title: Ayia Napa

text: On 16 September 2007, following the proposal of Yiannis Karousos, who was then president of the Ayia Napa Tourism Committee, the world's longest chain of syrtaki dancers danced in synchronised step to "Zorba the Greek" in a successful attempt to enter the "Guinness Book of World Records". The chain had a total of 268 members of eight dancing groups. Ayia Napa mayor Antonis Tsokkos said the aim of the event was to send the message that the area was interested in Greek culture and to promote the tourist resort abroad. The event drew the attention of tourists and locals, many of whom danced on the beach and in the sea.


title: Ayia Napa

text: The town has an amusement park called Parko Paliatso and a water park called WaterWorld. WaterWorld has a theme of Ancient Greece, and opened on 7 April 1996.


title: Ayia Napa

text: The main interest point inside the artificial reef is the Kyrenia ship, which was donated by the Ministry of Defense to the city of Ayia Napa. Other underwater sculptures are also located in the reef. It was inaugurated in February 2015.


title: Ayia Napa

text: Located next to the sculpture park, the cactus park was created with voluntary work and includes more than 10,000 cacti and desert plants.


title: Ayia Napa

text: The centre provides information and education in association with the national park of Cape Greco, a Nature 2000 protected area. It was inaugurated in May 2017.


title: Ayia Napa

text: To create positive feelings when entering the city, old fishing boats have been placed on the first main roundabout of Ayia Napa.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Sharad Malhotra (born 9 January 1983) is an Indian actor, who primarily works in Hindi television and Hindi films. He made his acting debut in 2004 with the role of Prince Goldy in "Princess Dollie Aur Uska Magic Bag". His first major role was the lead role of Sagarpratap Singh in "Banoo Main Teri Dulhann".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Sharad had his breakthrough with the role of Maharana Pratap Singh in "Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap" and is noted for his portrayal of Rishi Singh Bedi in "Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki" and Veeranshu Singhania in "Naagin 5".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Sharad was born on 9 January 1983 and was brought up in Kolkata, he did his B.Com from St. Xavier's College. In 2003, he won "Face Of The Year" in Kolkata from where his journey started.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Besides modeling and acting, Sharad is also enthusiastic about kickboxing, horse riding, and swimming.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Malhotra attending acting workshop and did modelling after he came to Mumbai. He was the first male model to do a jewellery campaign. Malhotra started his career with "India's Best Cinestars Ki Khoj" as a Contestant in 2004. He then made his acting debut in the same year as Prince Goldy in "Princess Dollie Aur Uska Magic Bag" and had a cameo in "Kabhie To Nazar Milao".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: He had his first major role in 2006 with "Banoo Main Teri Dulhan" where he played the lead role of Sagar opposite Divyanka Tripathi and was later seen as Amar Upadhyay also. The show was successful. The show ended in mid-2009. In 2008, he was also a part of a dance reality show named Yeh hai Jalwa, which had various popular television celebrities, including Ronit Roy, Shweta Tiwari and Rakhi Sawant.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Post Banu main Teri Dulhan, he took a break from his TV career and went on to attend New York Film Academy in the year 2009. In 2010, he appeared as a contestant on "Nachle Ve with Saroj Khan". In 2012, He made his film debut with the role of Rohit Khurana in "From Sydney with Love".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Sharad returned to acting in 2014 and had his breakthrough with the role of Maharana Pratap in Sony TV's "Bharat Ka Veer Putra – Maharana Pratap" opposite Rachana Parulkar. The show ended in 2015, it was successful and received praises, also winning awards. He later participated in "Box Cricket League" and was the Captain of "Kolkata Baabu Moshayes" in season 2.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: In 2016, Malhotra played the lead role of Rishi in the show "Kasam Tere Pyaar Ki". He also played the role of Ranbir Kapoor on the same show. It was also broadcast in the UK due to its popularity.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: Malhotra also appeared in two Hindi films in 2016, "My Father Godfather" playing Prakash and "Ek Tera Saath" playing Kuwar Aditya Pratap Singh. In 2017, he appeared in his first music video "Paas Baitho Na".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: He also appeared as a guest on "Comedy Nights Bachao". He next portrayed Raunak Singh in Star Bharat's "Muskaan" from 2018-2020.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: In August 2020, he joined the cast of "Naagin 5", portraying the prince of shape-shifting named Veeranshu Singhania. It was his first negative role. Malhotra played the role as the Grey Shaded hero.


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: In March 2021, his music video "Bepanah Pyar" with Vyrl Originals was released, followed by "Beypanah Ishq" in August 2021. In the same year he appeared with Helly Shah in a peppy song "Halo Re Halo" and with Adaa Khan in a romantic song "Door Ho Gaya".


title: Sharad Malhotra

text: In October 2021, he started portraying the role of Bakshi Jagabandhu in StarPlus's historical drama "Vidrohi". It was his second historic character. The show went off-air after 5 month in March 2022 due to low ratings. In February 2022, he appeared in a short film "Not Out" along with Karan Wahi, where they both played the role of two best friends.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk ( ; ), meaning "the fort of Dealgan", is the county town (the administrative centre) of County Louth, Ireland. The town is on the Castletown River, which flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland. It is halfway between Dublin and Belfast, close to the border with Northern Ireland. It is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland, with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census.


title: Dundalk

text: Having been inhabited since the Neolithic period, Dundalk was established as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century following the Norman invasion of Ireland, and became the northernmost outpost of The Pale in the Late Middle Ages. The town came to be nicknamed the "Gap of the North" where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster. The modern street layout dates from the early 18th century and owes its form to James Hamilton (later 1st Earl of Clanbrassil). The legends of the mythical warrior hero Cú Chulainn are set in the district and the motto on the town's coat of arms is "Mé do rug Cú Chulainn cróga" "I gave birth to brave Cú Chulainn".


title: Dundalk

text: The town developed brewing, distilling, tobacco, textile, and engineering industries during the nineteenth century. It became prosperous and its population grew as it became an important manufacturing and trading centre—both as a hub on the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) network and with its maritime link to Liverpool from the Port of Dundalk. It later suffered from high unemployment and urban decay after these industries closed or scaled back operations both in the aftermath of the Partition of Ireland in 1921 and following the accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973. New industries have been established in the early part of the 21st century, including pharmaceutical, technology, financial services, and specialist foods.


title: Dundalk

text: There is one third-level education institute—Dundalk Institute of Technology. The largest theatre in the town, "An Táin" Arts Centre (named after the legend of the same name), is housed in the Town Hall, and the restored buildings of the nearby former Dundalk Distillery house both the County Museum Dundalk and the Louth County Library. Sporting clubs include Dundalk Football Club (who play at Oriel Park), Dundalk Rugby Club, Dundalk Golf Club, and several clubs competing in Gaelic games. Dundalk Stadium is a horse and greyhound racing venue and is Ireland's only all-weather horse racing track.


title: Dundalk

text: Archaeological studies at Rockmarshall indicate that the Dundalk area was first inhabited circa 3700 BC following the end of the last Ice Age, during the Neolithic period. Visible evidence of this early presence can be seen in the form of the Proleek Dolmen, a portal tomb in the Ballymascanlon area, north of Dundalk, which dates to around 3000 BC. A wedge-shaped gallery grave (known as the "Giant's Grave") is nearby. Other pre-Christian archaeological sites in the Dundalk Municipal District are Rockmarshall Court Tomb, a court cairn, and Aghnaskeagh Cairns, a chambered cairn and portal tomb.


title: Dundalk

text: The legends of Cú Chulainn, including the "Táin Bó Cúailnge" (The Cattle Raid of Cooley), an epic of early Irish literature, are set in the first century AD, before the arrival of Christianity to Ireland. "Clochafarmore", the menhir that Cú Chulainn reputedly tied himself to before he died, is located to the west of the town, near Knockbridge.


title: Dundalk

text: According to the "Annals of the Four Masters", a battle was fought at Faughart (a townland 6 km north of the centre of Dundalk, near the Moyry Pass) between Cormac mac Airt, High King of Ireland and Storno (or Starno), King of Lochlin, in 248. The story is folklore and both characters are ahistorical.


title: Dundalk

text: Evidence of settlements from early Christian Ireland are to be found in the high concentration of souterrains in north Louth. The high concentration of souterrains indicates that the area was regularly subject to raids, and the discovery of a type of pottery known as 'souterrain ware', which has only been found in north Louth, County Down and County Antrim, indicates that these areas shared cultural ties separate from the rest of early historic Ireland. The concentration of souterrains drops significantly on crossing the River Fane to the south, indicating that the district was a border area between separate kingdoms.


title: Dundalk

text: Saint Brigid is reputed to have been born in 451 AD in Faughart. A shrine to her is located at Faughart. St Brigid's Church in Kilcurry holds what worshippers believe is a relic of the saint—a fragment of her skull, which was brought to the church in 1905 by Sister Mary Agnes of the Dundalk Convent of Mercy.


title: Dundalk

text: Most of what is recorded about the Dundalk area between the fifth century and the foundation of the town as a Norman stronghold in the 12th century comes from the "Annals of the Four Masters" and the "Annals of Tigernach", which were both written hundreds of years after the events they record. According to the annals, the plains of North Louth incorporating what is now Dundalk were known as "Magh Muirthemne" (the Plain of the Dark Sea). The area, bordered to the northeast by "Cuailgne" (the Cooley peninsula) and to the south by the "Ciannachta", was ruled by a Cruthin kingdom known as "Conaille Muirtheimne" (who were aligned to the "Ulaid") in the early Christian period. According to the annals, a battle was fought at Faughart in 732 by Áed Allán, High King of Ireland against the "Ulaid", for which there is no contemporary evidence.


title: Dundalk

text: The "Annals of Ulster" record that in 851, Danish Vikings (the Dubhgall) attempted to attack the Norwegian Viking (Fingall) settlement at Annagassan at the southern end of Dundalk Bay and were heavily defeated. The following year, Norwegian Vikings based in Scotland were sent to attack the Danes in Carlingford Lough but their expedition was unsuccessful. D'Alton's "History of Dundalk" recounts an apocryphal tale of the "Battle of Dundalk": Sitric, son of Turgesius, ruler of the Danes in Ireland, had offered Callaghan, the King of Munster, his sister in marriage. But it was a trick to take the king prisoner and he was captured and held hostage in Armagh. An army was raised in Munster and marched on Armagh to free the king, but he had been removed to Sitric's ship in Dundalk Bay. However, a fleet from Munster attacked the Danes in the bay from the south. During the sea battle, the Munster admiral, Failbhe Fion, boarded Sitric's ship and freed the king, but was killed by Sitric who put Failbhe Fion's head on a pole. Failbhe Fion's second in command, Fingal, enraged, seized Sitric by the neck and jumped into the sea where they both drowned. Two more Irish captains, seeing this, each grabbed one of Sitric's two brothers and did the same, and the Danes subsequently surrendered.


