title: Bohr radius

text: where formula_13 is the reduced mass of the electron–proton system (with formula_14 being the mass of proton). The use of reduced mass is a generalization of the classical two-body problem when we are outside the approximation that the mass of the orbiting body is negligible compared to the mass of the body being orbited. Since the reduced mass of the electron–proton system is a little bit smaller than the electron mass, the "reduced" Bohr radius is slightly "larger" than the Bohr radius (formula_15 meters).


title: Bohr radius

text: This result can be generalized to other systems, such as positronium (an electron orbiting a positron) and muonium (an electron orbiting an anti-muon) by using the reduced mass of the system and considering the possible change in charge. Typically, Bohr model relations (radius, energy, etc.) can be easily modified for these exotic systems (up to lowest order) by simply replacing the electron mass with the reduced mass for the system (as well as adjusting the charge when appropriate). For example, the radius of positronium is approximately formula_16, since the reduced mass of the positronium system is half the electron mass (formula_17).


title: Bohr radius

text: A hydrogen-like atom will have a Bohr radius which primarily scales as formula_18, with formula_19 the number of protons in the nucleus. Meanwhile, the reduced mass (formula_20) only becomes better approximated by formula_21 in the limit of increasing nuclear mass. These results are summarized in the equation


title: Russian world

text: The "Russian world" (; ) is the concept of social totality associated with Russian culture. "Russkiy mir" as a concept comprises the core culture of Russia and is in interaction with the diverse cultures of Russia through traditions, history and the Russian language. It comprises also the Russian diaspora with its influence in the world. The concept is based on the notion of "Russianness", and both have been considered ambiguous. The "Russian world" and awareness of it arose through Russian history and was shaped by its periods.


title: Russian world

text: One of the earliest use of the term "Russian world" is attributed to the Great Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev in the 11th century in his praise of Pope Clement II: "with gratitude to that faithful slave who increased the talent of his master – not only in Rome, but everywhere: both in Kherson and in the Russian world" ().


title: Russian world

text: Some, such as Mikhail Tikhomirov, have argued that the 15th-century List of Russian Cities, Near and Far represents an early example of the Russian world concept.


title: Russian world

text: In the 16th century Russia was formed as a self-contained world. Unconsciously, the "Russian world" also absorbed foreign influences from the Western world and the Eastern world/Orient, even if the influences were in the context of the evolution of the "Russian world" rather minor. It was not until the 17th and 18th centuries that the Tsar's throne consciously attempted to Europeanize Russia.


title: Russian world

text: In the Russian Empire, the idea of the "Russian world" was of conservative nationalistic type. Vyacheslav Nikonov, chairman of the Russkiy Mir Foundation, remarked that the "Russian world" did not reach beyond Russia proper. In a 2008 interview, he claimed: "At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Russian world coincided with the Russian Empire, its population numbered 170 million people. The population of the planet then amounted to a billion, which means that every seventh lived in the Russian Empire. Today our population is 142 million, while the world's population has exceeded 6 billion. Today, only one in 50 people lives in Russia."


title: Russian world

text: Major authors behind the resurrection of the concept in post-Soviet Russia include , Yefim Ostrovsky, Valery Tishkov, Vitaly Skrinnik, Tatyana Poloskova and Natalya Narochnitskaya. Since Russia emerged from the Soviet Union as still a significantly multiethnic and multicultural country, for the "Russian idea" to be unifying, it could not be ethnocentric, as it was in the doctrine Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality of the late Russian Empire. In 2000 Shchedrovitsky presented the main ideas of the "Russian world" concept in the article "Russian World and Transnational Russian Characteristics", among the central ones of which was the Russian language. Andis Kudors of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, analyzing Shchedrovitsky's article, concludes that it follows the ideas first laid out by the 18th century philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder about the influence of language on thinking (which has become known as the principle of linguistic relativity): the ones who speak Russian come to think Russian, and eventually to act Russian.


title: Russian world

text: Eventually, the idea of the "Russian world" was adopted by the Russian administration, and Vladimir Putin decreed the establishment of the government-sponsored Russkiy Mir Foundation in 2007.


title: Russian world

text: A number of observers consider the promotion of the "Russian world" concept an element of the revanchist idea of the restoration of Russia or its influence back to the borders of the Soviet Union and the Russian Empire.


title: Russian world

text: Other observers described the concept as an instrument for projecting Russian soft power. In Ukraine, the promotion of the "Russian world" has become strongly associated with the Russo-Ukrainian War. According to assistant editor Pavel Tikhomirov of , the "Russian world" for politicized Ukrainians, whose number constantly increases, nowadays is "simply 'neo-Sovietism' masked by new names". He reconciled that with the conflation of the "Russian world" and the Soviet Union within Russian society itself.


title: Russian world

text: Russia's president Vladimir Putin visited the Arkaim site of the Sintashta culture in 2005, meeting in person with the chief archaeologist Gennady Zdanovich. The visit received much attention from Russian media. They presented Arkaim as the "homeland of the majority of contemporary people in Asia, and, partly, Europe". Nationalists called Arkaim the "city of Russian glory" and the "most ancient Slavic-Aryan town". Zdanovich reportedly presented Arkaim to the president as a possible "national idea of Russia", a new idea of civilisation which Victor Schnirelmann calls the "Russian idea".


title: Russian world

text: On 3 November 2009, at the Third Russian World Assembly, Patriarch Kirill of Moscow defined the "Russian world" as "the common civilisational space founded on three pillars: Eastern Orthodoxy, Russian culture and especially the language and the common historical memory and connected with its common vision on the further social development".


title: Russian world

text: "Russkiy Mir" is an ideology promoted by many in the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church. Patriarch Kiril of Moscow also shares this ideology; for the Russian Orthodox Church, the "Russkiy Mir" is also "a spiritual concept, a reminder that through the baptism of Rus', God consecrated these people to the task of building a "Holy Rus"."


title: Russian world

text: Around 500 Eastern Orthodox scholars signed "Declaration on the 'Russian World' Teaching" on 13 March 2022, calling it an "ideology", "a heresy" and "a form of religious fundamentalism" that is "totalitarian in character". They condemned six "pseudo theological facets". Those condemnations concern: replacing the Kingdom of God with an earthly kingdom; deification of the state through a theocracy and caesaropapism which deprives the Church of its freedom to stand against injustice; divinization of a culture; Manichaen demonization of the West and elevation of Eastern culture; refusal to speak the truth and non-acknowledgement of "murderous intent and culpability" of one party.


title: Russian world

text: "The Economist" states that the "Russian world" concept has become the basis of a crusade against the West's liberal culture and this has resulted into a "new Russian cult of war". It says that Putin's regime has particularly debased the "Russian world" concept with a mixture of obscurantism, Orthodox dogma, anti-West sentiment, nationalism, conspiracy theory and security-state Stalinism. It based this analysis on Putin's first public speech after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine started where he praised the Russian army, using Jesus' words on love as a laying down of one's life. He also referenced Fyodor Ushakov, an admiral who is the Orthodox patron saint of nuclear-armed long-distance bombers. Putin recalled Ushakov's words: "the storms of war would glorify Russia". "The Economist" also pointed to Patriarch Kirill's declaration of the godliness of the war and its role in keeping out the West's alleged decadent gay culture, and to the priest Elizbar Orlov who said that Russia's "special military operation" in Ukraine is cleansing the world of "a diabolic infection".


title: Joe Minoso

text: Joe Miñoso (born September 25, 1978) is an American theater and television actor. He currently stars in NBC's "Chicago Fire".


title: Joe Minoso

text: He saw his first girlfriend in a school play at Lincoln High School where she took him backstage and he decided that he wanted to be involved in acting. Minoso joined the stage crew, eventually auditioning for a role in their production of Dracula the following year. He graduated from Adelphi University with a bachelor's degree in fine arts, and Northern Illinois University with a Master's in fine arts.


title: Joe Minoso

text: Joe Minoso worked extensively in the theater prior to his television and film appearances. He worked at Chicago's Teatro Vista, the largest Latino theater company in the Midwest.


