its roots in the Iberian Peninsula and extensively developed in Mexico from a methodology brought to Latin America from Spain. The vaquero became the foundation for the North American cowboy. The "vaqueros" of the Americas were the horsemen and cattle herders of New Spain, who first came to California with the Jesuit priest Eusebio Kino in 1687, and later with expeditions in 1769 and the Juan Bautista de Anza expedition in 1774. They were the first cowboys in the region.


title: Vaquero

text: In Alberta, Northern Mexico, and the Southwestern United States, especially in Texas the remnants of major and distinct "vaquero" traditions remain, most popular today as the Californio, Neomexicano, and Tejano traditions. In Central and South America, there are similar, related traditions.


title: Vaquero

text: The cowboys of the Great Basin still use the term "buckaroo", which may be a corruption of "vaquero", to describe themselves and their tradition.


title: Vaquero

text: "Vaquero" is a Spanish word for a herder of cattle. It derives from "vaca", meaning "cow", which in turn comes from the Latin word "vacca".


title: Vaquero

text: A related term, "buckaroo", still is used to refer to a certain style of cowboys and horsemanship most often seen in the Great Basin region of the United States that closely retains characteristics of the traditional vaquero. The word "buckaroo" is generally believed to be an anglicized version of "vaquero" and shows phonological characteristics compatible with that origin. "Buckaroo" first appeared in American English in 1827. The word may also have developed with influences from the English word "buck" or bucking, the behavior of young, untrained horses. In 1960, one etymologist suggested that "buckaroo" derives, through , from the Ibibio and , meaning "white man, master, boss". Although that derivation was later rejected, another possibility advanced was that "buckaroo" was a pun on "vaquero", blending both Spanish and African sources.


title: Vaquero

text: The origins of the "vaquero" tradition come from Spain, beginning with the "hacienda" system of medieval Spain. This style of cattle ranching spread throughout much of the Iberian peninsula, and it was later imported to the Americas. Both regions possessed a dry climate with sparse grass, and thus large herds of cattle required vast amounts of land in order to obtain sufficient forage. The need to cover distances greater than a person on foot could manage gave rise to the development of the horseback-mounted "vaquero". Various aspects of the Spanish equestrian tradition can be traced back to Al-Andalus, including Moorish elements such as the use of Oriental-type horses, the "jinete" riding style characterized by a shorter stirrup, solid-treed saddle and use of spurs, the heavy noseband or hackamore, ( "šakīma", Spanish "jaquima"). Certain aspects of the Arabic tradition, such as the hackamore, can in turn be traced to roots in ancient Persia.


title: Vaquero

text: In Brazil, the "vaqueiro" (in Brazilian Portuguese) appeared in the 16th century, in the interior, specifically in the caatinga areas in the state of Bahia.


title: Vaquero

text: During the 16th century, the Conquistadors and other Spanish settlers brought their cattle-raising traditions as well as both horses and domesticated cattle to the Americas, starting with their arrival in what today is Mexico and Florida. The traditions of Spain were transformed by the geographic, environmental and cultural circumstances of New Spain, which later became Mexico and the Southwestern United States. They also developed this culture in all of western Latin America, developing the Gaucho cowboys in Argentina, Chile and Peru the land and people of the Americas also saw dramatic changes due to Spanish influence.


title: Vaquero

text: The arrival of horses in the Americas was particularly significant, as equines had been extinct there since the end of the prehistoric ice age. However, horses quickly multiplied in America and became crucial to the success of the Spanish and later settlers from other nations. The earliest horses were originally of Spanish, Barb and Arabian ancestry, but a number of uniquely American horse breeds developed in North and South America through selective breeding and by natural selection of animals that escaped to the wild and became feral. The Mustang and other colonial horse breeds are now called "wild", but in reality are feral horses—descendants of domesticated animals.


title: Vaquero

text: The Spanish tradition evolved further in what today is Mexico, and the Southwestern United States into the "vaquero" of northern Mexico and the "charro" of the Jalisco and Michoacán regions. Most "vaqueros" were men of mestizo origin while most of the "hacendados" (ranch owners) were ethnically Spanish. In Santa Fe de Nuevo México, however, both Hispano and Pueblo people owned land and livestock. Mexican traditions spread both South and North, influencing equestrian traditions from Argentina to Canada.


title: Vaquero

text: As English-speaking traders and settlers expanded westward, English and Spanish traditions, language and culture merged to some degree. Before the Mexican–American War in 1848, New England merchants who traveled by ship to California encountered both "hacendados" and "vaqueros", trading manufactured goods for the hides and tallow produced from vast cattle ranches. American traders along what later became known as the Santa Fe Trail had similar contacts with "vaquero" life. Starting with these early encounters, the lifestyle and language of the "vaquero" began a transformation which merged with English cultural traditions and produced what became known in American culture as the "cowboy".


title: Vaquero

text: Mesteñeros were vaqueros that caught, broke and drove Mustangs to market in the Spanish and later Mexican, and then American territories. They caught the horses that roamed the Great Plains and the San Joaquin Valley of California, and later in the Great Basin, from the 18th century to the early 20th century.