title: Dundalk

text: Prior to the arrival of the Normans, the district can be said to have entirely comprised rural settlements, although there are historical references to a pre-Norman town called "Traghbaile" (anglicised as Traghbally: Seatown), the name of which could originate from the legend of the death of Baile Mac Buain—hence "Traghbaile", meaning 'Baile's Strand'.


title: Dundalk

text: By the time of the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169, "Magh Muirthemne" had been absorbed into the kingdom of "Airgíalla" (Oriel) under the Ó Cearbhaills. In about 1185, the Norman nobleman Bertram de Verdun erected a manor house at Castletown Mount on the ancient site of "Dún Dealgan" "(Dún" being the Irish language term for a type of medieval fort and "Dealga" being the name of a mythical Fir Bolg Chieftain. De Verdon founded his settlement seemingly without resistance from "Airgíalla" (the Ó Cearbhaills are recorded as having submitted to Henry II), and in 1187 he founded an Augustinian friary under the patronage of St Leonard. He was awarded the lands around what is now Dundalk by Prince John on the death of Murchadh Ó Cearbhaill in 1189. On de Verdun's death in Jaffa in 1192, his lands at Dundalk passed to his son Thomas and then to his second son, Nicholas, when Thomas died. In 1236, Nicholas's daughter Roesia commissioned Castle Roche 10 km north-west of the present-day town, on a large rocky outcrop with a commanding view of the surrounding countryside. It was completed by her son, John, in the 1260s.


title: Dundalk

text: The Ulster Irish sided with Edward Bruce, brother of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce after he landed at Larne on 26 May 1315. As his army made its way south through Ulster, they destroyed the de Verdun fortress at Castle Roche and attacked Dundalk on 29 June. The town was almost totally destroyed and its population, both Anglo-Irish and Gaelic, massacred. After taking possession of the town, Bruce proclaimed himself King of Ireland. Following three more years of battles across the north-eastern part of the island, Bruce was killed and his army defeated at the Battle of Faughart by a force led by John de Birmingham, who was created the 1st Earl of Louth as a reward.


title: Dundalk

text: Later generations of de Verduns continued to own lands at Dundalk into the 14th century. Following the death of Theobald de Verdun, 2nd Baron Verdun in 1316 without a male heir, the family's landholdings were split. One of Theobold de Verdun's daughters, Joan, married the second Baron Furnivall, Thomas de Furnivall, and his family subsequently acquired much of the de Verdun land at Dundalk. The de Furnivall family's coat of arms formed the basis of the seal of the 'New Town of Dundalk'—a 14th-century seal discovered in the early 20th century, which became the town's coat of arms in 1968. The 'new town' that was established in the 13th century is the present-day town centre; the 'old town of the Castle of Dundalk' being the original de Verdun settlement at Castletown Mount some 2 km to the west. The de Furnivalls then sold their holdings to the Bellew family, another Norman family long established in County Meath. The town was granted its first formal charter as a 'New Town' in the late 14th century under the reign of Richard II of England.


title: Dundalk

text: Effectively a frontier town as the northernmost outpost of The Pale, Dundalk continued to grow as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries progressed. The town was heavily fortified, as it was regularly attacked—with at least 14 separate assaults, sieges or demands for tribute by a resurgent native Irish population recorded between 1300 and 1600 (with more than that number being probable). The O'Neills and O'Donnells of Ulster ransacked the town at least twice and threatened it on at least three other occasions between 1423 and 1444.


title: Dundalk

text: In advance of crowning himself 'King of Ireland' in 1542, Henry VIII extended his policy of Dissolution of the Monasteries to Ireland, and in 1540 the Priory of St Leonard, founded by Bertram de Verdun, was surrendered. During the subsequent Tudor conquest of Ireland, Dundalk remained the northern outpost of English rule. When the conquest was over, it was recorded that the lands and property of Dundalk were in the hands of Sir John Bellew and Sir John Draycot. The town was later used as a base of operations for the English, led by Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy, for their push into Ulster through the 'Gap of the North' (the Moyry Pass) in 1600, during the Nine Years' War.


title: Dundalk

text: Following the Flight of the Earls, the subsequent Plantation of Ulster (and the associated suppression of Catholicism) resulted in the Irish Rebellion of 1641. After only token resistance, Dundalk was occupied by an Ulster Irish Catholic army on 31 October. They subsequently tried and failed to take Drogheda and retreated to Dundalk. The Royal Irish Army, who were led by the Duke of Ormond (and known as Ormondists), in turn, laid siege to Dundalk and overran and plundered the town in March 1642, killing many inhabitants. The Royalists continued to occupy the town, during which time they maintained a truce with the Irish Catholic Confederation who had succeeded the rebels of 1641, as the English Civil War developed. In 1647, the town was occupied by the Northern Parliamentary Army of George Monck, who held it for two years before surrendering it back to the Ormondists. It was quickly retaken by the forces of Oliver Cromwell, who had landed in Ireland in August 1649 and sacked Drogheda. After the massacre in Drogheda, Cromwell wrote to the Ormondist commander in Dundalk warning him that his garrison would suffer the same fate if it did not surrender. The Duke of Ormond ordered the commander to have his men burn the town before his retreat but they did not do so, such was their haste to leave. For the remainder of the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, the town was again used as a base for operations against the Irish in Ulster.


title: Dundalk

text: The Corporation of Dundalk was granted a new charter by Charles II on 4 March 1673, after the Restoration of the monarchy. The forfeiture of property and settlements carried out during the Restoration saw much of the land of Dundalk granted to Marcus Trevor, 1st Viscount Dungannon, who had fought for both sides in the war. Even though the Bellews were seen as Papists, Sir John Bellew appears to have held on to much of his family's land. English politics were soon impacting Ireland again, and in 1689 the Williamite commander, Schomberg landed in Belfast and marched unopposed to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the Jacobite Irish Army, he decided against risking a battle. He entrenched himself at Dundalk and declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences. With poor logistics and struck by disease, over 5,000 of his troops died and an opportunity to end the war by taking Dundalk from the Jacobites was missed.


title: Dundalk

text: After the end of the Williamite War, the third Viscount Dungannon, Mark Trevor, sold the Dundalk estate to James Hamilton of Tollymore, County Down. Hamilton's son, also James, was created Viscount Limerick in 1719 and then the first Earl of Clanbrassil in 1756. The modern town of Dundalk largely owes its form to Hamilton. The military activity of the 17th century had left much of the town's walls in ruins. With the collapse of the Gaelic aristocracy and the total takeover of the country by the English, Dundalk was no longer a frontier town and no longer had a need for its 15th-century fortifications. Hamilton commissioned the construction of streets leading to the town centre; his ideas stemming from his visits to Continental Europe. In addition to the demolition of the old walls and castles, he had new roads laid out eastwards of the principal streets.


title: Dundalk

text: When the first Earl died in 1758, the estates passed to his son, again James, the second Earl of Clanbrassil, who died without an heir in 1798. The second Earl's sister, Lady Anne Hamilton, had married Robert Jocelyn in 1752. The Jocelyns were originally landowners in County Tipperary and Robert Jocelyn was created first Earl of Roden in 1771. On the death of the second Earl of Clanbrassil, the Earls of Roden succeeded to the Dundalk estate. Several portions of the Roden Dundalk estate were sold off under the auspices of the various land acts of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, culminating in the Irish Free State government lands purchase acts of the 1920s. The residue of the estate, mainly freeholds and ground rents, was sold in 2006, thus finally severing the links between the Earls of Roden and the town of Dundalk.


title: Dundalk

text: During the 18th century, Ireland was controlled by the minority Anglican Protestant Ascendancy via the Penal Laws, which discriminated against both the majority Irish Catholic population and Dissenters. Mirroring other boroughs around the country, Dundalk Corporation was a 'closed shop', consisting of an electorate of 'freemen', most of whom were absentee landlords of the Ascendancy. The Earl of Clanbrassil controlled the procedures for both the nomination of new freemen and the nomination of parliamentary candidates, therefore disenfranchising the local populace. In the late 18th century, the United Irishmen movement, inspired by the American and French revolutions, led to the Rebellion of 1798. In north Louth, the authorities had successfully suppressed the activities of the United Irishmen prior to the rebellion with the help of informants, and several local leaders had been rounded up and imprisoned in Dundalk Gaol. An attack on the military barracks and gaol was planned for 21 June 1798, in order to free prisoners. The attack failed because of a thunderstorm, which dispersed the gathered United Irish volunteers, and two of the jailed leaders - Anthony Marmion and John Hoey - were subsequently tried for treason and hanged.


title: Dundalk

text: Following the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, The 19th century saw industrial expansion in the town (see Economy) and the construction of several buildings that are landmarks in the town. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened Dundalk railway station. Following a series of mergers, both lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876.


title: Dundalk

text: The established and merchant classes prospered alongside a general population that suffered from poverty. A typhus epidemic struck in the 1810s, potato-crop failures in the 1820s caused famine, and a cholera epidemic struck in the 1830s. During the Great Famine of the 1840s, the town did not suffer to the same extent as the west and south of Ireland. Cereal-based agriculture, new industries, construction projects, and the arrival of the railway all contributed to sparing the town of its worst effects. Nevertheless, so many people died in the Dundalk Union Workhouse that the graveyard was quickly filled. A second graveyard was opened on the Ardee Road—the Dundalk Famine Graveyard—which is known to contain approximately 4,000 bodies. It was closed in 1905 and was left derelict until the 21st Century when local volunteers worked to restore it.


title: Dundalk

text: In 1858, a ship, the "Mary Stoddart", was wrecked in Dundalk Bay during a storm. In attempting to rescue the crew, Captain James Joseph Kelly and three volunteer crew drowned when the storm overturned their boat. Five of the "Mary Stoddart" crew were also lost, while 11 were eventually rescued. The Kelly Monument in Roden Place was erected 20 years later as a memorial.