title: Joe Minoso

text: Prior to "Chicago Fire", Joe Minoso lived on the North Side of Chicago. During filming for "Chicago Fire", Minoso lived with co-stars Charlie Barnett and Yuri Sardarov.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Dersu Uzala (, ; alternative U.S. title: Dersu Uzala: The Hunter) is a 1975 Soviet-Japanese film directed and co-written by Akira Kurosawa, his only non-Japanese-language film and his only 70mm film.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: The film is based on the 1923 memoir "Dersu Uzala" (which was named after the native trapper) by Russian explorer Vladimir Arsenyev, about his exploration of the Sikhote-Alin region of the Russian Far East over the course of multiple expeditions in the early 20th century. Shot almost entirely outdoors in the Russian Far East wilderness, the film explores the theme of a native of the forests who is fully integrated into his environment, leading a style of life that will inevitably be destroyed by the advance of civilization. It is also about the growth of respect and deep friendship between two men of profoundly different backgrounds, and about the difficulty of coping with the loss of capability that comes with old age.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: The film won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the Golden Prize and the Prix FIPRESCI at the 9th Moscow International Film Festival, and other awards. It was also a box office hit, selling more than tickets in the Soviet Union and Europe in addition to grossing in the United States and Canada.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: In 1910, in a forest that is being cleared for development, a man of some social standing is searching for an unmarked grave of a friend he says had been buried three years prior. He cannot find any trace of it amid the tumult of rampant construction.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: The film then flashes back to a topographic surveying expedition to the area of Shkotovo in Ussuri region in 1902 led by the same man, Captain Arsenyev (Yury Solomin). Early its journey the troop encounters a nomadic Goldi hunter named Dersu Uzala (Maxim Munzuk). Arsenyev is immediately taken with the man's capabilities as a woodsman, and asks him to become their guide through the harsh frontier. Without a word he takes the lead on the trail the next morning.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Viewed even by the roughhewn cossack soldiers as an uneducated, eccentric old man, Dersu earns everyone's respect through his great experience, accurate instincts, keen powers of observation, and deep compassion. He repairs an abandoned hut and leaves essential provisions of rice, salt, and matches wrapped in birch bark so that a future traveler without them may survive in the wilderness. He deduces the identities and circumstances of complete strangers as he goes by analysing tracks and articles left behind.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Captain Arsenyev reduces his party to just four men, sending the rest ahead to a rendezvous point. Late one day he and Dersu go alone to explore the vast and featureless Lake Khanka. As dusk approaches they become lost in the frozen expanse when wind squalls erase their tracks back to camp. With the last rays of light they are overtaken by a sudden blizzard. Dersu directs Arsenyev to quickly cut and gather reeds - as many as fast as he can, as their lives, he warns, depend on it. Arsenyev complies, with a will, but soon begins to stumble from exhaustion. Repeatedly he is compelled back into action by Dersu. Finally he collapses, out cold. Disoriented in the sun and calm of the next morning, he pieces together that Dersu had built a shelter out of the reeds, dragged him into it, and saved his life. He is forever indebted to his new friend.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: The party then continues onward, ravaged in time by fatigue and starvation, barely able to drag its sled. Facing its last, it is halted by Dersu, who sniffs out a Nani family's home by the scent of frying fish. The men are renewed by food, warmth, and hospitality offered by the simple peasants. With the end of the expedition near, Dersu asks Arsenyev where he will go next. "Back to Khabarovsk," he replies, and invites Dersu to come with him. Dersu tells him that his place is in the forest and that tomorrow he will go on his way. Offered pay for his services, he declines, asking only for some cartridges for his rifle to hunt with. When the party reaches the railroad tracks the next day - which Dersu had only ever heard of before - he takes his leave and returns to the wilderness.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Five years pass. In 1907 Arsenyev begins another expedition in Ussuri. He labors mapping mountain ranges for months, all the while holding hope that he will run into his dear friend. One night at camp one of his men says he ran into an old hunter on the trail a bit back who was asking about their unit. Arsenyev rushes anxiously in the man's direction. Hailing an approaching figure, he is overcome with joy when Dersu answers his call. That evening the two sit by a fire and catch eachother up. Arsenyev asks Dersu to serve as guide again, and is accepted.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Some time on Arsenyev divides his party, sending some upstream at river to search for a ford while he and a handful of men attempt to cross on a log raft. In the chaos of unloading, Arsenyev and Dersu get marooned on the raft and are quickly rushed downstream towards dangerous rapids. Seeing again that Arsenyev does not know how to save his own life, Dersu pushes him off and tells him to swim toward shore. Without even a pole to steer with Dursu makes a desperation leap for the stump of a tree branch midriver a mere moment before the raft is destroyed in a cataract. He then directs the party to cut a tree which can reach him before his strength ebbs in the torrent. One after another they point to a trunk, unable to size up either that tree's height or buoyancy, only to have Dersu shout it down. Finally one is acceptable, downed ferociously, and girded at its base with a lash of every belt and harness in the group. As its thinnest uppermost branches sweep by Dersu he seizes them and is pulled to shore.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Some time passes, with everyone in good spirits. Pictures are taken with Dersu, variously posing formally, pretending to be in action, and caught casually. Arsenyev writes in his journal that some of his fondest memories of Dersu occurred during the beginning of that autumn.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: A short time later, the troop is trekking through the forest when Dersu realises they are being stalked by an "amu", a huge and dangerous Siberian tiger considered sacred to the native peoples. As he had in an encounter with one during the first expedition, Dersu tries to run the animal off by telling it the forest is big enough for both of them, and that it should go its own way. The tiger instead continues to close on Dersu and Arsenyev until Dersu is forced to shoot at it (but misses). Dersu is instantly distraught over doing so. Despite Asenyey's encouragement that the tiger is not injured, Dersu is convinced it will run until dead. He states that Kangnga, the forest deity that his people worship, will be unhappy and will send another amu for him. Shortly after Arsenyev spots a buck, which Dersu fails to even make out. Directed where to point his rifle by Arsenyev, his shot misses. Dersu realizes he can no longer provide for himself as a hunter. Dogged now by twin fears he becomes irritable, yelling at members of the party and distancing himself from Arsenyev.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Ultimately, Dersu appeals to Captain Arsenyev to take him home with him. The nomad quickly discovers how ill-suited he is to living in a "box", prohibited from even shooting his rifle to clean its barrel or put up a tent to sleep outdoors, in a place where people "pay" for water and he gets arrested for trying to chop down a tree in the city park for firewood for the home. Despite his love for Arsenyev and his family, Dersu tells his "captain" he must return to living in the hills. As a parting gift, Arsenyev gives him the newest edition military rifle.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: Some while later, Arsenyev receives a telegram informing him that the body of a Goldi has been found, with no identification on him save Arsenyev's calling card. Arsenyev is requested to come identify it. Arriving by train, he recognizes the corpse as Dersu's without even having to lift the tarp. The official in charge asks some routine questions. When Arsenyev answers that the man was a friend, and a hunter, the official says that no rifle was found with him - then speculates that he must have been killed to get it. As the gravediggers finish their work, a heartsick Arsenyev finds Dersu's walking stick nearby and plants it in the ground beside the grave.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: In an interview conducted for the 1999 RUSCICO DVD release, co-star Solomin stated that Kurosawa had long known of Arsenyev's book and had planned to make a film version very early in his career in the late 1930s, but had dropped the project after realising that it had to be made in the taiga region where the events had actually taken place. The Soviet government allowed few foreigners there. By the 1970s they allowed Kurosawa and his team, but monitored them closely during the year-long production.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: In 1971, Kurosawa attempted suicide during a difficult period in his career, questioning his creative ability after the commercial failure of "Dodes'ka-den" the year before and the subsequent denial of funds for his productions by Japanese studios. In 1972, "Dodes'ka-den" producer Yoichi Matsue and his assistant Teruyo Nogami were approached by the Soviet studio Mosfilm for an adaptation of the Russian memoir "Dersu Uzala" to be directed by Kurosawa. On 1 January 1973, Matsue signed the deal on the condition that Kurosawa receive full creative control. Mosfilm wanted Kurosawa's frequent collaborator Toshiro Mifune to play Dersu, but Matsue convinced them otherwise as Mifune would not be attached to such a long production. Eventually, Tuvan actor Maxim Munzuk was cast. Mosfilm, like Japan's Toho studio that Kurosawa usually worked with, found it impossible to keep the perfectionist director to a tight budget and schedule.


title: Dersu Uzala (1975 film)

text: "Dersu Uzala" sold tickets in the Soviet Union, and made in the United States and Canada. It also sold 994,988 tickets in France, 32,400 tickets in Sweden, and 48,265 tickets in other EU territories since 1996, adding up to tickets sold in the Soviet Union and Europe.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea ( ) is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean located in the Canadian province of British Columbia and the U.S. state of Washington. It includes the Strait of Georgia, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound, and an intricate network of connecting channels and adjoining waterways.


title: Salish Sea

text: The sea stretches from the channels of the Discovery Islands north of the Strait of Georgia to Budd Inlet at the south end of Puget Sound. It is partially separated from the open Pacific Ocean by Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula.


title: Salish Sea

text: Much of the coast is part of the Pacific Northwest megalopolis. Major port cities on the Salish Sea include Vancouver, Seattle, Tacoma, Everett, Bellingham, Port Angeles, and Victoria.


title: Salish Sea

text: The first known use of the term "Salish Sea" was in 1988 when Bert Webber, a geography and environmental social studies professor emeritus in Huxley College of the Environment at Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington, created the name for the combined waters in the region with the intention to complement the names Georgia Strait, Puget Sound, and Strait of Juan de Fuca, not replace them. The adoption of the term, he said, would raise consciousness about taking care of the region's waters and ecosystems. Webber's efforts are credited with the official recognition of the term in Canada and the U.S.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Coast Salish are the indigenous peoples who live in southwest British Columbia and northwest Washington along the Salish Sea and share a common linguistic and cultural origin. The Coast Salish are seen as one of the main cultural and linguistic branches of a larger group known as Salishan or Salish. Five divisions of the Salish language family are recognized, with Coast Salish and Interior Salish being the primary two. The Salish family consists of 23 separate languages. European and American explorers first encountered Salishan people along the Pacific Northwest coast in the late 18th century. The first detailed information was obtained by the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-1806. The term "Salish" was originally applied only to the Interior Salish Flathead tribe living in the region of Flathead Lake, Montana. By the mid-20th century, it had been extended to cover all people speaking a similar language. The Flathead Nation continues to refer to their language and culture as Salish. A variant name for Flathead Lake is "Selish Lake". The name Salish Sea was coined only in the late 20th century. No overarching title exists for this area or even a commonly shared name for any of the waterbodies in any of the Coast Salish languages.


title: Salish Sea

text: The waterways of the Salish Sea were important trade routes for the Coast Salish, and they remain a source of food and other resources for the indigenous peoples. The basin includes territory of not only Coast Salish peoples, but also the Northern Wakashan Kwakwaka'wakw and Southern Wakashan peoples (the Nuu-chah-nulth, Makah, and Ditidaht) and, formerly, that of the Chimakum (a Chimakuan people related to the Quileute, who no longer exist as a recognizable group, having been wiped out by the Suquamish and others in the 19th century).


title: Salish Sea

text: In March 2008, the Chemainus First Nation proposed renaming the Georgia Strait the "Salish Sea", an idea that reportedly met with approval by British Columbia's Aboriginal Relations Minister Mike de Jong, who pledged to put it before the Executive Council of British Columbia for discussion. Making the name "Salish Sea" official required a formal application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. A parallel American movement promoting the name had a different definition, combining the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound, as well as the Strait of Georgia and related waters under the name Salish Sea.


