title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: In the citywide Board of Supervisors elections, Chinatown forms part of District Three and in 2014 accounted for 44% of both registered voters and ballots cast. The two main newspapers read among residents are Sing Tao Daily and World Journal.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: San Francisco Chinatown restaurants are considered to be the birthplace of Americanized Chinese cuisine such as food items like Chop Suey while introducing and popularizing Dim Sum to American tastes, as its Dim Sum tea houses are a major tourist attraction. Johnny Kan was the proprietor of one of the first modern style Chinese restaurants, which opened in 1953. Many of the district's restaurants have been featured in food television programs on Chinese cuisine such as Martin Yan's "Martin Yan - Quick & Easy".


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: Chinatown has served as a backdrop for several movies, television shows, plays and documentaries including "The Maltese Falcon", "What's Up, Doc?", "Big Trouble in Little China", "The Pursuit of Happyness", "The Presidio", "Flower Drum Song", "The Dead Pool", "Chan Is Missing", "Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings", and "Godzilla".


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: Noted Chinese American writers grew up there such as Russell Leong. Contrary to popular belief, while the Chinese-American writer Amy Tan was inspired by Chinatown and its culture for the basis of her book The Joy Luck Club and the subsequent movie, she did not grow up in this area; she was born and grew up in Oakland. Notable 1940s basketball player Willie "Woo Woo" Wong, who excelled in local schools, college and professional teams, was born in, and grew up playing basketball in, Chinatown; a local playground bears his name. Actor Bruce Lee, who was born at San Francisco Chinese Hospital before moving back to Hong Kong three months later, returned to the United States at the age of eighteen, residing in San Francisco's Chinatown for the first few months before moving to Seattle.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: San Francisco cable cars have long served areas of Chinatown; the modern system serves the southern (along California Street) and western (along Powell Street) sections of the neighborhood.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: The Stockton Street Tunnel was completed in 1914 and brought San Francisco Municipal Railway Streetcar service to Stockton Street. After the tracks were removed, the overhead wires were maintained and buses replaced streetcars along the route. The "30 Stockton" and "45 Union-Stockton" are among the most heavily ridden lines in the system. Modern rail service will return at Chinatown station upon completion of the Central Subway.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: The Broadway Tunnel was completed in 1952 and was intended to serve as a connection between the Embarcadero Freeway and the Central Freeway. These plans did not materialize due to the highway revolts at the time. The tunnel currently serves to connect Chinatown with Russian Hill and Van Ness Avenue to the west.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: In the 1980s, Chinatown merchants were opposed to the removal of the Embarcadero Freeway, but these objections were overturned after it was damaged in the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. According to the "San Francisco Chronicle", activist Rose Pak then "almost single-handedly persuaded the city to build" the $1.5 billion Central Subway project to compensate Chinatown for the demolition of the freeway.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: The 49-Mile Scenic Drive is routed through Chinatown, with particular attention paid to the corner of Grant and Clay.