title: Vaquero

text: Distinct regional traditions arose in the United States, particularly in Texas and California, distinguished by local culture, geography and historical patterns of settlement. In turn, the California tradition had an influence on cattle handling traditions in Hawaii. The "buckaroo" or "California" tradition, most closely resembled that of the original vaquero, while the "Texas" tradition melded some Spanish technique with methods from the eastern states, creating separate and unique styles indigenous to the region. The modern distinction between "vaquero" and "buckaroo" within American English may also reflect the parallel differences between the California and Texas traditions of western horsemanship.


title: Vaquero

text: Cowboys of this tradition were dubbed "buckaroos" by English-speaking settlers. The words "buckaroo" and "vaquero" are still used on occasion in the Great Basin, parts of California and, less often, in the Pacific Northwest. Elsewhere, the term "cowboy" is more common.


title: Vaquero

text: Even though the lands of the California "vaquaros" were fertile for farming, "it was not the disposition of Spanish Californians to over-exert themselves, so the raising of cattle, which was little drain on the energies, was a very much more agreeable way of life than farming...there were few in the world who could surpass...[the] vaquero in horsemanship." The future Mexican or Spanish vaqueros were placed in the saddle at 5 years of age, and sometimes earlier, and worked with young, often trained horses, which had originally arrived from Mexico in the 18th century and flourished in California and bordering territories during the Spanish/Mexican era. Settlers originally arriving from the United States prior to 1846 (Mexican War) could marry a Californio woman or apply for Mexican citizenship in order to receive a land grant, which would then almost require the new "citizen" to acquire the "vaquaro" skills and life styles, a life style in which he would "...invariably [keep] a horse saddled before his door, awaiting his pleasure. If it was necessary to go more than fifty steps, he rode." After the conquest of California, with the conclusion of the Mexican–American War in 1848, Americans began to flood the newly conquered territory with immigration, for the 1849 goldrush, which resulted in most of them being miners rather than livestock ranchers. The California vaquero or buckaroo, unlike the Texas cowboy, was considered a highly skilled worker, who usually stayed on the same ranch where he was born or had grown up. He generally married and raised a family. In addition, the geography and climate of much of California was dramatically different from that of Texas, allowing more intensive grazing with less open range, plus cattle in California were marketed primarily at a regional level, without the need (nor, until much later, even the logistical possibility) to be driven hundreds of miles to railroad lines. Thus, a horse- and livestock-handling culture remained in California and the Pacific Northwest that retained a stronger direct Mexican and Spanish influence than that of Texas.


title: Vaquero

text: The Texas tradition arose from a combination of cultural influences, as well as the need to adapt to the geography and climate of west Texas and, later, the need to conduct long cattle drives to get animals to market. In the early 1800s, the Spanish Crown, and later, independent Mexico, offered "empresario" grants in what would later be Texas to non-citizens, such as settlers from the United States. In 1821, Stephen F. Austin and his East Coast comrades became the first Anglo-Saxon community in Texas. Following Texas independence in 1836, even more Americans immigrated into the "empresario" ranching areas of Texas. Here the settlers were strongly influenced by the Mexican "vaquero" culture, borrowing vocabulary and attire from their counterparts, but also retaining some of the livestock-handling traditions and culture of the Eastern United States and Great Britain.


title: Vaquero

text: Following the American Civil War, vaquero culture diffused eastward and northward, combining with the cow herding traditions of the eastern United States that evolved as settlers moved west. Other influences developed out of Texas as cattle trails were created to meet up with the railroad lines of Kansas and Nebraska, in addition to expanding ranching opportunities in the Great Plains and Rocky Mountain Front, east of the Continental Divide. The Texas-style vaquero tended to be an itinerant single male who moved from ranch to ranch.


title: Vaquero

text: The Hawaiian cowboy, the "paniolo", is also a direct descendant of the "vaquero" of California and Mexico. Experts in Hawaiian etymology believe "Paniolo" is a Hawaiianized pronunciation of "español". (The Hawaiian language has no /s/ sound, and all syllables and words must end in a vowel.) Paniolo, like cowboys on the mainland of North America, learned their skills from Mexican "vaqueros".


title: Vaquero

text: By the early 19th century, Capt. George Vancouver's gift of cattle to Pai`ea Kamehameha, monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, had multiplied astonishingly, and were wreaking havoc throughout the countryside. About 1812, John Parker, a sailor who had jumped ship and settled in the islands, received permission from Kamehameha to capture the wild cattle and develop a beef industry.


title: Vaquero

text: The Hawaiian style of ranching originally included capturing wild cattle by driving them into pits dug in the forest floor. Once tamed somewhat by hunger and thirst, they were hauled out up a steep ramp, and tied by their horns to the horns of a tame, older steer (or ox) that knew where the paddock with food and water was located. The industry grew slowly under the reign of Kamehameha's son Liholiho (Kamehameha II). Later, Liholiho's brother, Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III), visited California, then still a part of Mexico. He was impressed with the skill of the Mexican vaqueros, and invited several to Hawaii in 1832 to teach the Hawaiian people how to work cattle.


title: Vaquero

text: Even today, traditional paniolo dress, as well as certain styles of Hawaiian formal attire, reflect the Spanish heritage of the vaquero. The traditional Hawaiian saddle, the "noho lio," and many other tools of the cowboy's trade have a distinctly Mexican/Spanish look and many Hawaiian ranching families still carry the names of the vaqueros who married Hawaiian women and made Hawaii their home.