title: Salish Sea

text: In August 2009, the British Columbia Geographical Names Office approved a resolution recommending that the Geographical Names Board of Canada adopt the name Salish Sea contingent on approval by the United States Board on Geographic Names. The name was endorsed by the Washington State Board on Geographic Names in late October 2009. It was approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names on November 12, 2009, and by the British Columbia Geographical Names Office in February 2010. The French name "Mer des Salish" is also official in Canada.


title: Salish Sea

text: In a 2019 survey of residents in the general vicinity of the Salish Sea, only 9% of Washingtonians and 15% of British Columbians were able to correctly identify and name the Salish Sea.


title: Salish Sea

text: The region encompassing these waterways is or was also known variously as the Georgia–Puget or Puget–Georgia Basin, or in the singular as the Georgia Depression, the Georgia Basin or Puget Sound, "et al." The Canadian half of the region was originally named in 1792 by George Vancouver, and often remains referred to as the Gulf of Georgia, a term which encompasses the Strait of Georgia and all other waters peripheral to it, as well as to the communities lining its shores or on its islands. Like the term "Puget Sound", the terms "Georgia Strait" and "Gulf of Georgia" refer to the general region, as well as the body of water.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea is about long and has a surface area of about , which is roughly the same size as the Gulf of Riga in Northern Europe. This combines the total surface area of the Strait of Georgia (6,400 km or 2,471 mi), Strait of Juan de Fuca (4,400 km or 1,699 mi), Puget Sound (2,500 km or 965 mi), Desolation Sound (1,100 km or 425 mi), and various other bodies of water (3,600 km or 1,390 mi). The sea has an average depth of and reaches a maximum depth of in Jervis Inlet.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Transboundary Georgia Basin-Puget Sound Environmental Indicators Working Group defines the limits of the Salish Sea as:


title: Salish Sea

text: "On the West." The entrance to Juan de Fuca Strait (a line between Cape Flattery and Carmanah Point).


title: Salish Sea

text: "On the North." Extends just beyond the Strait of Georgia to include those channels and waterways where the floodstream or tidal surge is from the south: Discovery Passage south of Seymour Narrows, Sutil Channel south of Penn Islands, Lewis Channel, Waddington Channel and Pendrell Sound, Desolation Sound, and the southern portion of Homfray Channel.


title: Salish Sea

text: The watershed of the Salish Sea (not including the Upper Fraser River watershed) has a total area of about , which is over six times the surface area of the sea itself. Major rivers discharging into the sea include the Fraser River, Nisqually River, Nooksack River, Puyallup River, Skagit River, Snohomish River, and Squamish River.


title: Salish Sea

text: The flow of fresh water into the Salish Sea from numerous rivers and the introduction of salt from the Strait of Juan de Fuca create a salinity gradient, which varies considerably depending on seasonal changes in ocean currents and river discharge. The Fraser River is the single largest source of freshwater with an average discharge rate of and a maximum discharge rate of .


title: Salish Sea

text: Residence times at intermediate depths average 60 days in Puget Sound and 160 days in the Strait of Georgia.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea contains more than 400 islands, most of which can be grouped into one of three island groups: the Discovery Islands, Gulf Islands, and San Juan Islands.


title: Salish Sea

text: Whidbey Island in Washington is the largest and most populous island with a total area of and an estimated population of 69,480 as of 2010. Bainbridge Island, also in Washington, is the most densely populated island with 354 residents/km (916 residents/mi) as of 2019. The largest island by far on the Canadian side is Texada Island of 300.45 km (116.00 sq mi), but a population of 1000-2000 people.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea sits within the Georgia Depression, a large depression that formed out of the collision of continental plates about 150 million years ago. The depression was then carved by the advance and retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet during the Vashon Glaciation, which lasted from about 19,000 – 16,000 BP. The retreat of the ice sheet revealed a scarred landscape that filled in with sea water once it had retreated beyond what is now the Strait of Juan de Fuca.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea supports an active and dynamic marine ecosystem, dominated by species suited to the brackish, nutrient-rich, conditions. As with all marine food webs, the Salish Sea features a range of trophic groups, with autotrophic algae acting as primary producers. The fluvial systems draining British Columbia and Washington introduce large volumes of sediment and dissolved nutrients into the Salish Sea.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea hosts a diverse community of kelp species that provide large volumes of high-quality habitat in areas with hard, rocky substrates. The largest of these kelp species include bull kelp and giant kelp.


title: Salish Sea

text: The Salish Sea is home to 253 fish species contained within 78 families and 31 orders. These species encompass one myxinid, two petromyzontids, 18 chondrichthyans, two chondrosteans, and 230 teleosts.


title: Salish Sea

text: In addition, the sea hosts 37 marine mammal species, most notably Steller sea lions, humpback whales, and killer whales (orcas). While mammal-eating transient orcas are gradually increasing in population, fish-eating southern resident orcas have struggled to survive due to low salmon populations. In 2019, this orca population was at a 35-year low after three adult deaths and no surviving calves over three years, leaving only 73 whales in the community. In 2021, an upsurge may occur in the humpback whale population with a record 21 humpback calves spotted in Salish waters.


title: Salish Sea

text: The mineral-rich waters of the Salish Sea are an ideal habitat for the formation of glass sponge reefs. These reefs were believed to have gone extinct during or shortly after the Cretaceous period, until a large collection of existing reefs were discovered off the British Columbia Coast in 1987. Due to their scientific and ecological importance, all known sponge reefs in the Salish Sea are protected from bottom-contact fishing activities.


title: Salish Sea

text: The lowlands surrounding the Salish Sea are part of the WWF-designated Puget lowland forests and Central Pacific coastal forests ecoregions.


title: Salish Sea

text: Of the 172 bird species found in the area, 72 are highly dependent on the marine ecosystem for their food.


title: Salish Sea

text: Since August 20, 2007, at least 20 detached human feet have been found on the coasts of the Salish Sea. The first discovery, on August 20, 2007, was on Jedediah Island in British Columbia.


title: Skip list

text: In computer science, a skip list (or skiplist) is a probabilistic data structure that allows formula_1 average complexity for search as well as formula_1 average complexity for insertion within an ordered sequence of formula_3 elements. Thus it can get the best features of a sorted array (for searching) while maintaining a linked list-like structure that allows insertion, which is not possible with a static array. Fast search is made possible by maintaining a linked hierarchy of subsequences, with each successive subsequence skipping over fewer elements than the previous one (see the picture below on the right). Searching starts in the sparsest subsequence until two consecutive elements have been found, one smaller and one larger than or equal to the element searched for. Via the linked hierarchy, these two elements link to elements of the next sparsest subsequence, where searching is continued until finally searching in the full sequence. The elements that are skipped over may be chosen probabilistically or deterministically, with the former being more common.


title: Skip list

text: A skip list is built in layers. The bottom layer formula_4 is an ordinary ordered linked list. Each higher layer acts as an "express lane" for the lists below, where an element in layer formula_5 appears in layer formula_6 with some fixed probability formula_7 (two commonly used values for formula_7 are formula_9 or formula_10). On average, each element appears in formula_11 lists, and the tallest element (usually a special head element at the front of the skip list) appears in all the lists. The skip list contains formula_12 (i.e. logarithm base formula_13 of formula_3) lists.


title: Skip list

text: A search for a target element begins at the head element in the top list, and proceeds horizontally until the current element is greater than or equal to the target. If the current element is equal to the target, it has been found. If the current element is greater than the target, or the search reaches the end of the linked list, the procedure is repeated after returning to the previous element and dropping down vertically to the next lower list. The expected number of steps in each linked list is at most formula_13, which can be seen by tracing the search path backwards from the target until reaching an element that appears in the next higher list or reaching the beginning of the current list. Therefore, the total "expected" cost of a search is formula_16 which is formula_17, when formula_7 is a constant. By choosing different values of formula_7, it is possible to trade search costs against storage costs.


title: Skip list

text: The elements used for a skip list can contain more than one pointer since they can participate in more than one list.


title: Skip list

text: Insertions and deletions are implemented much like the corresponding linked-list operations, except that "tall" elements must be inserted into or deleted from more than one linked list.


title: Skip list

text: formula_20 operations, which force us to visit every node in ascending order (such as printing the entire list), provide the opportunity to perform a behind-the-scenes derandomization of the level structure of the skip-list in an optimal way, bringing the skip list to formula_1 search time. (Choose the level of the i'th finite node to be 1 plus the number of times it is possible to repeatedly divide i by 2 before it becomes odd. Also, i=0 for the negative infinity header as there is the usual special case of choosing the highest possible level for negative and/or positive infinite nodes.) However this also allows someone to know where all of the higher-than-level 1 nodes are and delete them.


title: Skip list

text: Like the derandomized version, quasi-randomization is only done when there is some other reason to be running an formula_20 operation (which visits every node).


title: Skip list

text: The advantage of this quasi-randomness is that it doesn't give away nearly as much level-structure related information to an adversarial user as the de-randomized one. This is desirable because an adversarial user who is able to tell which nodes are not at the lowest level can pessimize performance by simply deleting higher-level nodes. (Bethea and Reiter however argue that nonetheless an adversary can use probabilistic and timing methods to force performance degradation.) The search performance is still guaranteed to be logarithmic.


title: Skip list

text: It would be tempting to make the following "optimization": In the part which says "Next, for each "i"th...", forget about doing a coin-flip for each even-odd pair. Just flip a coin once to decide whether to promote only the even ones or only the odd ones. Instead of formula_23 coin flips, there would only be formula_1 of them. Unfortunately, this gives the adversarial user a 50/50 chance of being correct upon guessing that all of the even numbered nodes (among the ones at level 1 or higher) are higher than level one. This is despite the property that there is a very low probability of guessing that a particular node is at level "N" for some integer "N".