title: Chinatown, San Francisco

text: On October 20th, 2022, Rose Pak station was first shown to the public after years of development, with promises of completion of the station sometime in January. With a soft launch on November 12th, 2022 introducing two new metro stations downtown.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: Patrick Cantlay (born March 17, 1992) is an American professional golfer. He had a successful amateur career and was the number one golfer in the World Amateur Golf Ranking for 55 weeks. He has won eight times on the PGA Tour as well as the 2021 FedEx Cup.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: Cantlay was born in Long Beach, California to Steve and Colleen (Naylan) Cantlay, He has a sister, Caroline, and two brothers, Nick and Jack Cantlay. He attended Servite High School where he won the California State High School Championship as a senior.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In his freshman year at UCLA, Cantlay won four tournaments and won the Haskins Award as the most outstanding college golfer in 2011. He was also named the Golf Coaches Association of America (GCAA) Division I Jack Nicklaus National Player of the Year. Cantlay also won the Phil Mickelson Award as the GCAA National Freshman of the Year in addition to being the Pac-10 Player of the Year and Freshman of the Year. He also won the Mark H. McCormack Medal as the top-ranked amateur in the world at the end of the 2011 season. This award earned him an invitation to the 2012 Open Championship.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: Cantlay qualified for the 2011 U.S. Open through sectional qualifying. He was one of three amateurs to make the cut along with Russell Henley and Brad Benjamin. Rounds of 70 and 72 over the weekend ensured he was low amateur. His back nine 30 was the best in the tournament and he finished in a tie for 21st. The following week, on June 24, Cantlay shot the lowest round in PGA Tour history by an amateur when he shot a course record 60 at the Travelers Championship at TPC River Highlands in Cromwell, Connecticut. The following week, he finished as the low amateur at the AT&T National, finishing in a tie for 20th place. The following week, Cantlay won the Southern California Amateur at the San Gabriel Country Club. He was also low amateur at the 2011 RBC Canadian Open in July, finishing in a tie for ninth place.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: On August 6, Cantlay lost to Ethan Tracy in the Western Amateur final at the North Shore Country Club in Glenview, Illinois. On August 28, at Erin Hills in Erin, Wisconsin, he lost in the final of the U.S. Amateur to Kelly Kraft. Making the finals earned him a spot in the 2012 Masters Tournament, where he finished in a tie for 47th, making him the low amateur.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: On March 23, 2011 he became world number 1 in the World Amateur Golf Ranking. He holds the records for most consecutive weeks at number one, 54, and held the record for most total weeks at number one, 55, until Jon Rahm eclipsed him in 2016.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In June 2012, Cantlay decided to forgo his final two years of college to turn professional. The decision to go professional meant forfeiting his spot at the 2012 Open Championship. His professional debut was at the 2012 Travelers Championship, where he missed the cut. Prior to the Travelers, Cantlay announced he would be signing with Mark Steinberg and Excel Sports Management Group, the same management as Tiger Woods. Cantlay was the number one amateur in the world before turning pro, holding the top spot for a record 55 weeks. At the time, he was also ranked 415th in the Official World Golf Ranking. He earned his first professional paycheck at AT&T National, finishing in a tie for 66th. The following week he finished in a tie for 38th at the Greenbrier Classic.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: Cantlay earned his first professional win at the 2013 Colombia Championship, an event on the Web.com Tour. He played in the Web.com Tour Finals and finished 11th to earn his PGA Tour card for 2014. In the 2013–14 season he played only five events due to a back injury and was granted an 11-event medical extension. He played in just one tournament the following season, in late 2014, but didn't play at all in 2015 or 2016. As of the start of the 2017 season, ten starts remained on his medical extension.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In February 2016, his caddie, Chris Roth, was killed in a hit-and-run accident in Newport Beach, California while Roth and Cantlay were out on the town. Roth had been a high school teammate of Cantlay's and had caddied for him in his amateur and professional career.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In his second start of the 2017 season, Cantlay regained his PGA Tour card with a runner-up finish at the Valspar Championship. He finished third at the Heritage, 10th at the Northern Trust, 13th at the Dell Technologies Championship and 9th at the BMW Championship, which allowed him to qualify to the Tour Championship.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In his second start of the 2018 season, on November 5, 2017, Cantlay won his first PGA Tour title at the Shriners Hospitals for Children Open on the second extra hole of a three-man playoff. It was the second consecutive year in which his second start of the season secured his Tour card for the following season.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: On November 4, 2018, Cantlay narrowly missed defending his title at the Shriners Hospitals for Children Open. He finished second by one stroke to champion Bryson DeChambeau.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In 2019, he finished tied for third place at the PGA Championship behind winner, Brooks Koepka. Two weeks later he won the Memorial Tournament in Dublin, Ohio, a result that lifted him into the world top-10 for the first time. Cantlay shot a final round of 64 to come from four strokes behind the 54-hole leader Martin Kaymer and win his second PGA Tour title.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In October 2019, Cantlay again narrowly missed winning the Shriners Hospitals for Children Open. He lost a playoff to Kevin Na on the second playoff hole. In December, Cantlay played on the U.S. team at the 2019 Presidents Cup at Royal Melbourne Golf Club in Australia. The U.S. team won 16–14. Cantlay went 3–2–0 and won his Sunday singles match against Joaquín Niemann.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In October 2020, Cantlay won the Zozo Championship at Sherwood Country Club in Thousand Oaks, California. The event normally takes place in Japan but was moved to California in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: At The American Express in January 2021, Cantlay made the halfway cut on the number; and then fired twenty birdies over the weekend, including in a 11-under-par final round 61 to post a 22-under total and the clubhouse lead. He was eventually edged out by a single stroke by Kim Si-woo. In June, Cantlay won the Memorial Tournament for a second time. He beat Collin Morikawa in a playoff. On August 29, 2021, Cantlay won the BMW Championship on the sixth hole of a sudden-death playoff over Bryson DeChambeau. The following week, Cantlay, on September 5, 2021, won the Tour Championship at East Lake Golf Club in Atlanta, Georgia. This victory won him the FedEx Cup and a $15,000,000 season long bonus. He was voted the PGA Tour Player of the Year.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: In September 2021, Cantlay played on the U.S. team in the 2021 Ryder Cup; he won three and tied one of the four matches he played.


title: Patrick Cantlay

text: Cantlay qualified for the U.S. team at the 2022 Presidents Cup; he won three and lost one of the four matches he played.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: Taylor Zakhar Perez (born December 25, 1991) is an American actor popularly known for portraying Marco Valentin Peña in "The Kissing Booth 2".


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: Perez was born in Chicago on December 25, 1991 and grew up in Chesterton, Indiana. He attended Chesterton High School, where he was a swimmer. Perez is of Middle Eastern, Mediterranean and Mexican descent.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: His mother is an aesthetician and he is the third youngest of eight children. He earned a swimming scholarship to Fordham University, but turned it down to attend UCLA where he majored in Spanish, Culture and Community with a minor in TV and Films.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: Perez started by performing musicals in opera houses at an early age. Modelling came next and he moved to Los Angeles. He took photos in his room with a sheet as backdrop and sent them in manila envelopes with self tapes.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: Perez began his career by appearing in various popular shows like "iCarly", "Suburgatory", "Young & Hungry", "Code Black" and "Scandal".


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: In 2020, Perez played Marco Valentin Peña in Netflix's "The Kissing Booth 2" opposite Joey King. For his role, he took choreography and guitar lessons. In 2021, he reprised the role in the third film "The Kissing Booth 3".


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: In 2022, Perez starred in HBO Max's comedy series "Minx" as Shane Brody. He will star in the gaming comedy film "1Up" as Dustin. Perez will also headline Amazon Prime Video's "Red, White & Royal Blue" as Alex Claremont-Diaz opposite Nicholas Galitzine.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: At the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, Perez partnered with Variant Malibu, a 3D tech company to make masks. They cut 90% of traditional manufacturing waste. He also designed his own masks with "The Kissing Booth 2" co-stars Joel Courtney, Joey King, Meganne Young and Maisie Richardson-Sellers. The proceeds from his masks went to a Chicago organisation that helps disabled kids, adults and families with disabled kids in the Hispanic community.


title: Taylor Zakhar Perez

text: "I really like digging my heels into one social issue and being like, 'This is what I know. This is what I'm learning.' And maybe the people that follow me will have read everything along the way and understood it," said Perez.


title: Retribution (upcoming film)

text: Retribution is an upcoming thriller film directed by Nimród Antal and starring Liam Neeson. It is a remake of the 2015 Spanish film "El desconocido".


title: Retribution (upcoming film)

text: Retribution is an American-German-Spanish co-production by Studiocanal and Studio Babelsberg Motion Pictures. It was shot mainly at Babelsberg Studios in Potsdam and in the streets of Berlin, where the story takes place.


