title: Chad Henne

text: Henne agreed to a four-year, $3.5 million contract with the team on July 26. Out of training camp, Henne earned the backup quarterback role behind starter Chad Pennington. During the second game of the 2008 season, Henne made his NFL debut with 9:42 left; down 31–3 against the Arizona Cardinals. Henne spent the remainder of the season on the bench and only played in two other games, both divisional matchups with the New England Patriots.


title: Chad Henne

text: During the third game of the 2009 season, in the early third quarter of a road game versus the San Diego Chargers, San Diego linebacker Kevin Burnett knocked Chad Pennington out of the game with a season-ending injury to his shoulder and rotator cuff. Henne came off the bench in relief. Though he led the Dolphins offense to ten points in the final 20 minutes of the game, he also had an interception returned 31 yards for an easy touchdown by Eric Weddle.


title: Chad Henne

text: Henne made his first career start on October 4, 2009, against the Buffalo Bills at home. Henne went 14–of–22 with one touchdown in a 38–10 victory, lifting the team to a 1–3 record. In his second NFL start, he led the underdog Dolphins to a 31–27 win over the New York Jets in a "Monday Night Football" game. He completed 20 out of 26 passes for 241 yards with two touchdowns. This was Henne's second straight win as starter and included a 53-yard touchdown pass to Ted Ginn Jr.


title: Chad Henne

text: Henne consistently improved as the season went on, passing for 335 yards against the New England Patriots in Week 13. In Week 15, Henne passed for 349 yards in a loss to the Tennessee Titans. In Week 16, Henne passed for 322 yards in a loss to the Houston Texans. In Week 17 against the Pittsburgh Steelers, Henne had gained 140 yards on 16–of–20 passing with one touchdown and interception, but had to leave the game with an eye injury.


title: Chad Henne

text: On November 10, 2010, after a 4–4 start to the 2010 season, Henne lost his starting job to Pennington. Pennington had led the Dolphins to an AFC East championship in 2008. On November 14, during the game against the Tennessee Titans, Henne came in relief for Pennington who went out with an apparent shoulder injury. During the third quarter, Henne himself was injured with an apparent knee injury and was replaced by Tyler Thigpen. Henne returned to action in Week 12 against the Oakland Raiders winning 33–17. In Week 13, Henne went back to his inconsistencies. He completed 16 of 32 passes and throwing 3 picks in a loss to the Browns. The following week, he went 5–of–18 for 53 yards and one touchdown in a 10–6 win against the New York Jets on an extremely rainy day. In week 15, he had a good game against the Buffalo Bills going 33–of–45 for 176 yards with one touchdown and one interception. This came in a loss, which officially eliminated Miami from the playoffs. In Week 16, Henne faced the Detroit Lions and for three quarters looked sharp; however, questionable play-calling in the fourth quarter led to a loss, and Henne went 29 of 44 for 278 yards with one touchdown and two interceptions. Henne had two opportunities in the fourth quarter to lead a game-winning drive and a game-tying drive, but poor play calling led to a loss. In the last week of the season against the New England Patriots, Henne went 6–16 for 71 yards with an interception. Henne finished the year with 3301 yards along with 15 touchdowns and 19 interceptions.


title: Chad Henne

text: His job as starter was thought to be in question during the off-season when it was rumored that the Dolphins sought to acquire Kyle Orton from the Denver Broncos. Coupled with the acquisition of Carolina Panthers quarterback Matt Moore and rookie draft pick Pat Devlin, it was unclear if Miami would continue its commitment with Henne. The Orton rumor eventually fizzled and Devlin was waived and signed to the practice squad, leaving Moore and Henne as the two quarterbacks on the active roster. It would later be announced that Henne would have the starting job in 2011.


title: Chad Henne

text: Henne's 2011 starting campaign began well, throwing for 416 yards and a professional career-best passer rating of 93.6. These improvements were overshadowed by Tom Brady's 517 pass yards and the resulting loss to the New England Patriots. It was the seventh game of all time to have two quarterbacks surpass 400 yards passing. On Sunday October 2, 2011, in a game against the San Diego Chargers, Henne hurt his left shoulder at the end of a run on a broken play on the Dolphins' second possession and did not return. His injury was later revealed to be a dislocated shoulder in his left (non-throwing) arm. Slated to undergo surgery, Henne was placed on injured reserve and missed the remainder of the 2011 season. The Miami Dolphins announced on February 21, 2012, that they would not re-sign Henne, making him a free agent.


title: Chad Henne

text: Henne signed a two-year deal with the Jacksonville Jaguars on March 14, 2012. In the Jaguars Week 11 game against the Texans, Henne came in for an injured Blaine Gabbert and threw for 354 yards and 4 touchdowns. Henne and Steve Young are the only two players in NFL history since the merger to not start the beginning of a game and throw 4 touchdowns without an interception. He started the final six games of the season for the team after an injury to Gabbert. After Gabbert was benched midway through the 2013 season, Henne became the starter for the rest of the season, starting a total of thirteen games. The Jaguars would go on to finish the season with a 4–12 record.


title: Chad Henne

text: On March 7, 2014, Henne signed a two-year, $8 million extension for $4.5 million guaranteed with the Jaguars. Following a disappointing first half in the 2014 home opener in Week 3, Henne was benched in favor of rookie first-round draft pick Blake Bortles. Bortles remained the starter for the rest of the season, leaving Henne as the backup. In 2015, Henne remained the backup for Bortles. He did not see any action in the 2015 season. Henne signed another two-year, $8 million contract extension on February 18, 2016, to remain as the backup to Bortles. Over the next three seasons, he saw action in a total of four games as an alternate. On February 15, 2017, the Jaguars restructured Henne's contract.


title: Chad Henne

text: On March 16, 2018, Henne signed a two-year contract with the Kansas City Chiefs. In the 2018 season, Henne was the backup to Patrick Mahomes. He appeared in one game in the 2018 season, Week 17 against the Oakland Raiders. On September 1, 2019, Henne was placed on injured reserve. He was designated for return from injured reserve on October 23, 2019, and began practicing with the team. On November 2, he was activated off injured reserve. Henne did not play a snap all season but won his first championship when the Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers 31–20 in Super Bowl LIV.


title: Chad Henne

text: Henne re-signed with the Chiefs on a two-year contract on March 19, 2020. In Week 7, against the Denver Broncos, he came into the game in relief of Mahomes and scored a rushing touchdown in the 43–16 victory. It was his first rushing touchdown since December 2, 2012, against the Buffalo Bills. On December 30, 2020, with the Chiefs locking up the number 1 seed, head coach Andy Reid announced that Henne would start the Chiefs season finale against the Los Angeles Chargers due to them resting their starters. It would be Henne's first start since Week 3 of the 2014 season when he was with the Jaguars. In the game, Henne threw for 218 yards and 2 touchdowns in the 38–21 loss. On January 17, 2021, in the Chiefs divisional playoff game against the Cleveland Browns, Henne came into the game in relief of Mahomes in the third quarter after Mahomes left the game with a concussion. Henne threw for only 66 yards and an interception; however, Henne had a 3rd down run late in the 4th quarter that gained 12 yards, which ran critical time off the clock and left the Chiefs inches from a first down. On the subsequent play, his pass to Tyreek Hill led to the first down, allowing the Chiefs to run out the clock and preserve a 22–17 victory.


title: Alex Sharp

text: Alexander Ian Sharp (born 2 February 1989) is an English actor. He is known for originating the role of Christopher Boone in the Broadway production of "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time".


title: Alex Sharp

text: After graduating from the Juilliard School in the summer of 2014, he made his Broadway and acting debut in the play "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time" in the autumn. For his role as the autistic teenager Christopher Boone, he was awarded the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play, and the Outer Critics Circle Award.


title: Alex Sharp

text: Sharp was born on 2 February 1989 in Westminster, London, and was raised traveling throughout Europe and the Southwest of the United States in a caravan, before moving to Dorset, England, age eight. He was educated by his mother, a teacher, and his father, who worked in real estate, until the family moved back to England. He has a sister, Nicole, also highly successful in her own field. His mother homeschooled him with both "rigorous and unorthodox" lessons. Upon his return to Dorset, he was unable to adjust easily to a traditional school environment, and eventually left England at age 18.


title: Alex Sharp

text: Sharp wanted to be an actor from an early age. According to the "Irish Mirror", his acting debut was at age 4 when he appeared in "A Touch of Frost" for £10. According to "The Daily Beast", at age 7, he made his acting debut as Piglet in "Winnie-the-Pooh". He also did extensive regional theater work at the Northcott Theater in Exeter. Sharp studied Performing Arts at Yeovil College in Yeovil, Somerset and attended Beaminster Comprehensive School in Dorset.


title: Alex Sharp

text: In 2008, Sharp came to North America and worked as a carpenter and handyman, and in call centers often, in Canada. At times, he traveled to Latin America to pursue physical activities.


title: Alex Sharp

text: When working on a house in Montreal, Sharp decided that he wanted to become an actor. He asked a friend what the best theatre schools were, and the friend told him Yale and Juilliard. Sharp decided on Juilliard due to its location in the middle of Manhattan, and he auditioned with a scene from "Hamlet". Against school rules, he also performed a scene from a play that he had written, claiming that it was the work of a little-known English playwright. He was accepted to Juilliard and attended the Drama Division's "Group 43." During his time at Juilliard, he wrote and directed a play that was an adaptation of "". He graduated from Juilliard with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 2014.


title: Alex Sharp

text: After graduating from the Juilliard School in the summer of 2014, Sharp made his Broadway and acting debut in the play "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time" in the autumn. For his role as the autistic teenager Christopher Boone, he was awarded the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play, Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play, and the Outer Critics Circle Award. , he is the youngest winner of the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. Sharp's final performance of "Curious Incident was" 13 September 2015.