title: Skip list

text: A skip list does not provide the same absolute worst-case performance guarantees as more traditional balanced tree data structures, because it is always possible (though with very low probability) that the coin-flips used to build the skip list will produce a badly balanced structure. However, they work well in practice, and the randomized balancing scheme has been argued to be easier to implement than the deterministic balancing schemes used in balanced binary search trees. Skip lists are also useful in parallel computing, where insertions can be done in different parts of the skip list in parallel without any global rebalancing of the data structure. Such parallelism can be especially advantageous for resource discovery in an ad-hoc wireless network because a randomized skip list can be made robust to the loss of any single node.


title: Skip list

text: As described above, a skip list is capable of fast formula_1 insertion and removal of values from a sorted sequence, but it has only slow formula_20 lookups of values at a given position in the sequence (i.e. return the 500th value); however, with a minor modification the speed of random access indexed lookups can be improved to formula_1.


title: Skip list

text: For every link, also store the width of the link. The width is defined as the number of bottom layer links being traversed by each of the higher layer "express lane" links.


title: Skip list

text: Notice that the width of a higher level link is the sum of the component links below it (i.e. the width 10 link spans the links of widths 3, 2 and 5 immediately below it). Consequently, the sum of all widths is the same on every level (10 + 1 = 1 + 3 + 2 + 5 = 1 + 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 2).


title: Skip list

text: To index the skip list and find the i'th value, traverse the skip list while counting down the widths of each traversed link. Descend a level whenever the upcoming width would be too large.


title: Skip list

text: For example, to find the node in the fifth position (Node 5), traverse a link of width 1 at the top level. Now four more steps are needed but the next width on this level is ten which is too large, so drop one level. Traverse one link of width 3. Since another step of width 2 would be too far, drop down to the bottom level. Now traverse the final link of width 1 to reach the target running total of 5 (1+3+1).


title: Skip list

text: Skip lists are used for efficient statistical computations of running medians (also known as moving medians).


title: Skip list

text: Skip lists are also used in distributed applications (where the nodes represent physical computers, and pointers represent network connections) and for implementing highly scalable concurrent priority queues with less lock contention, or even without locking, as well as lock-free concurrent dictionaries. There are also several US patents for using skip lists to implement (lockless) priority queues and concurrent dictionaries.


title: Las Vegas Grand Prix

text: The Las Vegas Grand Prix is a planned Formula One Grand Prix due to form part of the 2023 Formula One World Championship, with the event taking place in Paradise, Nevada, on a temporary street circuit including the Las Vegas Strip.


title: Las Vegas Grand Prix

text: This event will mark the first time Formula One races in Las Vegas since the season with the former Caesars Palace Grand Prix. The event is due to take place around the Las Vegas Strip. It will be the third Grand Prix in the United States to take place on the calendar after the Miami and the United States Grands Prix, and will mark the first time since 1982 that there will be three races held in the United States in one Formula One season.


title: Las Vegas Grand Prix

text: The street circuit features 17 corners and a straight. The circuit runs counter clockwise, and starts in a disused parking lot which will be re-developed for the pits and paddock area, and contains permanent track. The first corner is a hairpin, and after that the course bends slightly left and then into a fast right, transitioning from the permanent circuit to city streets. The cars go down Koval Lane, before entering a slow 90 degree right, and then entering a long, sweeping left which encircles the new MSG Sphere arena, before going through a left-right twisty section, that is a change from the original design, and then a slightly faster left that transitions onto Sands Avenue. The track then goes through two very fast bends on Sands Avenue before entering a slow left onto Las Vegas Boulevard, otherwise known as the Las Vegas Strip. This is a flat-out section with two straights and a slight sweeping left that goes past some of Las Vegas's most famous hotels and casinos. The circuit then goes through a tight series of slow corners onto Harmon Avenue, down an straight before going through a very fast left to complete the lap and transition back to the permanent track past the pits.


title: G protein

text: G proteins, also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, are a family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell to its interior. Their activity is regulated by factors that control their ability to bind to and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to guanosine diphosphate (GDP). When they are bound to GTP, they are 'on', and, when they are bound to GDP, they are 'off'. G proteins belong to the larger group of enzymes called GTPases.


title: G protein

text: There are two classes of G proteins. The first function as monomeric small GTPases (small G-proteins), while the second function as heterotrimeric G protein complexes. The latter class of complexes is made up of "alpha" (α), "beta" (β) and "gamma" (γ) subunits. In addition, the beta and gamma subunits can form a stable dimeric complex referred to as the beta-gamma complex


title: G protein

text: Heterotrimeric G proteins located within the cell are activated by G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that span the cell membrane. Signaling molecules bind to a domain of the GPCR located outside the cell, and an intracellular GPCR domain then in turn activates a particular G protein. Some active-state GPCRs have also been shown to be "pre-coupled" with G proteins, whereas in other cases a collision coupling mechanism is thought to occur. The G protein activates a cascade of further signaling events that finally results in a change in cell function. G protein-coupled receptor and G proteins working together transmit signals from many hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling factors. G proteins regulate metabolic enzymes, ion channels, transporter proteins, and other parts of the cell machinery, controlling transcription, motility, contractility, and secretion, which in turn regulate diverse systemic functions such as embryonic development, learning and memory, and homeostasis.


title: G protein

text: G proteins were discovered in 1980 when Alfred G. Gilman and Martin Rodbell investigated stimulation of cells by adrenaline. They found that when adrenaline binds to a receptor, the receptor does not stimulate enzymes (inside the cell) directly. Instead, the receptor stimulates a G protein, which then stimulates an enzyme. An example is adenylate cyclase, which produces the second messenger cyclic AMP. For this discovery, they won the 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.


title: G protein

text: Nobel prizes have been awarded for many aspects of signaling by G proteins and GPCRs. These include receptor antagonists, neurotransmitters, neurotransmitter reuptake, G protein-coupled receptors, G proteins, second messengers, the enzymes that trigger protein phosphorylation in response to cAMP, and consequent metabolic processes such as glycogenolysis.


title: G protein

text: G proteins are important signal transducing molecules in cells. "Malfunction of GPCR [G Protein-Coupled Receptor] signaling pathways are involved in many diseases, such as diabetes, blindness, allergies, depression, cardiovascular defects, and certain forms of cancer. It is estimated that about 30% of the modern drugs' cellular targets are GPCRs." The human genome encodes roughly 800 G protein-coupled receptors, which detect photons of light, hormones, growth factors, drugs, and other endogenous ligands. Approximately 150 of the GPCRs found in the human genome still have unknown functions.


title: G protein

text: Whereas G proteins are activated by G protein-coupled receptors, they are inactivated by RGS proteins (for "Regulator of G protein signalling"). Receptors stimulate GTP binding (turning the G protein on). RGS proteins stimulate GTP hydrolysis (creating GDP, thus turning the G protein off).


title: G protein

text: All eukaryotes use G proteins for signaling and have evolved a large diversity of G proteins. For instance, humans encode 18 different G proteins, 5 G proteins, and 12 G proteins.


title: G protein

text: G protein can refer to two distinct families of proteins. Heterotrimeric G proteins, sometimes referred to as the "large" G proteins, are activated by G protein-coupled receptors and are made up of alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) subunits. ""Small" G proteins" (20-25kDa) belong to the Ras superfamily of small GTPases. These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but are in fact monomeric, consisting of only a single unit. However, like their larger relatives, they also bind GTP and GDP and are involved in signal transduction.


title: G protein

text: Different types of heterotrimeric G proteins share a common mechanism. They are activated in response to a conformational change in the GPCR, exchanging GDP for GTP, and dissociating in order to activate other proteins in a particular signal transduction pathway. The specific mechanisms, however, differ between protein types.


title: G protein

text: Receptor-activated G proteins are bound to the inner surface of the cell membrane. They consist of the G and the tightly associated G subunits. There are many classes of G subunits: Gα (G stimulatory), Gα (G inhibitory), Gα (G other), Gα, and Gα are some examples. They behave differently in the recognition of the effector molecule, but share a similar mechanism of activation.


title: G protein

text: When a ligand activates the G protein-coupled receptor, it induces a conformational change in the receptor that allows the receptor to function as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that exchanges GDP for GTP. The GTP (or GDP) is bound to the G subunit in the traditional view of heterotrimeric GPCR activation. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G subunit (which is bound to GTP) from the G dimer and the receptor as a whole. However, models which suggest molecular rearrangement, reorganization, and pre-complexing of effector molecules are beginning to be accepted. Both G-GTP and G can then activate different "signaling cascades" (or "second messenger pathways") and effector proteins, while the receptor is able to activate the next G protein.


title: G protein

text: The G subunit will eventually hydrolyze the attached GTP to GDP by its inherent enzymatic activity, allowing it to re-associate with G and starting a new cycle. A group of proteins called Regulator of G protein signalling (RGSs), act as GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), are specific for G subunits. These proteins accelerate the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP, thus terminating the transduced signal. In some cases, the effector "itself" may possess intrinsic GAP activity, which then can help deactivate the pathway. This is true in the case of phospholipase C-beta, which possesses GAP activity within its C-terminal region. This is an alternate form of regulation for the G subunit. Such G GAPs do not have catalytic residues (specific amino acid sequences) to activate the G protein. They work instead by lowering the required activation energy for the reaction to take place.


title: G protein

text: G activates the cAMP-dependent pathway by stimulating the production of cyclic AMP (cAMP) from ATP. This is accomplished by direct stimulation of the membrane-associated enzyme adenylate cyclase. cAMP can then act as a second messenger that goes on to interact with and activate protein kinase A (PKA). PKA can phosphorylate a myriad downstream targets.


title: G protein

text: G stimulates the membrane-bound phospholipase C beta, which then cleaves PIP (a minor membrane phosphoinositol) into two second messengers, IP3 and diacylglycerol (DAG).


title: G protein

text: The Inositol Phospholipid Dependent Pathway is used as a signal transduction pathway for many hormones including:


title: G protein

text: Small GTPases, also known as small G-proteins, bind GTP and GDP likewise, and are involved in signal transduction. These proteins are homologous to the alpha (α) subunit found in heterotrimers, but exist as monomers. They are small (20-kDa to 25-kDa) proteins that bind to guanosine triphosphate (GTP). This family of proteins is homologous to the Ras GTPases and is also called the Ras superfamily GTPases.