title: Retribution (upcoming film)

text: Neeson was cast as the lead in November 2020. In May 2021, it was announced that Champion and Aspell were cast to portray the son and daughter of Neeson's character respectively. In June 2021, it was announced that Modine, Davidtz and Moayed were cast in the film. In July 2021, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Modine completed his scenes that were filmed in Germany.


title: Visual flight rules

text: In aviation, visual flight rules (VFR) are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the weather must be better than basic VFR weather minima, i.e. in visual meteorological conditions (VMC), as specified in the rules of the relevant aviation authority. The pilot must be able to operate the aircraft with visual reference to the ground, and by visually avoiding obstructions and other aircraft.


title: Visual flight rules

text: If the weather is less than VMC, pilots are required to use instrument flight rules, and operation of the aircraft will be primarily through referencing the instruments rather than visual reference. In a control zone, a VFR flight may obtain a clearance from air traffic control to operate as Special VFR.


title: Visual flight rules

text: VFR require a pilot to be able to see outside the cockpit, to control the aircraft's altitude, navigate, and avoid obstacles and other aircraft. Governing agencies establish specific requirements for VFR flight, including minimum visibility, and distance from clouds, to ensure that aircraft operating under VFR are visible from enough distance to ensure safety.


title: Visual flight rules

text: Under visual meteorological conditions, the minimum visual range, distance from clouds, or cloud clearance requirements to be maintained above ground vary by jurisdiction, and may also vary according to the airspace in which the aircraft is operating.


title: Visual flight rules

text: In some countries, VFR flight is permitted at night, and is known as night VFR. This is generally permitted only under more restrictive conditions, such as maintaining minimum safe altitudes, and may require additional training as a pilot at night may not be able to see and avoid obstacles.


title: Visual flight rules

text: The VFR pilot is required to "see and avoid" obstacles and other aircraft. Pilots flying under VFR assume responsibility for their separation from all other aircraft and are generally not assigned routes or altitudes by air traffic control (ATC). Depending on the category of airspace in which the flight is being conducted, VFR aircraft may be required to have a transponder to help Air Traffic Control identify the aircraft on radar in order that ATC can provide separation to IFR aircraft.


title: Visual flight rules

text: Meteorological conditions that meet the minimum requirements for VFR flight are termed visual meteorological conditions (VMC). If they are not met, the conditions are considered instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), and a flight may only operate under IFR. IFR operations have specific training requirements and certification required of the pilot, and increased equipment requirements for the aircraft. Additionally, an IFR flight plan must usually be filed in advance.


title: Visual flight rules

text: For efficiency of operations, some ATC operations will routinely provide "pop-up" IFR clearances for aircraft operating VFR, but that are arriving at an airport that does not meet VMC requirements. For example, in the United States, California's Oakland (KOAK), Monterey (KMRY) and Santa Ana (KSNA) airports routinely grant temporary IFR clearance when a low coastal overcast forces instrument approaches, while the rest of the state is still under visual flight rules.


title: Visual flight rules

text: For pilots without an instrument rating who cannot legally fly by instrument flight rules, the restrictions of VMC minima can be troublesome in locations where weather conditions can change suddenly and unexpectedly or when weather events are highly localized. For instance, a small cloud forming over the airport at less than 1000 feet technically requires the airport to allow only IFR flights using instrument approaches/departures. A VFR flight intending to land there would normally be denied clearance, and would either have to divert to another field with VMC, or declare an emergency and override the denial of clearance, which can prompt an inquiry and possibly result in adverse consequences for the pilot.


title: Visual flight rules

text: To avoid these scenarios, VFR flights intending to land at or take off from an airport experiencing localized conditions marginally below VMC minima may request Special VFR clearance from the tower. SVFR flight is only allowed while within the portion of an airport's controlled airspace (class B, C, or D) that extends to the surface, and it must be explicitly requested by the pilot and granted by the tower (some airports, primarily large Class B facilities, do not allow SVFR operation in their airspace at all). Visibility on the ground must still be greater than one statute mile, but most other VMC minima such as ceiling are waived. The pilot is required to maintain VFR separation distances from other aircraft and, by requesting SVFR, asserts that they can do so despite the marginal conditions. For departing flights, the pilot must be flying in VMC by the time they leave the surface footprint of the controlled airspace (otherwise they would be flying VFR in IMC which is illegal).


title: Visual flight rules

text: VFR flight is not allowed in airspace known as "class A", regardless of the meteorological conditions except after failure of two way radio communications or during declared emergencies such as VFR traffic attempting to avoid severe weather formations. In the United States, class A airspace is measured using flight levels, and begins at FL180 up to FL600, which is about 18,000 to 60,000 feet as measured using an altimeter at standard pressure (29.92 inHg, 1013 mbar). An exception to IFR-only flying in this airspace is the occasional allowance of sailplanes within designated "wave windows" which may be opened by air traffic control when high altitude flights are to be conducted into mountain lee waves.


title: Visual flight rules

text: In the United States, Canada, and Australia, a pilot operating under VFR outside Class B, C, D airspace can request "flight following" from ATC, to receive continuous verbal updates on air traffic. This service is provided by ATC if workload permits, but it is an advisory service only. The responsibility for maintaining separation with other aircraft and proper navigation still remains with the pilot in command (PIC). In the United Kingdom, this is known as a "Traffic Service". In other countries it is known as "Flight Information Service".


title: Visual flight rules

text: In the United States and Canada, any certified pilot who meets specific recency of experience criteria may operate an airworthy aircraft under VFR.


