title: Krubera Cave

text: From 1982 onwards, the Kyiv cavers started systematically working in Krubera Cave, located less than 200 metres from the Kuybyshevskaya entrance, hoping to connect with the Arabikskaya System and increase its total depth by 60 m. Exploration progressed slowly because critically tight meanders between the pits required enormous amounts of work to widen them to a passable size. The cave was pushed to −340 m during 1982–1987. Two "windows" in a vertical shaft at depths of 220–250 m were documented on the cave map but remained unexplored. During this time the cave received its second, alternative name (Crows') Cave, owing to the number of crows nesting in the entrance shaft.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The political and ethnic conflict in Abkhazia during 1992–94 resulted in instability and border problems which continued over subsequent years. This suspended speleological explorations in Arabika. Some stabilization of the situation in 1998 has since enabled a renewal of exploration effort to take place in the region.


title: Krubera Cave

text: In 1999, the expedition of the Ukrainian Speleological Associations (Ukr. S.A.) led by Jurij Kasjan (also spelled Yuriy Kasyan) made a major breakthrough in Krubera Cave by discovering and exploring two branches behind the windows at a depth of 220–250 m. These branches stretched in two different directions. The "Main Branch" was explored to −740 m and the "Nekuybyshevskaya Branch" to −500 m.


title: Krubera Cave

text: In 2000, the Main Branch was quickly pushed by the multi-stage expedition of the Ukr. S.A. in August to −1,200 m and in September to −1,410 m.


title: Krubera Cave

text: In January 2001, the Ukr.S.A. expedition explored the cave to making it the deepest cave in the world. For the first time in the history of speleology, the deepest cave in the world had been established outside of western Europe. Since 2001, the Krubera explorations by the Ukr.S.A. have been undertaken within the frame of the multi-year project named "The Call of the Abyss", coordinated by A. Klimchouk, Y. Kasyan, G. Samokhin and K. Markovskoy. Besides the Ukrainian speleologists, cavers from many countries such as France, Spain, Russia, Moldova, Bulgaria, United Kingdom, Ireland, Israel and Lithuania have taken part in different expeditions of the Ukr.S.A.


title: Krubera Cave

text: The major events in the exploration of Krubera Cave in subsequent years were as follows (see Figure 4 for spot locations):


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Paul Joseph Mercurio (born 31 March 1963) is an Australian actor, dancer, TV presenter and politician. Mercurio is best known for his lead role in "Strictly Ballroom" 1992 and his role as a judge on TV series "Dancing with the Stars".


title: Paul Mercurio

text: He has been an Australian Labor Party member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly since 2022, representing the electorate of Hastings.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio was born in Swan Hill, Victoria in March 1963, his father was character actor Gus Mercurio. Paul began ballet at nine. He later moved to Perth, Western Australia, where he attended John Curtin Senior High School, now known as John Curtin College of the Arts where there is a theatre named after him. He credits his theatre arts teacher for inspiring him to follow his dream. Mercurio focussed on acting during his high school years but after he graduated, he caught the Indian Pacific train from Perth back to Melbourne where he studied at the Australian Ballet School.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: By the age of 19 in 1982, he was Principal Dancer with the Sydney Dance Company—a position he held for ten years. During this time, he was commissioned to choreograph six works performed by the company. Mercurio left the Sydney Dance Company in August 1992 to found the Australian Choreographic Ensemble which danced from 1992 to 1995, where he was the director, principal dancer and principal choreographer.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio made his film debut in Baz Luhrmann's breakout film "Strictly Ballroom", receiving an Australian Film Institute Award nomination in 1993. Mercurio was a choreographer on the film. Flamenco dancer Antonio Vargas, the actor who played Fran's father, also choreographed scenes in the film.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio's other film credits include: "Exit to Eden", "Back of Beyond", "Così", "Red Ribbon Blues", "Welcome to Woop Woop", "The Dark Planet", "The First 9½ Weeks", "Kick" and "Sydney – A Story of a City". He starred, wrote, choreographed, produced and directed the short film "Spilt Milk". Most recently, Mercurio has taken roles in independent films, such as "Hunting for Shadows" and "A Silent Agreement" with director Davo Hardy.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: In 2019, Mercurio appeared in a supporting role as Sal in "Promised" (2019), a film directed and co-produced by Nick Conidi, and starring Tina Arena, Antoniette Iesue and Daniel Berini. The film was released in Australia on 24 October 2019.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Baz Luhrmann expressed some interest in using Mercurio in "Moulin Rouge" to Mercurio's agent, but after a series of failed attempts to speak to Luhrmann personally, Mercurio found out that there was no role for him in the movie via the production company. He has not appeared in any other Luhrmann films and only appears briefly in Disc 4 of "Red Curtain Trilogy" as a pixelated image.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio made his TV debut in a documentary on his life called "Life's Burning Desire" in 1992. He starred in the lead role of Joseph in the Emmy Award-winning US TV mini-series "The Bible: Joseph" in 1995. Later, he joined the ensemble cast for the 1998 mini-series drama "The Day of the Roses", depicting the 1977 Granville railway disaster.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Throughout the 1990s. Mercurio guest starred in Australian TV shows including "Blue Heelers", "All Saints", "Murder Call", "Medivac", "Heartbreak High," "Water Rats" and "The Day of the Roses".


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio was a judge on the Australian version of "Dancing with the Stars" until August 2008, when he was dropped from the judging panel because he was deemed "too nice" for television. He was also a judge in the New Zealand version. In 2008, he began hosting a series called "Mercurio's Menu" where he travels Australia, cooking in different locations.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio continues to dance and choreograph professionally. He was a movement consultant on the Will Smith movie "I, Robot", and has choreographed an American TV campaign for Coca-Cola, the Harry M. Miller production of "Jesus Christ Superstar" and "Annie Get Your Gun". In January 2004, he appeared on stage in "The Full Monty". Mercurio teaches students full-time at Dance World Studios in Melbourne.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: In November 2022, Mercurio was elected to the Victorian Legislative Assembly, winning the ultra-marginal seat of Hastings for the Australian Labor Party.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: Mercurio has been married to his wife Andrea since 1987, and together they have three children: Emily, Elise and Erin.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: He appeared on the Australian version of the television show "Who Do You Think You Are?" in 2012 in which he discovered that his grandfather was a member of the Milwaukee division of Cosa Nostra (the Sicilian mafia) in the 1950s. Mercurio has reflected on this legacy in subsequent interviews and spoken about the effect it has had on his father, and his relationship with his father.


title: Paul Mercurio

text: The Australian Entertainment Mo Awards were annual Australian entertainment industry awards. They recognise achievements in live entertainment in Australia from 1975 to 2016. Paul Mercurio won one award in that time.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: Proxima Midnight is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is a prominent member of the Black Order, a team of aliens who work for Thanos. Created by writer Jonathan Hickman, she first appeared in "New Avengers" #8 (Sept. 2013).


title: Proxima Midnight

text: The character has made several appearances in media, such as animated television series, the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "" and "" with Carrie Coon voicing the role, and video games. Coon returned to voice an alternate timeline version of the character in the Disney+ animated series "What If...?" (2021).


title: Proxima Midnight

text: Proxima Midnight was created by writer Jonathan Hickman, and first appeared in one panel in "New Avengers" #8 (September 2013). She later made a more substantial appearance later that month in "Infinity" #1 (October 2013), which also featured the first appearance of the Black Order.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: Proxima Midnight is a member of Thanos' Black Order. Thanos chose her for her expert combatant skills. Proxima is the wife of fellow Order member Corvus Glaive. She was sent to Earth to retrieve an Infinity Gem from Namor, but came into contact with the New Avengers. She battled Spectrum and Luke Cage where she found herself evenly matched. She was humiliated by Thanos' disapproval of her actions as well as the fact that Namor did not actually possess the Gem. Proxima and the rest of the Order were directed by Namor to Wakanda to search for the Gem, but were distracted when Ebony Maw revealed the location of Thane, Thanos' son. Thane wanted nothing to do with his father and imprisoned him and Proxima in amber where they were taken to Necropolis.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: Namor freed Proxima, as well as Thanos, and asked that they join his Cabal due to his own anger towards Earth. However, Namor soon found himself hating the Cabal's tactics and vowed to work with the Illuminati to defeat them. Namor himself was betrayed and found himself and the Cabal stuck on an earth that was to be destroyed. They all managed to escape into the Ultimate Marvel Universe and vowed to get their revenge. They crafted a "life raft" and managed to live past the destruction of all universes. The Cabal ended up on Battleworld where they proceeded to attack the locals. However, God Emperor Doom dispersed the group to the various corners of Battleworld and Proxima, along with Corvus Glaive, were imprisoned by Apocalypse.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: She managed to return to her own home when the Mainstream Marvel Universe was rebuilt. She met up with Thanos and a cloaked figure, later revealed to be Hela, and teamed up with her to retrieve Mjolnir. Their quest would lead them into battling Thor, Beta Ray Bill, The Collector and others. Ultimately, Proxima and Hela were humiliated and forced to return empty handed. To prove herself worthy, Hela killed Proxima in front of Thanos, adding one last humiliation for her.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: During the "No Surrender" arc Challenger revived Proxima Midnight when the Black Order was reformed with Black Swan, Ebony Maw, a psychic projection of Supergiant, and a revived Black Dwarf and Corvus Glaive. The group competed with an alien version of the Lethal Legion formed by Grandmaster in a contest where Earth is the battlefield.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: Proxima possessed the typical attributes of a super powered individual including superhuman strength, speed, endurance and durability. Being able to survive planetary reentry without injury, she was also a master combatant and owned a spear created from a star trapped in a quantum singularity by Thanos himself.


title: Proxima Midnight

text: The spear is capable of drastic harm based on how it is thrown and who it is used against, becoming a multi-pronged lance of poisonous energy that follows their target, never missing. Said force was fatal to whomever it pierced, killing the victim in minutes. It could revert to star form, gaining infinite mass which weighed down prey in an energy entanglement. This effect could even bind and revert an enraged Hulk back to Bruce Banner upon removal.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Lough Neagh ( ) is a freshwater lake in Northern Ireland and is the largest lake in the island of Ireland, the United Kingdom and the British Isles. It has a surface area of and supplies 40% of Northern Ireland's water. Its main inflows come from the Upper River Bann and River Blackwater, and its main outflow is the Lower River Bann. Its name comes from Irish , meaning "Eachaidh's lake". The lough is owned by the Earl of Shaftesbury and managed by Lough Neagh Partnership Ltd.


title: Lough Neagh

text: With an area of , it is the British Isles' largest lake by area and is ranked 33rd in the list of largest lakes of Europe. Located west of Belfast, it is about long and wide. It is very shallow around the margins and the average depth in the main body of the lake is about , although at its deepest the lough is about deep.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Geologically the Lough Neagh Basin is a depression, built from many tectonic events dating back as far as 400 million years ago. These tectonic events are responsible for a NE-SW bedrock structure which has controlled many subsequent events. During the Paleozoic era, the Lough Neagh Basin was a depositional graben.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Of the catchment area, around 9% lies in the Republic of Ireland and 91% in Northern Ireland; altogether 43% of the land area of Northern Ireland is drained into the lough, which itself flows out northwards to the sea via the River Bann. As one of its sources is the Upper Bann, the Lough can itself be considered as part of the Bann.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Lough Neagh is fed by many tributaries including the rivers Main (), Six Mile Water (), Upper Bann (), Blackwater (), Ballinderry () and Moyola ()


title: Lough Neagh

text: Towns and villages near the Lough include Craigavon, Antrim, Crumlin, Randalstown, Toomebridge, Ballyronan, Ballinderry, Moortown, Ardboe, Brockagh, Maghery, Lurgan and Magherafelt.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Five of the six counties of Northern Ireland have shores on the Lough (only Fermanagh does not), and its area is split among them. The counties are listed clockwise:


title: Lough Neagh

text: The area of the lake is split between four local government districts of Northern Ireland, which are listed clockwise:


title: Lough Neagh

text: Lough Neagh is managed by Lough Neagh Partnership Ltd, a stakeholder group made up of elected representatives, land-owners, fishermen, sand traders and local community representatives. Lough Neagh Partnership is responsible for the lough's conservation, promotion and sustainable development together with navigation of the Lough.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Although the Lough is used for a variety of recreational and commercial activities, it is exposed and tends to get extremely rough very quickly in windy conditions.


title: Lough Neagh

text: The lough is used by Northern Ireland Water as a source of fresh water. The lough supplies 40% of the region's drinking water. There have long been plans to increase the amount of water drawn from the lough, through a new water treatment works at Hog Park Point, but these are yet to materialise.


title: Lough Neagh

text: The lough's ownership by the Earl of Shaftesbury has implications for planned changes to state-run domestic water services in Northern Ireland, as the lough is also used as a sewage outfall, and this arrangement is only permissible through British Crown immunity. In 2012, it was reported that the Earl is considering transferring ownership of the Lough to the Northern Ireland Assembly.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Traditional working boats on Lough Neagh include wide-beamed clinker-built, sprit-rigged working boats and smaller flat-bottomed "cots" and "flats". Barges, here called "lighters", were used until the 1940s to transport coal over the lough and adjacent canals. Until the 17th century, log boats ("coití") were the main means of transport. Few traditional boats are left now, but a community-based group on the southern shore of the lough is rebuilding a series of working boats.


title: Lough Neagh

text: In the 19th century, three canals were constructed, using the lough to link various ports and cities: the Lagan Navigation provided a link from the city of Belfast, the Newry Canal linked to the port of Newry, and the Ulster Canal led to the Lough Erne navigations, providing a navigable inland route via the River Shannon to Limerick, Dublin and Waterford. The Lower Bann was also navigable to Coleraine and the Antrim coast, and the short Coalisland Canal provided a route for coal transportation. Of these waterways, only the Lower Bann remains open today, although a restoration plan for the Ulster Canal is currently in progress.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Lough Neagh Rescue provides a search and rescue service 24 hours a day and has 3 stations, situated around the lough. These are at Antrim, Ardboe and Kinnego Marinas, Kinnego being its headquarters and founding station. It is a voluntary service funded by the district councils bordering the Lough. Its members are highly trained and are a declared facility for the Maritime and Coastguard Agency which co-ordinates rescues on Lough Neagh.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Lough Neagh attracts birdwatchers from many nations due to the number and variety of birds which winter and summer in the boglands and shores around the lough.


title: Lough Neagh

text: The flora of the north-east of Northern Ireland includes the algae: "Chara aspera", "Chara globularis" var. "globularis", "Chara globularis" var. "virgate", "Chara vulgaris" var. "vulgaris", "Chara vulgaris" var. "papillata", "Tolypella" "nidifica" var. "glomerata". Records of Angiospermae include: "Ranunculus flammula" var. "pseudoreptans", "Ranunculus auricomus", "Ranunculatus sceleratus", "Ranunculatus circinatus", "Ranunculatus peltatus", "Thalictrum flavum", "Thalictrum minus" subsp. "minus", "Nymphaea alba", "Ceratophyllum demersum", "Subularia aquatic", "Erophila verna" sub. "verna", "Cardamine pratensis", "Cardamine impatiens", "Cardamine flexuosa", "Rorippa palustris", "Rorippa amphibia", "Reseda luteola", "Viola odorata", "Viola reichenbachiana", "Viola tricolor" ssp. "Violoa tricolor" ssp. "curtissi", "Hypericum androsaemum", "Hypericum maculatum", "Elatine hydropiper", "Silene vulgaris", "Silene dioica", "Saponaria officinalis", "Cerastium arvense", "Cerastium semidecandrum", "Cerastium diffusum", "Sagina nodosa", "Spergularia rubra", "Spergulaia rupicola", "Chenopodium bonus-henricus", "Chenopodium polyspermum".


title: Lough Neagh

text: Eel fishing has been a major industry in Lough Neagh for centuries. These European eels make their way from the Sargasso Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, some along the Gulf Stream to the mouth of the River Bann, and then make their way into the lough. They remain there for some 10 to 15 years, maturing, before returning to the Sargasso to spawn. Today Lough Neagh eel fisheries export their eels to restaurants all over the world, and the Lough Neagh Eel has been granted Protected Geographical Status under European Union law.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney produced a collection of poems "A Lough Neagh Sequence" celebrating the eel-fishermen's traditional techniques and the natural history of their catch.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Other fish species in the lake include dollaghan —a variety of brown trout native to the lake, salmon, trout, perch and pollan; bream, gudgeon, pike and rudd are also found, but are less common.


title: Lough Neagh

text: The lough's English name derives . After the Plantation of Ulster, the English attempted to re-name the lake 'Lough Sydney' and 'Lough Chichester', in honour of the Lord Deputies, but these did not supplant the older name.


title: Lough Neagh

text: In the Irish mythical tale "Cath Maige Tuired" ("the Battle of Moytura"), Lough Neagh is called one of the twelve chief loughs of Ireland. The origin of the lake and its name is explained in an Irish tale that was written down in the Middle Ages, but is likely pre-Christian. According to the tale, the lake is named after Echaid (modern spelling: Eochaidh or Eachaidh), who was the son of Mairid (Mairidh), a king of Munster. Echaid falls in love with his stepmother, a young woman named Ébliu (Ébhlinne). They try to elope, accompanied by many of their retainers, but someone kills their horses. In some versions, the horses are killed by Midir (Midhir), which may be another name for Ébliu's husband Mairid. Óengus (Aonghus) then appears and gives them an enormous horse that can carry all their belongings. Óengus warns that they must not let the horse rest or it will be their doom. However, after reaching Ulster the horse stops and urinates, and a spring rises from the spot. Echaid builds a house there and covers the spring with a capstone to stop its overflowing. One night, the capstone is not replaced and the spring overflows, drowning Echaid and most of his family, and creating "Loch n-Echach" ("Loch nEachach", the lake of Eachaidh).


title: Lough Neagh

text: The character Echaid refers to the Dagda, a god of the ancient Irish who was also known as Echaid Ollathair (meaning "horseman, father of all"). Ébliu, Midir and Óengus were also names of deities. Dáithí Ó hÓgáin writes that the idea of a supernatural being creating the landscape with its own body is an ancient one common to many pre-Christian cultures. A Gaelic sept called the Uí Echach ("descendants of Echaid") dwelt in the area and it is likely their name comes from the cult of the god. They gave their name to the territory of Iveagh.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Another tale tells how the lake was formed when Ireland's legendary giant Fionn mac Cumhaill (Finn McCool) scooped up a chunk of earth and tossed it at a Scottish rival. It fell into the Irish Sea, forming the Isle of Man, while the crater left behind filled with water to form Lough Neagh.


title: Lough Neagh

text: Sir Hugh Clotworthy settled from England near Antrim town in the reign of Elizabeth I and was granted the office of "Captain of Lough Neagh", with a stipend in return for maintaining boats on the lake to enforce royal authority. Clotworthy's successors as captain were his son and grandson-in-law, the first and second Viscounts Massereene. In 1660 Charles II gave the first Viscount the rights to the fish and bed of the lake.


title: Cara cara navel

text: The Cara cara navel orange, or red-fleshed navel orange, is an early-to-midseason navel orange believed to have developed as a spontaneous bud mutation on a Washington navel orange tree.


title: Cara cara navel

text: A botanical sport discovered at the Hacienda Caracara in Valencia, Venezuela in 1976, the cara cara appears to be of such uncertain parentage as to occasionally warrant the distinction of a "mutation", with only the tree on which it was found—the Washington navel—being an accepted progenitor. Cara caras did not enter the U.S consumer produce market until the late 1980s and were carried only by specialty markets for many years thereafter.


title: Cara cara navel

text: This medium-sized navel is seedless, sweet and low in acid, and characterized by little to no pith and easy, clean separation from the rind.


title: Cara cara navel

text: Unlike in true blood oranges, where the main pigmentation is due to anthocyanins, pigmentation in Cara cara oranges is due to carotenoids, such as lycopene.


title: Cara cara navel

text: From the major growing regions, South American Cara caras are ready for market starting in August, Venezuelan fruits arrive in October and California fruits make their seasonal debut in late November and are available through April.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage destinations) in Jainism, one that reached a peak in architectural and sculptural activity under the patronage of Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have died here in 298 BCE after he became a Jain monk and assumed an ascetic life style.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Gommateshwara statue, Akkana Basadi, Chandragupta basadi, Chamundaraya Basadi, Parshvanath Basadi and inscriptions of Shravanabelagola group of monuments are listed as Adarsh Smarak Monument by Archaeological Survey of India.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Shravanabelagola is located at to the south-east of Channarayapatna in the Channarayapatna taluk of Hassan district of Karnataka. It is at a distance of south-east of Hassan, Karnataka, the district centre. It is situated at a distance of to the south from the Bengaluru-Mangaluru road (NH-75), from Hirisave, from Halebidu, from Belur, from Mysuru, from Bengaluru, the capital of Karnataka and from Mangaluru.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Sacred places are spread over two hills, Chandragiri and Vindyagiri, and also among the villages at the foothills.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: "Shravanabelagola" "White Pond of the Shravana" is named with reference to the colossal image of Gommaṭa - the prefix "Śravaṇa" serves to distinguish it from other Belagolas with the prefixes Hale- and Kodi-, while "Beḷagoḷa" "white pond" is an allusion to the pond in the middle of the town. The Sanskrit equivalents "Śvetasarovara", "Dhavalasarovara" and "Dhavalasarasa" used in the inscriptions that support this meaning. There are more than 560 inscriptions in Shravabelagola.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Some inscriptions mention the name of the place as Beḷgoḷa, which has given rise to another derivation from the plant "Solanum ferox" (hairy-fruited eggplant). This derivation is in allusion to a tradition which says that a pious old woman completely anointed the colossal image with the milk brought by her in a "gullakayi" or eggplant. The place is also designated as "Devara Beḷgoḷa" "White Pond of the God" and "Gommaṭapuram" "city of Gommaṭa" in some epigraphs.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Shravanabelagola has two hills, Chandragiri and Vindhyagiri. "Acharya" Bhadrabahu and his pupil Chandragupta Maurya are believed to have meditated there. Chandragupta Basadi, which was dedicated to Chandragupta Maurya, was originally built there by Ashoka in the third century BC. Chandragiri also has memorials to numerous monks and Śrāvakas who have meditated there since the fifth century AD, including the last king of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. Chandragiri also has a famous temple built by Chavundaraya.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: The 58-feet tall monolithic statue of Gommateshwara is located on Vindyagiri Hill. It is considered to be the world's largest monolithic statue. The base of the statue has an inscriptions in Prakrit, dating from 981 AD. The inscription praises the king who funded the effort and his general, Chavundaraya, who erected the statue for his mother. Every twelve years, thousands of devotees congregate here to perform the Mahamastakabhisheka, a spectacular ceremony in which the statue is anointed with Water, Turmeric, Rice flour, Sugar cane juice, Sandalwood paste, saffron, and gold and silver flowers. Recently Mahamastakabhisheka was held in 2018 during feb month. The next Mahamastakabhisheka will be held in 2030.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Shravanabelagola, nestled by the Vindhyagiri and Chandragiri Hills, protected by the monolith Bhagwan Bahubali, and home to over 2,300 years of Jain heritage, is a veritable picture postcard of our history and heritage spanning the centuries. In the town of Shravanabelagola, stands a colossal rock-cut statue of Lord Gommateshwara Shri Bahubali. About eight hundred odd inscriptions which the Karnataka Archeological Department has collected at the place are mostly Jaina and cover a very extended period from 600 to 1830 A.D. Some refer even to the remote time of Chandragupta Maurya and also relate the story of the first settlement of Jains at Shravanabelagola. That this village was an acknowledged seat of learning is proved from the fact that a priest from here named Akalanka was in 788 A.D. summoned to the court of Himasitala at Kanchi where having confuted the Buddhists in public disputation, he was instrumental in gaining their expulsion from the South of India to Ceylon.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: More than 800 inscriptions have been found at Shravanabelagola, dating to various times from 600 AD to 1830 AD. A large number of these are found in the Chandragiri and the rest can be seen in the Vindhyagiri Hill and the town. Most of the inscriptions at the Chandragiri date back before the 10th century. These inscriptions include texts in the Kannada. The second volume of Epigraphia Carnatica, written by B. Lewis Rice, is dedicated to the inscriptions found here. It is said to be the oldest Konkani inscription. The inscriptions are written in "Purvahalagannada" (Ancient Kannada) and "Halegannada" (Old Kannada) characters. Some of these inscriptions mention the rise and growth in power of the Western Ganga Dynasty, the Rashtrakutas, the Hoysala Empire, the Vijayanagara Empire and the Udaiyaar dynasty. These inscriptions have helped modern scholars to understand the nature and development of the Kannada language and its literature.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar is a decorated freestanding pillar ("lit", "Stambha"), tall, commissioned by Chamundaraya. The pillar dates to around 983 CE and exists on the Vindyagiri hill (called "Dodda Betta" in local Kannada language. On the base of the pillar, on the north side, is an inscription in old Kannada language of the same period.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: The Sasana Basadi, Savitagandharva Basadi, Terina Basadi and Santiswara Basadi are other important temples on the Chandragiri hill.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: The Mahamastakabhisheka (Grand Consecration/The Great Indian Festival), refers to the "abhiṣheka" (anointment) of the Jain images when held on a large scale. The most famous of such consecrations is the anointment of the Bahubali Gommateshwara Statue located at Shravanabelagola. It is an important Jain festival held once in every 12 years. It is an integral part of the ancient and composite Jain tradition. The festival is held in veneration of a high monolithic statue of the Siddha Bahubali. The anointing last took place in February 2018, and the next ceremony is going to take place in 2030. During this festival, the statue is then bathed and anointed with libations such as milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and sprinkled with powders of sandalwood, turmeric, and vermilion.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: The event has been attended by multiple political personalities including Krishna-Rajendra Udaiyaar in 1910, and Narendra Modi and Ramnath Kovind in 2018.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Shravanabelagola is the seat of the ancient Bhattaraka Matha, belonging to the Desiya Gana lineage of Mula Sangh, from the Digambara monastic tradition. Bahubali College of Engineering is an educational institute at Shravaṇabeḷagoḷa.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: The government of Karnataka showcased the statue of Lord Gometashwara at the Republic Day Parade of 2005 where it received the first prize from the then President of India Honourable Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: On August 5, 2007, the statue at Shravanabelagola was voted by the readers of "Times of India" as the first of the Seven Wonders of India with 49% votes in favor of the statue.


title: Shravanabelagola

text: Archaeological Survey of India has listed the group of monuments in Shravanabelagola as "Adarsh Smarak Monument".


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: Zara Noor Abbas, also known by her married name Zara Noor Abbas Siddiqui, is a Pakistani actress. She is best known for her role as Arsala in Momina Duraid's "Khamoshi" (2017), and has also acted in serials "Dharkan" (2016), "Lamhay" (2018), "Qaid" (2018), "Deewar-e-Shab" (2019), "Ehd-e-Wafa" (2019), "Phaans" (2021) and "Badshah Begum" (2022). She made her film debut with Wajahat Rauf's "Chhalawa" (2019) and later appeared in Asim Raza's "Parey Hut Luv" in the same year.


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: The daughter of actress Asma Abbas and niece of Bushra Ansari and Sumbul Shahid, Abbas made her acting debut in her early days. She used to appear in theatres and short plays. In 2016, she made her television debut with a role of Areen in Hum TV's "Dharkan". She gained critical acclaim for her portrayal of Arsala in 2017 series "Khamoshi" which ranks among the highest rated drama series of 2017 and established her as a leading actress in Urdu television. She has played a character of Reham in 2018 crime drama series "Qaid". In 2019, she has played an extended cameo appearance as Feroza Jahan in Hum TV's historical series "Deewar-e-Shab" and appeared as Rani in ISPR's special military series "Ehd-e-Wafa." In a short review of her earlier projects and achievements, Gulf News and BBC's journalist called her a future superstar of Pakistan.


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: Abbas was born on 13 March 1990 in Lahore, Punjab. She is the daughter of actress Asma Abbas, niece of Bushra Ansari and maternal granddaughter of Ahmad Bashir. She is from a Punjabi background.


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: A graduate from Beaconhouse National University, Abbas has studied film design, dancing, theatre and film making as an optional subject too. After participating in various plays and dance competitions, she made her television debut in the Fahim Burney's directed 2016 series "Dharkan", where she played the lead character of Areen opposite Adeel Chaudhary and Ghana Ali. The series ran for 18 episodes and aired weekly. The series received mixed reviews from critics. Shahbano Yousuf of "Daily Times" stated, "We see this drama as a great blend of our culture, its norms and value mixed with fantastical romance".


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: In 2017 she appeared in another project with the lead role of Arsala in the critically acclaimed series "Khamoshi" opposite Bilal Khan, Affan Waheed and Iqra Aziz. Upon release, "Khamoshi" has become one of the most watched drama series of 2017 and also nominated for Best Drama Serial category at annual Hum Awards. Her on-screen chemistry with Bilal Khan was praised. According to Buraq Shabbir of "The News International," the series turned out to be a game changer for her. Ahmed Sarym of "The Express Tribune" praised her saying, "Within a short span of time, she’s not only been able to mark a niche but also impress both commercially and critically alike".


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: Abbas appeared in two series in 2018. She first starred alongside Shaz Khan in Amna Nawaz Khan's directorial "Lamhay" which tells the story of star-crossed lovers who are reincarnated. It is her third consecutive appearance in Momina Duraid's production after "Dharkan" and "Khamoshi". The series did not do well in terms of ratings but her performance was praised. Her next series was "Qaid". She starred opposite Syed Jibran and played the role of a Reham, a Home teacher who faces difficulties when one of her students is attracted to her. The series received average reviews.


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: Besides television Abbas was signed to her first film, "Parey Hut Luv", directed by Asim Raza, also starring Maya Ali, Mahira Khan and Shehryar Munawar Siddiqui. The film was released in August 2019. In the same year, she was signed to Wajahat Rauf's comedy-drama "Chhalawa" opposite Mehwish Hayat and Azfar Rehman. She was paired with her husband Asad Siddiqui in the project. Both films performed well at the box-office. She will also be part of upcoming Wajahat Rauf's venture "Karachi Se Lahore 3" which will be the third installment in Karachi Lahore (film series).


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: In 2017, she married fellow actor Asad Siddiqui, the nephew of Adnan Siddiqui. According to Abbas, they first met on the sets of "Kis Ki Ayegi Baraat". The marriage ceremony was held in Karachi, Pakistan. They later worked together in the feature film "Chhalawa" and "Zebaish".


title: Zara Noor Abbas

text: Abbas frequently criticises body-shaming in the media industry. In June 2018, Abbas delivered a speech on "Power of a Single Decision" at Government College University in Lahore organized by TED Talk. She appeared for FnkAsia at Fashion Pakistan Week. In November 2019, Abbas joined hands with United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to empower refugees in Pakistan and across the world.


title: Venky Atluri

text: Atluri Venkateswara Rao, better known as Venky Atluri, is an Indian film director who works in Telugu-language films. He has directed three films.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: Swedish overseas colonies () consisted of the overseas colonies controlled by Sweden. Sweden possessed overseas colonies from 1638 to 1663, in 1733 and from 1784 to 1878. Sweden possessed five colonies, four of which were short lived. The colonies spanned three continents: Africa, Asia and North America.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: By the middle of the 17th century, the Swedish Empire had reached its greatest territorial extent. The Swedes sought to extend their influence by creating an agricultural (tobacco) and fur trading colony to bypass French, English and Dutch merchants. The charter included Swedish, Dutch and German stockholders. Once they landed they established Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware), named after Queen Christina of Sweden. Many of the settlers were Finnish, since until 1809 the area of modern Finland was the eastern third of the kingdom of Sweden.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: The settlement was actually an invasion of New Netherland since it was Dutch territory. The founder and first governor, Peter Minuit, had been Director-General of New Netherland from 1626 to 1633. Disgruntled after being dismissed from his post, he led a Swedish expedition to a location which he knew to be strategic as well as a thorn in the side of his former employers. Minuit died on a return trip from Stockholm in a hurricane near the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts. The colony would establish Fort Nya Elfsborg north of present-day Salem, New Jersey, in 1643.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: In May 1654, the Dutch Fort Casimir, located in present-day New Castle, Delaware, was captured by New Sweden. As a reprisal, the Dutch governor Peter Stuyvesant sent an army to the Delaware River, which obtained the surrender of the Swedish forts.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: Saint Barthélemy is the only Caribbean island to have been historically a Swedish colony for any significant length of time, Guadeloupe only having been one briefly, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: As a result of Sweden's support of France's enemies during the Napoleonic Wars, the island of Guadeloupe was ceded to king Charles XIV John personally, not to his Swedish state. However a year later the island was given to France by the Treaty of Paris. Sweden then forced a settlement with the British government because it had been guaranteed the island which was strategically close to its other Caribbean colony. This led to the Guadeloupe Fund which guaranteed Sweden 24 million francs. Because of how the money was used, Sweden was then given an additional 300,000 Riksdaler under the Riksdag of 1815 every year. The last installment was paid in 1983.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: In addition to these the Swedes briefly attempted to settle Tobago in 1733, but were driven away by native tribes, and Tobago was eventually claimed by the British.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: During the time of Sweden's colonisation of Africa's Gold Coast, the small Swedish slave trade began. However, after the fall of New Sweden to the Dutch, the slave trade ended. It would later be rejuvenated in 1784, when Sweden's monarch, Gustav III, began negotiations with France with a view to creating a new alliance between the two countries. Gustav offered Gothenburg as an entrepôt to the French, in exchange for the Caribbean colony of Saint Barthélemy, in addition to subsidies. Although Sweden was successful in acquiring the island in 1784, the population of the colony was less than 1000 people, and neither were particularly propitious trading ports—sugar and cotton only provided four shiploads a year, and many of the other resources were only produced in large enough quantities to provide subsistence for the inhabitants.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: However, the islands were close to the British and French trading posts of the Leeward and Windward islands. A new town was also constructed, Gustavia (named after the king), and this facilitated trade. Within a year, the population had doubled and the king saw fit to form the Swedish West India Company. The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) benefitted trade, as did the opening of free trade with Sweden in 1806; the population had continued to increase, reaching approximately 5000 by 1800. With the exception of a brief period of British occupation from 1801 to 1802, the colonies continued to grow. In 1811, 1800 ships visited Saint Barthélemy; and from October 1813 to September 1814, 20% of the U.S.'s exports passed through the island.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: The island was notable for its liberalism, particularly in regards to religious toleration. In Sweden, Lutheranism was strictly adhered to; people were obligated to attend a number of church services a year, and adherence to other religions or denominations was against the law (conversion to Catholicism, for example, often led to people being exiled). However, these two islands were inhabited by such a diverse group of people from European backgrounds, that French and English were also accepted official languages. On Saint Barthélemy, in 1787, only 21 Lutherans resided there, compared to over 500 Catholics, as well as several hundred people from different Protestant denominations. The government did not seek to suppress this: indeed, they ordered Saint Barthélemy's governor, Rosenstein, to salary a Catholic priest to come from Saint Martin twice a month.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: Sweden temporarily controlled several settlements on the Gold Coast (present Ghana) since 22 April 1650, but lost the last when on 20 April 1663 Fort Carlsborg and the capital Fort Christiansborg were seized by Denmark.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: In 1652, the Swedes took Cape Coast (in modern Ghana) which had previously been under the control of the Dutch and before that the Portuguese. Cape Coast was centered on the Carolusburg Castle which was built in 1653 and named after King Charles X Gustav of Sweden but is now known as the Cape Coast Castle.


title: Swedish overseas colonies

text: The Swedish East India Company did not establish any permanent colonies in India, but they briefly possessed a factory in Porto Novo (today Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu). The fort was destroyed a month after its construction by French and British forces.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: Durru Shehvar Durdana Begum Sahiba, Princess of Berar (born Hatice Hayriye Ayşe Dürrüşehvar Sultan; ; 16 January 1914 – 7 February 2006) was an Ottoman princess, the only daughter of the last caliph Abdulmejid II, who was the last heir apparent to the Ottoman Imperial throne and the last Caliph of the Ottoman Caliphate.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: Dürrüşehvar Sultan was born on 16 January 1914 at the Çamlıca Palace in Üsküdar, then part of Constantinople, when the Ottoman Caliphate was passing through its last phase. Her father was Caliph Abdulmejid II, son of Sultan Abdulaziz and Hayranidil Kadın. Her mother was Mehisti Hanım, daughter of Hacımaf Akalsba and Safiye Hanım. She had a half-brother, Şehzade Ömer Faruk, from her father's first marriage.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: At the exile of the imperial family in March 1924, Dürrüşehvar and her family settled in Nice, France. The British Red Crescent Society, friendly with the deposed ruler, appealed to Muslim rulers around the world to come to the aid of the impoverished Caliph. Persuaded by Maulana Shaukat Ali and his brother, Maulana Mohammad Ali, Mir Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII the last Nizam of the Hyderabad State of India decided to send a life-time monthly pension of three hundred pounds to the deposed Caliph, and allowances to several individuals in the family.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: When she came of age, she was sought by the Shah of Persia and King Fuad I of Egypt as a bride for their respective heirs, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi and Farouk, and by Prince Azam Jah (1907–1970), the eldest son and heir of Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan. In 1930, Şehzade Mehmed Abid, son of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Saliha Naciye Hanım also asked her hand in marriage. However, her father refused, on the grounds of Dürrüşehvar being under age.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: In 1931, her father arranged her marriage to Azam Jah, elder son and heir to Mir Osman Ali Khan (7th Nizam of Hyderabad Deccan). However, fifty thousand pounds in "mahr" was demanded for her, which the Nizam considered too much. Upon the intervention of Shaukat Ali, he proposed to offer, for the same "mahr", the hand of Princess Niloufer to the Nizam's younger son Moazzam Jah. The Nizam readily agreed and sent his two sons to France to be married.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: A day before the wedding, the princes arrived in Nice from London by express train, and stayed at the Hotel Negresco. On 12 November 1931, at aged seventeen, Dürrüşehvar married Azam Jah, at Villa Carabacel in Nice. The Nizam's younger son was married to Dürrüşehvar's cousin Niloufer. The marriage was performed by Damad Mehmed Şerif Pasha, husband of Abdulmejid's half-sister Emine Sultan. The local newspapers were full of photographs of the Indian princes when they arrived for the weddings, with headlines like "A Thousand and One Nights" and "A Muslim Wedding". After the wedding the princes took their brides and the entourage back to the hotel where they had stayed. After the religious ceremony, the newly weds went to the British consulate to complete their civil marriage, and validate their prenuptial agreement, according to which, in the event of divorce or death of the husband, Dürrüşehvar would receive two hundred thousand dollars in compensation.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: Following the festivities in Nice, the princesses and their husbands set sail from Venice on 12 December 1931 to her father-in-law's court in Hyderabad, India. Her mother also accompanied them. They boarded the ocean liner "Pilsna". Mahatma Gandhi had boarded the ship after attending the Second Round Table Conference in London in 1931, and was travelling back to India. It is reported that he met with the princesses. On the way, they were taught how to wear sarees, and the expected etiquette in the presence of the Nizam. After their landing in Bombay, they boarded the private train of the Nizam. After they reached Hyderabad, a banquet was held at the Chowmahalla Palace on 4 January 1932. They then settled down in their respective homes. Dürrüşehvar and Azam Jah settled down in Bella Vista, Hyderabad.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: She received the title of Durdana Begum from the Nizam, held the title of Her Highness The Princess of Berar. She was taller than Azam Jah, and the Nizam thought that was a great joke. He regularly used to point out the difference in their height at parties. On 6 October 1933, she gave birth to her elder son, Nawab Mir Barkat Ali Khan Mukarram Jah Bahadur, Asaf Jah, the future Nizam of Hyderabad. He was followed by Nawab Mir Karamat Ali Khan, Muffakham Jah Bahadur, born on 27 February 1939. She knew of her husband's numerous concubines but carried herself regally. However, the differences between the two of them eventually led to their marriage falling apart within two years, and after the divorce, Dürrüşehvar stayed in Hyderabad for some years, then moved to London.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: A highly respected and well-educated lady, the princess was fluent in French, Turkish, English and also Urdu. She was also a painter and a poet. She established a junior college for girls in her name in Yakutpura, Bagh-e-jahan Ara, Hyderabad, and the Osmania General Hospital. On 4 November 1936, she laid the foundation stone of Hyderabad's Begumpet airport's first terminal, and was presented with a silver casket. She also inaugurated the famous Ajmal Khan Tibbiya College Hospital at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh in 1939.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: Together with her cousin Niloufer, Dürrüşehvar advocated girls' education and women's rights. They were given free rein, as the Nizam adored both his daughters-in-law, whom he often introduced as the "jewels of his palace". He also encouraged both of them to take part in sports, such as tennis and horse-riding. He sent them on tours of Europe so they could broaden their mind and also pick up works of art for his museums." Both cousins are remembered as great beauties, socialites, style icons, and philanthropists. In the company of her friend Rani Kumudini Devi, she rode horses, drove cars and played tennis. With her beauty and charm, etiquette and dress sense, she transformed Hyderabad’s social circuit.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: On 6 May 1935, she and her husband attended the twenty-fifth commemorating ceremony of King George V's reign. On 12 May 1937, they attended the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, where she was photographed by British photographer Cecil Beaton. On 23 June 1937, she accompanied her husband during the visit to lay the foundation stone of a new mosque in Kensington and was at Ranelagh to see Bhopal win the Ranelagh Open Polo Cup. Beaton photographed her in her palace in India in 1944, and then in 1965 in France. Philip Mason, of the Indian Civil Service, described her as "a commanding figure, handsome of feature, with a clear fair complexion and auburn hair… No one could ignore her or slight her. She was always essentially and indefinably royal, and it seems to me that if fate had so willed she might have been one of the great queens of the world."