title: G protein

text: In order to associate with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, many G proteins and small GTPases are lipidated, that is, covalently modified with lipid extensions. They may be myristoylated, palmitoylated or prenylated.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu (20 December 1909 – 17 September 1953), also known as Consort Shu (hanzi: 淑妃) and Ailian (愛蓮), was a consort of Puyi, the last Emperor of China and final ruler of the Qing dynasty. She was from the Mongol Erdet (額爾德特) Clan and her family was under the Bordered Yellow Banner of the Eight Banners.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu was born on 20 December 1909. Her courtesy name was Huixin and her self-chosen pseudonym was Ailian. She belonged to the Mongolian Erdet clan of the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner. Her father was Duangong (1852-1908), and her mother was Lady Jiang. She also had a sister named Wenshan. During her childhood, Wenxiu was to be enrolled in a school, and was given the name Fu Yufang.


title: Wenxiu

text: In 1921, Wenxiu was among the candidates listed as suitable by the Qing court as Empress consort. They were not paraded before the emperor as had previously been the tradition; instead, they had their photographs taken and presented to Puyi, who was encouraged to choose his empress from among them. Puyi himself claims that he in fact chose Wenxiu as his empress rather than Wanrong.


title: Wenxiu

text: However, his choice was not approved of because of a conflict among his predecessor's widows, who had different favorites among the candidates. When the time came for Puyi to marry, Imperial Noble Consort Duankang and Imperial Noble Consort Jingyi had an argument over who should be the empress (the emperor's primary spouse). Lady Tatara favoured Wanrong, while Jinyi preferred Wenxiu. In Lady Tatara's opinion, Wenxiu was not beautiful enough to be empress, and she came from a lesser family background as compared to Wanrong. Despite this, Puyi's first choice was Wenxiu, and this frustrated Lady Tatara. She held a discussion with other nobles and officials in the imperial court, and they succeeded in persuading Puyi to select Wanrong as his empress and name Wenxiu as a consort.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wanrong, who was unhappy with Puyi having another wife, wrote several letters to Wenxiu deriding or teasing her while they both lived in the Forbidden City. Wenxiu politely replied to one of Wanrong's more cordial letters, helping to correct Wanrong's typos.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu said of her time in the Forbidden city: "There was a generator in the palace, but it often broke down and it was common to have power failure. Puyi didn't live with his Empress or his Consort, so I had to live alone in the spacious Changchun Palace. The nights were so long and so horrible, and the loneliness in my heart was hard to be got rid of. I lit a candle and faced the lonely lamp, waiting until the candle was burned most. When the wick became longer and the light shadow began to swing, I would take a pair of scissors to cut the wick shorter. A spell of indescribable mawkishness ran through me and I thought: I was just like this half-burned candle whose tears would run out soon and whose life would be turned into a smoke. Was this place really a palace of magnificence? Maybe it was just a macabre grave!"


title: Wenxiu

text: Along with Puyi and Empress Wanrong, Wenxiu left the Forbidden City in 1924, and moved to the Zhang Garden (张园) in the Japanese Concession of Tianjin. Later they moved to the Jing Garden. According to Puyi, Wenxiu and Wanrong were during this period both obsessed with luxury and material possessions, specified by the fact that as soon one of his consorts was given a gift, the other one demanded to be given the same.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu reminisced on her time at the Zhang Garden (their first home) in Tianjin, recalling: "Puyi and Wanrong lived on the second floor, and I lived in a room next to Puyi's parlor on the first floor. Though we lived in the same building, we didn't visit each other if there was nothing important. We seemed to be strangers with each other in the street. Wanrong put on airs of being an empress all day round and was arrogant. Puyi always believed what she said and they both showed the cold shoulder on me. The feelings between Puyi and me disappeared gradually day by day."


title: Wenxiu

text: Wanrong noted in her diary that on 14 August 1931, Wenxiu had seen her from a window in the act of smoking opium, and called out (to Wanrong): "Why should you take opium? You'd better stab your belly. Why could you still be alive but not kick the bucket? Why wouldn't you jump from the high building or jump into the river? Why just follow my steps to have a drink? I have survived so many times... I have changed my mind and I won't commit suicide any longer. You don't need to sell.. for me."


title: Wenxiu

text: Wanrong, who had mixed feelings for Wenxiu, having her badly rebuked and scolded for spitting in the courtyard near her, seeing it as a secret insult, wrote a diary entry reflecting the crisis that Wenxiu was going through, noting that Wenxiu had stabbed herself with a pair of scissors. The Empress attempted to improve the situation by suggesting to Puyi that they have dinner together, with Puyi replying (in English): "You mustn't, if you call her here, I won't eat." Puyi normally went out with Wanrong often leaving Wenxiu at home. Further deepening the breakdown in relations, on one occasion Wenxiu scolded a eunuch who had ignored her. Puyi, who was nearby, misinterpreted this as an attack on him and put out an edict, knowing she was potentially suicidal, ordering Wenxiu to die.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu was more dissatisfied with her life than Wanrong, and ultimately, status was less important to her. Wenxiu had secretly planned a divorce with help from her sister, and used an outing with her sister, with permission granted by Puyi, as an opportunity to escape from the Jing Garden. Wenxiu and her sister drove to a hotel where lawyers were waiting. She filed for and was granted a divorce in 1931, just months before Puyi and Wanrong moved to Manchukuo. According to Puyi, Wenxiu demonstrated great courage and willpower during the proceedings, as her wish was greatly disapproved of. Puyi claimed that a relative of Wenxiu wrote in distaste of the decision. Following the divorce, Puyi, urged by former Qing officials, stripped Wenxiu of her imperial titles. According to Puyi, she worked as a school teacher for some years after the divorce. Puyi later blamed Wanrong, who disliked that Puyi had another wife, for the divorce.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu married Major Liu Zhendong in 1947 at the well-known Dongxing Pavilion (东兴楼) in Beiping (present day Beijing). Liu later ran a car rental business, which soon went into bankruptcy. Later, their landlord fled following the surrender of Beiping in 1948 (which was renamed "Beijing" in 1949 at the end the Chinese Civil War). After the war, Liu confessed to the government regarding their historical issue and found a job in a cleaning services company. They lived in poverty in a house.


title: Wenxiu

text: Wenxiu died with only her husband by her side in their house at 10 p.m. (22:00 China Standard Time) on September 17, 1953. Later, with the help of her husband and his group of cleaning service colleagues, she was buried outside the Andingmen.


title: Wenxiu

text: In 2004, the descendants of the imperial house of the Qing Dynasty granted posthumous titles to Puyi, his two spouses, and his two consorts. However, Wenxiu did not receive a posthumous title because she was considered to have been reduced to the status of a commoner after she divorced Puyi.


title: Srabanti Chatterjee

text: Srabanti Chatterjee is an Indian actress, former journalist at ABP News and anchor who appears in Bengali language films. Srabanti primarily works in cinema of West Bengal, based in Kolkata.


title: Srabanti Chatterjee

text: Chatterjee joined Bharatiya Janata Party on 1 March 2021. She was given the ticket and contested the 2021 West Bengal Legislative Assembly election from Behala Paschim against state minister of School Education and TMC heavyweight Partha Chatterjee but lost the election by 50,884 votes. On 11 November 2021, Srabanti quit the Bharatiya Janata Party, eight months after joining the party.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: Jeedigunta Varun Sandesh (born 21 July 1989) is an Indian American actor known primarily for his works in Telugu cinema. He made his debut with Sekhar Kammula's coming-of-age drama "Happy Days" (2007), and went on to appear in films such as "Kotha Bangaru Lokam" (2008), "Kurradu" (2009), "Yemaindi Ee Vela" (2010), "D for Dopidi" (2013), "Pandavulu Pandavulu Thummeda" (2014) and "Mama Manchu Alludu Kanchu" (2015). In 2019, Sandesh appeared in Telugu reality TV show "Bigg Boss 3" as a contestant and finished at fourth place.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: Varun Sandesh was born in Rayagada, Orissa and later lived in Hyderabad for four years. His family then moved to Bridgewater Township, New Jersey, in the United States, where he was educated.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: Varun Sandesh is the grandson of noted Telugu writer Jeedigunta Ramachandra Murthy, who worked for All India Radio for 28 years in Hyderabad. His uncle Jeedigunta Sridhar is a popular Telugu television personality in Hyderabad, India. He has one younger sister, Veena Sahithi, who has worked as a singer and lyricist in Nandini Reddy's "Ala Modalaindi".


title: Varun Sandesh

text: Sandesh and actress Shraddha Das, who was his co-star in "Maro Charitra", had a short-lived relationship in 2011. Varun got engaged with actress Vithika Sheru on 7 December 2015, and they went on to get married.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: In 2007, Sandesh applied for auditions for a Sekhar Kammula film through an online advertisement, despite having no prior acting experience and previously planning to pursue medical studies.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: He received a reply of one scene's film script, which he was asked to act out and send back. He shot and sent video clippings of himself to Kammula, which promptly landed him a lead role in the film "Happy Days". Featuring an ensemble cast, comprised almost entirely with newcomers, "Happy Days" was a major critical and commercial success, winning several accolades, including six Filmfare Awards South and three Nandi Awards.


title: Varun Sandesh

text: He then starred in romantic drama "Kotha Bangaru Lokam" (2008), which received critical acclaim and went on to become one of the biggest blockbusters of the year. Sandesh followed this initial success by starring in a number of films that did not perform well at the box office, including action film "Kurradu" (2009), a remake of the 2007 Tamil hit film "Polladhavan", and romantic drama "Maro Charitra" (2010), a remake of the K. Balachander-directed 1978 blockbuster of the same title, which starred Kamal Haasan. Sandesh's career prospects declined further following a series of box office flops through the 2010s, with his only successes being the romantic comedy "Yemaindi Ee Vela" (2010), crime comedy "D for Dopidi" (2013), and ensemble comedy "Pandavulu Pandavulu Thummeda" (2014).