title: Visual flight rules

text: In the US, there are specific VFR cruising altitudes, based on the aircraft's course, to assist pilots in separating their aircraft while operating under visual flight above 3,000 ft above the surface (AGL) but below 18,000 ft Mean Sea Level (MSL). Unofficially, most pilots use these rules at all levels of cruise flight. FAR 91.159 states that any aircraft:


title: Visual flight rules

text: In the US, Part 91 (specifically 91.119) of the Federal Aviation Regulations controls the minimum safe altitudes by which aircraft can be operated in the National Airspace System.


title: Visual flight rules

text: Other aircraft, such as helicopters, powered parachutes, and weight-shift-control aircraft, are not required to meet the FAR 91 minimums, so long as their operation is conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface.


title: Visual flight rules

text: In all EU Member states, the Standardised European Rules of the Air apply: these set out a minimum altitude of 150 m (500 ft) above any obstacle within a radius of 150 m (500 ft), except with permission, or when taking off or landing. If an aircraft is flying over a congested area (town, settlement, etc.) it must fly high enough so that in the case of an engine failure, it is able to land clear safely "AND" it must not fly less than 300 m (1000 ft) above the highest fixed object within 600 m of the aircraft.


title: Visual flight rules

text: Member states are allowed to modify the low flying rule to suit their jurisdiction, for instance in the UK, the "500 ft Rule" allows pilots to fly below 500 ft as long as they are no closer than 500 ft to any person, vessel, vehicle, building or structure.


title: Visual flight rules

text: CVFR flight is used in locations where aviation authorities have determined that VFR flight should be allowed, but that ATC separation and minimal guidance are necessary. In this respect, CVFR is similar to instrument flight rules (IFR) in that ATC will give pilots headings and altitudes at which to fly, and will provide separation and conflict resolution. However, pilots and aircraft do not need to be IFR rated to fly in CVFR areas, which is highly advantageous. An example of airspace where CVFR is common would be "Canadian Class B" airspace.


title: Visual flight rules

text: The CVFR concept is used in Canada and certain European countries, but not in the U.S., where the Private Pilot certificate itself authorizes the pilot to accept clearances under VFR.


title: Hallie Todd

text: Hallie Todd (born Hallie Jane Eckstein) is an American actress. She played Penny Waters on "Brothers" and Jo McGuire on "Lizzie McGuire".


title: Hallie Todd

text: Todd was born in Los Angeles, the second child of actress Ann Morgan Guilbert and writer/producer George Eckstein. Her mother carried her to term while appearing on "The Dick Van Dyke Show", although the pregnancy was not part of the story line and was covered up with loose fit clothing and close up camera angles. Her older sister, Nora Eckstein, was an actress and talent agent and coach. She has a younger half sister, Jennifer (daughter of George Eckstein and Selette Cole). Todd attended Palisades Charter High School and the Pacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts.


title: Hallie Todd

text: She played a homeless character, “The Kid,” on a Christmas episode of "Growing Pains". She played Penny Waters, the daughter of fictional former football player Joe Waters on the Showtime comedy series "Brothers", which is her longest lasting role. In 1990, a year after "Brothers" left the air, Todd moved into her next sitcom role as spunky writer-and-aspiring-comedian Kate Griffin on "Going Places".


title: Hallie Todd

text: Later roles include Lal, Data's daughter on the "" episode "The Offspring"; Blanche's niece, Lucy, on "The Golden Girls" episode "Nice and Easy;" the mother in the Disney Channel original movie "The Ultimate Christmas Present;" Hilda's and Zelda's cousin Marigold, Amanda's mother, on "Sabrina, the Teenage Witch;" and as Lizzie's mother, Jo McGuire, on "Lizzie McGuire".


title: Hallie Todd

text: She appeared in seven episodes of "Murder, She Wrote", all but one as "Rhoda Markowitz", assistant to Keith Michell's sleuth, Dennis Stanton. Todd starred in the feature film "The Mooring," which she co-wrote with her husband and daughter. The film was released on DVD, digital download and Video on Demand on February 19, 2013. Todd is the co-founder of the film production company In House Media and also teaches acting classes and privately coaches.


title: Hallie Todd

text: In 2016, Todd was seen starring in Universal's "". She was cast in "The Last Champion", and will executive produce and perform in the film. Her husband, Glenn Withrow, is set to direct the project. He and Todd co-wrote the screenplay along with their daughter, Ivy Withrow, VP of Development for the company. In House Media Film Partners was born when Todd and Withrow were inspired to create a family production company after Withrow's experiences working with Francis Ford Coppola on five films, starting with The Outsiders.


title: Hallie Todd

text: In between her acting roles, Todd wrote two books, "Being Young Actors" and "Parenting The Young Actor."


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The influence and imperialism of Western Europe and associated states (such as Russia, Japan, and the United States) peaked in Asian territories from the colonial period beginning in the 16th century and substantially reducing with 20th century decolonization. It originated in the 15th-century search for trade routes to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that led directly to the Age of Discovery, and additionally the introduction of early modern warfare into what Europeans first called the East Indies and later the Far East. By the early 16th century, the Age of Sail greatly expanded Western European influence and development of the spice trade under colonialism. European-style colonial empires and imperialism operated in Asia throughout six centuries of colonialism, formally ending with the independence of the Portuguese Empire's last colony Macau in 1999. The empires introduced Western concepts of nation and the multinational state. This attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the nation state.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in commodities—a key development in the rise of today's modern world free market economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) monopoly of the Arabs and Italians in trade between Asia and Europe by the discovery of the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope. The ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company gradually eclipsed Portuguese influence in Asia. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly Batavia, the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between 1640 and 1660 wrested Malacca, Ceylon, some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative Japan trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and trade with China and their acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the British East India Company (founded in 1600) as the most important political force on the Indian subcontinent.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Before the Industrial Revolution in the mid-to-late 19th century, demand for oriental goods such as porcelain, silk, spices and tea remained the driving force behind European imperialism. The Western European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; with the severe Long Depression of the 1870s provoking a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global colonial expansion known as "the New Imperialism", which saw a shift in focus from trade and indirect rule to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of World War I in 1914, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. In the same period, the Empire of Japan, following the Meiji Restoration; the German Empire, following the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871; Tsarist Russia; and the United States, following the Spanish–American War in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In Asia, World War I and World War II were played out as struggles among several key imperial power, with conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both World Wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of Asia's remaining colonies, decolonization was intercepted by the Cold War. South East Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid post-war economic development and rise of the industrialized developed countries of Taiwan, Singapore, South Korea, Japan and the developing countries of India, the People's Republic of China and its autonomous territory of Hong Kong, along with the collapse of the Soviet Union, have greatly diminished Western European influence in Asia. The United States remains influential with trade and military bases in Asia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: European exploration of Asia started in ancient Roman times along the Silk Road. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian Red Sea ports was significant in the first centuries of the Common Era.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo. But these journeys had little permanent effect on east–west trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The Yuan dynasty in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's John II, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast (Cape of Good Hope). While Dias' crew forced him to turn back, by 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Crown of Castile ('Spain'), found a sea route into the Pacific Ocean.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1509, the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida won the decisive battle of Diu against a joint Mamluk and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Early in the 16th century, Afonso de Albuquerque emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he conquered Goa in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "West Indies", (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "Americas") following the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus, involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in Cochin, south of the Indian trade port of Calicut in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, seized Goa on the coast of India, which Portugal held until 1961, along with Diu and Daman (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509–1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the East Indies and China. His first objective was Malacca, which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. Captured in 1511, Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the Moluccas, or "Spice Islands", which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in Makassar and some others, but smaller, in the Lesser Sunda Islands. By 1513–1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached Canton on the southern coasts of China.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer Aden, Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the Red Sea; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the Persian Gulf gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of Muscat and Ormuz. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed Bahrain.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the Malayan–Portuguese war. In 1521, Ming dynasty China defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of Tunmen and then defeated the Portuguese again at the Battle of Xicaowan. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands off the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian, but they were driven away by the Ming navy in the 1530s-1540s.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1557, China decided to lease Macau to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the spice trade. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and firearms into Japan.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1505, (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached Ceylon. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political maneuvers, the Portuguese extended their control over the Sinhalese kingdoms, including Jaffna (1591), Raigama (1593), Sitawaka (1593), and Kotte (1594)- However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the Kingdom of Kandy`s fierce resistance. The Portuguese, led by Pedro Lopes de Sousa, launched a full-scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the Campaign of Danture of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan guerrilla warfare. Constantino de Sá, romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the Battle of Randeniwela, refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The energies of Castile (later, the "unified" Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by Andres de Urdaneta in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the [[P Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the [[Spanish–Moro conflict]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]]s from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly the [[Netherlands]], France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in [[Africa]] and [[Colonial Brazil|Brazil]]. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau and settled a new colony on the island of [[Timor]]. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; [[Portuguese Timor]] was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by [[Indonesia]]. It became an independent country in 2002, and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the [[Malayan–Portuguese war]], [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] and [[Castilian War]] inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The word "savages" in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel" in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "Christian savages" who were arrested in Brunei. It was said "Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork" by the Brunei Sultan after the term "accursed doctrine" was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei. The Sultan's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu. The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande. The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 to 1900 for four centuries. Dar al-Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs" by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al-din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors" in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1578, an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines. The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599-1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila ([[Kingdom of Maynila]]) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines. In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He's fleet.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578. There were fifty thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities. This resulted in the [[Battle of Xicaowan]] where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over the empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Seven Years' War]] in 1763. The [[Dutch Revolt|Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule]] facilitated Dutch encroachment on the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils of war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in 1581, the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: By the 1590s, a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in 1602 the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1605, armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Ambon, Maluku|Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the company's first secure base. Over time, the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. This control allowed the company to monopolise the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monopoly over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in 1641 and [[Ceylon]] in 1658.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), 1667; [[Macassar, Mozambique|Macassar]], 1669; and [[Bantam (city)|Bantam]], 1682. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]), [[Bengal]] (now [[Bangladesh]] and part of India), [[Mauritius]] (1638-1658/1664-1710), [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Siam]] (now [[Thailand]]), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] (1624–1662), and southern India (1616–1795).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Ming dynasty China defeated the Dutch East India Company in the [[Sino-Dutch conflicts]]. The Chinese first [[Penghu#Ming dynasty|defeated and drove the Dutch out of the Pescadores in 1624]]. The Ming navy under [[Zheng Zhilong]] defeated the Dutch East India Company's fleet at the 1633 [[Battle of Liaoluo Bay]]. In 1662, Zheng Zhilong's son [[Koxinga|Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan after defeating them in the [[siege of Fort Zeelandia]]. ("see" [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] (1641–1857), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords]] defeated the Dutch [[Trịnh–Nguyễn War#Later campaigns|in a naval battle in 1643]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1652, [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in [[South Africa]]) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Dutch Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] (1652–1806). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in 1623. During the 18th century, [[Dutch East India Company]] possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|the fourth war]] between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England (1780–1784), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In 1799, the company was dissolved, commencing official colonisation of the [[East Indies]]. During the era of New Imperialism the territorial claims of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) expanded into a fully fledged colony named the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Partly driven by re-newed colonial aspirations of fellow European nation states the Dutch strived to establish unchallenged control of the [[archipelago]] now known as [[Indonesia]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Six years into formal colonisation of the East Indies, in Europe the [[Dutch Republic]] was occupied by the French forces of [[Napoleon]]. The Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial possessions to Great Britain. The pro-French Governor General of Java [[Jan Willem Janssens]], resisted [[Invasion of Java (1811)|a British invasion force in 1811]] until forced to surrender. British Governor [[Stamford Raffles|Raffles]], who the later founded the city of [[Singapore]], ruled the colony the following 10 years of the British [[interregnum]] (1806–1816).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: After the defeat of [[Napoleon]] and the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]] colonial government of the East Indies was ceded back to the Dutch in 1817. The loss of South Africa and the continued scramble for Africa stimulated the Dutch to secure unchallenged dominion over its colony in the East Indies. The Dutch started to consolidate its power base through extensive military campaigns and elaborate diplomatic alliances with indigenous rulers ensuring the Dutch [[Triband (flag)|tricolor]] was firmly planted in all corners of the [[Archipelago]]. These military campaigns included: the [[Padri War]] (1821–1837), the [[Java War]] (1825–1830) and the [[Aceh War]] (1873–1904). This raised the need for a considerable military buildup of the colonial army ([[KNIL]]). From all over Europe soldiers were recruited to join the KNIL.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (Indonesia) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during much of World War II. Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945. In 1949, most of what was known as the Dutch East Indies was ceded to the independent Republic of Indonesia. In 1962, also [[Dutch New Guinea]] was annexed by Indonesia de facto ending Dutch imperialism in Asia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the [[Elizabethan era]]. In 1600, [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In 1639, it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading centre on the Indian Subcontinent.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force, and outrivaled its Portuguese and French competitors. For more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and, by the middle of the 18th century, competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756–1763) marked the end of the French stake in India.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of the [[Mughal Empire]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The reign of Aurangzeb had marked the height of Mughal power. By 1690 Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent encompassing the entire Indian Subcontinent. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the [[Subcontinent]] increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until 1858, the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Aside from defeating the French during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated [[Siraj ud-Daulah]], a key Indian ruler of Bengal, at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] (1757), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India. The transition to formal imperialism, characterised by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned "Empress of India" in the 1870s was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late 18th century. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in 1773 and 1784 that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[Governor-General]]. (This system of dual control lasted until 1858.) By 1818, the East India Company was master of all of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of India were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Until 1858, however, much of India was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] (1847–1856), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] (1849) after victory in the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states using the [[doctrine of lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati (practice)|sati]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The 1857 [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]], an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Rumour had spread among them that their bullet cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat. The cartridges had to be bit open, so this upset the [[Hindus|Hindu]] and [[Muslims|Muslim]] soldiers. The [[Hinduism|Hindu religion]] held cows sacred, and for Muslims pork was considered [[haraam]]. In one camp, 85 out of 90 sepoys would not accept the cartridges from their garrison officer. The British harshly punished those who would not by jailing them. The Indian people were outraged, and on May 10, 1857, sepoys marched to [[Delhi]], and, with the help of soldiers stationed there, captured it. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in 1858, after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in 1859), appointed Governor-General of India in 1856, became known as "Clemency Canning" as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the Government of India was transferred from the company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Company initiated the first of the [[Anglo-Burmese Wars]] in 1824, which led to total annexation of Burma by the Crown in 1885. The [[British rule in Burma|British ruled Burma]] as a [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|province of British India]] until 1937, then administered her separately under the [[Burma Office]] except during the [[Japanese occupation of Burma]], 1942–1945, until granted independence on 4 January 1948. (Unlike India, Burma opted not to join the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].)


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges", payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Although majority [[Hindus|Hindu]] and minority [[Muslims|Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the 1920s, British support for a distinct Muslim political organisation, the [[All-India Muslim League|Muslim League]] from 1906 and insistence from the 1920s on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual [[Partition of India|Partition]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: France, which had lost its empire to the [[Great Britain|British]] by the end of the 18th century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the 1850s, French imperialism was initially impelled by a [[nationalistic]] need to rival the United Kingdom and was supported intellectually by the notion that French culture was superior to that of the people of [[Name of Vietnam|Annam]] (Vietnam), and its "[[mission civilisatrice]]"—or its "civilizing mission" of the Annamese through their assimilation to French culture and the Catholic religion. The pretext for French expansionism in [[Indochina]] was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to China through [[Tonkin]], the European name for a region of northern [[Vietnam]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the 17th century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the Indian Ocean and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. A mid-19th century religious revival under the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the pretext for the bombardment of Tourane (Danang) in 1847, and invasion and occupation of Danang in 1857 and Saigon in 1858. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that French trade with China would be surpassed by the British, and accordingly the French joined the British against China in the [[Second Opium War]] from 1857 to 1860, and occupied parts of Vietnam as its gateway to China.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: By the [[Treaty of Saigon (1862)|Treaty of Saigon]] in 1862, on June 5, the Vietnamese emperor ceded France three provinces of southern Vietnam to form the French colony of [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]]; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in 1882 led directly to war with China (1883–1885), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. France governed [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] as a direct colony, and central and northern Vietnam under the protectorates of [[Annam (French colony)|Annam]] and [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], and [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under [[French colonial administration of Laos|French "protection"]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: By the beginning of the 20th century, France had created an empire in [[Indochina]] nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A Governor-General in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annam]], [[Tonkin (French protectorate)|Tonkin]], [[French Cochinchina|Cochinchina]], [[French Protectorate of Cambodia|Cambodia]], and [[French Protectorate of Laos|Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralised fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's "superior culture." While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in 1914, was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]] is not often regarded as a colonial power such as the United Kingdom or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike the United Kingdom, which expanded overseas, the Russian Empire grew from the centre outward by a process of accretion, like the United States. In the 19th century, Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively [[Landlocked country|landlocked]] country for access to a [[Port#Warm-water port|warm-water port]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Historian Michael Khodarkovsky describes Tsarist Russia as a "hybrid empire" that combined elements of continental and colonial empires.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]]. In the early 19th century, it succeeded in conquering the [[South Caucasus]] and [[Dagestan]] from [[Qajar Iran]] following the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–1813)]], the [[Russo-Persian War (1826–1828)]] and the out coming treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]] and [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]], giving Russia direct borders with both Persia's as well as [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]]'s heartlands. Later, they eventually reached the frontiers of [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] as well (which had the largest foreign border adjacent to British holdings in India). In response to Russian expansion, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent]] via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century. This was called the [[Great Game]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: According to Kazakh scholar Kereihan Amanzholov, Russian colonialism had "no essential difference with the colonialist policies of Britain, France, and other European powers".


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over Afghanistan in the 1870s. In Persian, both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. The United Kingdom went so far as to invade [[Tibet]], a land subordinate to the [[Qing Empire|Chinese Qing Empire]], in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese and Tibetan resistance proved tougher than expected.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Qing China defeated Russia in the early [[Sino-Russian border conflicts]], although the Russian Empire later acquired [[Outer Manchuria]] in the [[Amur Annexation]]. During the [[Boxer Rebellion]], the Russian Empire [[Russian invasion of Manchuria|invaded Manchuria in 1900]], and the [[1900 Amur anti-Chinese pogroms|Blagoveshchensk massacre]] occurred against Chinese residents on the Russian side of the border.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed an agreement that, on the surface, ended their rivalry in Central Asia. ("see" [[Anglo-Russian Convention]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of Afghanistan only through British intermediaries. In turn, the United Kingdom would not annex or occupy Afghanistan. Chinese suzerainty over Tibet also was recognised by both Russia and the United Kingdom, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral" zone. The United Kingdom and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing concern on the part of both powers over German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both [[Saint Petersburg]] and [[London]]. After the [[Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] involvement persisted alongside the United Kingdom's until the 1940s.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In the [[Middle East]], in Persia and the Ottoman Empire, a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the Persian Gulf in the latter, while it built [[Trans-Iranian Railway|a railroad]] from the north of the country to the south, connecting the Caucasus with the Persian Gulf in the former. [[German Empire|Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to India. This was met with bitter resistance by the United Kingdom, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The 16th century brought many [[Jesuit]] missionaries to China, such as [[Matteo Ricci]], who established missions where Western science was introduced, and where Europeans gathered knowledge of Chinese society, history, culture, and science. During the 18th century, merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, as they had been since the 16th century. European traders were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800, its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Early in the 19th century, serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty]] that left China vulnerable to Western, [[Meiji (era)|Meiji period]] Japanese, and [[History of Russia (1855–1892)|Russian]] imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the [[Treaty of Nanking]] which were first of the [[Unequal treaty|unequal treaties]] signed during the Qing Dynasty. [[Hong Kong Island]] was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including [[Shanghai]] and [[Guangzhou]], were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the [[Second Opium War]] broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 [[Treaty of Tientsin]]. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. In addition, Christians gained the right to propagate their religion. The United States [[Treaty of Wanghia]] and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters, including its navigable rivers.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the [[Hanyang Arsenal]] during the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90% of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation".


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go...In the Arrow War (1856-1860), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)|bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia]], and [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)|defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884-1885)]]. But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms."


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: During the [[Sino-French War]], Vietnamese forces defeated the French at the [[Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge)]], [[Bắc Lệ ambush]], [[Battle of Phu Lam Tao]], [[Battle of Zhenhai]], the [[Battle of Tamsui]] in the [[Keelung Campaign]] and in the last battle which ended the war, the [[Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass)]], which triggered the French [[Retreat from Lạng Sơn]] and resulted in the collapse of the French [[Jules Ferry]] government in the [[Tonkin Affair]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881)]], in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing. Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat. Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British-Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer [[Charles George Gordon]] was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany. In 1880, massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Russian military observer D. V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese-Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics" under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The rise of Japan since the [[Meiji Restoration]] as an imperial power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in [[Korea]], war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] (1895), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recovery in 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: China's defeat at the hands of [[Japan]] was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In 1897, [[Germany]] demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in [[Shandong]] province. Russia obtained access to [[Dairen]] and [[Lüshunkou|Port Arthur]] and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. The United Kingdom and France also received a number of [[Concession (territory)|concessions]]. At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence": Germany had influence in [[Jiaozhou Bay|Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay]], [[Shandong]], and the [[Yellow River]] valley; Russia had influence in the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and Manchuria; the United Kingdom had influence in [[Weihaiwei under British rule|Weihaiwei]] and the [[Yangtze]] Valley; and France had influence in the [[Guangzhou Bay]] and the provinces of Yunnan, Guizhou and Guangxi


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Hay]] asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the "[[Open Door Policy|Open Door]]" policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The erosion of Chinese sovereignty and seizures of land from Chinese by foreigners contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "[[Fists of Righteous Harmony|Boxers]]" (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists") attacked foreigners around [[Beijing]]. The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by [[Ronglu]] and [[Prince Qing]] hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by [[Prince Duan]] and [[Dong Fuxiang]]. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to [[Tianjin]]. The foreigners refused to leave. [[Siege of the International Legations#False propaganda|Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred]], the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military. The Qing and Boxers defeated the foreigners at the [[Seymour Expedition]], forcing them to turn back at the [[Battle of Langfang]]. In response to the foreign attack on the [[Battle of the Taku Forts (1900)|Taku Forts]] the Qing responded by declaring war against the foreigners. the Qing forces and foreigners fought a fierce battle at the [[Battle of Tientsin]] before the foreigners could launch a second expedition. On their second try [[Gaselee Expedition]], with a much larger force, the foreigners managed to reach Beijing and fight the [[Battle of Peking (1900)|Battle of Peking]]. British and French forces looted, plundered and burned the [[Old Summer Palace]] to the ground for the second time (the first time being in 1860, following the Second Opium War). German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador due to the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who held anti-Asian sentiments, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904–1905. The Qing court evacuated to [[Xi'an]] and threatened to continue the war against foreigners, until the foreigners tempered their demands in the [[Boxer Protocol]], promising that China would not have to give up any land and gave up the demands for the execution of Dong Fuxiang and Prince Duan.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943. [[Chiang Kai-shek#French Indochina|Chiang Kai-shek forced the French to hand over]] all their concessions back to China control after World War II. Foreign political control over leased parts of China ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the [[China|People's Republic of China]] in 1997 and 1999 respectively.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Some Americans in the 19th century advocated for the annexation of Taiwan from China. [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwanese aborigines]] often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors. In 1867, during the [[Rover incident]], Taiwanese aborigines attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew. They subsequently defeated a retaliatory [[Formosa Expedition|expedition by the American military]] and killed another American during the battle.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: As the United States emerged as a new imperial power in the Pacific and Asia, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the regions, [[Spain]], was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the regions since the 16th century. In 1896, a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in 1898. During the [[Spanish–American War]], U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at [[Manila]] and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines in Asia and [[Guam]] in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]] to the U.S. The war also marked the end of Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but remained heavily influenced by the U.S. government and U.S. business interests. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of [[Wake Island]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Filipinos, who assisted U.S. troops in fighting the Spanish, wished to establish an independent state and, on June 12, 1898, [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain. In 1899, fighting between the Filipino nationalists and the U.S. broke out; it took the U.S. almost fifteen years to fully subdue the [[Philippine–American War|insurgency]]. The U.S. sent 70,000 troops and suffered thousands of casualties. The Filipinos insurgents, however, suffered considerably higher casualties than the Americans. Most casualties in the war were civilians dying primarily from disease and famine.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: U.S. counter-insurgency operations in rural areas often included scorched earth tactics which involved burning down villages and concentrating civilians into camps known as "protected zones". The execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1914, [[Dean C. Worcester]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines (1901–1913) described "the regime of civilisation and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men". Nevertheless, some Americans, such as [[Mark Twain]], deeply opposed American involvement/imperialism in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent U.S. naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In 1916, Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated [[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[Ottoman Empire]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in China, including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang government]] in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: [[Turkey]] gave up her provinces; [[Syria]], [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1641, all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western contact, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Japan's freedom from Western contact ended on 8 July 1853, when [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled warships into [[Edo]] (modern [[Tokyo]]) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authorities responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on 14 July with a representative of the emperor. On 14 July, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on 31 March 1854. This treaty conferred extraterritoriality on American nationals, as well as, opening up further treaty ports beyond Nagasaki. This treaty was followed up by similar treaties with the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia and France. These events made Japanese authorities aware that the country was lacking technologically and needed the strength of industrialism in order to keep their power. This realisation eventually led to a civil war and political reform known the [[Meiji Restoration]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868 led to administrative overhaul, deflation and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had limited natural resources of her own and sought both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Taiwan, ceded by [[Qing dynasty]] China, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899, Japan won agreements from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extraterritoriality for their citizens, and an alliance with the United Kingdom established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia's navy in 1905 gave it the southern half of the island of [[Sakhalin]]; exclusive Japanese influence over Korea (propinquity); the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]); and extensive rights in Manchuria (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The Empire of Japan and the [[Joseon Dynasty]] in Korea formed bilateral diplomatic relations in 1876. China lost its suzerainty of Korea after defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1894. Russia also lost influence on the Korean peninsula with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]] as a result of the [[Russo-Japanese war]] in 1904. The Joseon Dynasty became increasingly dependent on Japan. Korea became a protectorate of Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905]]. Korea was then "de jure" annexed to Japan with the [[Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910]].


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914, it entered World War I on the side of the Allies, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 which sparked widespread Chinese nationalism, coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Kiaochow's 1922 return to China. Japan received the German territory from the Treaty of Versailles.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Tensions with China increased over the 1920s, and in 1931 Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] based in Manchuria seized control of the region without admission from Tokyo. Intermittent conflict with China led to full-scale war in mid-1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the image of European pre-eminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilisation of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in Indonesia, [[British Malaya|Malaya]], [[Myanmar|Burma]], and [[French Indochina]] ([[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]]).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanisation and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernised elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces towards Bengal during World War II had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In 1947, the United Kingdom, devastated by war and embroiled in an economic crisis at home, granted [[British India]] its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Myanmar ([[British rule in Burma|Burma]]) and [[Sri Lanka]] ([[British Ceylon|Ceylon]]), which is also part of British India, also gained their independence from the United Kingdom the following year, in 1948. In the Middle East, the United Kingdom granted independence to [[Jordan]] in 1946 and two years later, in 1948, ended its mandate of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] becoming the independent nation of [[Israel]].[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Nederlandse militairen controleren de papieren van Javaanse vrouwen bij het transitkamp van de Zeven December Divisie bij Tandjong Priok of het hierna door de divisie betrokken Kamp Doeri Batavia TMnr 10029000.jpg|thumb|Dutch soldiers control the papers of [[Java]]nese women, 1946]]


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: Following the end of the war, nationalists in Indonesia demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism moulded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and the non-Javanese.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: [[Dutch New Guinea]] was under the Dutch administration until 1962 (see also [[West New Guinea dispute]]).


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the islands their independence, and the Philippines became the first of the Western-controlled Asian colonies to be granted independence post-World War II. However, the Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system similar to the U.S.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the "[[Hukbalahap]]" (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In 1946, the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. However, with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organizations. In 1948, the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In 1950, the PKP created the People's Liberation Army ("Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan"), which mobilized thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until 1956 when the PKP gave up armed struggle.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: In 1968, the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.


title: Western imperialism in Asia

text: France remained determined to retain its control of [[Indochina]]. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and communists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] declared an independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Viet Minh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December 1946 the Việt Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the France granted the [[State of Vietnam]] based in [[Saigon]] independence in 1949 while [[Laos]] and [[Cambodia]] received independence in 1953. The US recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort with military aid.