title: Alex Sharp

text: In 2017, he starred in John Cameron Mitchell's "How to Talk to Girls at Parties," alongside Nicole Kidman, Elle Fanning, and Ruth Wilson.


title: Alex Sharp

text: Also in 2017, Sharp starred alongside Lily Collins and Keanu Reeves in "To the Bone", directed by Marti Noxon. "To the Bone" was released on Netflix on 14 July 2017. The semi-autobiographical movie garnered some controversy regarding its depiction of eating disorders, to which Sharp responded, "I think controversy is an interesting thing in that it usually goes hand in hand with starting conversations that surround taboo or under-discussed topics that need to be discussed and need to be less in the shadows. I would hope that ["To the Bone"] just creates an awareness and encourages people to talk about [eating disorders]".


title: Alex Sharp

text: Sharp co-starred as activist Rennie Davis in Aaron Sorkin's feature film, "The Trial of the Chicago 7", in 2020, alongside Eddie Redmayne, Sacha Baron Cohen, and Joseph Gordon-Levitt. He was also set to star as an unspecified lead part in HBO's untitled "Game of Thrones" prequel alongside Naomi Watts. Sharp appears in one of the principal supporting roles in the 2022 Oliver Hermanus/Kazuo Ishiguro film "Living", starring Bill Nighy.


title: Alex Sharp

text: In 2015, he broke Harvey Fierstein's record as the youngest winner of the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play. In addition to winning the Tony Award in 2015, he also won an Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Leading Actor in a Play, a Theatre World Award in recognition of his Broadway debut. and the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play. He also received a nomination for the distinguished performance award at the 2015 Drama League Awards. In addition he was nominated for the 2015 Fred and Adele Astaire Awards Outstanding Male Dancer for his work in "The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time". He also won the 2014 Logo TV NewNowNext Awards for Best New Broadway Lead Actor.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Chromesthesia or sound-to-color synesthesia is a type of synesthesia in which sound involuntarily evokes an experience of color, shape, and movement. Individuals with sound-color synesthesia are consciously aware of their synesthetic color associations/perceptions in daily life. Synesthetes that perceive color while listening to music experience the colors in addition to the normal auditory sensations. The synesthetic color experience supplements, but does not obscure real, modality-specific perceptions. As with other forms of synesthesia, individuals with sound-color synesthesia perceive it spontaneously, without effort, and as their normal realm of experience. Chromesthesia can be induced by different auditory experiences, such as music, phonemes, speech, and/or everyday sounds.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The color associations, that is, which color is associated to which sound, tone, pitch, or timbre is highly idiosyncratic, but in most cases, consistent over time. Individuals with synesthesia have unique color pairings. However, studies to date have reported that synesthetes and non-synesthetes alike associate high pitched sounds with lighter or brighter colors and low pitched sounds with darker colors, indicating that a common mechanism may underlie those associations in normal adult brains. There are forms of pseudo-chromesthesia that may be explained by associations synesthetes have made and forgotten from childhood.


title: Chromesthesia

text: As with other types of synesthesia, sound-color synesthesia can be divided into groups based on the way the colors are experienced. Those that 'see' or perceive the color in external space are called projectors, and those that perceive the color in the mind's eye are often called associators, but these terms can be misleading to understanding the nature of the experience. For most synesthetes, the condition is not wholly sensory/perceptual.


title: Chromesthesia

text: For some individuals, chromesthesia is only triggered by speech sounds, while others' chromesthesia can be triggered by any auditory stimuli. In a study investigating variability within categories of synesthesia, 40% of subjects with chromesthesia for spoken words reported that voice pitch, accent, and prosody influenced the synesthetic color, whereas few subjects reported that volume or speed of talking had any influence. Within these subjects, many reported that the speaker's emotional inflection could influence the synesthetic color, but only two reported that their own mood had such influence. Of participants categorized as having synesthesia for music in this study, 75% reported concurrents exclusively when listening to notes being played. When asked whether the experience of the concurrent could be voluntarily controlled, only 33% of participants indicated an ability to smother, ignore, or willfully evoke their concurrents without great effort. Attention to the inducing stimulus was reported as influential in 59% of participants. Other contributing factors included concentration level, fatigue, sleep habits, fever, emotions, and substances, such as caffeine or alcohol.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Sound-color synesthesia is far more common than color-sound synesthesia, although there are reported cases where sounds and colors activate bidirectionally. One individual, JR, sees colors when she hears sounds and also hears sounds when she sees colors. This type of synesthesia interferes greatly with daily life. This individual's associations were highly consistent over time, but the associations were not necessarily the same in either direction. Another individual, D, who had absolute pitch, as well as Chromesthesia, claimed that her absolute pitch was less stable than her Chromesthesia.


title: Chromesthesia

text: There may be an effect of semantic mediation in some individuals with sound-color synesthesia. One subject, MH, self-triggered notes on a synthesizer and noted the color associations. When the synthesizer was transposed without her knowledge, she reported identical color associations to the notes that she believed she was hearing, rather than the absolute pitch of the tones.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The terms synesthesia and chromesthesia have developed and evolved considerably throughout history. The first documented synesthete was Georg Tobias Ludwig Sachs in 1812. Although he did not give a specific name to his experience, in a medical dissertation regarding his albinism (written in Latin), he mentioned "obscure ideas" and described how "colored ideas appeared to him." Even earlier than Sachs, however, Johann Gottfried Herder discussed similar ideas in his "Treatise on the Origin of Language" in 1772. He talked about how people, "through a sudden onset immediately associate with this sound that color".


title: Chromesthesia

text: The first concrete term associated with chromesthesia was given by Charles-Auguste-Édouard Cornaz in an eye disease dissertation in 1848. Color blindness was a common condition known as "chromatodysopsia" and, since Cornaz saw chromesthesia as the opposite, he named it "hyperchromatopsia" or perception of too many colors.


title: Chromesthesia

text: In 1881, Eugen Bleuler and Karl Bernhard Lehmann were the first to establish six different types of what they called "secondary sensations" or "secondary imaginations." The first, which was the most common, was "sound photisms." They described it as "light, color, and form sensations which are elicited through hearing". Their book was reviewed by an Austrian newspaper, where the term "colored hearing," still commonly used today to describe chromesthesia, first appeared.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Research on synesthesia in the United States began in 1892. And, since 1895, the term finally expanded from pure sound-to-color experiences (chromesthesia) to a wide range of phenomena, including grapheme-color synesthesia, mirror-touch synesthesia, and lexical-gustatory synesthesia. The rise of behaviorism between 1920 and 1940 resulted in a considerable decline in interest for synesthesia, as it was seen as "little more than a learned association". The number of scientific papers on the topic rebounded around 1980 and exponentially increased in the 21st century, where substantial progress has been made to study it empirically and understand the mechanisms at work.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Synesthesia is established in early childhood, when the brain is most plastic. There is a genetic predisposition for the condition, but the specific type is determined by environment and learning, which explains why "mappings differ across individuals, but are not strictly random". Furthermore, it manifests as the dominant process in distributed systems, or neural networks, which are dynamic, auto-assemble and self-calibrate. That is what is understood so far, but the specific mechanisms by which synesthesia occurs are still unclear and a general consensus has not yet been reached. There are two main hypotheses: Cross-activation theory and Disinhibited feedback model.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The cross-activation theory of synesthesia was formulated by V.S. Ramachandran and E.M. Hubard, based on converging evidence from studies of synesthesia that sensory areas for processing real and synesthetic information tend to be neighboring brain regions. This is most apparent in grapheme-color synesthesia, because the brain regions for color processing and visual word form processing are adjacent. Individuals with chromesthesia show activation of brain areas involved in visual processing, such as V4, immediately after the auditory perception, indicating an automatic linking of sounds and colors.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Neonates have increased connectivity between different brain areas, but these hyper-connections are cut back during development. The reason for this cross-activation is unclear, but one hypothesis is that the increased connectivity between adjacent brain regions is due to a reduction in the pruning of neuronal networks during childhood. Another hypothesis is that unusual branching of neurons causes more numerous synaptic connections and cross-activation. These hypotheses align with Daphne Maurer's neonatal hypothesis, which states that all newborns are synesthetes, but the condition disappears at around the age of three months.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Cross-activation may occur at the fusiform gyrus in projector synesthetes (who perceive photisms in external space) and at the angular gyrus in associator synesthetes (who perceive photisms, which come from learned associations, in their mind).


title: Chromesthesia

text: One problem with the cross-activation theory is that synesthesia should be present from birth, but is only evident from mid-childhood.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The disinhibited feedback model is an alternative to the cross-activation theory. The disinhibited feedback model rejects the assumption of increased connectivity in synesthetes and proposes that the cross-activation is due to a decrease of inhibition in the networks present in the normal adult brain. Disinhibited feedback could account for the fact that chromesthesia can be acquired by damage to the retino-cortical pathway or transiently induced through chemical agents, sensory deprivation, meditation, etc.


title: Chromesthesia

text: In all brains, there are anatomical cross-connections where inhibition and excitation are counterbalanced. However, excitation prevails in synesthetes and this disinhibits other structures "to elicit sensory sensations in a second sensory area". One theory that explains how this occurs is neurotransmitter-mediated inhibition. Local inhibitory networks are supposed to confine cortical firing to a specific region, but it leads to a spread of cortical firing, when these networks are blocked by bicuculline.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Forward feeding connections in the brain that receive converging signals from multiple pathways are reciprocated by feedback connections. In most people, feedback connections are sufficiently inhibited to avoid synesthetic induction of a concurrent perception. In synesthetes, it is suggested that feedforward signaling in the inducer pathway could activate neurons, to which both inducer and concurrent pathways converge, and that feedback signaling is capable of propagating down the concurrent pathway to activate the concurrent representation. In this mechanism, feedforward activity from the inducer leads to feedback activation of the concurrent representation.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The mechanism by which synesthesia occurs has yet to be identified. Given that synesthetes and non-synesthetes both match sounds to colors in a non-arbitrary way and that the ingestion of hallucinogenic drugs can induce synesthesia in under an hour, some researchers suggest that synesthetic experience uses existing pathways in the normal brain. The cause of synesthesia is also unclear, although evidence points to a genetic predisposition. Synesthesia runs in families, though the condition may present idiosyncratically within a family. Synesthesia may skip a generation. However, there are cases of monozygotic twins where only one has synesthesia, indicating there may be additional factors.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Differences between synesthetic and non-synesthetic brains may reflect direct hard-wired connections between unimodal auditory and visual regions in the brain, or they may reflect feedback pathways from multimodal audiovisual regions to unimodal visual regions present in all brains.


title: Chromesthesia

text: In addition to high interconnectivity in synesthesia, there is an apparent contribution from the inferior parietal cortex during synesthetic experiences, possibly serving as the mechanism to bind the real and synesthetic perceptions into one experience. Parietal lobe activation is most apparent when the synesthete is directing attentional focus to the synesthetic experience.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies implicate the left superior temporal sulcus for the integration of auditory and visual information. This brain region responds most strongly to congruent pairs of visual and auditory information, such as congruent lip movements and speech.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The literature contains conflicting definitional criteria for synesthesia, which could bias selection of research subjects and interpretation of results. Synesthesia has long been described as a 'merging of the senses' or as a kind of 'cross-sensory' experience; however, the condition is not purely sensory/perceptual in all individuals. While this description of synesthesia is useful in describing the condition, it should not be interpreted literally and used as selection criteria for scientific exploration.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Another common defining characteristic of synesthesia is that synesthetic associations are consistent over time. This is generally determined by having individuals report color pairings twice, with several months separating the test from the re-test. Consistency has been described as so fundamental to synesthesia that the test of consistency has become the behavioral 'gold standard' for identifying the genuine condition, and selecting subjects for research. This creates a circular bias, in which virtually all research subjects show consistency over time because they have been selected for it. While consistency, to some extent, may be characteristic of synesthesia, there are individuals that fit all other criteria of synesthesia, but report that their synesthetic associations are not consistent over time.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Another misleading defining characteristic of synesthesia has been that synesthetic concurrents are spatially extended, and the individuals should be able to indicate a spatial location in which the concurrent is experienced. In the case of sound-color synesthesia, those who experience colored photisms from listening to music can often describe the direction of movement of these photisms. While the majority of synesthetes experience a spatial quality to the synesthetic experience, there are still many that report no such quality.


title: Chromesthesia

text: In addition to definitional inclusion/exclusion criteria for synesthesia research, self-report bias is also likely relevant to many studies. This self-report bias, if it exists, would perpetuate itself because the condition would become defined by those cases that become known, and not by those that remain hidden. This is significant because many synesthetic individuals may exclude themselves on the basis of not fitting the prescribed definitional criteria. This is also significant to the extent that synesthetic individuals have a limited ability to differentiate their experience from that of nonsynesthetic individuals.


title: Chromesthesia

text: A possible resolution of these issues would involve defining synesthesia on a neurological basis. Such a unifying neurobiological cause has yet to be found, but if it exists, it would deepen understanding of the phenomenon in ways that the behavioral definition has failed to do.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Chromesthesia can be transiently induced with chemical agents through the manipulation of neurotransmitters. These substances can also modulate existing synesthesia. Psychoactive drugs including LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, and ayahuasca are non-selective serotonin agonists that elicit spontaneous synesthesia, specially sound-to-color.


title: Chromesthesia

text: The first to report drug-induced chromesthesia was Théophile Gautier in 1845. Under the influence of hashish, he described: "My hearing was developed extraordinarily; I heard the noise of colors. Green, red, blue, yellow sounds reached me in perfectly distinguishable waves". Gautier made a sketch of Gustave Moreau playing the piano, where he depicted his chromesthetic experiences as lines of color above the instrument.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Recent scientific studies, with enhanced methodologies, suggest that drug-induced synesthesia is substantially different from congenital synesthesia. Psychoactive substances "affect ongoing streams of transmission rather than causing stimulus-induced activation". The most common type of synesthesia elicited with chemical agents is chromesthesia. Still, frequent inducers include auditory and visual stimuli, especially music - which could explain the prevalence of sound-to-color synesthesia over other types of synesthesia.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Heinrich Klüver categorized recurring geometric shapes under the influence of peyote in the 1920s. He called these the form constants: Tunnels, Spirals, Honeycombs Gratings, and Cobwebs. These also apply to both drug-induced and natural hallucinations, which appear in near-death experiences, sensory deprivation, waking up or falling asleep, and during migraines. According to Klüver, all hallucinations consist of shapes in one of these categories and 'atypical' hallucinations are simply variations. The form constants are common in chromesthetic experiences.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Psychedelics greatly enhance suggestibility, so it is fairly common to mistake hallucinations with chromesthesia; especially considering that all measures of color perception including brightness, saturation, luminance, contrast, and hue are affected due to chemical agents. Drug-induced chromesthesia, as opposed to congenital chromesthesia, is not consistent or automatic. Furthermore, bottom-up processing is responsible for experiences under drug influence, so external stimuli and context are not as critical.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Several studies, both direct (intentionally trying to induce synesthesia) and indirect (participants respond to a set of questions, including one about synesthetic experiences), suggest that the induction of synesthesia with chemical agents is possible. Nevertheless, most studies "suffer from a large number of limitations including a lack of placebo control, double-blinds, and randomized allocation".


title: Chromesthesia

text: Individuals with chromesthesia are more likely to play musical instruments and be artistically inclined. Furthermore, "both the hobbies and occupations of synesthetes are skewed toward the creative industries." People with synesthetic propensities are more metaphorical since the same genes cause them to relate concepts and ideas and, thus, be more creative. This could explain the higher incidence of musicians who have synesthesia.


title: Chromesthesia

text: However, musical experience does not assist the ability to consistently match colors to tones. Against natural expectation, studies have found that possession of absolute pitch increased local variance in matching ability. One possible explanation for this is that because absolute pitch is subject to chance error, occasionally incorrectly inferred note names could compete with the pitch-induced color on particular trials. Another possibility is that people with absolute pitch can label tighter pitch recognition categories than normal, introducing a greater number of category boundaries to cross between distinct tones.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Franz Liszt was a composer who was known for asking performers to play with color. He was noted telling his orchestra to play the music in a "Bluer Fashion," since that is what the tone required. Synesthesia was not a common term in Liszt's time; people thought he was playing a trick on them when he referred to a color instead of a musical term.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Leonard Bernstein openly discussed his chromesthesia, which he described as a "timbre to color." Although he does not reference specific songs as being a certain color, he does explain the way it should sound to the artist performing. There are recordings of him stopping orchestras and singers when they are changing the "timbre." If someone changes the "timbre" or tone in a piece, it does not necessarily change the sound to the listener, but the composer with Chromesthesia will automatically know.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Amy Beach was another composer who had synesthesia. According to her perspective, each key signature was associated with a particular color. If an artist changed the key to suit their voice, then she would become upset because it would change the intended sound, portrayal, and emotion of the piece.


title: Chromesthesia

text: Alexander Scriabin was a Russian composer and pianist. He is famously regarded as a synesthete, but there is a lot of controversy surrounding whether he had chromesthesia or not. Scriabin was a major proponent of Theosophy, which had a system associating colors to feelings and emotions. This influenced the musician, who distinguished "spiritual" tonalities (like F-sharp major) from "earthly, material" ones (C major, F major). Furthermore, Alexander Scriabin developed a "keyboard with lights" or clavier à lumières, which directly matched musical notes with colors.


title: Chromesthesia

text: "Scriabin believed integration of colored light within a symphonic work would act as a 'powerful psychological resonator for the listener'". That is why he created the clavier à lumières for his color-symphony "."This consisted of a color organ, which projected colors on a screen. The musicologist Sabaneyev first published a table of Scriabin's sound-to-color mapping in 1911:


title: Chromesthesia

text: Scriabin was friends with composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, who was a synesthete, and their sound-to-color associations were not the same. Specifically, Rimsky-Korsakov made a distinction between major and minor scales and his associations had a "more neutral, spontaneous character". Still, different individuals respond to some sounds and not others, and sound-to-color associations vary greatly between them.


title: Chromesthesia

text: When the notes are ordered by the circle of fifths, the colors are in order of a spectrum, which casts doubt on whether Scriabin experienced chromesthesia:


title: Chromesthesia

text: Whether Scriabin had chromesthesia or not, his work was greatly influenced by the particularities of this phenomenon. He created a system that associated colors to tones and aimed to create holistic sensory experiences with his compositions. Not only did he experiment with colors, but also with "the generation of scents and sensation of touch and taste".


title: Barney Fife

text: Bernard "Barney" Fife is a fictional character in the American television program "The Andy Griffith Show", portrayed by comic actor Don Knotts. Barney Fife is a deputy sheriff in the slow-paced, sleepy southern community of Mayberry, North Carolina. He appeared in the first five seasons (1960–65) as a main character, and, after leaving the show towards the end of season five, made a few guest appearances in the following three color seasons (1965–68). He also appeared in the first episode of the spin-off series "Mayberry R.F.D." (1968–1971), and in the 1986 reunion television film "Return to Mayberry". Additionally, Barney appeared in the "Joey Bishop Show" episode "Joey's Hideaway Cabin", and, unnamed, in the first episode of "The New Andy Griffith Show".


title: Barney Fife

text: According to Andy Griffith, the character of Barney Fife was suggested by Don Knotts himself. At the same time "The Steve Allen Show" was ending, Knotts was looking for work. When he saw the episode of "The Danny Thomas Show" featuring Andy Taylor, he called Griffith suggesting that his sheriff character might reasonably need a deputy. Griffith liked the idea and suggested that he call Executive Producer Sheldon Leonard. Griffith later recalled that Don Knotts' contribution was the show's saving grace because he was uncomfortable with the original concept to have Andy Taylor being the comic lead. In an interview with "The Archive of American Television", Griffith admitted, "The second episode was called 'Manhunt' and I knew by that episode that Don should be the comic and I should play straight for him. That made all the difference."


title: Barney Fife

text: Fife appeared on "The Andy Griffith Show" from the show's beginning in 1960 until 1965, when Knotts left the show to pursue a career in feature films. It is explained that Fife had left Mayberry to take a job as a detective in Raleigh, North Carolina. Knotts reprised the character in guest appearances each season until "The Andy Griffith Show" left the air in 1968. Barney also appeared in the inaugural "Mayberry R.F.D." episode, in which Andy and Helen Crump marry. In 1971, the character, whose name is not explicitly mentioned, appears in the premiere episode of "The New Andy Griffith Show", visiting the mid-sized city of Greenwood to catch up with Mayor Andy Sawyer, who looks exactly like Andy Taylor and shares some of Taylor's earlier mannerisms and friendships with Fife, Goober Pyle and Emmett Clark. Fifteen years would pass before the character was again reprised in the reunion film "Return to Mayberry" in 1986. By then, Fife had moved back and become the town's acting sheriff.


title: Barney Fife

text: Barney Fife is outwardly smug and self-important, covering up his insecurities and low self-confidence with a display of bravado. He presents himself as an expert on such diverse subjects as firearms, martial arts, women, singing, wilderness survival, psychology and American history. He frequently tries to impress others with his knowledge or skill in areas where his expertise is actually quite limited. He wishes to be perceived as "a man of the world", but he is actually quite naïve, and his fear of appearing ignorant leaves him easily duped. This gullibility is evident when, for example, he is conned into buying a lemon from a crafty old widow ("Barney's First Car"). Although he believes himself a skilled singer, he has a tin ear, as highlighted in "Barney and the Choir" and "The Song Festers", although at other times, when he's not trying to show off, he has a pleasant singing voice, performing duets with Andy and his guitar. His attempts to impress others sometimes cause him to accidentally reveal both personal and police secrets, often with dire consequences. An emotional powder-keg, Barney often overreacts to challenging situations with panic, despair or bug-eyed fear.


title: Barney Fife

text: As a law enforcement officer, Barney is overly officious and insistent on doing things "by the book" to the point of absurdity. In one case when Andy was briefly summoned away, as acting sheriff, Barney proceeded to book and lock up "everyone" in town for various minor infractions ("Andy Saves Barney's Morale"). However in at least one case, he is commended for his apparent overzealousness, after he tickets the state governor's car for being parked illegally ("Barney and the Governor"). Barney tends to be alarmist, and overreacts to potential dangers. In a case where he believed an ex-convict was coming back to Mayberry to attack Sheriff Taylor, he deputized two inept civilians and attempted to provide 24-hour protection for the sheriff, although there was in fact no threat and the bodyguards did little except interfere with each other ("High Noon in Mayberry").


title: Barney Fife

text: Barney is often frustrated with the primitive technological tools available to the Mayberry sheriff's department. He sometimes attempts to modernize the department by acquiring equipment of little use in sleepy Mayberry, such as an intercom system for the jailhouse ("The Great Filling Station Robbery"), and a search-and-rescue dog ("Barney's Bloodhound"). On occasion, Barney believes his experience as a long time deputy qualifies him to be a sheriff. In one episode, he runs against Andy, only to later withdraw. In another episode, he is offered the position of sheriff in the nearby town of Greendale, only to learn from Andy the difference between serving as sheriff versus deputy. In "Return to Mayberry", Barney finally holds the position of "acting sheriff" of Mayberry and runs for the office proper; but, at the end, encourages the town to vote for Andy who has returned to Mayberry.


title: Barney Fife

text: One frequent source of comedy is Barney's incompetence with firearms. After numerous negligent discharges (usually with a Smith & Wesson or Colt .38 caliber revolver), Andy restricts Barney to carrying his gun unloaded, with only one bullet in his shirt pocket, "in case of an emergency". However, Barney tends to load his gun unnecessarily, and often ends up firing it into the floor, the ceiling, or his own gun holster. The negligent discharge of Barney's gun becomes a running gag, usually followed by Barney sheepishly handing his gun to Andy. Another recurring gag has Barney locking himself or both himself and Andy in one of the jail cells, with the keys just out of reach. Another running gag is Barney being captured by escaped criminals twice. A third gag is that even when Barney is actually competent, the result is a backfire on him; in one episode ("Barney's Sidecar") Barney actually drives a motorcycle/sidecar quite well on patrol; however Mayberry is so small a town that the motorcycle is practically useless for Mayberry law enforcement.


title: Barney Fife

text: Nonetheless, Barney has rare moments of courage and competence, such as when he saves a member of the state police who has been captured by criminals, and apprehends the criminals by driving to the jail with the crooks and their hostage trapped in their trailer ("Jailbreak"). This is one of the few occasions when Barney actually catches the crooks intentionally rather than by accident. When a vindictive newspaper publisher uses a female employee to trick Barney into giving away "dirt" on Andy to get the latter removed as sheriff (as revenge for getting a speeding citation which he neglected to pay) ("Andy on Trial"), Barney redeems himself and Andy with a speech defending Andy and his record as sheriff. He explains how much of a benefit Andy is to Mayberry; then - in a rare display of candor and a departure from his usual insistence on following the letter of the law - he explains what Andy had been trying to teach him from the moment Barney first became a deputy: that a lawman does better in dealing with people when he goes more by the heart than by the book, thereby allowing Andy to remain sheriff.


title: Barney Fife

text: In a few early episodes in the first season, Andy and Barney comment that they are cousins (initially as part of a joke implying that this relationship is responsible for Barney being hired as deputy), but this relationship is rarely mentioned later, and it is sometimes suggested in later episodes that they are not related. Genetics aside, Barney and "Ange" (as he frequently addresses Andy, a derivation from Knotts' real-life nickname for Griffith) are best friends, having grown up together in Mayberry, and graduated from the same class at Mayberry High School in 1948. Barney maintains warm relations with Andy's son Opie and his Aunt Bee.


title: Barney Fife

text: Although graduating from high school in 1948, both Barney and Andy claim to have served in the military. Andy was stationed in France during "the war" and Barney was a file clerk who never left the United States (he stated that "me and this other fella ran the PX library" on Staten Island). Barney was nevertheless proud of his war record: "I did my part in helping to whip the dreaded Hun", he boasted in the "Quiet Sam" episode.


title: Barney Fife

text: Barney is mentioned as residing in a few places during the course of the show, including the Raleigh, North Carolina YMCA and Mrs. Mendelbright's boarding house (where she forbids him from owning either a hot plate or light bulb over 40 watts). In the episode "Sheriff Barney" we learn that Barney lives at 411 Elm Street, but it is unclear if this address refers to Barney's own home or Mrs. Mendelbright's boarding house address.


title: Barney Fife

text: Barney's main girlfriend is a local girl, Thelma Lou (Betty Lynn), whom he eventually marries in "Return to Mayberry", a 1986 NBC movie. He had two other girlfriends: Miss Rosemary followed by Hilda May. Barney also dates other women, in particular, a waitress at the Junction Cafe and Bluebird Diner named Juanita, with whom Barney has phone conversations but who is never seen. She was first mentioned in the episode "Andy Forecloses".


title: Barney Fife

text: When Don Knotts left the series in 1965 to pursue film roles, the character Barney Fife was said to have left Mayberry to join the police department in Raleigh. After that, the character remained mostly offscreen for the remainder of the show, although Knotts made five guest appearances as Barney Fife in the last three seasons.


title: Barney Fife

text: As the series had several writers, there were occasional continuity errors, most frequently in Barney's middle name, which changed each time it was referenced. For example, both Barney and Andy are given different middle names in different episodes. In the episode "Class Reunion", Barney's middle name is Milton, though at other times he is called "Bernard P. Fife". In another episode, where he believes he is the descendant of Nathan Tibbs, a Mayberry Revolutionary hero, he says his name is "Barney Tibbs Fife". Andy jokingly says, "I thought your middle name was Oliver." Another inconsistency is Barney's military service in WW II, which is not easily reconciled with his having graduated high school in 1948 (although in fact World War II for the US officially ended December 31, 1946, by order of President Truman).


title: Barney Fife

text: Calling a police officer or authority figure "Barney Fife" has become an American slang term for gross ineptitude or overzealousness. A notable example occurred during the Scott Peterson case, in which the defendant's mother referred to the local police captain as "Barney Fife".


title: Barney Fife

text: During oral arguments for the Supreme Court case "Herring v. United States" regarding evidence exclusion by negligent law enforcement, Stanford law professor Pamela Karlan told the court, "There's not a Barney Fife defense to the violation of the Fourth Amendment."


title: Barney Fife

text: In the Scream movie franchise, the character Dewey Riley is compared to Barney Fife on multiple occasions.


title: Barney Fife

text: In the video game series "Half-Life" Black Mesa security guards were nicknamed "Barneys" after an early character model was said to resemble Don Knotts, and were voiced with a faint Southern accent, similar to the West Virginia-born actor. This later became official in "", which featured as the player character a security guard named Barney Calhoun.


title: Barney Fife

text: At least two cartoons pay homage to Barney Fife: In "Freakazoid" "Toby Danger" when a out of control giant robot is destroying Las Vegas, Nevada, there is a cameo of a Barney Fife deputy sheriff in a crowd. In "The New Scooby-Doo Movies" a highway patrol officer on a motorcycle (a cameo of Barney Fife) helps the kids solve a mystery.


title: Barney Fife

text: In "The Sopranos" season 6, episode 15, Paulie Gualtieri tells Tony Soprano a story about getting pulled over by a state trooper while driving Tony's father's Cadillac without a license in the 1960s. Mr. Soprano, Sr. tells the young Paulie to smooth things over by telling the trooper he has a cousin who is a trooper named Barney Fife. He gets punched in the head by the trooper for his troubles and Mr. Soprano has to bribe the trooper $100 (said to be an average month's wage at the time) to avoid charges.


title: Barney Fife

text: Knotts' portrayal of Barney Fife earned him five Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series, the most in that category.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (French: "Nu descendant un escalier n° 2") is a 1912 painting by Marcel Duchamp. The work is widely regarded as a Modernist classic and has become one of the most famous of its time. Before its first presentation at the 1912 Salon des Indépendants in Paris it was rejected by the Cubists as being too Futurist. It was then exhibited with the Cubists at Galeries Dalmau's "Exposició d'Art Cubista", in Barcelona, 20 April–10 May 1912. The painting was subsequently shown, and ridiculed, at the 1913 Armory Show in New York City.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: "Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2" was reproduced by Guillaume Apollinaire in his 1913 book, "Les Peintres Cubistes, Méditations Esthétiques". It is now in the Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: The work, an oil painting on canvas with dimensions of 147 cm × 89.2 cm (57.9 in × 35.1 in) in portrait, seemingly depicts a figure demonstrating an abstract movement in its ochres and browns. The discernible "body parts" of the figure are composed of nested, conical and cylindrical abstract elements, assembled together in such a way as to suggest rhythm and convey the movement of the figure merging into itself. Dark outlines limit the contours of the body while serving as motion lines that emphasize the dynamics of the moving figure, while the accented arcs of the dotted lines seem to suggest a thrusting pelvic motion. The movement seems to be rotated counterclockwise from the upper left to the lower right corner, where the gradient of the apparently frozen sequence corresponding to the bottom right to top left dark, respectively, becomes more transparent, the fading of which is apparently intended to simulate the "older" section. At the edges of the picture, the steps are indicated in darker colors. The center of the image is an amalgam of light and dark, that becomes more piqued approaching the edges. The overall warm, monochrome bright palette ranges from yellow ochre to dark, almost black tones. The colors are translucent. At the bottom left Duchamp placed the title "NU DESCENDANT UN ESCALIER" in block letters, which may or may not be related to the work. The question of whether the figure represents a human body remains unanswered; the figure provides no clues to its age, individuality, or character, while the gender of "nu" is male. Shortly before his unexpected death in 1967, in an interview with Pierre Cabanne, Duchamp commented on the surprising success of "Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2" at the Armory Show (see below). "What contributed to the interest provoked by the canvas was its title. One just doesn't do a nude woman coming down the stairs ... it seemed scandalous."


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: The painting combines elements of both the Cubist and Futurist movements. In the composition, Duchamp depicts motion by successive superimposed images, similar to stroboscopic motion photography. Duchamp also recognized the influence of the chronophotography of Étienne-Jules Marey and others, particularly Muybridge's "Woman Walking Downstairs" from his 1887 picture series, published as "The Human Figure in Motion".


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: Duchamp submitted the work to appear with the Cubists at the 28th exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants, Paris, 25 March through 16 May 1912. It appeared under the number 1001 of the catalogue, entitled simply "Nu descendant l'escalier", not "Nu descendant un escalier n° 2". This catalogue revealed the title of the painting to the general public for the first time, even though the painting itself would be absent from the exhibition.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: Duchamp's brothers, Jacques Villon and Raymond Duchamp-Villon, sent by the hanging committee, asked him to voluntarily withdraw the painting, or paint over the title and rename it something else. According to Duchamp, Cubists such as Albert Gleizes found that his nude wasn't quite in line with what they had already investigated [tracée]. The hanging committee objected to the work, Duchamp stressed, on the grounds that it had "too much of a literary title", and that "one doesn't paint a nude descending a staircase, that's ridiculous... a nude should be respected".


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: It was also believed that the descending nude came too close to the influences of Italian Futurism. Yet the Section d'Or Cubists tolerated and even enjoyed the presence of foreign artists (e.g., Constantin Brâncuși, František Kupka, Alexander Archipenko, Amedeo Modigliani and Joseph Csaky). During the month of February 1912, a large Futurist exhibition was held in Paris at the Galerie Bernheim-Jeune. Duchamp later denied the Futurist influence, claiming that the distance between Paris and Italy was too large for any tenable influences to occur.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: In an interview with the museum curator Katherine Kuh, Marcel Duchamp spoke about his "Nude Descending a Staircase" and its relation to Futurism and the photographic motion studies of Muybridge and Marey:


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: In 1912 ... the idea of describing the movement of a nude coming downstairs while still retaining static visual means to do this, particularly interested me. The fact that I had seen chronophotographs of fencers in action and horse galloping (what we today call stroboscopic photography) gave me the idea for the "Nude". It doesn't mean that I copied these photographs. The Futurists were also interested in somewhat the same idea, though I was never a Futurist. And of course the motion picture with its cinematic techniques was developing then too. The whole idea of movement, of speed, was in the air.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: My aim was a static representation of movement, a static composition of indications of various positions taken by a form in movement—with no attempt to give cinema effects through painting. The reduction of a head in movement to a bare line seemed to me defensible.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: I said nothing to my brothers. But I went immediately to the show and took my painting home in a taxi. It was really a turning point in my life, I can assure you. I saw that I would not be very much interested in groups after that.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: Despite the controversy—whether it was seen as such at the time or not—the work was shown with its original title at the "Salon de la Section d'Or", Galerie de la Boétie, October 1912, and with the same group of artists that exhibited at the Indépendants. His work also appeared in the illustrations to "Du "Cubisme"", and he participated in the "La Maison Cubiste (Cubist House)", organized by the designer André Mare for the Salon d'Automne of 1912 (a few months after the Indépendants). "The impression is", writes art historian Peter Brooke, "it was precisely because he wished to remain part of the group that he withdrew the painting; and that, far from being ill treated by the group, he was given a rather privileged position, probably through the patronage of Picabia".


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: It has been claimed (by others) that Duchamp never forgave his brothers and former colleagues for censoring his work.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: The painting was exhibited for the first time at Galeries Dalmau, "Exposició d'Art Cubista", Barcelona, 1912. Duchamp subsequently submitted the painting to the 1913 Armory Show in New York City, where Americans, accustomed to naturalistic art, were scandalized. The painting, exhibited in the 'Cubist room', was submitted with the title "Nu descendant un escalier", was listed in the catalogue (no. 241) with the French title. A postcard printed for the occasion showed the painting for the first time with the English translation "Nude Descending a Staircase". Julian Street, an art critic for "The New York Times" wrote that the work resembled "an explosion in a shingle factory," and cartoonists satirized the piece. It spawned dozens of parodies in the years that followed. A work entitled "Food Descending a Staircase" was exhibited at a show parodying the most outrageous works at the Armory, running concurrently with the show at The Lighthouse School for the Blind. In "American Art News", there were prizes offered to anyone who could find the nude.


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: After attending the Armory Show and seeing Marcel Duchamp's nude, President Theodore Roosevelt wrote: "Take the picture which for some reason is called 'A Naked Man Going Down Stairs'. There is in my bathroom a really good Navajo rug which, on any proper interpretation of the Cubist theory, is a far more satisfactory and decorative picture. Now, if, for some inscrutable reason, it suited somebody to call this rug a picture of, say, 'A Well-Dressed Man Going Up a Ladder', the name would fit the facts just about as well as in the case of the Cubist picture of the 'Naked Man Going Down Stairs'. From the standpoint of terminology each name would have whatever merit inheres in a rather cheap straining after effect; and from the standpoint of decorative value, of sincerity, and of artistic merit, the Navajo rug is infinitely ahead of the picture."


title: Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2

text: During the Armory Show the painting was bought by the San Francisco lawyer and art dealer Frederic C. Torrey, who hung it in his home in Berkeley. In 1919, after commissioning a full-size copy of the work, Torrey sold the original to Louise and Walter Conrad Arensberg. In 1954 it entered the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art as a bequest from the Arensbergs. There it is displayed as part of the permanent collection alongside preliminary studies and a later copy by Duchamp.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript (PS) is a page description language in the electronic publishing and desktop publishing realm. It is a dynamically typed, concatenative programming language. It was created at Adobe Systems by John Warnock, Charles Geschke, Doug Brotz, Ed Taft and Bill Paxton from 1982 to 1984.


title: PostScript

text: The concepts of the PostScript language were seeded in 1976 by John Gaffney at Evans & Sutherland, a computer graphics company. At that time Gaffney and John Warnock were developing an interpreter for a large three-dimensional graphics database of New York Harbor.


title: PostScript

text: Concurrently, researchers at Xerox PARC had developed the first laser printer and had recognized the need for a standard means of defining page images. In 1975-76 Bob Sproull and William Newman developed the Press format, which was eventually used in the Xerox Star system to drive laser printers. But Press, a data format rather than a language, lacked flexibility, and PARC mounted the Interpress effort to create a successor.


title: PostScript

text: In 1978 John Gaffney and Martin Newell then at Xerox PARC wrote J & M or JaM (for "John and Martin") which was used for VLSI design and the investigation of type and graphics printing. This work later evolved and expanded into the Interpress language.


title: PostScript

text: Warnock left with Chuck Geschke and founded Adobe Systems in December 1982. They, together with Doug Brotz, Ed Taft and Bill Paxton created a simpler language, similar to Interpress, called PostScript, which went on the market in 1984. At about this time they were visited by Steve Jobs, who urged them to adapt PostScript to be used as the language for driving laser printers.


title: PostScript

text: In March 1985, the Apple LaserWriter was the first printer to ship with PostScript, sparking the desktop publishing (DTP) revolution in the mid-1980s. The combination of technical merits and widespread availability made PostScript a language of choice for graphical output for printing applications. For a time an interpreter (sometimes referred to as a RIP for Raster Image Processor) for the PostScript language was a common component of laser printers, into the 1990s.


title: PostScript

text: However, the cost of implementation was high; computers output raw PS code that would be interpreted by the printer into a raster image at the printer's natural resolution. This required high performance microprocessors and ample memory. The LaserWriter used a 12 MHz Motorola 68000, making it faster than any of the Macintosh computers to which it attached. When the laser printer engines themselves cost over a thousand dollars the added cost of PS was marginal. But as printer mechanisms fell in price, the cost of implementing PS became too great a fraction of overall printer cost; in addition, with desktop computers becoming more powerful, it no longer made sense to offload the rasterization work onto the resource-constrained printer. By 2001, few lower-end printer models came with support for PostScript, largely due to growing competition from much cheaper non-PostScript ink jet printers, and new software-based methods to render PostScript images on the computer, making them suitable for any printer; PDF, a descendant of PostScript, provides one such method, and has largely replaced PostScript as "de facto" standard for electronic document distribution.


title: PostScript

text: On high-end printers, PostScript processors remain common, and their use can dramatically reduce the CPU work involved in printing documents, transferring the work of rendering PostScript images from the computer to the printer.


title: PostScript

text: The first version of the PostScript language was released to the market in 1984. The qualifier "Level 1" was added when Level 2 was introduced.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript Level 2 was introduced in 1991, and included several improvements: improved speed and reliability, support for in-Raster Image Processing (RIP) separations, image decompression (for example, JPEG images could be rendered by a PostScript program), support for composite fonts, and the form mechanism for caching reusable content.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript 3 (Adobe dropped the "level" terminology in favor of simple versioning) came at the end of 1997, and along with many new dictionary-based versions of older operators, introduced better color handling and new filters (which allow in-program compression/decompression, program chunking, and advanced error-handling).


title: PostScript

text: PostScript 3 was significant in terms of replacing the existing proprietary color electronic prepress systems, then widely used for magazine production, through the introduction of smooth shading operations with up to 4096 shades of grey (rather than the 256 available in PostScript Level 2), as well as DeviceN, a color space that allowed the addition of additional ink colors (called spot colors) into composite color pages.


title: PostScript

text: Prior to the introduction of PostScript, printers were designed to print character output given the text—typically in ASCII—as input. There were a number of technologies for this task, but most shared the property that the glyphs were physically difficult to change, as they were stamped onto typewriter keys, bands of metal, or optical plates.


title: PostScript

text: This changed to some degree with the increasing popularity of dot matrix printers. The characters on these systems were drawn as a series of dots, as defined by a font table inside the printer. As they grew in sophistication, dot matrix printers started including several built-in fonts from which the user could select, and some models allowed users to upload their own custom glyphs into the printer.


title: PostScript

text: Dot matrix printers also introduced the ability to print raster graphics. The graphics were interpreted by the computer and sent as a series of dots to the printer using a series of escape sequences. These printer control languages varied from printer to printer, requiring program authors to create numerous drivers.


title: PostScript

text: Vector graphics printing was left to special-purpose devices, called plotters. Almost all plotters shared a common command language, HPGL, but were of limited use for anything other than printing graphics. In addition, they tended to be expensive and slow, and thus rare.


title: PostScript

text: Laser printers combine the best features of both printers and plotters. Like plotters, laser printers offer high quality line art, and like dot-matrix printers, they are able to generate pages of text and raster graphics. Unlike either printers or plotters, a laser printer makes it possible to position high-quality graphics and text on the same page. PostScript made it possible to exploit fully these characteristics by offering a single control language that could be used on any brand of printer.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript went beyond the typical printer control language and was a complete programming language of its own. Many applications can transform a document into a PostScript program: the execution of which results in the original document. This program can be sent to an interpreter in a printer, which results in a printed document, or to one inside another application, which will display the document on-screen. Since the document-program is the same regardless of its destination, it is called "device-independent".


title: PostScript

text: PostScript is noteworthy for implementing 'on-the fly' rasterization in which everything, even text, is specified in terms of straight lines and cubic Bézier curves (previously found only in CAD applications), which allows arbitrary scaling, rotating and other transformations. When the PostScript program is interpreted, the interpreter converts these instructions into the dots needed to form the output. For this reason, PostScript interpreters are occasionally called PostScript raster image processors, or RIPs.


title: PostScript

text: Almost as complex as PostScript itself is its handling of fonts. The font system uses the PS graphics primitives to draw glyphs as curves, which can then be rendered at any resolution. A number of typographic issues had to be considered with this approach.


title: PostScript

text: One issue is that fonts do not scale linearly at small sizes and features of the glyphs will become proportionally too large or small and start to look displeasing. PostScript avoided this problem with the inclusion of font hinting, in which additional information is provided in horizontal or vertical bands to help identify the features in each letter that are important for the rasterizer to maintain. The result was significantly better-looking fonts even at low resolution. It had formerly been believed that hand-tuned bitmap fonts were required for this task.


title: PostScript

text: At the time, the technology for including these hints in fonts was carefully guarded, and the hinted fonts were compressed and encrypted into what Adobe called a "Type 1 Font" (also known as "PostScript Type 1 Font", "PS1", "T1" or "Adobe Type 1"). Type 1 was effectively a simplification of the PS system to store outline information only, as opposed to being a complete language (PDF is similar in this regard). Adobe would then sell licenses to the Type 1 technology to those wanting to add hints to their own fonts. Those who did not license the technology were left with the "Type 3 Font" (also known as "PostScript Type 3 Font", "PS3" or "T3"). Type 3 fonts allowed for all the sophistication of the PostScript language, but without the standardized approach to hinting.


title: PostScript

text: The Type 2 font format was designed to be used with Compact Font Format (CFF) charstrings, and was implemented to reduce the overall font file size. The CFF/Type2 format later became the basis for handling PostScript outlines in OpenType fonts.


title: PostScript

text: The CID-keyed font format was also designed, to solve the problems in the OCF/Type 0 fonts, for addressing the complex Asian-language (CJK) encoding and very large character set issues. The CID-keyed font format can be used with the Type 1 font format for standard CID-keyed fonts, or Type 2 for CID-keyed OpenType fonts.


title: PostScript

text: To compete with Adobe's system, Apple designed their own system, TrueType, around 1991. Immediately following the announcement of TrueType, Adobe published the specification for the Type 1 font format. Retail tools such as Altsys Fontographer (acquired by Macromedia in January 1995, owned by FontLab since May 2005) added the ability to create Type 1 fonts. Since then, many free Type 1 fonts have been released; for instance, the fonts used with the TeX typesetting system are available in this format.


title: PostScript

text: In the early 1990s there were several other systems for storing outline-based fonts, developed by Bitstream and Metafont for instance, but none included a general-purpose printing solution and they were therefore not widely used.


title: PostScript

text: In the late 1990s, Adobe joined Microsoft in developing OpenType, essentially a functional superset of the Type 1 and TrueType formats. When printed to a PostScript output device, the unneeded parts of the OpenType font are omitted, and what is sent to the device by the driver is the same as it would be for a TrueType or Type 1 font, depending on which kind of outlines were present in the OpenType font.


title: PostScript

text: In the 1980s, Adobe drew most of its revenue from the licensing fees for their implementation of PostScript for printers, known as a raster image processor or "RIP". As a number of new RISC-based platforms became available in the mid-1980s, some found Adobe's support of the new machines to be lacking.


title: PostScript

text: This and issues of cost led to third-party implementations of PostScript becoming common, particularly in low-cost printers (where the licensing fee was the sticking point) or in high-end typesetting equipment (where the quest for speed demanded support for new platforms faster than Adobe could provide). At one point, Microsoft licensed to Apple a PostScript-compatible interpreter it had bought called TrueImage, and Apple licensed to Microsoft its new font format, TrueType. Apple ended up reaching an accord with Adobe and licensed genuine PostScript for its printers, but TrueType became the standard outline font technology for both Windows and the Macintosh.


title: PostScript

text: Today, third-party PostScript-compatible interpreters are widely used in printers and multifunction peripherals (MFPs). For example, CSR plc's IPS PS3 interpreter, formerly known as PhoenixPage, is standard in many printers and MFPs, including those developed by Hewlett-Packard and sold under the LaserJet and Color LaserJet lines. Other third-party PostScript solutions used by print and MFP manufacturers include Jaws and the Harlequin RIP, both by Global Graphics. A free software version, with several other applications, is Ghostscript. Several compatible interpreters are listed on the Undocumented Printing Wiki.


title: PostScript

text: Some basic, inexpensive laser printers do not support PostScript, instead coming with drivers that simply rasterize the platform's native graphics formats rather than converting them to PostScript first. When PostScript support is needed for such a printer, Ghostscript can be used. There are also a number of commercial PostScript interpreters, such as TeleType Co.'s T-Script.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript became commercially successful due to the introduction of the graphical user interface (GUI), allowing designers to directly lay out pages for eventual output on laser printers. However, the GUI's own graphics systems were generally much less sophisticated than PostScript; Apple's QuickDraw, for instance, supported only basic lines and arcs, not the complex B-splines and advanced region filling options of PostScript. In order to take full advantage of PostScript printing, applications on the computers had to re-implement those features using the host platform's own graphics system. This led to numerous issues where the on-screen layout would not exactly match the printed output, due to differences in the implementation of these features.


title: PostScript

text: As computer power grew, it became possible to host the PS system in the computer rather than the printer. This led to the natural evolution of PS from a printing system to one that could also be used as the host's own graphics language. There were numerous advantages to this approach; not only did it help eliminate the possibility of different output on screen and printer, but it also provided a powerful graphics system for the computer, and allowed the printers to be "dumb" at a time when the cost of the laser engines was falling. In a production setting, using PostScript as a display system meant that the host computer could render low-resolution to the screen, higher resolution to the printer, or simply send the PS code to a smart printer for offboard printing.


title: PostScript

text: However, PostScript was written with printing in mind, and had numerous features that made it unsuitable for direct use in an interactive display system. In particular, PS was based on the idea of collecting up PS commands until the codice_1 command was seen, at which point all of the commands read up to that point were interpreted and output. In an interactive system this was clearly not appropriate. Nor did PS have any sort of interactivity built in; for example, supporting hit detection for mouse interactivity obviously did not apply when PS was being used on a printer.


title: PostScript

text: When Steve Jobs left Apple and started NeXT, he pitched Adobe on the idea of using PS as the display system for his new workstation computers. The result was Display PostScript, or DPS. DPS added basic functionality to improve performance by changing many string lookups into 32 bit integers, adding support for direct output with every command, and adding functions to allow the GUI to inspect the diagram. Additionally, a set of "bindings" was provided to allow PS code to be called directly from the C programming language. NeXT used these bindings in their NeXTStep system to provide an object oriented graphics system. Although DPS was written in conjunction with NeXT, Adobe sold it commercially and it was a common feature of most Unix workstations in the 1990s.


title: PostScript

text: Sun Microsystems took another approach, creating NeWS. Instead of DPS's concept of allowing PS to interact with C programs, NeWS instead extended PS into a language suitable for running the entire GUI of a computer. Sun added a number of new commands for timers, mouse control, interrupts and other systems needed for interactivity, and added data structures and language elements to allow it to be completely object oriented internally. A complete GUI, three in fact, were written in NeWS and provided for a time on their workstations. However, the ongoing efforts to standardize the X11 system led to its introduction and widespread use on Sun systems, and NeWS never became widely used.


title: PostScript

text: The PDF and PostScript share the same imaging model and both documents are mutually convertible to each other. Both documents produce the same result when printed. The difference between the PDF and PostScript is that the PDF lacks the general-purpose programming language framework of the PostScript language. A PDF document is a static data structure made for efficient access and embeds navigational information suitable for interactive viewing.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript is a Turing-complete programming language, belonging to the concatenative group. Typically, PostScript programs are not produced by humans, but by other programs. However, it is possible to write computer programs in PostScript just like any other programming language.


title: PostScript

text: PostScript is an interpreted, stack-based language similar to Forth but with strong dynamic typing, data structures inspired by those found in Lisp, scoped memory and, since language level 2, garbage collection. The language syntax uses reverse Polish notation, which makes the order of operations unambiguous, but reading a program requires some practice, because one has to keep the layout of the stack in mind. Most "operators" (what other languages term "functions") take their arguments from the stack, and place their results onto the stack. "Literals" (for example, numbers) have the effect of placing a copy of themselves on the stack. Sophisticated data structures can be built on the "array" and "dictionary" types, but cannot be declared to the type system, which sees them all only as arrays and dictionaries, so any further typing discipline to be applied to such user-defined "types" is left to the code that implements them.


title: PostScript

text: The character "%" is used to introduce comments in PostScript programs. As a general convention, every PostScript program should start with the characters "%!PS" as an interpreter directive so that all devices will properly interpret it as PostScript.


title: PostScript

text: A Hello World program, the customary way to show a small example of a complete program in a given language, might look like this in PostScript (level 2):


title: PostScript

text: PostScript uses the point as its unit of length. However, unlike some of the other versions of the point, PostScript uses exactly 72 points to the inch. Thus:


title: PostScript

text: More readably and idiomatically, one might use the following equivalent, which demonstrates a simple procedure definition and the use of the mathematical operators codice_2 and codice_3:


title: PostScript

text: Most implementations of PostScript use single-precision reals (24-bit mantissa), so it is not meaningful to use more than 9 decimal digits to specify a real number, and performing calculations may produce unacceptable round-off errors.


title: Yawn

text: A yawn is a reflex lasting 4-7 seconds, and is characterized by a long inspiratory phase with gradual mouth gaping, followed by a brief climax (or acme) with muscle stretching, and a rapid expiratory phase with muscle relaxation. For fish and birds, this is described as gradual mouth


title: Yawn

text: gaping, staying open for at least 3 seconds and subsequently a rapid closure of the mouth. Almost all vertebrate animals, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even fish, experience yawning. The study of yawning is called chasmology.


title: Yawn

text: Yawning (oscitation) most often occurs in adults immediately before and after sleep, during tedious activities and as a result of its contagious quality. It is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, sleepiness, boredom, or even hunger. In humans, yawning is often triggered by the perception that others are yawning (for example, seeing a person yawning, or talking to someone on the phone who is yawning). This is a typical example of positive feedback. This "contagious" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees, dogs, cats, birds, and reptiles and can occur between members of different species. Approximately twenty psychological reasons for yawning have been proposed by scholars but there is little agreement on the primacy of any one.


title: Yawn

text: During a yawn, muscles around the airway are fully stretched, including chewing and swallowing muscles. Due to these strong repositioning muscle movements, the airway (lungs and throat) dilates to three or four times its original size. The tensor tympani muscle in the middle ear contracts, which creates a rumbling noise perceived as coming from within the head; however, the noise is due to mechanical disturbance of the hearing apparatus and is not generated by the motion of air. Yawning is sometimes accompanied, in humans and other animals, by an instinctive act of stretching several parts of the body including the arms, neck, shoulders and back.


title: Yawn

text: "yanen" from Old English "ġānian", and "yenen, yonen" from Old English frequentatives "ġinian, ġionian", from a Germanic root "*gīn-". The Germanic root has Indo-European cognates, from a root "*g̑hēi-"


title: Yawn

text: found also with "-n-" suffix in Greek χαίνω "to yawn", and without the "-n-" in English "gap" (compare the "figura etymologica" in Norse "ginnunga-gap"), "gum" "palate" and "gasp" (via Old Norse), Latin "hiō, hiatus", and Greek "chasm, chaos".


title: Yawn

text: The Latin term used in medicine is "oscitatio" (anglicized as "oscitation"), from the verb "oscito" "to open the mouth".


title: Yawn

text: One study states that yawning occurs when one's blood contains increased amounts of carbon dioxide and therefore becomes in need of the influx of oxygen (or expulsion of carbon dioxide) that a yawn can provide. Yawning may reduce oxygen intake compared to normal respiration; however, the frequency of yawning is not decreased by providing more oxygen or reducing carbon dioxide in the air.


title: Yawn

text: Animals subject to predation or other dangers must be ready to physically exert themselves at any given moment. At least one study suggests that yawning, especially psychological "contagious" yawning, may have developed as a way of keeping a group of animals alert. If an animal is drowsy or bored, it will be less alert than when fully awake and less prepared to spring into action. "Contagious" yawning could be an instinctual signal between group members to stay alert.


title: Yawn

text: Nervousness, which often indicates the perception of an impending need for action, has also been suggested as a cause. Anecdotal evidence suggests that yawning helps increase a person's alertness. Paratroopers have been noted to yawn during the moments before they exit their aircraft and athletes often yawn just before intense exertions.


title: Yawn

text: Another notion states that yawning is the body's way of controlling brain temperature. In 2007, researchers, including a professor of psychology from the SUNY Albany (US), proposed yawning may be a means to keep the brain cool. Mammalian brains operate best within a narrow temperature range. In two experiments, subjects with cold packs attached to their foreheads and subjects asked to breathe strictly-nasally exhibited reduced contagious-yawning when watching videos of people yawning.


title: Yawn

text: A similar hypothesis suggests yawning is used for regulation of body temperature. Similarly, Guttmann and Dopart (2011) found that when a subject wearing earplugs yawns, the air moving between the subject's ear and the environment causes a breeze to be heard. Guttmann and Dopart determined that a yawn causes one of three possible situations to occur: the brain cools down due to an influx or outflux of oxygen; pressure in the brain is reduced by an outflux of oxygen; or the pressure of the brain is increased by an influx of air caused by increased cranial space.


title: Yawn

text: One review hypothesized that yawning's goal is to periodically stretch the muscles of the throat, which may be important for efficient vocalization, swallowing, chewing, and also keeping the airway wide.


title: Yawn

text: Yawning behavior may be altered as a result of medical issues such as diabetes, stroke, or adrenal conditions. Excessive yawning is seen in immunosuppressed patients such as those with multiple sclerosis. A professor of clinical and forensic neuropsychology at Bournemouth University has demonstrated that cortisol levels rise during yawning.


title: Yawn

text: With respect to a possible evolutionary advantage, yawning might be a herd instinct. Theories suggest that the yawn serves to synchronize mood in gregarious animals, similar to howling in a wolf pack. It signals fatigue among members of a group in order to synchronize sleeping patterns and periods.


title: Yawn

text: Research by Garrett Norris (2013) involving monitoring the behaviour of students kept waiting in a reception area indicates a connection (supported by neuro-imaging research) between empathic ability and yawning. "We believe that contagious yawning indicates empathy. It indicates an appreciation of other peoples' behavioral and physiological state," says Norris.


title: Yawn

text: The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, "One man's yawning makes another yawn", and the French proverbialized the idea to "Un bon bâilleur en fait bâiller sept" ("One good gaper makes seven others gape"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to "empathetically" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), reading or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn. The proximate cause for contagious yawning may lie with mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus from conspecific (same species) and occasionally interspecific organisms, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation, which lies at the root of much human learning, such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse.


title: Yawn

text: A 2007 study found that young children with autism spectrum disorders do not increase their yawning frequency after seeing videos of other people yawning, in contrast to neurotypical children. In fact, the autistic children actually yawned less during the videos of yawning than during the control videos.


title: Yawn

text: The relationship between yawn contagion and empathy is strongly supported by a 2011 behavioural study, conducted by Ivan Norscia and Elisabetta Palagi (University of Pisa, Italy). The study revealed that—among other variables such as nationality, gender, and sensory modality—only social bonding predicted the occurrence, frequency, and latency of yawn contagion. As with other measures of empathy, the rate of contagion was found to be greatest in response to kin, then friends, then acquaintances, and lastly strangers. Related individuals (r≥0.25) showed the greatest contagion, in terms of both occurrence of yawning and frequency of yawns. Strangers and acquaintances showed a longer delay in the yawn response (latency) compared to friends and kin. Hence, yawn contagion appears to be primarily driven by the emotional closeness between individuals. The social asymmetry in contagious yawning (with contagious yawning being more frequent between familiar subjects than between strangers) remains when only yawns that are heard, but not seen, are considered. This finding makes it unlikely that visual attentional biases are at the basis of the social asymmetry observed in contagious yawning.


title: Yawn

text: Two classes of yawning have been observed among primates. In some cases, the yawn is used as a threat gesture as a way of maintaining order in the primates' social structure. Specific studies were conducted on chimpanzees and stumptail macaques. A group of these animals was shown a video of other members of their own species yawning; both species yawned as well. This helps to partly confirm a yawn's "contagiousness".


title: Yawn

text: The Discovery Channel's show "MythBusters" also tested this concept. In their small-scale, informal study they concluded that yawning is contagious, although elsewhere the statistical significance of this finding has been disputed.


title: Yawn

text: Gordon Gallup, who hypothesizes that yawning may be a means of keeping the brain cool, also hypothesizes that "contagious" yawning may be a survival instinct inherited from our evolutionary past. "During human evolutionary history, when we were subject to predation and attacks by other groups, if everybody yawns in response to seeing someone yawn the whole group becomes much more vigilant and much better at being able to detect danger."


title: Yawn

text: A study by the University of London has suggested that the "contagiousness" of yawns by a human will pass to dogs. The study observed that 21 of 29 dogs yawned when a stranger yawned in front of them but did not yawn when the stranger only opened his mouth.


title: Yawn

text: Helt and Eigsti (2010) showed that dogs, like humans, develop a susceptibility to contagious yawning gradually, and that while dogs above seven months 'catch' yawns from humans, younger dogs are immune to contagion. The study also indicated that nearly half of the dogs responded to the human's yawn by becoming relaxed and sleepy, suggesting that the dogs copied not just the yawn, but also the physical state that yawns typically reflect.


title: Yawn

text: In a study involving gelada baboons, yawning was contagious between individuals, especially those that were socially close. This suggests that emotional proximity rather than spatial proximity is an indicator of yawn contagion.


title: Yawn

text: Evidence for the occurrence of contagious yawning linked to empathy is rare outside of primates. It has been studied in Canidae species, such as the domestic dog and wolf. Domestic dogs have shown the ability to yawn contagiously in response to human yawns. Domestic dogs have demonstrated they are skilled at reading human communication behaviours. This ability makes it difficult to ascertain whether yawn contagion among domestic dogs is deeply rooted in their evolutionary history or is a result of domestication.


title: Yawn

text: In a 2014 study, wolves were observed in an effort to answer this question. The results of the study showed that wolves are capable of yawn contagion. This study also found that the social bond strength between individuals affected the frequency of contagious yawning in wolves, supporting previous research which ties contagious yawning to emotional proximity.


title: Yawn

text: Some evidence for contagious yawning has also been found in budgerigars ("Melopsittacus undulatus"), a species of social parrots. This indicates that contagious yawning may have evolved several times in different lineages. In budgerigars, contagious yawning does not seem to be related to social closeness.


title: Yawn

text: In certain neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism, the patient has an impaired ability to infer the mental states of others. In such cases, yawn contagion can be used to evaluate their ability to infer or empathize with others. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder which severely affects social and communicative development, including empathy. The results of various studies have showed a diminished susceptibility to contagious yawn compared to the control group of typically developing children. Since atypical development of empathy is reported in autism spectrum disorder, results support the claim that contagious yawning and the capacity of empathy share common neural and cognitive mechanisms. Similarly, patients with neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as schizophrenia, have shown an impaired ability to empathize with others. Contagious yawning is one means of evaluating such disorders. The Canadian psychiatrist Heinz Lehmann claimed that increases in yawning could predict recovery in schizophrenia. The impairment of contagious yawning can provide greater insight into its connection to the underlying causes of empathy.


title: Yawn

text: There is still substantial disagreement in the existing literature about whether or not yawn contagion is related to empathy at all. Empathy is a notoriously difficult trait to measure, and the literature on the subject is confused, with the same species sometimes displaying a connection between contagious yawning and social closeness, and sometimes apparently not. Different experimenters typically use slightly different measures of empathy, making comparisons between studies difficult, and there may be a publication bias, where studies which find a significant correlation between the two tested variables are more likely to be published than studies which do not. By revising in critical way the literature for and against yawn contagion as an empathy-related phenomenon, a 2020 review has shown that the social and emotional relevance of the stimulus (based on who the yawner is) can be related to the levels of yawn contagion, as suggested by neurobiological, ethological and psychological findings. Therefore, the discussion over the issue remains open.


title: Yawn

text: In animals, yawning can serve as a warning signal. Charles Darwin's book, "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals", mentions that baboons yawn to threaten their enemies, possibly by displaying large canine teeth. Similarly, Siamese fighting fish yawn only when they see a conspecific (same species) or their own mirror-image, and their yawn often accompanies aggressive attack. Guinea pigs also yawn in a display of dominance or anger, displaying their impressive incisor teeth. This is often accompanied by teeth chattering, purring and scent marking.


title: Yawn

text: Adelie penguins employ yawning as part of their courtship ritual. Penguin couples face off and the males engage in what is described as an "ecstatic display", opening their beaks and pointing their faces skyward. This trait has also been seen among emperor penguins. Researchers have been attempting to discover why these two different species share this trait, despite not sharing a habitat. Snakes yawn, both to realign their jaws after a meal and for respiratory reasons, as their trachea can be seen to expand when they do this. Dogs, and occasionally cats, often yawn after seeing people yawn and when they feel uncertain. Dogs demonstrate contagious yawning when exposed to human yawning. Dogs are very adept at reading human communication actions, so it is unclear if this phenomenon is rooted in evolutionary history or a result of domestication. Fish can also yawn, and they will increase this behavior when experiencing a lack of oxygen. Socially contagious yawning has been observed in budgerigars, and anecdotally when tired in other parrot species.


title: Yawn

text: Some cultures lend yawning moral or spiritual significance. An open mouth has been associated with letting good immaterial things (such as the soul) escape or letting bad ones (evil spirits) enter, and yawning may have been thought to increase these risks. Covering the mouth when yawning may have been a way to prevent such transmission. Exorcists believe yawning can indicate that a demon or possessive spirit is leaving its human host during the course of an exorcism. Thus, covering one's mouth has been conceived as a protective measure against this.


title: Yawn

text: Yawning has also been described as disrespectful (when done before others) or improper (when done alone). For example, in his commentary on Al-Bukhari's hadith collection, Ibn Hajar, an Islamic theologian, mentions that yawning, in addition to its risks of letting demons enter or take hold of one's body, is unbefitting for humans as it makes them look and sound like dogs by crooking men's upright posture and making them howl:


title: Yawn

text: Superstitions regarding the act of yawning may have arisen from concerns over public health. Polydore Vergil (–1555), in his "De Rerum Inventoribus", writes that it was customary to make the Sign of the Cross over one's mouth, since "alike deadly plague was sometime in yawning, wherefore men used to fence themselves with the sign of the cross... which custom we retain at this day."


title: Yawn

text: Yawning is often perceived as implying boredom, and yawning conspicuously in another's presence has historically been a faux pas. In 1663 Francis Hawkins advised, "In yawning howl not, and thou shouldst abstain as much as thou can to yawn, especially when thou speakest". George Washington said, "If You Cough, Sneeze, Sigh, or Yawn, do it not Loud but Privately; and Speak not in your Yawning, but put Your handkerchief or Hand before your face and turn aside." These customary beliefs persist in the modern age. One of Mason Cooley's aphorisms is "A yawn is more disconcerting than a contradiction." A loud yawn may even lead to penalties for contempt of court.


title: KDE Plasma 5

text: KDE Plasma 5 is the fifth and current generation of the graphical workspaces environment created by KDE primarily for Linux systems. KDE Plasma 5 is the successor of KDE Plasma 4 and was first released on 15 July 2014.


title: KDE Plasma 5

text: It includes a new default theme, known as "Breeze", as well as increased convergence across different devices. The graphical interface was fully migrated to QML, which uses OpenGL for hardware acceleration, which resulted in better performance and reduced power consumption.


title: KDE Plasma 5

text: It improves support for HiDPI displays and ships a convergable graphical shell, which can adjust itself according to the device in use. 5.0 also includes a new default theme, dubbed Breeze. Qt 5's QtQuick 2 uses a hardware-accelerated OpenGL(ES) scene graph (canvas) to compose and render graphics on the screen, which allows for the offloading of computationally expensive graphics rendering tasks onto the GPU, freeing up resources on the system's main CPU.


title: KDE Plasma 5

text: KDE Plasma 5 uses the X Window System and Wayland. Support for Wayland was prepared in the compositor and planned for a later release. It was made initially available in the 5.4 release. Stable support for a basic Wayland session was provided in the 5.5 release (December 2015).


title: KDE Plasma 5

text: Support for NVIDIA proprietary driver for Plasma on Wayland was added in the 5.16 release (June 2019).