title: Varun Sandesh

text: In 2019, Sandesh became a notable television personality for his participation in Star Maa's reality TV show "Bigg Boss Telugu 3", reaching the grand finale and finishing in 4th place. Sandesh is also the brand ambassador for the Kalanjali store in Andhra Pradesh, India.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: In thermal physics and thermodynamics, the heat capacity ratio, also known as the adiabatic index, the ratio of specific heats, or Laplace's coefficient, is the ratio of the heat capacity at constant pressure () to heat capacity at constant volume (). It is sometimes also known as the "isentropic expansion factor" and is denoted by (gamma) for an ideal gas or (kappa), the isentropic exponent for a real gas. The symbol is used by aerospace and chemical engineers.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: where is the heat capacity, formula_2 the molar heat capacity (heat capacity per mole), and the specific heat capacity (heat capacity per unit mass) of a gas. The suffixes and refer to constant-pressure and constant-volume conditions respectively.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: The heat capacity ratio is important for its applications in thermodynamical reversible processes, especially involving ideal gases; the speed of sound depends on this factor.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: To understand this relation, consider the following thought experiment. A closed pneumatic cylinder contains air. The piston is locked. The pressure inside is equal to atmospheric pressure. This cylinder is heated to a certain target temperature. Since the piston cannot move, the volume is constant. The temperature and pressure will rise. When the target temperature is reached, the heating is stopped. The amount of energy added equals , with representing the change in temperature. The piston is now freed and moves outwards, stopping as the pressure inside the chamber reaches atmospheric pressure. We assume the expansion occurs without exchange of heat (adiabatic expansion). Doing this work, air inside the cylinder will cool to below the target temperature. To return to the target temperature (still with a free piston), the air must be heated, but is no longer under constant volume, since the piston is free to move as the gas is reheated. This extra heat amounts to about 40% more than the previous amount added. In this example, the amount of heat added with a locked piston is proportional to , whereas the total amount of heat added is proportional to . Therefore, the heat capacity ratio in this example is 1.4.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: Another way of understanding the difference between and is that applies if work is done to the system, which causes a change in volume (such as by moving a piston so as to compress the contents of a cylinder), or if work is done by the system, which changes its temperature (such as heating the gas in a cylinder to cause a piston to move). applies only if formula_3, that is, no work is done. Consider the difference between adding heat to the gas with a locked piston and adding heat with a piston free to move, so that pressure remains constant. In the second case, the gas will both heat and expand, causing the piston to do mechanical work on the atmosphere. The heat that is added to the gas goes only partly into heating the gas, while the rest is transformed into the mechanical work performed by the piston. In the first, constant-volume case (locked piston), there is no external motion, and thus no mechanical work is done on the atmosphere; is used. In the second case, additional work is done as the volume changes, so the amount of heat required to raise the gas temperature (the specific heat capacity) is higher for this constant-pressure case.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For an ideal gas, the molar heat capacity is at most a function of temperature, since the internal energy is solely a function of temperature for a closed system, i.e., formula_4, where is the amount of substance in moles. In thermodynamic terms, this is a consequence of the fact that the internal pressure of an ideal gas vanishes.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: Mayer's relation allows us to deduce the value of from the more easily measured (and more commonly tabulated) value of :


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: This relation may be used to show the heat capacities may be expressed in terms of the heat capacity ratio () and the gas constant ():


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: The classical equipartition theorem predicts that the heat capacity ratio () for an ideal gas can be related to the thermally accessible degrees of freedom () of a molecule by


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: As an example of this behavior, at 273 K (0 °C) the noble gases He, Ne, and Ar all have nearly the same value of , equal to 1.664.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For a diatomic gas, often 5 degrees of freedom are assumed to contribute at room temperature since each molecule has 3 translational and 2 rotational degrees of freedom, and the single vibrational degree of freedom is often not included since vibrations are often not thermally active except at high temperatures, as predicted by quantum statistical mechanics. Thus we have


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For example, terrestrial air is primarily made up of diatomic gases (around 78% nitrogen, N, and 21% oxygen, O), and at standard conditions it can be considered to be an ideal gas. The above value of 1.4 is highly consistent with the measured adiabatic indices for dry air within a temperature range of 0–200 °C, exhibiting a deviation of only 0.2% (see tabulation above).


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For a linear triatomic molecule such as , there are only 5 degrees of freedom (3 translations and 2 rotations), assuming vibrational modes are not excited. However, as mass increases and the frequency of vibrational modes decreases, vibrational degrees of freedom start to enter into the equation at far lower temperatures than is typically the case for diatomic molecules. For example, it requires a far larger temperature to excite the single vibrational mode for , for which one quantum of vibration is a fairly large amount of energy, than for the bending or stretching vibrations of .


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For a non-linear triatomic gas, such as water vapor, which has 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of freedom, this model predicts


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: As noted above, as temperature increases, higher-energy vibrational states become accessible to molecular gases, thus increasing the number of degrees of freedom and lowering . Conversely, as the temperature is lowered, rotational degrees of freedom may become unequally partitioned as well. As a result, both and increase with increasing temperature.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: Despite this, if the density is fairly low and intermolecular forces are negligible, the two heat capacities may still continue to differ from each other by a fixed constant (as above, ), which reflects the relatively constant difference in work done during expansion for constant pressure vs. constant volume conditions. Thus, the ratio of the two values, , decreases with increasing temperature.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: However, when the gas density is sufficiently high and intermolecular forces are important, thermodynamic expressions may sometimes be used to accurately describe the relationship between the two heat capacities, as explained below. Unfortunately the situation can become considerably more complex if the temperature is sufficiently high for molecules to dissociate or carry out other chemical reactions, in which case thermodynamic expressions arising from simple equations of state may not be adequate.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: Values based on approximations (particularly ) are in many cases not sufficiently accurate for practical engineering calculations, such as flow rates through pipes and valves at moderate to high pressures. An experimental value should be used rather than one based on this approximation, where possible. A rigorous value for the ratio can also be calculated by determining from the residual properties expressed as


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: Values for are readily available and recorded, but values for need to be determined via relations such as these. See relations between specific heats for the derivation of the thermodynamic relations between the heat capacities.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: The above definition is the approach used to develop rigorous expressions from equations of state (such as Peng–Robinson), which match experimental values so closely that there is little need to develop a database of ratios or values. Values can also be determined through finite-difference approximation.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: This ratio gives the important relation for an isentropic (quasistatic, reversible, adiabatic process) process of a simple compressible calorically-perfect ideal gas:


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: In gas dynamics we are interested in the local relations between pressure, density and temperature, rather than considering a fixed quantity of gas. By considering the density formula_16 as the inverse of the volume for a unit mass, we can take formula_17 in these relations.


title: Heat capacity ratio

text: For an imperfect or non-ideal gas, Chandrasekhar defined three different adiabatic indices so that the adiabatic relations can be written in the same form as above; these are used in the theory of stellar structure:


title: Michele Carey

text: Michele Carey (born Michele Lee Henson; February 26, 1942 – November 21, 2018) was an American actress who was best known for her role as Josephine "Joey" MacDonald in the 1966 Western film "El Dorado". She appeared in movies and guest-starred in television series in the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Michele Carey

text: Carey was born on February 26, 1942, in Annapolis, Maryland, to Stanley Willard Henson, Jr., and Thelma Burnell Henson; her father was working as a wrestling instructor at the U.S. Naval Academy. The family soon moved to Rochester, Minnesota, where her father continued his medical studies. Carey was a piano prodigy who won a national contest at the Chicago Music Festival at age 13, and performed with the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra.


title: Michele Carey

text: Carey's family eventually moved to Fort Collins, Colorado, where her father practiced as a physician, becoming Fort Collins' first open-heart surgeon. She graduated from Fort Collins High School in 1960.


title: Michele Carey

text: After graduating from high school, she was signed by the Powers agency and moved to Los Angeles in 1964 with her son to pursue a modeling career. She enjoyed success as a model, but she was more interested in acting. Aided by her beauty and trademark long, wild hair, she soon caught the eye of Hollywood producers. In 1964, she made her first television appearance on "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." as a receptionist.


title: Michele Carey

text: The following year, she did more television work, had a small part in the classic beach party film "How to Stuff a Wild Bikini" (1965), and acted in her first major film, the 1966 Howard Hawks-produced and directed Western "El Dorado", with a memorable role as high-spirited troublemaker Josephine "Joey" MacDonald, acting alongside John Wayne, Robert Mitchum, and James Caan. Carey went on to co-star in films such as the Elvis Presley vehicle "Live a Little, Love a Little" (1968), "The Sweet Ride" (1968), and "Dirty Dingus Magee" (1970), starring Frank Sinatra, in which she played an anachronistically miniskirted Indian girl.


title: Michele Carey

text: On television, she appeared in guest-starring roles on episodes of "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." (1964), "" (1969), "It Takes a Thief" (1970), and three episodes of "The Wild Wild West" ("The Night of the Feathered Fury", 1967 and the two-part "The Night of the Winged Terror", 1969), the December 1969 episode "Tug-of-War" on "The F.B.I.", "Starsky and Hutch", and "Alias Smith and Jones". Carey played the title role in the 1972 "Gunsmoke" episode "Tara", appeared in the second "The Six Million Dollar Man" pilot film (1973), and co-starred with Angie Dickinson and Roy Thinnes in the Dan Curtis TV movie "The Norliss Tapes" that same year. She provided the recurring female computer voice in "A Man Called Sloane" (1979–80). Carey retired from acting in 1984, but made a brief comeback in the film "In the Shadow of Kilimanjaro" (1986), which was her last performance. She also appeared as Crystal in a 1982 episode of the television series "The Fall Guy".