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: She ensured her sons, Prince Mukarram Jah and Prince Muffakam Jah, received the best possible western education in Europe and married Turkish brides, as she desired. Mukarram studied in Eton. Years later, he was declared heir to Hyderabad throne, at the suggestion of his grandfather, and served as honorary aide-de-camp to Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Each time she returned to Hyderabad for a visit, she attracted big crowds.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: In 1954, she called Niloufer requesting help for the burial of her father. She had made several efforts to have her father's body buried in Istanbul, but could not obtain the permission of the Turkish government. He had wanted to be buried in either Turkey or Hyderabad. Niloufer called one of her friends, Malik Ghulam Muhammad, a former official in the Nizam's Government, and who was at that time the Governor-General of Pakistan. He called Saud bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, the then King of Saudi Arabia to relay the request. The King agreed to grant the request, and he was finally buried in Saudi Arabia in the Al-Baqi'.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: In 1983, she sponsored the Durru Shehvar Children's & General Hospital in Hyderabad under the patronage of her son Mukarram Jah. In 1990, she, her son Mufakkham Jah and his wife Princess Rain attended the Durban Dinner, along with the Indian and Pakistani High Commissioners in London to commemorate the 400th year of the foundation of Hyderabad.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: She visited Hyderabad lastly in 2004, and died on 7 February 2006 in London. Her two sons were by her side at the time of her death. She was buried in Brookwood Cemetery. She was upset about Turkish Government's attitude against her family members after declaration of the republic. Despite being a member of Ottoman imperial and royal family, she refused to be buried in Turkey, since she was upset that the Turkish Government refused her father's burial in Istanbul in 1944.


title: Dürrüşehvar Sultan

text: She is remembered for teaching the 'power of silence', and establishing several maternity units, schools, colleges, dispensaries and the hospital in Hyderabad.


title: Evil demon

text: The evil demon, also known as Descartes' demon, malicious demon and evil genius, is an epistemological concept that features prominently in Cartesian philosophy. In the first of his 1641 "Meditations on First Philosophy", Descartes imagines that an evil demon, of "utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies in order to deceive me." This evil demon is imagined to present a complete illusion of an external world, so that Descartes can say, "I shall think that the sky, the air, the earth, colours, shapes, sounds and all external things are merely the delusions of dreams which he has devised to ensnare my judgement. I shall consider myself as not having hands or eyes, or flesh, or blood or senses, but as falsely believing that I have all these things."


title: Evil demon

text: Some Cartesian scholars opine that the demon is also omnipotent, and thus capable of altering mathematics and the fundamentals of logic, though omnipotence of the evil demon would be contrary to Descartes' hypothesis, as he rebuked accusations of the evil demon having omnipotence.


title: Evil demon

text: Prior to the Meditations proper, Descartes gives a synopsis of each Meditation and says of Meditation One that "reasons are provided which give us possible grounds for doubt about all things, especially material things" and that whilst the usefulness of such extensive doubt may not be immediately apparent, "its greatest benefit lies in


title: Evil demon

text: Descartes offers some standard reasons for doubting the reliability of the senses culminating in the dream argument and then extends this with the deceiving God argument. Descartes refers to "the long-standing opinion that there is an omnipotent God who made me the kind of creature that I am" and suggests that this God may have "brought it about that there is no earth, no sky, no extended thing, no shape, no size, no place, while at the same time ensuring that all these things appear to me to exist just as they do now". Furthermore, this God may have "brought it about that I too go wrong every time I add two and three or count the sides of a square, or in some even simpler matter, if that is imaginable".


title: Evil demon

text: After the deceiving God argument Descartes concludes that he is "compelled to admit that there is not one of my former beliefs about which a doubt may not properly be raised".


title: Evil demon

text: Although Descartes has provided arguments for doubting all his former beliefs he notes that "my habitual opinions keep coming back". It is to deal with this problem that Descartes decides he must do more than just acknowledge that the beliefs are open to doubt and must deceive himself, "by pretending for a time that these former opinions are utterly false and imaginary" and that he shall do this "until the weight of preconceived opinion is counter-balanced and the distorting influence of habit no longer prevents my judgement from perceiving things correctly".


title: Evil demon

text: It is to achieve this state of denial that Descartes says he will suppose that "some malicious demon of the utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies in order to deceive me".


title: Evil demon

text: The evil demon is also mentioned at the beginning of Meditation Two. Descartes says that if there is "a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who is deliberately and constantly deceiving me" then he himself must undoubtedly exist for the deceiver can "never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think that I am something". A little later he says, "But what shall I now say that I am, when I am supposing that there is some supremely powerful and, if it is permissible to say so, malicious deceiver, who is deliberately trying to trick me in every way he can?"


title: Evil demon

text: Some writers, e.g. Williams and Musgrave, make no distinction between the deceiving God and evil demon arguments and regard anything said about the deceiving God as being equivalent to saying something about the evil demon.


title: Evil demon

text: Other writers acknowledge that Descartes makes mention of both but then claim they are 'epistemologically equivalent'. Kenny says, "the two hypotheses do not differ in any respect of epistemological importance... The content of the two hypotheses is the same..." Newman says, "Descartes' official position is that the Evil Genius Doubt is merely one among multiple hypotheses that can motivate the more general hyperbolic doubt... Even so, I regularly speak in terms of the evil genius... as a kind of mnemonic for the more general doubt about our cognitive nature."


title: Evil demon

text: If they are epistemologically equivalent then the question arises as to why Descartes temporarily shifted from the deceiving God to the evil demon. It is tempting to think it is because there is a relevant theological difference. In Meditation Three Descartes is going to establish not only that there is a God but that God is not a deceiver. When Descartes first introduces the evil demon he says, "I will suppose therefore that not God, who is supremely good and the source of truth, but rather some malicious demon, had employed his whole energies in deceiving me." Kenny says, "The hypothesis of the evil genius is substituted for that of the deceitful God simply because it is less offensive and less patently incoherent." However, at least in Meditation One, Descartes doesn't have a problem in postulating a deceiving God and he rejects the objection that such deception is inconsistent with God's supreme goodness. He says, "if it were inconsistent with his goodness to have created me such that I am deceived all the time, it would seem equally foreign to his goodness to allow me to be deceived even occasionally; yet this last assertion cannot be made." This is consistent with what he writes in the "Principles" where he says, "we have been told that God who created us can do all that he desires, and we do not yet know whether he may not have willed to create us in such a way that we shall always be deceived even in the things that we think ourselves to know best."


title: Evil demon

text: Other writers insist that it is important to maintain the distinction between the deceiving God and the evil demon. Gouhier (quoted by Kenny) argues that the deceiving God is an intellectual scruple that will disappear when metaphysics demonstrates its falsity whilst the evil demon is a methodological procedure designed to make a certain experiment and it ceases with that experiment. He says, "Neither the purpose nor the content of the two hypotheses allow us to regard the one as a variant of the other."


title: Evil demon

text: Vendler argues that literary form of the Meditations is heavily influenced by St. Ignatius of Loyola's Spiritual Exercises to which Descartes will have been exposed during his training at the Jesuit college of La Fleche. As such, "The demon in the First Meditation is not evoked to serve as an epistomological menace, but as a psychological device: following Loyola's advice "age contra!" (go against!), it provides a counterweight to our inordinate inclination to trust the senses." He adds, "the 'demon-argument' is not an argument at all. Descartes does not need another argument at this stage: the dream argument has already shown the unreliability of the senses and the deceiver-God argument the uncertainty of mathematics. For one thing, the demon does not even touch mathematics or geometry. Why should he? He is evoked by Descartes to cure his inordinate attachment to the senses; he does not complain (and would not) of a similar attachment to mathematics or geometry." Hatfield takes a similar line saying, "Descartes adopts a common practice from the spiritual exercises upon which his metaphysical meditations are modelled, devising a program for training the will to keep the old beliefs at bay" adding, "It seems likely that he chose to call his hypothetical deceiver a "malicious demon" in order to avoid having the meditator concentrate extensively on the thought that God could be a deceiver, a proposition he considered false and one he intended to refute later."


title: Evil demon

text: Among the accusations of blasphemy made against Descartes by Protestants was that he was positing an omnipotent malevolent God. Voetius accused Descartes of blasphemy in 1643. Jacques Triglandius and Jacobus Revius, theologians at Leiden University, made similar accusations in 1647, accusing Descartes of "hold[ing] God to be a deceiver", a position that they stated to be "contrary to the glory of God". Descartes was threatened with having his views condemned by a synod, but this was prevented by the intercession of the Prince of Orange (at the request of the French Ambassador Servien).


title: Evil demon

text: The accusations referenced a passage in the "First Meditation" where Descartes stated that he supposed not an optimal God but rather an evil demon "summe potens & callidus" (translated as "most highly powerful and cunning"). The accusers identified Descartes' concept of a "deus deceptor" with his concept of an evil demon, stating that only an omnipotent God is "summe potens" and that describing the evil demon as such thus demonstrated the identity. Descartes' response to the accusations was that in that passage he had been expressly distinguishing between "the supremely good God, the source of truth, on the one hand, and the malicious demon on the other". He did not directly rebut the charge of implying that the evil demon was omnipotent, but asserted that simply describing something with "some attribute that in reality belongs only to God" does not mean that that something is being held to actually "be" a supreme God.


title: Evil demon

text: According to Janowski, "The alleged distinction between the respective powers of God and the evil genius that escaped the attention of the two theologians also escaped the attention of a host of distinguished Cartesian scholars (Alquié, Beck, Brehier, Chevalier, Frankfurt, Gilson, Kenny, Laporte, Kemp-Smith, Wilson), who, only seldom interested in interpreting Descartes' philosophy through the prism of doctrinal orthodoxy, also insist on the omnipotence of the evil genius." He further claims that the reason for this is that there is progression through the "First Meditation", leading to the introduction of the concept of the evil genius "which crowns the process begun at the outset of the Meditations."


title: Evil demon

text: However, it is not quite so straightforward. For example, Wilson notes that "Gouhier has shown, the hypothesis of the malign spirit takes over from that of the Deceiving God from the end of the First Meditation to the beginning of the Third—where the latter figure is resubstituted without comment or explanation. As Gouhier has also noted, the summary of 'doubts' in the concluding passage ... does not include mention of mathematical propositions—which are not again brought into discussion until the Third Meditation." She adds in the accompanying footnote that, even if one has to concede that the text doesn't reveal any sharp distinction between the power hypothetically ascribed to the 'malignant spirit' and that genuinely attributable to God, "Gouhier's observation is essentially accurate, and useful in understanding the rhetoric and organization of the first three Meditations. It may also have some deeper significance, because of the association ... of the possibility of deception in mathematics with the doctrine of the creation of the eternal truths."


title: Evil demon

text: Similarly, Kenny who does say that the evil genius is substituted for that of the deceitful God "simply because it is less offensive and less patently incoherent", for "The content of the two hypotheses is the same, namely that an omnipotent deceiver is trying to deceive", goes on to note that, "If the two hypotheses differ at all, it is the first that is more skeptical than the second. God ... may have made him go wrong in mathematics ... the evil genius merely reinforces the doubt that the external world may be a dream." When Kenny says that the evil genius is simply a substitute for the deceitful God, he is not trying to establish that, therefore, the evil genius was omnipotent, instead he is challenging the view that the evil genius somehow progressed on from God and is rejecting the view that "the evil genius is to serve a more radically skeptical purpose than the hypothesis of the deceitful God."


title: Evil demon

text: According to Janowski, the fact that the demon is not said to challenge mathematics, implies either that the evil demon is not omnipotent or that Descartes retracted Universal Doubt. Janowski notes that in the "Principles of Philosophy" (I, 15) Descartes states that Universal Doubt applies even to "the demonstration of mathematics", and so concludes that either Descartes' "Meditation" is flawed, lacking a reason for doubting mathematics, or that the charges of blasphemy were well placed, and Descartes "was" supposing an omnipotent evil demon.


title: Evil demon

text: However, this is only a problem if one assumes that Descartes was withdrawing the notion of a deceitful God and replacing it with the evil demon. More recent commentators take the argument to have reached its conclusion with the deceitful God. When Descartes says, "I will suppose therefore that not God, who is supremely good and the source of truth, but rather some malicious demon..." he is not rejecting the notion of a deceitful God on the grounds that God is not a deceiver for this is something he is not entitled to rely on, because, as he says at the beginning of Meditation three, he doesn't "yet even know for sure whether there is a God at all". Instead, he is introducing an aid to the meditator who finds that, despite the arguments presented, "habitual opinions keep coming back". Kenny says, "The purpose of taking seriously the hypothesis of the evil genius is to counterbalance natural credulity and keep in mind the doubts raised by the supposition of the deceitful God." When the role of the demon is understood this way the issue of the demon's omnipotence becomes unimportant.


title: Evil demon

text: In 1968, James Cornman and Keith Lehrer suggested something they called the braino machine that "operates by influencing the brain of a subject who wears a special cap, called a "braino cap." When the braino cap is placed on a subject's head, the operator of the braino can affect his brain so as to produce any hallucination in the subject that the operator wishes. The braino is a hallucination-producing machine. The hallucinations produced by it may be as complete, systematic, and coherent as the operator of the braino desires to make them." The braino argument was intended to show that, even if it is sometimes possible to tell when we are hallucinating, it is not possible to know that we are not hallucinating. If the braino is operated by an evil being, whom Cornman and Lehrer call Dr. O, then it would be possible for Dr. O to create in me experiences that are identical to the ones I am having now. If that were the case, then the experiences thus created would not constitute knowledge, for the source of those experiences would be the machine and not the world. However, since they are indistinguishable from my current experiences, it follows that my current experiences are also insufficient to generate knowledge.


title: Evil demon

text: In 1973, in the introduction to his book "Thought", Gilbert Harman said, "it might be suggested that you have not the slightest reason to believe that you are in the surroundings you suppose you are in ... various hypotheses could explain how things look and feel. You might be sound asleep and dreaming or a playful brain surgeon might be giving you these experiences by stimulating your cortex in a special way. You might really be stretched out on a table in his laboratory with wires running into your head from a large computer. Perhaps you have always been on that table. Perhaps you are quite a different person from what you seem..."


title: Evil demon

text: Such scenarios had been used many times in science fiction but in philosophy it is now routine to refer to being like a 'brain in a vat' after Hilary Putnam produced an argument which, ironically, purported to show that "the supposition that we are actually brains in a vat, although it violates no physical law, and is perfectly consistent with everything we have experienced, cannot possibly be true. "It cannot possibly be true", because it is, in a certain way, self-refuting."


title: Evil demon

text: Putnam's argument notwithstanding, the brain in a vat scenario is usually presented as a sceptical argument and in many ways equivalent to Descartes' deceiving God and evil demon.


title: Evil demon

text: One crucial difference that prevents such scenarios being a direct substitute for the deceiving God and evil demon is that they generally presuppose that we have heads or bodies whereas it is important for Descartes to argue that he can doubt the existence of his body and that he can only be sure he is a 'thinking thing'. Harman's version of the story does, however, add the final thought that having a brain "might be just part of the myth you are being given".


title: Nashorn

text: Nashorn (, German for "rhinoceros"), initially known as Hornisse (German "hornet"), was a German "Panzerjäger" ("tank hunter") of World War II. It was developed as an interim solution in 1942 by equipping a light turretless chassis based on the Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks with the 88mm Pak 43 anti-tank gun. Though only lightly armoured and displaying a high profile, it could penetrate the front armour of any Allied tank at long range, and its relatively low cost and superior mobility to heavier vehicles ensured it remained in production until the war's end.


title: Nashorn

text: After the first German experiences with the newer Soviet tanks like the T-34 medium tank or the Kliment Voroshilov heavy tank during Operation Barbarossa, the need for a "Panzerjäger" capable of destroying these more heavily armoured tanks became clear.


title: Nashorn

text: In February 1942, the Alkett ("Altmärkische Kettenwerke GmbH") arms firm of Berlin designed a tank destroyer using their recently developed "Geschützwagen III/IV" chassis which, as its name indicated, used components of both the Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks. The 8,8 "cm Panzerjägerkanone" 43/1 L/71 (PaK 43/1) a long-barreled anti-tank gun ( also used, as the KwK 43, for the main armament of the Tiger II tank) was mounted on the rear of the chassis complete with its gun shield, and an open-topped superstructure was built up around the gun to give the crew some protection. The gun had the same traverse and elevation as if it had been on its carriage: 15° to either side and between -5° to +15° elevation. To accommodate the long and heavy gun, the hull had to be lengthened and the engine moved from the rear to the centre of the chassis. The amount of armour provided for the crew compartment was limited. The shielding provided was adequate to protect the crew from blast and small arms, but not armour-piercing rounds. Thus, like the Marder series, the vehicle was not intended to engage in tank fights, but to provide mobility to a powerful anti-tank gun.


title: Nashorn

text: This model was presented for approval to Adolf Hitler in October 1942 and entered production in early 1943. It had numerous official designations, such as "8,8 cm Pak 43 (L/71) auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen III/IV (Sf)" or "8,8cm Pak43 (L/71) auf Geschützwagen III/IV" (Sd. Kfz. 164), though it was also known as the "Panzerjäger Hornisse" (in English "tank-hunter Hornet")


title: Nashorn

text: During the first half of 1943, a new model of the "Hornisse" was introduced into production. This model altered the driver's front armour plate, along with other minor differences. This model and its predecessor, the few early production vehicles, were almost indistinguishable. It was renamed "Nashorn" by Hitler in 1944.


title: Nashorn

text: Total production of the "Nashorn" amounted to some 494 vehicles, most of which were built in 1943. In January 1944, Hitler favored production of a newer, fully-casemated tank destroyer, the "Jagdpanzer IV", which had a much lower silhouette, thicker frontal armor (60 mm frontal plate), and an effective though less powerful 7.5 cm gun. Though still primarily an ambush weapon, this vehicle was better built for armoured engagements. Production of the "Nashorn" continued into 1945, although at a slow pace.


title: Nashorn

text: The Hornisse/Nashorn was issued to the heavy anti-tank battalions ("Schwere Panzerjäger-Abteilungen"), with which six would eventually be equipped: "Schwere Panzerjäger Abteilung" 560, 655, 525, 93, 519 and 88. Each battalion was equipped with 45 Nashorns. Most of the Nashorns in these units fought either on the Eastern Front or in Italy, few having been sent to Western Europe.


title: Nashorn

text: The Nashorn's gun was a variant of the Pak 43, closely related to guns used later for the Ferdinand/Elefant, Tiger II and Jagdpanther. Its tungsten carbide–cored round, the "Pzgr. 40/43", was capable of penetrating 190 mm of rolled steel armour at a 30° angle of impact at a distance of 1,000 m. The gun's performance enabled Nashorns to penetrate the front armour plating of any Allied combat vehicle and to engage enemy units while staying out of range themselves, thanks to its combination of excellent gunsights, optics, and accuracy.


title: Nashorn

text: The Hornisse/Nashorn made its debut during the Battle of Kursk in 1943, where it performed extremely well. The ability to engage the enemy at long distances negated the disadvantages of its light armour, lack of a roof and a large profile, and revealed that the weapon was well suited to the open and flat steppes that make up much of the landscape of what was then the western Soviet Union. In Italy, however, the generally hilly terrain was not as favourable to the harnessing of the Nashorn's full ability at accurate long-range fire against enemy forces as in Russia.


title: Nashorn

text: On 6 March 1945, a US Army M26 Pershing heavy tank was knocked out by a Nashorn in the town of Niehl near Cologne, at a close range of under 300 yd (270 m)".


title: Nashorn

text: There are two Nashorns on display in military museums: one in the United States Army Ordnance Museum (permanently closed and the vehicle transferred out to Fort Lee) and at the new Patriot Park military museum in Moscow, Russia (it was formerly on display in Kubinka Tank Museum).


title: Nashorn

text: A third privately owned Nashorn is being restored to running condition in the Netherlands. In 2019, this third surviving vehicle suffered severe damage after being caught in an accidental garage fire, with both the transmission system and engine getting the worst of it. The restoration has made this Nashorn operational again.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Armaan Kohli (born 23 March 1972) is an Indian actor. He is the son of film director Rajkumar Kohli and actress Nishi.He is most known for his role in .


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Kohli was born to film director Rajkumar Kohli and actress Nishi. He studied at Our Lady of Perpetual Succour High School in Chembur until he dropped out in Class IX. Kohli appeared as a child artist in two films directed by his father: "Badle Ki Aag" (1982) and "Raaj Tilak" (1984).


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Armaan made his debut as a leading actor in his father's 1992 film "Virodhi". He was set to star in "Deewana" opposite the late actress Divya Bharti, but walked out of the film after completing the first shooting schedule and later Shah Rukh Khan was penciled in as his replacement, and "Deewana" became a blockbuster. Kohli was also considered for the lead role for "Baazigar", but that role too eventually went to Shah Rukh Khan. Similarly, he opted out of "Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge" and his role was eventually played by Parmeet Sethi.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Kohli starred in several other films in the 1990s including "Dushman Zamana" (1992), "Anaam" (1993) and "Aulad Ke Dushman" which failed at the box office. His father tried to revive his career with the 1997 film "Qahar" (1997) where he co-starred with Sunny Deol and Sunil Shetty, which was a commercial failure.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: After a five-year hiatus, he returned with the multi-starrer "" which also failed to do well. In this film he was reintroduced with a new name 'Munish Kohli', and carried on with this name in subsequent films.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: In September 2013, he joined the reality television series "Bigg Boss 7" as a contestant. On 16 December 2013, Kohli was arrested for alleged physical abuse with his co-participant, Sofia Hayat during the show. He was released on bail next day.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Kohli made another comeback to Bollywood after 12 years, playing a negative role in the Rajshri Productions Salman Khan starrer "Prem Ratan Dhan Payo" which released on 12 November 2015.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Armaan Kohli was arrested in June 2018 by Mumbai Police after his girlfriend Neetu Randhawa had lodged a complaint against him citing physical assault. However, she later withdrew her complaint.


title: Armaan Kohli

text: Kohli was later arrested in August 2021 By Narcotic Control Bureau over the possession of 1.2 grams of cocaine. He was granted bail in September 2022 after being lodged in jail for a year.


title: StarKid Productions

text: StarKid Productions, also known as Team StarKid, is an American musical theatre company founded in 2009 at the University of Michigan by Darren Criss, Brian Holden, Matt Lang, and Nick Lang. Originally known for the viral success of their first musical, "A Very Potter Musical", a parody of the "Harry Potter" series, the troupe primarily produces musical comedies inspired by pop culture, with original scripts, songs, and music. StarKid distributes their musicals for free on YouTube, with recent projects being funded by Kickstarter and physical ticket sales.


title: StarKid Productions

text: Since the success of "A Very Potter Musical", the group has produced thirteen stage musicals (including two Potter sequels), three national tours, two reunion concert specials, three sketch comedy shows, and three web series.


title: StarKid Productions

text: As of 2020, the company has charted 12 albums on the Billboard charts. The cast recording of "Me and My Dick" debuted at number 11 on the US Cast Albums chart in 2010, becoming the first student-produced musical recording to chart on "Billboard". The following year they landed at number one on the same chart with the cast recording of "Starship", a feat that has since been repeated with their 2019 musical "Black Friday".


title: StarKid Productions

text: StarKid Productions is composed of actors, writers, directors, composers, choreographers, and designers, most of them originating from the University of Michigan's School of Music, Theater and Dance. The members met while collaborating on plays through Basement Arts, the university's student-run theater organization.


title: StarKid Productions

text: In April 2009, the students staged a musical parody of the "Harry Potter" series entitled "A Very Potter Musical". The video of the play went viral on the Internet, garnering StarKid a worldwide fanbase. Inspired by the viral nature of the video, StarKid Productions was formed, named after a quote from "A Very Potter Musical". Later, two sequels were performed and released on YouTube, "A Very Potter Sequel" in 2010 and "A Very Potter Senior Year" in 2012.


title: StarKid Productions

text: The Team StarKid YouTube channel was established on June 19, 2009. The channel currently has over 750,000 subscribers and over 310,000,000 combined views. Aside from the viral "Harry Potter" adaptions, Team StarKid have produced a number of other musical theatre parody shows, creating both original stories and pop culture-based parodies of Disney, DC Comics, Star Wars", "and The Oregon Trail".


title: StarKid Productions

text: Team Starkid has had two major moves since its founding in 2009. The first was to Chicago after the founders graduated from The University of Michigan. Several shows were performed in Chicago before most of the company's members moved once again, this time to Los Angeles.


title: StarKid Productions

text: Team StarKid produced a sequel to their 2011 musical "Starship" called "Starship: Requiem" that was performed on August 2, 2014 at LeakyCon in Orlando, FL. However, it was a one-time "theatrical reading" and, as such, Team StarKid does not include it in their musical canon. The story followed the adventures of the android Mega-Girl and her half-witted Starship Ranger husband, Tootsie Noodles, as the newlyweds go to visit Mega-Girl's human-hating family.


title: StarKid Productions

text: In 2007, members including Matt Lang, Nick Lang, Eric Kahn Gale, Brian Holden, Darren Criss, Lauren Lopez, Elona Finlay, Chris Allen, Meredith Stepien, and Jim Povolo produced an online video series called "Little White Lie". It was released in 2009 on StarKid's YouTube channel. Despite the series ending in a cliffhanger, StarKid members have confirmed at various events that there will be no season 2, as it was an expensive production and the actors who took part in it are scattered all over the country. However, Eric Kahn Gale, one of the writers for the show, stated that he would write and publish a synopsis of season 2, which was released on September 3, 2013 on his Tumblr page.


title: StarKid Productions

text: In October 2017, StarKid debuted its second web series on YouTube, "Movies, Musicals, and Me". The series takes place in an alternate world where every popular movie ever has been adapted into a Broadway musical. The best of these musicals all star the same man, Halpert Evans, a vain and pompous, though brilliant, actor. The series is structured as a mocumentary of Evans, chronicling the most significant musical roles of his career, along with commentary from various colleagues in Halpert's line of work. The series introduces StarKid newcomers Esther Fallick as Halpert Evans and Mary Kate Wiles as Judy Davendale. Joey Richter, Nick Lang, Brian Holden, Dylan Saunders, Lauren Lopez, Jaime Lyn Beatty, Corey Dorris, and Clark Baxtresser also star.


title: StarKid Productions

text: On October 1, 2020, StarKid announced a new three-episode horror anthology series set in the world of "The Guy Who Didn't Like Musicals" and "Black Friday". It featured six stories read by the cast of the shows. Performances took place virtually on October 10, 17, and 24, 2020. In August 2021 a second season was announced. A cast recording was released on February 8, 2021.


title: StarKid Productions

text: The next year, StarKid later livestreamed "Nightmare Time 2", the second season of the series. Four performances took place virtually on October 23 & 30 and November 6 & 13, 2021. The entire cast from the first season returned with the exceptions of Robert Manion & Kendall Nicole Yakshe. The series was also the StarKid debut of Bryce Charles and Jae Hughes. The episodes were released weekly on StarKid's YouTube channel between May 20, 2022 and June 10, 2022.


title: Single-family detached home

text: A stand-alone house (also called a single-detached dwelling, detached residence or detached house) is a free-standing residential building. It is sometimes referred to as a single-family home, as opposed to a multi-family residential dwelling.


title: Single-family detached home

text: The definition of this type of house may vary between legal jurisdictions or statistical agencies. The definition, however, generally includes two elements:


title: Single-family detached home

text: Most single-family homes are built on lots larger than the structure itself, adding an area surrounding the house, which is commonly called a "yard" in North American English or a "garden" in British English. Garages can also be found on most lots. Houses with an attached front entry garage that is closer to the street than any other part of the house is often derisively called a snout house.


title: Single-family detached home

text: Terms corresponding to a single-family detached home in common use are "single-family home" (in the US and Canada), "single-detached dwelling" (in Canada), "detached house" (in the United Kingdom and Canada), and "separate house" (in New Zealand).


title: Single-family detached home

text: In the United Kingdom, the term "single-family home" is almost unknown, except through Internet exposure to US media. Whereas in the US, housing is commonly divided into "single-family homes", "multi-family dwellings", "condo/townhouse", etc., the primary division of residential property in British terminology is between "houses" (including "detached", "semi-detached", and "terraced" houses and bungalows) and "flats" (i.e., "apartments" or "condominiums" in American English).


title: Single-family detached home

text: In pre-industrial societies, most people lived in multi-family dwellings for most of their lives. A child lived with their parents from birth until marriage, and then generally moved in with the parents of the man (patrilocal) or the woman (matrilocal), so that the grandparents could help raise the young children and so the middle generation could care for their aging parents. This type of arrangement also saved some of the effort and materials used for construction and, in colder climates, heating. If people had to move to a new place or were wealthy enough, they could build or buy a home for their own family, but this was not the norm.


title: Single-family detached home

text: The idea of a nuclear family living separately from their relatives as the norm is a relatively recent development related to rising living standards in North America and Europe during the early modern and modern eras. In the New World, where land was plentiful, settlement patterns were quite different from the close-knit villages of Europe, meaning many more people lived in large farms separated from their neighbors. This has produced a cultural preference in settler societies for privacy and space. A countervailing trend has been industrialization and urbanization, which has seen more and more people around the world move into multi-story apartment blocks. In the New World, this type of densification was halted and reversed following the Second World War when increased automobile ownership and cheaper building and heating costs produced suburbanization instead.


title: Single-family detached home

text: Single-family homes are now common in rural and suburban and even some urban areas across the New World and Europe, as well as wealthier enclaves within the Third World. They are most common in low-density, high-income regions. For example, in Canada, according to the 2006 census, 55.3% of the population lived in single-detached houses, but this varied substantially by region. In the city of Montreal, Quebec, Canada's second-most populous municipality, only 7.5% of the population lived in single-detached homes, while in the city of Calgary, the third-most populous, 57.8% did. Note that this includes the "city limits" populations only, not the wider region. Culturally, single-family houses are associated with suburbanization in many parts of the world. Owning a home with a yard and a "white picket fence" is seen as a key component of the "American dream" (which also exists with variations in other parts of the world).


title: Single-family detached home

text: In the 21st century, a lack of affordable housing, the climate change impacts of urban sprawl and car dependency, and concerns about racial inequality has increasingly led cities to abandon single-family housing in favor of higher-density homes.


title: Spectral color

text: A spectral color is a color that is evoked by "monochromatic light", i.e. either a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths (e.g. lasers). Every wavelength of visible light is perceived as a spectral color; when viewed as a continuous spectrum, these colors are seen as the familiar rainbow.


title: Spectral color

text: All colors that do not qualify as a spectral color are called "non-spectral colors" or "extra-spectral colors". Extra-spectral colors cannot be evoked with a single wavelength of light, but rather by a combination of wavelengths. Likewise, light comprising several wavelengths cannot evoke a spectral color.


title: Spectral color

text: In color spaces which include all, or most spectral colors, they form a part of boundary of the set of all real colors. When considering a three-dimensional color space (which including luminance), the spectral colors form a surface. When excluding luminance and considering a two-dimensional color space (chromaticity diagram), the spectral colors form a curve known as the spectral locus. For example, the spectral locus of the CIEXYZ chromaticity diagram contains all the spectral colors (to the eye of the standard observer).


title: Spectral color

text: A trichromatic color space is defined by three primary colors, which can theoretically be spectral colors. In this case, all other colors are inherently non-spectral. In reality, the spectral bandwidth of most primaries means that most color spaces are entirely non-spectral. Due to different chromaticity properties of different spectral segments, and also due to practical limitations of light sources, the actual distance between RGB pure color wheel colors and spectral colors shows a complicated dependence on the hue. Due to the location of R and G primaries near the ‘almost flat’ spectral segment, RGB color space is reasonably good with approximating spectral orange, yellow, and bright (yellowish) green, but is especially poor in reproducing the visual appearance of spectral colors in the vicinity of central green, and between green and blue, as well as extreme spectral colors approaching IR or UV.


title: Spectral color

text: Note that spectral color is universally included in scientific color models such as CIE 1931, but industrial and consumer color spaces such as sRGB, CMYK, and Pantone, do not typically include any spectral colors. Exceptions include Rec. 2020, which uses three spectral colors as primaries (and therefore only includes precisely those three spectral colors), and color spaces such as the ProPhoto RGB color space which use imaginary colors as primaries.


title: Spectral color

text: In color models capable of representing spectral colors, such as CIELUV, a spectral color has the maximal saturation. In Helmholtz coordinates, this is described as 100% purity.


title: Spectral color

text: In dichromatic color vision there is no distinction between spectral and non-spectral colors. Their entire gamut can be represented by spectral colors.


title: Spectral color

text: The spectrum is often divided into "color terms" or names, but aligning boundaries between color terms to a specific wavelength is very subjective.


title: Spectral color

text: The first person to decompose white light and name the spectral colors was Isaac Newton. Early in the study of radiometry, Newton was not able to measure the wavelength of the light, but his experiments were repeated contemporarily to estimate wavelengths where his color term boundaries probably lay. Newton's color terms included red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; this color sequence is still used to describe spectral colors colloquially and a mnemonic for it is commonly known as "Roy G. Biv".


title: Spectral color

text: In modern divisions of the spectrum, indigo is often omitted and a blue-green color is sometimes included. Some have argued that Newton's indigo would be equivalent to our modern blue, and his blue equivalent to our blue-green. However, his nonintuitive choices can be better explained. In the table below, note how wavelength is not proportional to hue (which is approximately perceptually uniform). Color systems such as ISCC-NBS attempt to divide the spectrum into sections that appear perceptually uniform. On the other hand, Newton's sections are approximately uniform in size as they would have physically appeared in the diffracted spectrum, i.e. each about 40nm "wide". In this theory, the sections were divided without influence of his own perception, and each section was then given a name that best suited its "average" color. In contrast, the sections in the ISCC-NBS spectrum vary greatly in wavelength range, but are more consistent in the hue degree range. Both instances deviate from the basic color terms used in english, only some of which are spectral colors.


title: Spectral color

text: The table below includes several definitions where the spectral colors have been categorized in color terms. The hue that a given monochromatic light evokes is approximated at the right side of the table.


title: Kaminey

text: Kaminey () is a 2009 Indian Hindi-language action film written and directed by Vishal Bhardwaj and produced by Ronnie Screwvala under UTV Motion Pictures, featuring Shahid Kapoor, Priyanka Chopra and Amole Gupte in the lead roles. Set against the backdrop of the Mumbai underworld, "Kaminey" follows a rivalry between a pair of twins, one with a lisp and the other with a stutter, over the course of a single day.


title: Kaminey

text: Bhardwaj co-wrote the script with Sabrina Dhawan, Abhishek Chaubey, and Supratik Sen. He bought the original script for from Kenyan writer Cajetan Boywhom he had mentored at a scriptwriting workshop in Uganda. "Kaminey" was released on 14 August 2009 and became a box-office success worldwide, grossing over against a production and marketing budget of . The film's soundtrack album, composed by Bhardwaj, also became a commercial success, with the song "Dhan Te Nan" topping the charts on various platforms.


title: Kaminey

text: "Kaminey" received widespread critical acclaim, with several critics and media publications placing it at number one on their listings of "Best film of the year". Since its release, the film has attained cult status. It received several awards and nominations at ceremonies across India. At the 55th Filmfare Awards, it received ten nominations, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Actress, and Best Supporting Actor; it won the award for Best Special Effects. At the 57th National Film Awards, "Kaminey" won two awards — Best Audiography for Subash Sahoo and Special Jury Award for its editing by A. Sreekar Prasad.


title: Kaminey

text: Charlie and Guddu are twins who were raised in Mumbai. Charlie lisps while Guddu stutters. Charlie likes to take shortcuts to fulfill his dream of becoming a bookmaker at the racecourse where he works for three criminal brothers who fix races. He is closer to the youngest brother Mikhail than to Guddu, to whom he is hostile. A jockey deceives Charlie when he bets on a horse during a fixed race, losing all of his savings. Seeking revenge, Charlie locates the jockey in an upmarket city hotel.


title: Kaminey

text: At the same hotel, policemen Lobo and Lele kill three drug dealers and collect a guitar case containing cocaine, which they must deliver to drug lord Tashi. Charlie and his men invade the jockey's hotel room and take all his possessions. The ensuing chase leads to the hotel car park where Lobo and Lele are placing the guitar case in their van. Charlie and his men seize the van to escape from the jockey's men and realise they have stolen a police vehicle, whilst also discovering the cocaine, which Charlie steals to sell. The policemen, upon returning, discover that the cocaine is missing and set out to find Charlie.


title: Kaminey

text: Meanwhile, Guddu's lover Sweety, sister of the politician Sunil Bhope, reveals that she is pregnant with Guddu's child and expresses her wish to marry Guddu. They marry later that night. Bhope hears about his sister's actions and sends his men to apprehend the lovers. Bhope's men gatecrash Guddu's wedding and beat him, then realise that he is a migrant from Uttar Pradesh. This enrages Bhope, who orders his men to kill Guddu and return Sweety to his house so he can arrange a marriage for her. Sweety fights off her brother's henchmen and escapes with Guddu.


title: Kaminey

text: Charlie tells Mikhail about the cocaine, who is delighted. When Charlie returns to retrieve the case, Bhope and his men are waiting inside the van. One of Bhope's men recognises Guddu as Charlie's twin and Bhope demands that Charlie reveal Guddu's whereabouts. An inebriated Mikhail interrupts their conversation and is killed by Bhope.


title: Kaminey

text: On the way to the airport, Guddu realises that Sweety has faked her stutter. At a petrol station, Lobo and Lele notice the pair. Mistaking Guddu for Charlie, they arrest him. They assault Guddu, refusing to believe that he is Charlie's twin brother until Guddu's mobile phone rings; the caller is revealed to be Bhope. Lobo and Lele agree to exchange Charlie for Guddu and Sweety on a train. The policemen take Guddu and Sweety to Bhope's house, where Bhope reveals that a local builder will pay him to marry Sweety to the builder's son. Guddu bargains with Bhopeif he retrieves the cocaine-filled guitar case for Bhope, he will get Sweety. Bhope sends his henchmen with Guddu to retrieve the guitar case from Charlie's house.


title: Kaminey

text: The policemen assault Charlie, who refuses to negotiate, realising that the policemen are in as much trouble as himself. Charlie outwits the policemen, takes them hostage and negotiates with Tashi to exchange the guitar case for . Charlie sends the policemen to deliver the details to Tashi and returns to his house to retrieve the cocaine. At Charlie's house, Guddu arrives with Bhope's men. Sweety hears about Bhope's plans to kill Guddu and shoots at the members of her household. Guddu finds the case and fights Charlie, who lets Guddu go. Guddu takes the cocaine to the police, who bug him. Guddu arrives at Bhope's house the same time as Tashi and his gang, with Charlie as their hostage. Bhope and Tashi negotiate to trade the drugs, but Charlie snatches the guitar case and threatens to destroy it if Guddu and Sweety are not released. The lovers escape as the police arrive, leading to a shooting spree in which the cocaine is destroyed. Charlie's bosses arrive to avenge Mikhail's death but are killed along with Bhope, Tashi and their henchmen. Charlie is shot and wounded.