title: Dundalk

text: The latter part of the 19th Century was dominated by the Irish Home Rule movement and Dundalk became a focal point of the politics of the time. The Irish National Land League held a demonstration in Dundalk on New Year's Day, 1881, stated by the local press to be the largest gathering ever seen in the town. The town by this point had become increasingly and overtly nationalistic—for example, the "Dundalk Democrat & People's Journal" newspaper, founded in 1849, had the motto "Ireland for the Irish" on its masthead, and the 'Maid of Erin' monument was erected in the Market Square outside the courthouse to commemorate the centenary of the 1798 rebellion.


title: Dundalk

text: As the Home Rule movement developed, the sitting Home Rule League MP, Philip Callan, fell afoul of party leader Charles Stewart Parnell, who travelled to Dundalk to oversee efforts to have Callan unseated. Parnell's candidate, Joseph Nolan, defeated Callan in the election of 1885, after a campaign of voter suppression and intimidation on both sides. Following the split in the Irish Parliamentary Party, the leading anti-Parnellite, Tim Healy, won the North Louth seat in 1892, defeating Nolan (who had stayed loyal to Parnell). The campaign, predicted by Healy to be "the nastiest fight in Ireland", saw running battles and mass brawls in the streets between Parnellites, 'Healyites', and 'Callanites'—supporters of Philip Callan, who was trying to regain his seat.


title: Dundalk

text: The local Sinn Féin cumann was founded in 1907 by Patrick Hughes. It struggled to grow beyond a handful of members owing to the existing political factions. In 1910, on the accession of George V to the English throne, the local High Sheriff, accompanied by police and soldiers, led a proclamation to the new king at the Market Square. The ceremony was interrupted by the local Sinn Féin members, who raised a tricolour beside the Maid of Erin monument and chanted "God Save Ireland" during a rendition of "God Save the King"—giving the party visibility in the town for the first time.


title: Dundalk

text: Approximately 2,500 men from Louth volunteered for Allied regiments in World War I and it is estimated that 307 men from the Dundalk district died during the war. In the months before the outbreak of the war, the G.N.R. converted nine of its carriages into a mobile 'ambulance train', which could hold 100 wounded soldiers. "Ambulance Train 13" was kept in service for the duration of the war before being decommissioned in 1919. The war came to Dundalk right at its end, when the "S.S. Dundalk" was sunk by a German U-Boat on 14 October 1918 on a voyage from Liverpool back to Dundalk. 20 crew-members were killed, while 12 were rescued.


title: Dundalk

text: Meanwhile, the Easter Rising had changed the political landscape. 80 members of the Irish Volunteers had left Dundalk to take part in the Rising, with orders to destroy the bridge at Slane and take up position in Blanchardstown, outside Dublin. The countermanding order of Eoin MacNeill, followed by the realisation that the Rising had commenced anyway, caused confusion. Members of the unit ended up in Castlebellingham, trying to evade the Dundalk RIC. There, they held several RIC men and a British Army officer at gunpoint until one of the Volunteers, believing the army officer was reaching for a hidden weapon, fired, killing RIC constable Charles McGee. The unit subsequently made their way to North County Dublin until the Rising had ended. They went on the run and most were captured. Four were sentenced to death for the murder of Constable McGee but were released in the general amnesty of 1917.


title: Dundalk

text: In the 1918 Irish general election, Louth elected its first Sinn Féin MP when John J. O'Kelly defeated the sitting MP, Richard Hazleton of the Irish Parliamentary Party, in the closest contest of the election—O'Kelly winning by 255 votes. In the run-up to the election, the local newspapers had supported the Irish Party over Sinn Féin and complained afterwards that the area of Drogheda in County Meath that was included in the Louth constituency had tipped the contest in Sinn Féin's favour. Again, the campaign saw reports of widespread violence and intimidation tactics.


title: Dundalk

text: There was no strategic military action in north Louth during the Irish War of Independence. Activity consisted of attacks on RIC stations and patrols to seize arms, and acts of sabotage. Arson attacks were a feature of the period in particular. Crown forces committed reprisal attacks in response, hardening support for Sinn Féin. In the aftermath of a shooting of an RIC auxiliary on 17 June 1921, brothers John and Patrick Watters were taken from their home at the Windmill Bar and shot dead. The British authorities subsequently suppressed the "Dundalk Examiner" newspaper for reporting on the incident, and smashed its printing presses. Volunteers from the area led by Frank Aiken were more active in Ulster, and were responsible for the derailing of a military train at Adavoyle railway station, 14 km north of Dundalk, which killed three soldiers, the train's guard, and dozens of horses.


title: Dundalk

text: The Anglo-Irish Treaty turned Dundalk, once again, into a frontier town. Aiken's Fourth Northern Division continued a guerrilla campaign against the new Northern Ireland government and its Ulster Special Constabulary, with sectarian attacks and reprisals carried out by both sides. In the new Irish Free State, the split over the treaty led to the Irish Civil War. Before the outbreak of hostilities, Éamon de Valera toured Ireland making a series of anti-treaty speeches. In the Market Square on 2 April 1922, before a large crowd, he said that those who had negotiated the treaty "had run across to Lloyd George to be spanked like little boys." Aiken attempted to keep his division neutral during the split over the treaty but events in Dublin overtook his border war.


title: Dundalk

text: On 16 July 1922, Aiken and all of the anti-treaty elements among his men were arrested and imprisoned at Dundalk military barracks and Dundalk Gaol in a surprise move by the pro-treaty Fifth Northern Division, now part of the National Army. Eleven days later, anti-treaty 'Irregulars' blew a hole in the outer wall of the gaol, freeing Aiken and his men. At 4am on 14 August, Aiken led an attack on the barracks that resulted in its capture with five National Army and two Irregular soldiers killed. Aiken's men killed another dozen National Army soldiers in guerrilla attacks before the town was retaken without resistance on 26 August. Before withdrawing, Aiken called for a truce at a meeting in the centre of Dundalk. From that point, north Louth ceased to be an area of strategic importance in the war. Guerrilla attacks continued—mainly acts of sabotage, particularly against the railway. In January 1923, six anti-treaty prisoners were executed by firing squad in Dundalk for bearing arms against the state.


title: Dundalk

text: The partition of Ireland turned Dundalk into a border town and the Dublin–Belfast main line into an international railway. On 1 April 1923, the Free State government began installing border posts for the purpose of collecting customs duties. Almost immediately, the town started to suffer economic problems. A global post-war slump had been exacerbated by the introduction of the border and tariffs. Businesses in the town saw their trade with the new cross-border areas greatly reduced, and Carroll's tobacco company set about opening a new factory in Liverpool. The Dundalk Distillery was closed within weeks, as its products became nonviable. It reopened temporarily but was closed again in 1926 because its owners, Scottish Distillers, no longer needed the production capacity. The same year, the G.N.R. works reduced its workforce by several hundred; and the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company went into voluntary liquidation and was taken over by B&I. It had been beset by strikes because of wage cuts imposed in both Dundalk and Liverpool by management. With a population of 14,000 at the time, unemployment was reported to be nearly 2,000 and it was reported that: "Up to a few years ago, Dundalk was one of the most prosperous and go-ahead towns in Ireland... [but] it is a matter of common local knowledge that distress to an acute degree is prevalent." The Anglo-Irish trade war, in the midst of a global depression, made things more difficult still. The industrial situation stabilised, however, as the need for self-sufficiency and the protectionist policies adopted allowed local industries to increase employment and prosper.


title: Dundalk

text: After the election of Fianna Fáil in 1932, two years of violence and intimidation followed as former Civil War foes in the IRA and National Army clashed at political rallies. The latter formed the Army Comrades Association, and became known as the Blueshirts. A member of the Blueshirts carrying money from a collection in Dundalk was robbed at gunpoint by the IRA. Two local men were subsequently convicted of the robbery. One of the witnesses for the prosecution was a Joseph McGrory from Chapel Sreet. Unidentified men, presumed by Gardaí to be members of the IRA, later threw a bomb into his house, destroying it and seriously injuring his mother who was inside, and two children playing outside. The woman later died from her injuries. Five suspects charged with her murder were later acquitted due to lack of evidence. One of these, IRA Volunteer Richard Goss, was interned at the start of World War II and was released following a successful habeas corpus legal challenge. He was later executed in 1941 for shooting at Gardaí and Defence Forces while trying to evade arrest.


title: Dundalk

text: There were three aeroplane crashes in what is now the municipal district during the war. A British Hudson bomber crashed with three fatalities in 1941, and a P-51 Mustang fighter of the US Army Air Forces crashed in September 1944, killing its pilot. The worst of the wartime air crashes occurred on 16 March 1942. 15 allied airmen died when their Consolidated B-24 Liberator bomber crashed into Slieve na Glogh, which rises above the townland of Jenkinstown. On 24 July 1941, the Luftwaffe dropped bombs near the town. There were no casualties and only minor damage was caused.


title: Dundalk

text: The town continued to grow in size—in terms of area, population and employment—after "the Emergency" (as World War II was called in Ireland), despite economic shocks such as the dissolution of the G.N.R. in 1958 and the closure of the Rawson shoe factory after a fire in 1967. The accession of Ireland to the European Economic Community in 1973 caused difficulties, however. Subsequent factory closures and job losses in businesses that struggled due to competition, collapsing consumer confidence, and unfavourable exchange rates with cross-border competitors, resulted in an unemployment rate of 26% by 1986.


title: Dundalk

text: In addition, the outbreak of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in 1968 and the town's position close to the border saw the town's population swell, as nationalists/Catholics fleeing the violence in Northern Ireland settled in the area. As a result of the ongoing sectarianism in the north, there was sympathy for the cause of the Provisional Irish Republican Army and Sinn Féin, and the town was home to numerous IRA operatives. It was in this period that Dundalk earned the nickname 'El Paso', after the Texan border town of the same name on the border with Mexico. On 1 September 1973, the 27 Infantry Battalion of the Irish Army was established, with its headquarters in Dundalk barracks, as a result of the ongoing violence in the border region of North Louth / South Armagh. The barracks was renamed Aiken Barracks in 1986 in honour of Frank Aiken.


title: Dundalk

text: 'The Battle of Courtbane' took place on Sunday 29 August 1971, when a British army patrol consisting of two armoured Ferret Scout cars crossed the Irish border into Co. Louth near the village of Courtbane close to Dundalk. Angry locals blocked their retreat and set one of the vehicles on fire. As this was happening, an IRA unit arrived on the scene and a British soldier was killed and another wounded after an exchange of gunfire. The Ulster Volunteer Force carried out the 'Christmas Bombing' on 19 December 1975, when a car bomb killed two people and injured 15. The town was also the scene of several killings connected to the INLA and its propensity to engage in internal feuds and criminal activity.


title: Dundalk

text: After the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the subsequent Good Friday Agreement, then U.S. president, Bill Clinton chose Dundalk to make an open-air address in December 2000 in support of the peace process. In his speech in the Market Square, witnessed by an estimated 60,000 people, Clinton spoke of "a new day in Dundalk and a new day in Ireland".


title: Dundalk

text: The town was slow to benefit from a 'peace dividend', and in the first decade of the new millennium the remaining shoe factory, the two Diageo-owned breweries, and the Carroll's tobacco factory were among several factories to close—finally severing the links to the town's industrial past. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008.


title: Dundalk

text: Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established and later sold the Cooley Distillery; and locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of foreign direct investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors.


title: Dundalk

text: The town's association football club, Dundalk F.C., first formed in 1903 by the workers of the Great Northern Railway, received European-wide recognition when it became the first Irish side to win points in the group stage of European competition in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. The club again qualified for the group stage in the 2020–21 season.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk lies on the 54th parallel north circle of latitude (). It is situated where the Castletown River flows into Dundalk Bay on the east coast of Ireland, with the town centre on the south side of the river. It is in County Louth, which shares borders with County Armagh to the north (in Northern Ireland), County Monaghan to the west, and County Meath to the south. It is near the border with Northern Ireland (which is from the town centre by road and at the nearest points by air), and is equidistant between Dublin and Belfast ( from both). The town came to be nicknamed the 'Gap of the North' where the northernmost point of the province of Leinster meets the province of Ulster, although the actual 'gap' is the Moyry Pass 8 km to the north at the border with Northern Ireland. Following the abolition of 'legal towns' under the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Dundalk is part of the wider Dundalk Municipal District for the purposes of local government, which is approximately equivalent to the pre-1898 baronies of Dundalk Lower and Dundalk Upper, i.e. roughly the northern one-third of the county by area including the Cooley peninsula. The former legal town and its environs (approximately the area north of the River Fane (including Blackrock), south of Exit 18 on the M1, bordered by the M1 to the west and the Irish Sea to the east; and incorporating Knockbridge to the west of the M1) is now the 'census town'.


title: Dundalk

text: The main part of the census town lies at sea level. Dún Dealgan Motte at Castletown is the highest point in the urban area at an elevation of . The municipal district includes the Cooley Mountains, with Slieve Foy the highest of the peaks at an elevation of .


title: Dundalk

text: The urban area straddles two geographical areas. A landscape of drumlins and undulating farmland form a crescent around the town's outer limits. This area contains contorted Ordovician and Silurian slates and shales. The flat, low-lying coastal plain of the main part of the urban area consists of alluvial clays, laid down as the sea retreated following the last Ice Age. The subsequent land reclamation was both a natural process and a man-made one—in particular as a result of the drainage schemes undertaken in the eighteenth century by James Hamilton, the first Earl of Clanbrassil. This has meant that the topography of the district has changed extensively since the area was first inhabited and also since the formation of the original Norman settlements.


title: Dundalk

text: The layout of Dundalk is based around three principal street systems leading to the open, central Market Square. Running north from the square to the bridge over the Castletown River is Clanbrassil Street and Bridge Street; with the Castletown Road running west from Bridge Street towards Castletown Mount—the original Norman settlement of Dundalk. Running east from the square towards the old Quay Street railway station, the army barracks and the Port of Dundalk is Jocelyn Street, Seatown Place and Barrack Street. Running south out of the town to the Dublin Road is Park Street, Dublin Street, and Hill Street.


title: Dundalk

text: Similar to much of northwest Europe, Dundalk experiences an oceanic climate and does not suffer from the extremes of temperature experienced by many other locations at similar latitude. Summers are typically cool and partly cloudy and the winter is typically cold, wet, windy, and mostly cloudy. Over the course of the year, the temperature typically varies from and is rarely below or above .


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk is the eighth largest urban area in Ireland and the third largest town (behind Drogheda and Swords), with a population of 39,004 as of the 2016 census. Dundalk is the biggest town in Louth, however, because approximately 15% of the population of Drogheda is in County Meath. The population density of the census town of Dundalk was measured at in 2016.


title: Dundalk

text: The first language of the majority of 'white Irish' residents of Dundalk is English (a.k.a. Hiberno-English). Approximately 4% of the population speak the Irish language on a daily basis outside of the education system. The Omeath area in Cooley, within the municipal district, was a small Gaeltacht area, with the last speaker of a 'Louth Irish' dialect dying in 1960.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk is the county town (the administrative centre) of the county of Louth in Ireland. It is represented at the national level in Dáil Éireann as part the Louth parliamentary constituency, which was created under the terms of the Electoral Act 1923, and first used at the 1923 general election.


title: Dundalk

text: Prior to the Act of Union, which came into force on 1 January 1801, Dundalk was a Parliament of Ireland constituency. Following the Act of Union, Dundalk was a UK Parliament constituency until 1885. In 1885, the constituency was combined with the northern part of the County Louth constituency to become North Louth. In 1918, the North Louth constituency was combined with South Louth to form a single County Louth constituency for the whole county—the precursor of the constituency formed following the creation of Dáil Éireann.


title: Dundalk

text: Louth County Council () is the authority responsible for local government in Dundalk. As a county council, it is governed by the Local Government Act 2001. For administrative purposes, the council is sub-divided into three areas, centred around the three main towns in the county—Dundalk, Drogheda and Ardee. The Dundalk Municipal District comprises all of the county to the north of a line running approximately east-to-north west, from the coast to the Monaghan border, across the villages of Castlebellingham and Knockbridge.


title: Dundalk

text: The county council has 29 elected members, 13 of whom are from the Dundalk region. Elections are held every five years and are by single transferable vote. For the purpose of elections, the Dundalk Municipal District is sub-divided into two local electoral areas: Dundalk-Carlingford (6 Seats) and Dundalk South (7 Seats).


title: Dundalk

text: The coat of arms of Dundalk was officially granted by the Office of the Chief Herald at the National Library of Ireland in 1968, and is a replication of the "seal matrix" of the 'New Town of Dundalk', which itself dates to the 14th Century. The seal is based on the coat of arms of the de Furnivall family. Thomas de Furnivall had obtained a large part of the land and property of Dundalk and district in about 1309 by marriage to Joan de Verdun, the daughter of Theobald de Verdun (2nd Baron Verdun) and Matilda Mortimer. A bend between six martlets forms the shield. The ermine boar supporter is derived from the arms of the Ó hAnluain (O'Hanlon) family, Kings of Airthir, the main Gaelic Irish family in the area. The exact origins of the lion "passant guardant" and the foot soldier with his spear and sword are not known. The lion is represented in the style of those on the Royal Arms adopted by Richard I of England. It has been said that it comes from the Mortimer family, but a lion is not incorporated in the Mortimer family arms. The soldier is presumably related to the town's origins as a Norman stronghold.


title: Dundalk

text: Previously, the town's coat of arms was a simpler "three martlets on a blue field". The earliest recorded use of this coat of arms is when the Corporation of Dundalk was granted a charter by Charles II in 1673. It appears as the Corporation Seal in a town plan dated 1675. It cannot be stated definitively if there is a link between the 14th century seal and the 17th century seal. However, another Anglo-Norman family, the Dowdalls, were also influential landowners in Dundalk in the Middle Ages, having moved to Louth in the 13th century, and their family coat of arms contains three martlets on a field. The townland of Dowdallshill lies to the north of the Castletown River. The Corporation Seal can be seen carved in stone on the Town Hall, which was built in the mid-1800s.


title: Dundalk

text: In December 1929, the town council proposed to remove the "three black crows" from the seal of the town because of the seal's origins. The shield with three martlets continued to be used as the logo of several companies and organisations in the town. Examples include the Dundalk Race Company Limited (the company that ran Dundalk Racecourse), the Macardle Moore and Company brewery, and Dealgan Milk Products (a dairy company formed in the town in 1960). It also became the crest of Dundalk Football Club in 1927. The club's current crest retains the design of three martlets but on a red field.


title: Dundalk

text: Linen was the first industry established in Dundalk in the mid 18th century, but the cambric and damask businesses had failed by the end of the century, with the factories becoming derelict. It would be the next century before new industries established themselves: mills, tanneries, a foundry, a distillery, and breweries. During James Hamilton's improvements to the town during the 18th century, the Port of Dundalk was established and became the eighth largest in Ireland in terms of exports.


title: Dundalk

text: The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the population of Dundalk increase by 30% (despite the population of Ireland as a whole dropping in the same period) as the town's industries thrived prior to the partition of Ireland. The Malcolm Brown & Co. Dundalk Distillery was established c.1780 at Roden Place and operated successfully throughout the 19th century. Brewing was also a key industry in the town, with eight breweries in operation by the end of the 1830s. The famine of the 1840s left just two breweries in operation, which merged to become the Macardle Moore & Co. brewery at Cambricville. The Great Northern Brewery opened later, in 1896. The Dundalk Iron Works was established in 1821 and by the end of the century had expanded to become a leading employer in the town under the ownership of A.E. Manisty. The P.J. Carroll tobacco factory, started on a small scale in the 1820s, grew throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Great Northern Railway (Ireland) works established in 1881 became the "backbone of the town".


title: Dundalk

text: The town's industries suffered after partition and again from the Anglo-Irish trade war. The imposition of tariffs and duties in April 1923 and the establishment of customs checks on the border affected exports and trade with the Newry district, which was now in a different jurisdiction. The distillery, which the Distillers Company of Scotland had acquired in 1912, was the first major Dundalk industry to close. It reopened temporarily, before it was closed permanently in 1926. The Dundalk Iron Works, also known as A.E. Manisty & Co., went into liquidation in 1928. Protectionism gave the town's industries breathing space, and by 1950 they had recovered from the effects of partition and the trade war. The two breweries were successful, the Dundalk Linen Company was expanding for the first time in decades, and there were 1,800 people working in shoe manufacturing in three factories—Rawson's, Halliday's and Connolly's. 2,000 jobs were by this point dependant on the railway works and 500 jobs were dependent on the Carroll's tobacco factory. The town was also a thriving commercial centre, as the increase in bus traffic brought shoppers in from a wide radius.


title: Dundalk

text: This was a peak period, however. The Northern Ireland government's decision to close many of the G.N.R. lines north of the border made the company nonviable, and it was dissolved in 1958. With it went the works in Dundalk. It was replaced by "Dundalk Engineering Works Ltd" (DEW)—a government-backed initiative to keep the 980 remaining workers in employment. Against that backdrop, Clarks, who had formed a partnership with Halliday's and would take full control of the company in 1971, demanded in 1959 that the town's Athletic Grounds be sold to them for a new factory, or they would pull out of the town altogether. Afraid of the potential loss of 900 jobs, the council agreed to the sale, over considerable opposition. Carroll's also continued to expand and modernise, opening a new factory on the Dublin Road in 1970, which was designed by Ronnie Tallon of Michael Scott & Partners, which subsequently won architectural awards for its design.


title: Dundalk

text: As late as 1969, the town was still in a position to boast of its industrial prowess, with the engineering companies at the DEW prospering. The pressures of trade liberalisation introduced by Ireland's accession to the EEC in 1973 caused many of them to falter during the 1970s and 1980s. The most at-risk industry proved to be shoe manufacturing. Rawson's had already gone into liquidation in 1967 after the factory was destroyed by fire, with the loss of 500 jobs. Lower-cost imports made the Clark's factory unprofitable and after years of cutbacks it closed in 1985 with the loss of the remaining 370 jobs. Also closing permanently in 1985 was the Weyenberg Shoe Company factory, which had opened in 1969 and hired many ex-Rawson workers but had never reached full productivity. Only the smallest of the manufacturers—Connolly's, re-branded as Blackthorn—managed to stay in business by specialising its products. It eventually closed in 2001. 1985 proved to be the nadir, also seeing the closure of the Engineering Works. By this stage unemployment in the town had reached 26%, and would reach 27.9% by 1991. Pleas to government for assistance were unsuccessful.


title: Dundalk

text: The town was slow to benefit from the Celtic Tiger economy that saw an economic boom in Ireland from the mid-1990s and seemed to stagnate with more closures and job losses. In addition to the surviving breweries and Carroll's, the ECCO (Electronics Components Company Overseas) factory opened by General Electric in 1966 had become the town's leading employer in the 1970s, employing around 1,500 people at its peak with many thousands more working in companies providing goods and services to it. It, too, succumbed to competition and following a long period of decline, closed in 2006. Diageo decided to close both of the town's breweries—Cambricville in 2001, then the Great Northern in 2013 after a decade-long wind down. Also after a long decline, the Carroll's factory closed in 2005. By 2012, the town was being painted as one of Ireland's "most deprived areas" after the global downturn following the Financial crisis of 2007–2008. Indigenous industry started to recover, with the Great Northern Brewery being reopened as 'the Great Northern Distillery' in 2015 by John Teeling, who had established the Cooley Distillery. Locally-driven initiatives led to a flurry of Foreign Direct Investment announcements in the latter half of the 2010s, particularly in the technology and pharmaceutical sectors.


title: Dundalk

text: Historically, the border region has not seen the same level of tourism as Dublin or the Atlantic coast regions of Ireland, which was primarily the result of the Troubles and an associated lack of marketing. This began to change in the mid-1990s because of the start of the Northern Ireland peace process, and the increase in government investment in tourism made possible by the 'Celtic Tiger' period of economic expansion. The area has since seen a growth in visitor numbers, with 172,000 foreign and 179,000 domestic visitors to Louth recorded in 2017.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk / North Louth region is marketed as part of the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign. The 'ancient east' encompasses Ireland's coast from the border with Northern Ireland at Carlingford Lough to Kinsale in County Cork; inland as far as the River Shannon. In contrast to the Wild Atlantic Way, which focuses on landscape, the 'Ireland's Ancient East' campaign is more focused on history and heritage. Louth is marketed as the 'Land of Legends', a campaign which also refers to a "rich and ancient history and heritage" and seeks to increase the number of visitors to the region "by capitalising on Co Louth's unique location within Ireland's Ancient East, as the hub for the Boyne Valley and the Cooley, Mourne and Gullion Regions".


title: Dundalk

text: Shipping services to Liverpool were provided from 1837 by the Dundalk Steam Packet Company. It took over its rivals to become the Dundalk and Newry Steam Packet Company, which shipped cargo, live animals and passengers. It was forced to go into liquidation and allow itself to be taken over by B&I in 1926 following a series of strikes. B&I maintained the Dundalk to Liverpool route as a weekly service until 1968.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk is the first station on the southern side of the border along the Belfast–Dublin line. The first railway links arrived when the Dundalk and Enniskillen Railway opened a line from Quay Street to Castleblayney in 1849, and by 1860 the company operated a route northwest to Derry. The line to Quay Street was extended to Newry and Greenore by the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway, owned by the London and North Western Railway, who operated a hotel in Greenore and from where a ferry service operated to Holyhead. It was opened between Greenore and Dundalk in 1873, and extended to Newry in 1876.


title: Dundalk

text: Also in 1849, the Dublin and Belfast Junction Railway opened its first station in Dundalk. Following a series of mergers, both the Dublin and Belfast and Dundalk and Enniskillen lines were incorporated into the Great Northern Railway (Ireland) in 1876. After partition, the G.N.R. had a border running through its network, with lines crisscrossing it several times, and the Northern Ireland government wanted to close many of the lines in favour of bus transport. By the 1950s, the G.N.R. company had ceased to be profitable and Dundalk saw its secondary routes closed—first the line to Greenore and Newry in 1951, and then the line to Derry in 1957. The G.N.R. was nationalised on both sides of the border in 1953, and the company was finally dissolved in 1958. The closure of the G.N.R. left Dundalk with only one operational line—the Dublin–Belfast "Enterprise" service (as well as Commuter services to and from Dublin).


title: Dundalk

text: The G.N.R. built the current Dundalk railway station in 1894. It was renamed Clarke Station in 1966, in commemoration of Tom Clarke, one of the executed leaders of the Easter Rising of 1916. It houses a small museum in the old first-class waiting room, and has been called, "the finest station on the main Dublin–Belfast line". It was used as a filming location for the Walt Disney Pictures film, "Disenchanted" in May 2021.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk's Bus Station is operated by Bus Éireann and is located on the Long Walk near the town centre. The company runs a town service—Route 174. The company also operates routes from Dundalk to Dublin, Galway, Newry, Clones, Cavan, and towns in between.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk-Blackrock route was one of very few bus routes not compulsorily purchased by CIÉ under the Transport Acts of 1932 and 1933. It has been operated by Halpenny Travel since 1920.


title: Dundalk

text: The M1–N1/A1 connects Dundalk to Dublin and Belfast. Exits 16, 17, and 18 service Dundalk South, Dundalk Centre and Dundalk North, respectively. The National Secondary Road N52 from Nenagh, County Tipperary travels through the junction for Exit 16 on the M1, runs through the east side of the town, and terminates at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1. The N53 from Castleblayney, County Monaghan, which crosses the border twice, terminates at the junction for Exit 17 on the M1. The R173, which starts and finishes at the junction for Exit 18 of the M1, connects the town to the Cooley peninsula. The R171 connects the town to Ardee, the R177 and A29 connect the town to Armagh, and the R178 connects the town to Virginia, County Cavan via Carrickmacross, Shercock, and Bailieborough.


title: Dundalk

text: Many of the buildings of architectural note in the town were built during the 19th century. Several buildings on the streets off the Market Square are described as being in the "Dundalk style" —ornate buildings, "testifying to the confidence of Dundalk's merchant class in the latter part of the nineteenth-century".


title: Dundalk

text: The Courthouse (completed in 1819) was designed by Edward Parke and John Bowden in the Neoclassical style and modelled on the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens. The Maid of Erin statue, erected in 1898, is located in the Market Square in front of the Court House. The adjacent Town Hall (completed in 1865), is an elaborate Italianate Palazzo Townhall, originally designed by John Murray as a corn exchange. It was sold to the Town Commissioners on completion and now houses "An Táin" Arts Centre, which comprises a 350-seat main theatre, a 55-seat studio theatre, a visual arts gallery, and two workshop spaces.


title: Dundalk

text: The Kelly Monument is located in nearby Roden Place, in front of St Patrick's Church. It was erected in 1879 to commemorate the sinking of the "Mary Stoddart" in Dundalk Bay in 1858 and those who drowned in attempting a rescue. The Louth County Library is located off Roden Place, in a restored building of what was the Dundalk Distillery. Further up Jocelyn Street, the County Museum Dundalk, documenting the history of County Louth, is housed in another restored building of the former distillery.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk Gaol was completed in 1855 and closed as a gaol in the 1930s. It was designed by John Neville, who was the county engineer at the time. The Governor's House to the front of the Gaol became the Garda Station, and the two prison wings were later restored and divided between the 'Oriel Centre' and the Louth County Archive. The neighbouring Louth County Infirmary (completed in 1834) was designed by English architect Thomas Smith in a neo-Tudor style with a central entrance-way flanked by two recessed ground floor arcades. It was purchased by Dundalk Grammar School in 2000.


title: Dundalk

text: The two oldest buildings in the town centre are Saint Nicholas's Church of Ireland church and Seatown Castle. Saint Nicholas's was originally built c. 1400. It comprises elements of fourteenth- seventeenth- and eighteenth-century church buildings, having been extended, damaged, rebuilt over the centuries, and finally reworked by Francis Johnston. It is known locally as the Green Church due to its green copper spire. It contains an epitaph erected to the memory of Scotland's National Bard, Robert Burns. His sister, Agnes Burns, is buried in the church's graveyard. Seatown Castle is at the junction of Mill Street and Castle Street. It is part of what was a Franciscan friary originally founded in the 13th century. A baptismal font in St. Nicholas's is reputed to have come from the friary.


title: Dundalk

text: Further out from the town centre are Dún Dealgan Motte and Castle Roche. The former is also known as Cú Chulainn Castle and Byrne's Folly. It sits on the site of the manor house built in the late 12th century by Bertram de Verdun when the Normans reached the area. The castellated house now located on the site was built in 1780 by a local pirate named Patrick Byrne. It is a National Monument. Castle Roche was built by Bertram's granddaughter, Roesia, and completed by her son, John, in the late 13th century.


title: Dundalk

text: A 20th century construction, which has won architectural awards, is the Carroll's tobacco factory on the Dublin Road. It was called "a ground breaking Irish factory design". The design, by Ronnie Tallon, is in the Miesian idiom. The first of the Louis le Brocquy Táin illustrations was commissioned for the factory. It became part of the Dundalk Institute of Technology campus in the 2010s. The 'sails' sculpture to the front was designed by Gerda Frömel.


title: Dundalk

text: Many of the churches in the town were also built in the 19th century, including the Presbyterian church (1839), the former Methodist church (1834), and the Roman Catholic churches of St Patrick (1847), St Malachy (1862), St Nicholas (1860), and St Joseph (1890). St Patrick's was designed by Thomas Duff, and modelled on King's College Chapel, Cambridge. It was completed in 1847. Duff also designed the Presbyterian church on Jocelyn Street. The bell tower at St Patrick's was added in 1903, modelled by George Ashlin on that of another English church, Gloucester Cathedral. Ashlin also designed the granite-built St Joseph's Redemptorist monastery and church (finished in 1880 and 1892, respectively).


title: Dundalk

text: The largest park in the town centre is Ice House Hill. It is approximately . The site was once part of Dundalk House demesne (the stately home of the Earl of Clanbrassil). Dundalk House itself was demolished in the early 20th century to make way for an extension of the original P.J. Carroll tobacco factory. The original Ice House, built c. 1780, remains in the park and can be viewed from the outside. The smaller St. Helena Park is approximately and was first laid out in the 1800s. The bandstand was erected in the early 1920s. Most of the land which the park is on was reclaimed from the Castletown River. St Leonard's Garden in Seatown is a small park restored in the 1960s from a cemetery that was closed in 1896 and allowed to become overgrown. Within the park are the ruined remains of stone walls from the friary founded by Bertram de Verdun in the 12th century.


title: Dundalk

text: The Navvy Bank (from 'navigator') is an artificial embankment constructed in the 1840s to facilitate the entry of shipping to Dundalk Port. It is approximately long and runs from Soldiers Point at the entrance to Dundalk Harbour, to near the present-day quay. It is now a public walkway. Along its route, there is a memorial to those who died in the sinking of the "S.S. Dundalk" during World War I. At Soldiers Point there is a bronze sculpture called "The Sea God Managuan and Voyagers" after a Celtic god of the sea.


title: Dundalk

text: Adjacent to the town of Dundalk is the village of Blackrock ( from the town centre), which has three public beaches. Blackrock was a fishing village before it became popular as a resort destination in the late 19th century. The promenade and sea wall, originally built in 1851, run along the length of the main beach and main street of the village. There are wetlands on both the north and south sides of the village, which are wildlife sanctuaries. In 2000, to mark the millennium year, a sundial / statue was erected in Blackrock on the promenade. The high gnomon is a bronze sculpture of a female diving figure, which was subsequently named 'Aisling'.


title: Dundalk

text: Primary schools in Dundalk include some Irish language-medium schools ("Gaelscoileanna") like "Gaelscoil Dhún Dealgan". There are approximately 20 English-medium national schools in the area, the largest of which include Muire na nGael National School (also known as Bay Estate National School) and Saint Joseph's National School, which (as of early 2020) had an enrollment of over 670 and 570 pupils respectively.


title: Dundalk

text: Secondary schools in the town include Coláiste Lú (an Irish medium secondary school or "Gaelcholáiste"), De la Salle College, Dundalk Grammar School, St. Mary's College (also known as the Marist), O'Fiaich College, Coláiste Rís, St. Vincent's Secondary School, St. Louis Secondary School, and Coláiste Chú Chulainn.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk Institute of Technology (abbreviated to DkIT) is the focal point for higher education and research on the Belfast-Dublin corridor, serving the North Leinster, South Ulster region. It was established in 1970 as the Regional Technical College, offering primarily technician and apprenticeship courses.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk has two centres for the arts—"An Táin" Arts Centre, an independent arts space in the former "Táin" Theatre, Town Hall, Crowe Street; and The Oriel Centre in the former Dundalk Gaol, a regional centre for "Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann". The Oriel Centre is a resource centre and performance space, and has facilities for teaching, archives, recording, rehearsal, and performance. The Spirit Store, located at George's Quay in the Port of Dundalk, is a gig venue in the town.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk Institute of Technology Department of Creative Arts, Media and Music has several groups and ensembles, including the "Ceol Oirghiallla" Traditional Music Ensemble, the DkIT Choir, the Music Theatre Group, the Oriel Traditional Orchestra, and the Fr. McNally Chamber Orchestra.


title: Dundalk

text: The Cross Border Orchestra of Ireland (CBOI) is a youth orchestra based at Coláiste Chu Chulainn, Dundalk. It was started as a peace initiative. Since 1996, it has toured internationally and has played at venues such as Carnegie Hall and the Royal Albert Hall.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk Brass Band was established in 1976 and comprises 25-30 members who perform a cross-section of big band and brass music.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk Show (also known as the Dundalk Agricultural Show and the Co. Louth Agricultural Show) has run since the 19th century at a number of locations. It was originally held at the Dundalk racecourse in Dowdallshill, before moving to the Fair Green, the grounds of St Mary's College, Bellingham Castle, and latterly Bellurgan Park.


title: Dundalk

text: In 2019, the town had its inaugural urban art festival, 'Seek Dundalk'. The street murals painted included Edward Bruce, the engineer Peter Rice, and "Cú Chulainn".


title: Dundalk

text: Other festivals include the Frostival Winter Festival, held at the end of November, and the St. Gerard Majella Annual Novena, an annual religious festival held over nine days in St. Joseph's Redemptorist Church in Dundalk. It runs from 8 to 16 October. A patron takes place on 15 August at Ladywell Shrine, during the Feast of the Assumption. The Knockbridge Vintage Club also run public events during the year.


title: Dundalk

text: The Seatown Patron is held annually on the 29th June (the feast day of Saint Peter, who is the patron saint of Seatown). The patron is celebrated by nighttime bonfires, which is a tradition believed to have originated in medieval times. St. Peter's Well () is located under the now derelict Dundalk Windmill in Seatown.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk Maytime Festival was the town's largest festival and ran for 40 years starting in 1965. It started out as a 'Grape and Grain' festival before later centring around amateur drama. It eventually ceased because of difficulties in securing sponsorship.


title: Dundalk

text: Within the wider Dundalk Municipal District, festivals and events include: the Arcadian Field Music and Arts Festival—a three-day boutique festival begun in 2016 on the grounds of Bellurgan Park, the Táin March festival, established in 2011—a walking festival held in June, which seeks to commemorate the legendary Cattle Raid of Cooley ("Táin Bó Cúailnge"), the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship held every year since 1960 on Annaverna Mountain on the Cooley Peninsula, and the Brigid of Faughart Festival (held annually in the first week of February). The town of Carlingford also has several festivals and events during the year.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk Football Club is a professional association football club. The club competes in the League of Ireland Premier Division, the top tier of Irish football. The club was founded in 1903 as Dundalk G.N.R., the works-team of the Great Northern Railway. They were a junior club until they joined the Leinster Senior League in 1922–23. They were then elected to the Free State League (which later became the League of Ireland) in 1926–27. The club has played at Oriel Park since moving from its original home at the Dundalk Athletic Grounds in 1936.


title: Dundalk

text: Gaelic football clubs in the town include Dundalk Gaels GFC, Seán O'Mahony's GFC, Clan na Gael, Na Piarsaigh, Dowdallshill and Dundalk Young Irelands. Young Irelands (representing Louth) contested the first All-Ireland football final in 1888, losing to the Commercials club, representing Limerick.


title: Dundalk

text: The two hurling clubs in the town are Knockbridge GAA and Naomh Moninne H.C., who are the leading club in Louth with 22 county titles as of 2020. A founding member of Naomh Moninne, Father Pól Mac Sheáin, introduced the All-Ireland Poc Fada Championship in 1960.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk R.F.C. is an amateur Irish Rugby football club who compete in Division 1A of the Leinster League. The club first formed in 1877 and became founder members of the Provincial Towns Union, which then merged into what became the Northern Branch of the Irish Rugby Football Union. They moved to their present home ground at Mill Road in 1967.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk Racecourse was reopened as Dundalk Stadium in 2007 and now holds both horse racing and greyhound racing meetings. It is Ireland's first all-weather horse racing track. The stadium also hosts the Dundalk International greyhound race.


title: Dundalk

text: Golf was first played in Dundalk when a nine-hole course was laid out at Deer Park in 1893. The Dundalk Golf Club was founded in December 1904 at Deer Park, then moved to its present location in Blackrock in 1922. The current layout was designed by Peter Alliss and completed in 1980. The Ballymascanlon Hotel also has a parkland course. Greenore Golf Club (which is within the municipal district) was opened in October 1896 by the London and North Western Railway company, who owned a hotel in Greenore and the Dundalk, Newry and Greenore Railway. The members bought the club when the railway company closed the line and pulled out of Ireland. The modern course layout was designed by Eddie Hackett.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk has several game angling waters including the Dee, Glyde, Fane, Ballymascanlan and Castletown rivers. All of these rivers flow into the Irish sea at Dundalk Bay. These rivers contain good stocks of wild brown trout as well as salmon and sea trout. There is a Salmon Anglers Association and a Brown Trout Anglers Association. Sea Angling is available in several locations in the wider Municipal District and there is also a Sea Angling Club.


title: Dundalk

text: The Dundalk Lawn Tennis and Badminton Club was established in 1913. It is located at the Ramparts in the town centre. The club has nine tennis courts, two Olympic-standard badminton courts and two squash courts. A Dundalk and District Snooker League has been active since the 1940s. It was re-branded as the Dundalk Snooker League in 2010 and plays in the Commercial Club in the town centre. The amateur boxing club, Dealgan ABC, was founded in 1938. The current Dundalk Cricket Club was established in 2009. They play in Hiney Park, the former Dundalk F.C. training ground.


title: Dundalk

text: There are several athletics clubs, including St. Gerards A.C., St. Peter's A.C, Dun Dealgan A.C. and Blackrock A.C., and a triathlon club (Setanta Triathlon Club). Cuchulainn Cycling Club was formed in 1935.


title: Dundalk

text: The Louth Mavericks American Football Club is based in Dundalk and was established in 2012. They play in AFI Division 1, train at DKIT, and play their matches at Dundalk Rugby Club.


title: Dundalk

text: Dundalk's local newspapers are the "Dundalk Democrat" (established as the "Dundalk Democrat and People's Journal" in 1849), "The Argus" (established as the "Drogheda Argus and Leinster Journal" in 1835), and the "Dundalk Leader", a freely distributed newspaper. Online-only news media include "Louth Now".


title: Dundalk

text: Older long-established publications no longer in print include the "Dundalk Examiner and Louth Advertiser" (1880–1960), and "The Dundalk Herald" (1868–1918).


title: Dundalk

text: There are no local or regional television services. In radio, Dundalk is serviced by regional stations LMFM (Louth-Meath FM) on 96.5 FM, and iRadio (NE and Midlands) on 106.2 FM. The local radio station is Dundalk FM, broadcasting on 97.7 FM.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The Aztec or Mexica calendar is the calendrical system used by the Aztecs as well as other Pre-Columbian peoples of central Mexico. It is one of the Mesoamerican calendars, sharing the basic structure of calendars from throughout ancient Mesoamerica.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The Aztec sun stone, also called the calendar stone, is on display at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The calendar consists of a 365-day calendar cycle called (year count) and a 260-day ritual cycle called (day count). These two cycles together form a 52-year "century", sometimes called the "calendar round". The is considered to be the agricultural calendar, since it is based on the sun, and the is considered to be the sacred calendar.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The ("day count") consists of a cycle of 260 days, each day signified by a combination of a number from 1 to 13, and one of the twenty day signs. With each new day, both the number and day sign would be incremented: 1 Crocodile is followed by 2 Wind, 3 House, 4 Lizard, and so forth up to 13 Reed, after which the cycle of numbers would restart (though the twenty day signs had not yet been exhausted) resulting in 1 Jaguar, 2 Eagle, and so on, as the days immediately following 13 Reed. This cycle of number and day signs would continue similarly until the 20th week, which would start on 1 Rabbit, and end on 13 Flower. It would take a full 260 days (13×20) for the two cycles (of twenty day signs, and thirteen numbers) to realign and repeat the sequence back on 1 Crocodile.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The set of day signs used in central Mexico is identical to that used by Mixtecs, and to a lesser degree similar to those of other Mesoamerican calendars. Each of the day signs also bears an association with one of the four cardinal directions.


title: Aztec calendar

text: There is some variation in the way the day signs were drawn or carved. Those here were taken from the .


title: Aztec calendar

text: Other marks on the stone showed the current world and also the worlds before this one. Each world was called a sun, and each sun had its own species of inhabitants. The Aztecs believed that they were in the Fifth Sun and like all of the suns before them they would also eventually perish due to their own imperfections. Every 52 years was marked out because they believed that 52 years was a life cycle and at the end of any given life cycle the gods could take away all that they have and destroy the world.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The 260 days of the sacred calendar were grouped into twenty periods of 13 days each. Scholars usually refer to these thirteen-day "weeks" as , using a Spanish term derived from "thirteen" (just as the Spanish term "dozen" is derived from "twelve"). The original Nahuatl term is not known.


title: Aztec calendar

text: Each is named according to the calendar date of the first day of the 13 days in that . In addition, each of the twenty in the 260-day cycle had its own tutelary deity:


title: Aztec calendar

text: Each 20-day period started on (Crocodile) for which a festival was held. The eighteen are listed below. The dates are from early eyewitnesses; each wrote what they saw. 's date precedes the observations of by several decades and is before recent to the surrender. Both are shown to emphasize the fact that the beginning of the Native new year became non-uniform as a result of an absence of the unifying force of after the Mexica defeat.


title: Aztec calendar

text: The ancient "Mexicans" counted their years by means of four signs combined with thirteen numbers, thus obtaining periods of 52 years, which are commonly known as "Xiuhmolpilli", a popular but incorrect generic name; the most correct Nahuatl word for this cycle is Xiuhnelpilli. The table with the current years:


title: Aztec calendar

text: For many centuries scholars had tried to reconstruct the Calendar. A widely accepted version was proposed by Professor of the , based on the studies of and of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. His correlation argues that the first day of the Mexica year was February 13 of the old Julian calendar or February 23 of the current Gregorian calendar.


title: Aztec calendar

text: Using the same count, it has been the date of the birth of , the end of the year and a cycle or "Tie of the Years", and the New Fire Ceremony, day-sign of the year , corresponding to the date February 22. A correlation by independent researcher Ruben Ochoa interprets pre-Columbian codices, to reconstruct the calendar, while ignoring most primary colonial sources that contradict this idea, using a method that proposes to connect the year count to the vernal equinox and placing the first day of the year on the first day after the equinox.


title: Hima Das

text: Hima Das (born 9 January 2000), nicknamed "Dhing Express", is an Indian sprinter from the state of Assam. She holds the current Indian national record in 400 meters with a timing of 50.79 s that she clocked at the 2018 Asian Games in Jakarta, Indonesia. She is the first Indian athlete to win a gold medal in a track event at the IAAF World U20 Championships. She was appointed as a Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP) in Assam Police under the state's Integrated Sport Policy.


title: Hima Das

text: Hima Das was born at Kandhulimari village, near the town of Dhing in her home state of Assam to Ronjit Das and Jonali Das in a Kaibartta family. Her parents are farmers by profession. She is the youngest of five siblings. She attended the Dhing Public high School and later on Jawahar Navodaya vidyalaya after clearing entrance exam in 5th class and was initially interested in playing football. She used to play football with the boys at her JNV school and had always wanted to pursue a career in football. However, she did not see any prospects for herself in the women's football scene in India. Later, upon advice from a school physical education teacher at JNV, she changed to sprint running.


title: Hima Das

text: Das passed her 12th board exams in May 2019. She is currently pursuing her B.A degree in Cotton University, Assam.


title: Hima Das

text: In April 2018, Das competed in the 2018 Commonwealth Games at Gold Coast, Australia, in the 400 metres and the 4×400 metres relay.


title: Hima Das

text: On 12 July 2018, Das won the 400 m final at the World U-20 Championships 2018 held at Tampere, Finland, clocking 51.46 seconds and becoming the first Indian sprinter to win a gold medal at an international track event.


title: Hima Das

text: At the 2018 Asian Games, Das qualified for the 400 m final, after clocking 51.00 in heat 1 and setting a new Indian national record. On 26 August 2018 she improved the national record to 50.79 s in the 400 m final however she could win only the silver medal. Later on 30 August 2018, she, along with M. R. Poovamma, Sarita Gayakwad and V. K. Vismaya won the women's 4 × 400 metres relay clocking 3:28.72. Hima also won a silver medal in the 4 × 400 m mixed relay, which was held for the first time at Asian Games.


title: Hima Das

text: Das continued her success in 2019 winning the 200m gold in Poznan Grand Prix in Poland, on 2 July 2019, with a time of 23.65 seconds.


title: Hima Das

text: On 20 July 2019, she achieved her third win in a month, and fifth win, in the 400-meters in Nové Město, Czech Republic in a time of 52.09 seconds.


title: Hima Das

text: She was named for the World Championships to be held at Doha in October 2019. However a month before, she was ruled out of participation due to a back problem, that had started right after she competed at the Asian games the previous year.


title: Hima Das

text: On 27 February 2021, Das enrolled as a civil servant in the post of Deputy Superintendent of Police of Assam Police Service cadre through Assam Public Service Commission Direct Entry.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Hügelkultur (), literally mound bed or mound culture is a horticultural technique where a mound constructed from decaying wood debris and other compostable biomass plant materials is later (or immediately) planted as a raised bed. Adopted by permaculture advocates, it is suggested the technique helps to improve soil fertility, water retention, and soil warming, thus benefitting plants grown on or near such mounds.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Hügelkultur is a German word meaning mound culture or hill culture. Though the technique is alleged to have been practiced in German and Eastern European societies for hundreds of years, the term was first published in a 1962 German gardening booklet by Herrman Andrä. Inspired by the diversity of plants growing in a pile of woody debris in his grandmother's garden, Andrä promoted "mound culture" as opposed to "flatland culture". This was also posited as an easy way to utilise woody debris without burning, which was illegal. Andrä appears to have been influenced by Rudolf Steiner's biodynamic agriculture. Steiner explained his biodynamic philosophy as developed through meditation and clairvoyance, rejecting scientific inquiry on the grounds that his methods were “true and correct unto themselves.” Andrä quotes a 1924 lecture on biodynamics by Steiner, which describes mixing of soil with composting or decaying material in earthen hillocks. Joined by author Hans Beba, another German gardener, "Hill Culture - the horticultural method of the future" was revised and republished several times in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Hügelkultur

text: The technique was later adopted and developed by Sepp Holzer, an Austrian permaculture advocate. More recent permaculture advocates such as Paul Wheaton strongly promote Hügelkultur beds as a perfect permaculture design.


title: Hügelkultur

text: In its basic form, mounds are constructed by piling logs, branches, plant waste, compost and additional soil directly on the ground. The pile has the form of a pyramid. The sides of the two slopes both have a grade of between 65 and 80 degrees. The beds are usually about in area and about high. However, this height reduces as decomposition progresses.


title: Hügelkultur

text: When positioned on sloped terrain, the beds need to be placed on contour, or put at an angle to the hillside (rather than having them parallel to it). This makes sure the beds do not receive unequal amounts of water. In most cases, it is useful to have the beds positioned against the prevailing wind direction.


title: Hügelkultur

text: The raised bed can form light-duty swales, circles and mazes. Mounds may also be made from alternating layers of wood, sod, compost, straw, and soil. Although their construction is straightforward, planning is necessary to prevent steep slopes that would result in erosion.


title: Hügelkultur

text: In his book "Desert or Paradise: Restoring Endangered Landscapes Using Water Management, Including Lake and Pond Construction", Holzer describes a method of constructing Hügelkultur which incorporates rubbish such as cardboard, clothes and kitchen waste. He recommends building mounds that are wide and any length. Mounds are built in a trench in sandy soil, and without a trench if the ground is wet.


title: Hügelkultur

text: The mound is left to rest for several months before planting, although some advise immediate planting.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Anything can be grown on the raised beds, but if the bed will decompose/release its nutrients quickly (so long as it is not made of bulky materials like tree trunks), more demanding crops such as pumpkins, courgettes, cucumbers, cabbages, tomatoes, sweet corn, celery, or potatoes are grown in the first year, after which the bed is used for less demanding crops like beans, peas, and strawberries.


title: Hügelkultur

text: The original German publications described the mounds as having a lifespan of 5–6 years, after which they had to be rebuilt from scratch.


title: Hügelkultur

text: As of 2017 there are no peer-reviewed scientific studies available regarding the efficacy of the technique. A few university student projects investigate Hügelkultur but have not been published in scientific journals.


title: Hügelkultur

text: One small scale and short term student project investigated the Hügelkultur method as a potential use for yard trimmings waste, and also if lima beans, kale and okra planted on a Hügelkultur mound showed any signs of nutrient deficiency compared to a non-raised control bed. It was found that over 11 tons of yard trimmings were used in the mound, and no evidence of macronutrient deficiency could be detected in the crops in the short term. Indeed, despite concerns that incorporation of large quantities of high carbon woody matter would lead to nitrogen immobilization and hence nitrogen deficiency in the crop, a higher level of nitrogen was found in the raised bed. However, the micronutrient iron was lower relative to the control bed. The author speculated that no nitrogen deficiency occurred since the roots of the plants did not penetrate past the superficial layers of the mound into the deeper wood-containing region.


title: Hügelkultur

text: A student thesis investigated the water holding capacity of Hügelkultur beds and whether the technique could be useful to prevent karst rocky desertification in China. Over 3 months of measurements, water concentration in hügel mounds remained high. Samples from hügel sites contained almost twice as much water as those from flat control plots. It was suggested that of hügels has 3-10 times more water than a flat plot affected by karst rocky desertification.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Many publications and websites advocate the technique based on personal experience of the authors. Some have criticised the technique as lacking genuine scientific principles, and running counter to the ecological principles of soil building with litterfall.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Hügelkultur is said to replicate the natural process of decomposition that occurs on forest floors, however in natural ecosystems wood would be present at the soil surface. Trees that fall in a forest often become nurse logs decaying and providing ecological facilitation to seedlings. As the wood decays, its porosity increases, allowing it to store water like a sponge. The water is slowly released back into the environment, benefiting nearby plants.


title: Hügelkultur

text: These beds are also considered beneficial because of the airpockets created by the settling caused by the wood's decomposition. This gives the benefits of tilling, without the destruction of soil microorganisms that come with tilling ("every time you till the soil, you lose 30% of the organic material (microbial soil life is killed, and plants feast on their bodies)"). And, the organic material of the rotting wood also houses beneficial soil microorganisms.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Hügelkultur beds are said to be ideal for areas where the underlying soil is of poor quality or compacted. They tend to be easier to maintain due to their relative height above the ground.


title: Hügelkultur

text: The decomposition speed of organic material depends on the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the material, among other factors. Wood breaks down relatively slowly because it has one of the highest carbon to nitrogen ratios of all organic matter that is used in composting. If the wood is not processed into smaller pieces with larger surface area to speed up chemical reactions, breakdown is even slower. The decomposition process may, in the short term, take more nitrogen from the soil through microbial activity (nitrogen immobilization), if not enough nitrogen is available. Thus, in the short term, the fertility of the soil may be decreased before, eventually, perhaps after one to two years, the nitrogen level is increased past the original level. Traditionally, therefore, it is said to be advantageous to balance "browns" (e.g. woodchippings) with "greens" (e.g. grass clippings) for efficient composting, and to allow compost to become well-rotted before applying it to a bed, to prevent competition between soil bacteria and plants for nitrogen, which reduces yield.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Although Hügelkultur beds can safely retain water in light-duty applications (for example, conserving the moisture of rain that falls on the bed), creating heavy-duty rainwater retention areas behind Hügelkultur beds on contour, to catch surface runoff from surrounding areas, can be dangerous. Some designers conflate the Hügelkultur bed's appearance with that of solid earthworks, but Hügelkultur beds cannot predictably control large amounts of stormwater in the way that solid earthworks can. Whereas embankment dams or the hillsides of swales can be relied on to hold back many thousands of gallons of water for weeks to allow it to seep into the ground, and berms can slow runoff, Hügelkultur beds are different in two ways: earthworks have no buoyant core (whereas Hügelkultur mounds contain logs), and the soil that they are made of is compacted. If fresh or dried timber is used in the bed, it may become buoyant in the water-saturated substrate, bursting from the soil covering and releasing all the sitting water through a breach. This can be an issue for years, until the wood is sufficiently rotten and infused with water. Another consideration is that Hügelkultur beds will degrade, shrinking over time into much lower mounds of soft, rich soil. This means that the retention area will have less depth as time goes on, but it also means that the uncompacted soil will remain a threat to breaching even if the logs become saturated.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Some permaculturists have taken mild positions against the "hügel swales" still being promoted by other permaculturists, citing the danger and cross-purposes of Hügelkultur beds and swales. Swales are for long-term installations where perennials - like fruit trees - are grown. Hügelkultur is used for shorter term, more annual crops, as the soil settling that occurs with hugel decomposition is bad for the root system of fruit trees.


title: Hügelkultur

text: There is a recorded instance of a breach occurring in a new project. Upon the first rainstorm, the retention areas behind the Hügelkultur beds filled with water and broke through. The released water carried the freshly-buried logs and dirt downhill, smashing a hole in a building being used as a church and filling the space with mud. No injuries were reported.


title: Hügelkultur

text: Over-fertilized plants are said to have less flavor, and too much nitrogen can be consumed by eating certain plants which have been over-fertilised (e.g., spinach). Advocates state that overfertilization is a risk in the first year if woodchips are used, which will break down too fast. Instead raised beds made with whole logs release nutrients slowly over a period of years. It has been suggested that excessive use of decomposing organic matter in Hügelkultur could leach out and contaminate and disrupt soil and water habitats.


title: Smuggling

text: Smuggling is the illegal transportation of objects, substances, information or people, such as out of a house or buildings, into a prison, or across an international border, in violation of applicable laws or other regulations.


title: Smuggling

text: There are various motivations to smuggle. These include the participation in illegal trade, such as in the drug trade, illegal weapons trade, prostitution, human trafficking, kidnapping, exotic wildlife trade, art theft, heists, chop shops, illegal immigration or illegal emigration, tax evasion, import/export restrictions, providing contraband to prison inmates, or the theft of the items being smuggled.


title: Smuggling

text: Smuggling is a common theme in literature, from Bizet's opera "Carmen" to the James Bond spy books (and later films) "Diamonds Are Forever" and "Goldfinger".


title: Smuggling

text: The verb "smuggle", from Low German "smuggeln" or Dutch "smokkelen" (="to transport (goods) illegally"), apparently a frequentative formation of a word meaning "to sneak", most likely entered the English language during the 1600s–1700s.


title: Smuggling

text: Smuggling has a long and controversial history, probably dating back to the first time at which duties were imposed in any form, or any attempt was made to prohibit a form of traffic. Smuggling is often associated with efforts by authorities to prevent the importation of certain contraband items or non-taxed goods; however, there has also been smuggling based on illegally exporting goods. In England smuggling first became a recognised problem in the 13th century, following the creation of a national customs collection system by Edward I in 1275. Medieval smuggling tended to focus on the export of highly taxed export goods — notably wool and hides. Merchants also, however, sometimes smuggled other goods to circumvent prohibitions or embargoes on particular trades. Grain, for instance, was usually prohibited from export, unless prices were low, because of fears that grain exports would raise the price of food in England and thus cause food shortages and/or civil unrest. Following the loss of Gascony to the French in 1453, imports of wine were also sometimes embargoed during wars to try and deprive the French of the revenues that could be earned from their main export.


title: Smuggling

text: Most studies of historical smuggling have been based on official sources — such as court records, or the letters of Revenue Officers. A senior academic of the University of Bristol states that they only detail the activities of those dumb enough to get caught. This has led him and others, such as Prof. H. V. Bowen of the University of Swansea to use commercial records to reconstruct smuggling businesses. Jones' study focuses on smuggling in Bristol in the mid-16th century, arguing that the illicit export of goods like grain and leather represented a significant part of the city's business, with many members of the civic elite engaging in it, whether by disguised/hidden transport or mis-description of goods. Grain smuggling by members of the civic elite, often working closely with corrupt customs officers, has also been shown to have been prevalent in East Anglia during the later 16th century.


title: Smuggling

text: In England wool was smuggled to the continent in the 17th century, under the pressure of high excise taxes. In 1724 Daniel Defoe wrote of Lymington, Hampshire, on the south coast of England


title: Smuggling

text: "I do not find they have any foreign commerce, except it be what we call smuggling and roguing; which I may say, is the reigning commerce of all this part of the English coast, from the mouth of the Thames to the Land's End in Cornwall."


title: Smuggling

text: The high rates of duty levied on tea and also wine and spirits, and other luxury goods coming in from mainland Europe at this time made the clandestine import of such goods and the evasion of the duty a highly profitable venture for impoverished fishermen and seafarers. In certain parts of the country such as the Romney Marsh, East Kent, Cornwall and East Cleveland, the smuggling industry was for many communities more economically significant than legal activities such as farming and fishing. The principal reason for the high duty was the need for the government to finance a number of extremely expensive wars with France and the United States.


title: Smuggling

text: Before the era of drug smuggling and human trafficking, smuggling had acquired a kind of nostalgic romanticism, in the vein of Robert Louis Stevenson's "Kidnapped":


title: Smuggling

text: "Few places on the British coast did not claim to be the haunts of wreckers or mooncussers. The thievery was boasted about and romanticized until it seemed a kind of heroism. It did not have any taint of criminality and the whole of the south coast had pockets vying with one another over whose smugglers were the darkest or most daring. "The Smugglers Inn" was one of the commonest names for a bar on the coast".