title: Michele Carey

text: Carey was briefly married to her son's (her only child) father in 1961. She was married again in the early 1970s to the man who would adopt her son. She was also briefly married in the early 1990s to a businessman in New Mexico. Carey's last marriage was with businessman Fred G. Strebel in 1999, and she resided with him in Hillsborough and Rancho Mirage. Strebel died on December 28, 2011.


title: Michele Carey

text: Carey died at the age of 75 on November 21, 2018, of natural causes in Newport Beach, California. Her father, who had been the oldest living NCAA wrestling champion, died earlier the same year. Her mother died in 2016. She was preceded in death by her only child Kevin Troy Schwanke.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: The Cobbler is a 2014 American magic realism comedy-drama film directed by Tom McCarthy and co-written by McCarthy with Paul Sado. The film stars Adam Sandler, Cliff "Method Man" Smith, Ellen Barkin, Melonie Diaz, Dan Stevens, and Steve Buscemi. It was screened in the Special Presentations section at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. The film was released on March 13, 2015, by Image Entertainment. The film was panned by critics and was a box office bomb.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: On New York City's Lower East Side in 1903, a group of Jewish men gather in a cobbler's shop to discuss a neighborhood problem. Gergerman has been threatening their businesses, harassing them and their families. Handing a pair of Gergerman's shoes to the cobbler, Pinchas Simkin, he takes them to the shop basement and uses a special stitching machine on the shoes. His young son Herschel enters, and he explains how important the machine is.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: In the present day, the great-grandson of Pinchas, Max Simkin is the cobbler. Jimmy operates the barber shop next door. Carmen Herrera, a young woman of the Lower East Side is fighting against large developers who are tearing down parts of the neighborhood to build huge complexes. Max doesn't seem to care at all about the shop. He lives at home with his ailing mother Sarah and wishes they could see Max's father again.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Local thug Leon Ludlow brings his shoes to the shop to resole them. Max's current stitching machine fails, so he uses the old one. He checks Ludlow's shoe size; it's 10 1/2, the same as his. Max tries the shoes on and transforms into Ludlow. He uses the machine on other shoes, and realizes what he can do with it.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Max experiments living as someone else, going to Chinatown as a Chinese man, going to a restaurant as one and leaving as another, not paying. Taryn brings in her British boyfriend Emiliano's shoes, and Max uses them. As Emiliano, he goes to a bar, noticed by beautiful women. One approaches him, noting that she once saw him leaving with a man. Going to his home as Emiliano, he finds Taryn taking a shower and she invites him to join her. He eagerly starts to undress, then realizes if he takes off a shoe, he will no longer be Emiliano, so he leaves. Max decides to make his mother happy by using the shoes of his father Abraham. Having dinner with Sarah as Abraham gives her one more night of happiness.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: The next morning Sarah has died, so he and his family sit shiva for the week. When he returns to work, Ludlow demands his shoes back or he'll kill Max. Using several pairs of shoes to disguise himself, Max follows Ludlow to his apartment, witnessing Ludlow extorting businesses along the route. Disguised as Ludlow, Max is let into Ludlow's apartment by Ludlow's girlfriend Macy, who has had enough of Ludlow's abuse and is packing her bags to leave. Max searches for Ludlow's watch collection, and finds a cache of weapons. The real Ludlow returns and starts to strangle Max (still in Ludlow's shoes) until Max tasers him and ties him up. Max, still disguised as Ludlow, goes with two of Ludlow's associates to where a man is being tortured. About to kill the captive, Max calls off the henchmen. Afterward, they meet slum lord Elaine Greenawalt, who gives him an envelope filled with cash to buy out a tenant.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Max returns to Ludlow's apartment wearing someone's stilettos, but Ludlow has freed himself from his constraints. Ludlow ambushes and attempts to kill Max, but during the scuffle is stabbed with the stilettos and killed. Max goes directly to the police to report the killing, but when they go to the apartment, all the evidence is gone. Returning to the shoe repair shop, Max finds the stilettos have been mysteriously returned to the shop counter, along with his bag of shoes and the envelope of cash. Jimmy confronts Max about his recent odd behavior, telling Max the secret, that his father did the same thing before he disappeared.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Max goes with Carmen to visit Mr. Solomon, the man Greenawalt has been threatening. Despite the threats, Mr. Solomon refuses to leave, as he has lived there for decades and raised his daughter there. Max devises a plot to bilk Greenawalt out of thousands while still letting Solomon keep his home. When Greenawalt realizes she is being tricked, she goes to Solomon's and threatens to kill him and kill his daughter. Max has arranged to have this all recorded on camera by the local news, and Greenewalt is arrested.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Max's life starts to return to normal. Carmen goes into the shop and invites him to dinner. Impersonating Ludlow, he gives the watches to Macy, apologizing. As he leaves, he is abducted by a group of men led by the man he had saved. They are about to drive off when their car is struck.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Max wakes up in Jimmy's barber shop and is offered some water and a pickle, which Jimmy says help with the transition from one body to another. Max asks how he knew that, Jimmy takes off his shoes revealing that he is actually Abraham, his father. The real Jimmy is in the Caribbean. Both elated and angry, Max hugs his dad, then is shown a huge collection of shoes that he's gathered over the years. Abraham then takes Max in his limo through the city, telling him the story of how the stitching machine came into their family.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: On September 19, 2013, Adam Sandler was in talks to join Tom McCarthy's "The Cobbler", which began shooting in November 2013. Voltage Pictures fully financed the film and it was produced by Mary Jane Skalski. On November 12, 2013 Dan Stevens joined the cast. Dustin Hoffman and Steve Buscemi also joined cast during shooting on November 18, 2013. Other cast members include Melonie Diaz, Method Man, Sondra James, Kevin Breznahan, Greta Lee and Craig Walker. On September 9, 2014, Image Entertainment acquired the US distribution rights to the film for $3.5 million.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Principal photography began on November 11, 2013, in New York City, before Sandler began his next project "Men, Women & Children".


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: "The Cobbler" was released in a limited release and through video on demand on March 13, 2015, and since its release, it has been reported to be the biggest box-office flop of Adam Sandler's career – earning only $24,000 at the U.S. box office in its opening weekend. Outside of North America, the film earned $6.5 million and another $2.3 million from domestic video sales.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: "The Cobbler" was panned by critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 10%, based on 72 reviews, with a weighted average score of 3.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Cobbler" represents a slight step up from Adam Sandler's recent comedies, but while its cloying sentiment proves a more palatable substitute for his usual crass humor, it still isn't terribly compelling." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 23 out of 100, based on reviews from 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Uri Klein of Haaretz pointed out that while "The Cobbler" is "one of the few times in Sandler's career in which he has chosen to work for a director with a certain pedigree", and "the plot has fantastical impersonation elements that links it to comedians of an earlier era, such as Jerry Lewis and Danny Kaye", the result is unsatisfying in terms of both plot and characters. The A.V. Club chose the film as the worst film of 2015. "The Cobbler" was discussed extensively on the October 22nd episode of Chapo Trap House during which the film was largely panned by the show's hosts.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: Jared Mobarak of "The Film Stage" gave the film a positive review, noting that "embraces its slightness to warm hearts" and praised Method Man in particular for his performance.


title: The Cobbler (2014 film)

text: "The Cobbler" was a litigant to lawsuit, where an individual was accused of illegally downloading this movie. The significance is that the judge ruled that the IP address provided by the Internet Service Provider did not meet the test to definitively associate a person with a specific activity.


title: Pound cake

text: Pound cake is a type of cake traditionally made with a pound of each of four ingredients: flour, butter, eggs, and sugar. Pound cakes are generally baked in either a loaf pan or a Bundt mold. They are sometimes served either dusted with powdered sugar, lightly glazed, or with a coat of icing.


title: Pound cake

text: It is believed that the pound cake is of northern European origin and dates back to the early 1700s. A recipe for pound cake is in the first U.S. cookbook, "American Cookery", which was published in 1796.


title: Pound cake

text: Over time the ingredients for pound cake changed. Eliza Leslie, who wrote the 1851 edition of Direction for Cookery, used 10 eggs, beat them as lightly as possible, mixed them with a pound of flour, then added the juice of two lemons or three large oranges. This changed the flavor and texture of the cake. In the 2008 issue of "Saveur", James Villas wrote that cake flour would not work in place of all-purpose flour because it lacks the strength to support the heavy batter.


title: Pound cake

text: An early variation on this cake replaced some of the flour with cornmeal made from dried corn (maize), which was then called "Indian meal". A recipe for Indian pound cake was first published in 1828 by Eliza Leslie and later included in "The Indian Meal Book", which was published in London in 1846, when people in Ireland were looking for alternatives to expensive wheat flour.


title: Pound cake

text: There are numerous variations on the traditional pound cake, with certain countries and regions having distinctive styles. These can include the addition of flavoring agents (such as vanilla extract or almond extract) or dried fruit (such as currants or dried cranberries), as well as alterations to the original recipe to change the characteristics of the resulting pound cake. For instance, baking soda or baking powder may be incorporated to induce leavening during baking, resulting in a less dense pound cake. A cooking oil (typically a vegetable oil) is sometimes substituted for some or all of the butter, which is intended to produce a moister cake. Sour cream pound cake is a popular variation in the United States, which involves the substitution of sour cream for some of the butter, which also is intended to produce a moister cake with a tangy flavor. Some of these variations may drastically change the texture and flavor of the pound cake, but the name pound cake is often still used. Some of the variations are described below.


title: Pound cake

text: In France, the pound cake is well known. The name of the pound cake , means four quarters. There are equal weights in each of the four quarters. In tradition, the popular cake of the French region of Brittany, as its name implies, uses the same quantity of the four ingredients, but with no added fruit of any kind. However, the Caribbean parts of the world that speak French traditionally add rum to the ingredients for Christmas Eve or even mashed bananas for extra moisture. In some cases, the French might have beaten egg whites instead of whole eggs to lighten the batter. Other variants include adding chocolate or lemon juice for flavor.


title: Pound cake

text: In Mexico, the pound cake is called '. The basic recipe of Mexican ' is much like the traditional U.S. recipe. Most common variants are ' (pound cake with walnuts) and ' (pound cake with raisins).


title: Pound cake

text: "Ponqué" is the Colombian and Venezuelan version of the pound cake: the term is itself a Spanish phonetic approximation of "pound-cake". The "ponqué" is essentially a wine-drenched cake with a cream or sugar coating, and it is very popular at birthdays, weddings and other social celebrations.


title: Pound cake

text: The German term "" (stirred cake) refers to any kind of cake where a batter is made by mixing flour, butter, eggs, sugar, and often milk. The concept of the first four ingredients having equal proportions is not common, but, nevertheless, this style of cake batter forms the basis of many popular cake recipes. With the simple addition of nuts, cocoa, dried fruits and alcohols, and the use of different shapes and sizes of tins, a wide variety of traditional German cakes are made. For example, this dough or a minor variation of it is often used to make cakes made in a loaf tin (' - orange cake; ' - hazelnut cake), marbled cakes in a bundt tin (' ) and other flavor combinations in shaped tins (' - fake venison saddle with bitter chocolate and almonds, "Osterlamm" - Easter Lamb with vanilla and rum).


title: Pound cake

text: In the technical language of professional baking, these recipes are classified as "Eischwerteig mit Fett" ("egg-heavy batter with shortening"). For example, in a German cooks' vocational school book from the 1980s the basic recipe for such a cake baked in a 26 cm (10") spring form tin is given as four eggs, three egg-weights of butter, four egg-weights of sugar, three egg weights of flour and one egg-weight of starch. It is close to the English pound of each and the French four equal quarters.


title: Grammar checker

text: A grammar checker, in computing terms, is a program, or part of a program, that attempts to verify written text for grammatical correctness. Grammar checkers are most often implemented as a feature of a larger program, such as a word processor, but are also available as a stand-alone application that can be activated from within programs that work with editable text.


title: Grammar checker

text: The earliest "grammar checkers" were programs that checked for punctuation and style inconsistencies, rather than a complete range of possible grammatical errors. The first system was called Writer's Workbench, and was a set of writing tools included with Unix systems as far back as the 1970s. The whole "Writer's Workbench" package included several separate tools to check for various writing problems. The "diction" tool checked for wordy, trite, clichéd or misused phrases in a text. The tool would output a list of questionable phrases, and provide suggestions for improving the writing. The "style" tool analyzed the writing style of a given text. It performed a number of readability tests on the text and output the results, and gave some statistical information about the sentences of the text.


title: Grammar checker

text: Aspen Software of Albuquerque, New Mexico released the earliest version of a diction and style checker for personal computers, "Grammatik", in 1981. "Grammatik" was first available for a Radio Shack - TRS-80, and soon had versions for CP/M and the IBM PC. Reference Software of San Francisco, California, acquired "Grammatik" in 1985. Development of "Grammatik" continued, and it became an actual grammar checker that could detect writing errors beyond simple style checking.


title: Grammar checker

text: Other early diction and style checking programs included "Punctuation & Style", "Correct Grammar", "RightWriter" and "PowerEdit". While all the earliest programs started out as simple diction and style checkers, all eventually added various levels of language processing, and developed some level of true grammar checking capability.


title: Grammar checker

text: Until 1992, grammar checkers were sold as add-on programs. There were a large number of different word processing programs available at that time, with WordPerfect and Microsoft Word the top two in market share. In 1992, Microsoft decided to add grammar checking as a feature of Word, and licensed CorrecText, a grammar checker from Houghton Mifflin that had not yet been marketed as a standalone product. WordPerfect answered Microsoft's move by acquiring Reference Software, and the direct descendant of "Grammatik" is still included with WordPerfect.


title: Grammar checker

text: As of 2019, grammar checkers are built into systems like Google Docs and Sapling.ai, browser extensions like Grammarly and Qordoba, desktop applications like Ginger, free and open-source software like LanguageTool, and text editor plugins like those available from WebSpellChecker Software.


title: Grammar checker

text: The earliest writing style programs checked for wordy, trite, clichéd, or misused phrases in a text. This process was based on simple pattern matching. The heart of the program was a list of many hundreds or thousands of phrases that are considered poor writing by many experts. The list of questionable phrases included alternative wording for each phrase. The checking program would simply break text into sentences, check for any matches in the phrase dictionary, flag suspect phrases and show an alternative. These programs could also perform some mechanical checks. For example, they would typically flag doubled words, doubled punctuation, some capitalization errors, and other simple mechanical mistakes.


title: Grammar checker

text: True grammar checking is more complex. While a programming language has a very specific syntax and grammar, this is not so for natural languages. One can write a somewhat complete formal grammar for a natural language, but there are usually so many exceptions in real usage that a formal grammar is of minimal help in writing a grammar checker. One of the most important parts of a natural language grammar checker is a dictionary of all the words in the language, along with the part of speech of each word. The fact that a natural word may be used as any one of several parts of speech (such as "free" being used as an adjective, adverb, noun, or verb) greatly increases the complexity of any grammar checker.


title: Grammar checker

text: A grammar checker will find each sentence in a text, look up each word in the dictionary, and then attempt to parse the sentence into a form that matches a grammar. Using various rules, the program can then detect various errors, such as agreement in tense, number, word order, and so on. It is also possible to detect some stylistic problems with the text. For example, some popular style guides such as The Elements of Style deprecate excessive use of the passive voice. Grammar checkers may attempt to identify passive sentences and suggest an active-voice alternative.


title: Grammar checker

text: The software elements required for grammar checking are closely related to some of the development issues that need to be addressed for speech recognition software. In voice recognition, parsing can be used to help predict which word is most likely intended, based on part of speech and position in the sentence. In grammar checking, the parsing is used to detect words that fail to follow accepted grammar usage.


title: Grammar checker

text: Recently, research has focused on developing algorithms which can recognize grammar errors based on the context of the surrounding words.


title: Grammar checker

text: Grammar checkers are considered as a type of foreign language writing aid which non-native speakers can use to proofread their writings as such programs endeavor to identify syntactical errors. However, as with other computerized writing aids such as spell checkers, popular grammar checkers are often criticized when they fail to spot errors and incorrectly flag correct text as erroneous. The linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum argued in 2007 that they were generally so inaccurate as to do more harm than good: "for the most part, accepting the advice of a computer grammar checker on your prose will make it much worse, sometimes hilariously incoherent."


title: Heterodox economics

text: Heterodox economics is any economic thought or theory that contrasts with orthodox schools of economic thought, or that may be beyond neoclassical economics. These include institutional, evolutionary, feminist, social, post-Keynesian (not to be confused with New Keynesian), ecological, Austrian, Marxian, socialist, and anarchist economics.


title: Heterodox economics

text: Economics may be called "orthodox" or "conventional" economics by its critics. Alternatively, mainstream economics deals with the "rationality–individualism–equilibrium nexus" and heterodox economics is more "radical" in dealing with the "institutions–history–social structure nexus".


title: Heterodox economics

text: A 2008 review documented several prominent groups of heterodox economists since at least the 1990s as working together with a resulting increase in coherence across different constituents. Along these lines, the International Confederation of Associations for Pluralism in Economics (ICAPE) does not define "heterodox economics" and has avoided defining its scope. ICAPE defines its mission as "promoting pluralism in economics."


title: Heterodox economics

text: In defining a common ground in the "critical commentary", one writer described fellow heterodox economists as trying to do three things: (1) identify shared ideas that generate a pattern of heterodox critique across topics and chapters of introductory macro texts; (2) give special attention to ideas that link methodological differences to policy differences; and (3) characterize the common ground in ways that permit distinct paradigms to develop common differences with textbook economics in different ways.


title: Heterodox economics

text: One study suggests four key factors as important to the study of economics by self-identified heterodox economists: history, natural systems, uncertainty, and power.


title: Heterodox economics

text: In the mid-19th century, such thinkers as Auguste Comte, Thomas Carlyle, John Ruskin and Karl Marx made early critiques of orthodox economy. A number of heterodox schools of economic thought challenged the dominance of neoclassical economics after the neoclassical revolution of the 1870s. In addition to socialist critics of capitalism, heterodox schools in this period included advocates of various forms of mercantilism, such as the American School dissenters from neoclassical methodology such as the historical school, and advocates of unorthodox monetary theories such as Social credit. Other heterodox schools active before and during the Great Depression included Technocracy and Georgism.


title: Heterodox economics

text: Physical scientists and biologists were the first individuals to use energy flows to explain social and economic development. Joseph Henry, an American physicist and first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, remarked that the "fundamental principle of political economy is that the physical labor of man can only be ameliorated by… the transformation of matter from a crude state to a artificial condition...by expending what is called power or energy."


title: Heterodox economics

text: The rise, and absorption into the mainstream of Keynesian economics, which appeared to provide a more coherent policy response to unemployment than unorthodox monetary or trade policies contributed to the decline of interest in these schools.


title: Heterodox economics

text: After 1945, the neoclassical synthesis of Keynesian and neoclassical economics resulted in a clearly defined mainstream position based on a division of the field into microeconomics (generally neoclassical but with a newly developed theory of market failure) and macroeconomics (divided between Keynesian and monetarist views on such issues as the role of monetary policy). Austrians and post-Keynesians who dissented from this synthesis emerged as clearly defined heterodox schools. In addition, the Marxist and institutionalist schools remained active but with limited acceptance or credibility.


title: Heterodox economics

text: From approximately 1980 mainstream economics has been significantly influenced by a number of new research programs, including behavioral economics, complexity economics, evolutionary economics, experimental economics, and neuroeconomics. One key development has been an epistemic turn away from theory towards an empirically driven approach focused centrally on questions of causal inference. As a consequence, some heterodox economists, such as John B. Davis, proposed that the definition of heterodox economics has to be adapted to this new, more complex reality: