title: Climate of New Zealand

text: Winter temperatures are much milder in New Zealand compared to other areas of similar latitude, with the exception of the Central Otago and Mackenzie Basin regions mentioned above. Maxima are generally in the North Island, decreasing as one goes further south or inland. The South Island is a bit cooler, with maximum temperatures around , though sometimes lower. The lowest temperature ever recorded was at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: July 1863 The blizzard and flood of 1863 was a series of consecutive natural disasters in Central Otago in New Zealand's South Island. From July to August 1863 the Otago gold fields suffered from a combination of floods, snowstorms, and blizzards that caused heavy loss of life among the gold miners. At least 40 died during the July rains and more than 11 in the August snows. Sources using the earliest reports of loss of life tend to greatly overstate the numbers who died.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 1–6 February 1868: The Great storm of 1868 was a violent storm that swept across much of New Zealand wrecking 12 ships and causing extensive flooding. About 40 lives were known lost and at the time an estimated £500,000 to £1 million worth of damage was caused. The storm is currently thought to have been an extratropical cyclone.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 16 April 1897: The storm of 1897 was a severe storm that struck the lower to central North Island of New Zealand on 16 April 1897. It caused the ship "Zuleika" to run aground near Cape Palliser, with the loss of 12 lives, and severe flooding. At Clive the flooding caused the loss of a further 12 lives and one person was drowned near Kapiti. There were 6 further unconfirmed reports of drowning, bringing the total loss of life directly related to the storm event to between 25 and 31. Based on descriptions of the storm, particularly that of Captain Marten of the "Waiapu", it may have been an extratropical cyclone.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 10 April 1968: Cyclone Giselle caused peak gusts of 145 knots (270 km/h) near Wellington, after colliding with an Antarctic storm moving north. Giselle led to the sinking of the interisland ferry TEV Wahine, and the loss of 53 lives. Total damage caused by the storm was estimated at $14 million.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 20 December 1976: Heavy rain caused widespread flooding and landslides in Wellington City and Hutt Valley. Hutt River burst its stopbanks and workers in Petone took refuge on factory roofs while rail links between Wellington city and the Hutt were suspended stranding thousands of commuters. Landslides destroyed houses and a boy was killed by a collapsing wall when a slip struck a hall in Crofton Downs. More than 350 mm of rain fell in 24 hours.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 6–10 March 1988: New Zealand is hit by a tropical cyclone once every eight to nine years. Cyclone Bola was one of the costliest cyclones in the history of New Zealand, causing severe damage as an extratropical cyclone when it passed near the country.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 4 October 1997: More than 60 homes were flooded and residents in Lower Hutt riverside areas were evacuated during downpours. Two people died, and isolated landslips closed some Wellington roads and parts of State Highway 1.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 26 June 1998: A severe thunderstorm affected Karori and Kelburn, with rain breaking all previous records and falling at a rate with a return period of well over 200 years. Rainfall at Kelburn totalled 69.5 mm between 7.35pm and 9.10pm.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 13–27 October 1998: Gale force northwesterlies blew throughout the lower North Island. On 18 October, gusts of 183 km/h were recorded at Castlepoint. Winds were most severe on the following two days, when a gust of 215 km/h was recorded on a Wairarapa farm. A truck was overturned, ships ripped from their moorings in Wellington, and some houses lost their roofs.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 10 January 2002: Thunderstorms over Wellington resulted in torrential rainfall, about 40 mm in 30 minutes, and flash floods in the city centre. Similar storms, some with hail and surface flooding also happened in Whanganui, Manawatu, the central and eastern North Island, Buller and Nelson. The average recurrence interval of this rainfall event was estimated at more than 100 years.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 14–16 February 2004: The Valentine's Day storms left hundreds of people homeless, and silt and floodwaters inundated considerable areas of farmland. Many rivers breached their banks, bridges were damaged and stock was swept away by floodwaters. A civil state of emergency was declared in Whanganui, Manawatu and Rangitikei. About 500 Lower Hutt residents were evacuated because of floodwaters, and many commuters were unable to enter Wellington. The event produced galeforce southerlies, with gusts of 230 km/h in the Tararua Range, and swells of 11m in Cook Strait.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 25 July and 14 August 2011 New Zealand snowstorms: The first severe winter storm brought the coldest winter snap in fifteen years. During August snow fell consistently down to sea level in Wellington for the first time since 1976, and snowflakes even fell for a brief time in Auckland for the first time in 80 years.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: 20–21 June 2013 New Zealand storm: This extra-tropical system was first felt in the South Island by heavy snowfall on 18 and 19 June. Late on 20 June, the storm pushed northeast to the North Island, bringing very strong winds until early 23 June. Schools were cancelled during the shortest day (21 June), due to massive damage.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: Data collection for determining the New Zealand climate began in the late 19th century, although European explorers made valid observations of climate indicators such as glaciers and moraines early in that century. Scientific study of early New Zealand climate is quite recent and ongoing. It has settled some of the debate regarding links between the Little Ice Age (LIA) in the Northern Hemisphere and the climate in New Zealand at the same time. The key facts to emerge are that New Zealand did experience a noticeable cooler climate, but at a slightly later date than in the Northern Hemisphere. The onset of cooler climate was about 1450 and lasted until 1850. Indications are that temperatures were in the range of 1.5-2.0 degree Celsius lower than present during the New Zealand LIA. Since 2000 various scientific investigations looked at the behaviour of glaciers in relation to climate and found they were excellent indicators of temperatures, especially in summer. Glacial evidence of climate is matched by evidence of variations in tree ring growth and studies of ice core and ocean sediment samples indicating the types of microorganisms (some flourish in warm temperatures, other in cooler temperatures) and historical carbon dioxide ratios.


title: Climate of New Zealand

text: Evidence found that the climate was more strongly influenced by the impact of tropical air masses in warm periods and polar air masses in cool periods. Recent (2010) studies by Victoria University have shown that the regional climates most affected were in coastal Otago and Southland. The dominant temperature influence here was the relative warmth of the sea to the south of New Zealand during the Medieval Warm Period (MWP). From about 1350 this region was notably warmer but then cooled relatively quickly from 1450. This cooling may have had a substantial impact on population in those areas. The limited historical record suggests that from 1450 the population of New Zealand underwent significant cultural change which may have links to climate cooling and dramatic changes in food supplies.


title: Tz database

text: The tz database is a collaborative compilation of information about the world's time zones, primarily intended for use with computer programs and operating systems. Paul Eggert is its current editor and maintainer, with the organizational backing of ICANN. The tz database is also known as tzdata, the zoneinfo database or IANA time zone database, and occasionally as the Olson database, referring to the founding contributor, Arthur David Olson.


title: Tz database

text: Its uniform naming convention for time zones, such as "America/New_York" and "Europe/Paris", was designed by Paul Eggert. The database attempts to record historical time zones and all civil changes since 1970, the Unix time epoch. It also includes transitions such as daylight saving time, and also records leap seconds.


title: Tz database

text: The database, as well as some reference source code, is in the public domain. New editions of the database and code are published as changes warrant, usually several times per year.


title: Tz database

text: The tz database is published as a set of text files which list the rules and zone transitions in a human-readable format. For use, these text files are compiled into a set of platform-independent binary files—one per time zone. The reference source code includes such a compiler called "zic" (zone information compiler), as well as code to read those files and use them in standard APIs such as codice_1 and codice_2.


title: Tz database

text: Within the tz database, a "time zone" is any national region where local clocks have all agreed since 1970. This definition concerns itself first with geographic areas which have had consistent local clocks. This is different from other definitions which concern themselves with consistent offsets from a prime meridian. Therefore, each of the time zones defined by the tz database may document multiple offsets from UTC, typically including both standard time and daylight saving time.


title: Tz database

text: In the time zone text files, each time zone has one or more "zone lines" in one of the time zone text files. The first zone line for a time zone gives the name of the time zone; any subsequent zone lines for that time zone leave the name blank, indicating that they apply to the same zone as the previous line. Each zone line for a zone specifies, for a range of date and time, the offset to UTC for standard time, the name of the set of rules that govern daylight saving time (or a hyphen if standard time always applies), the format for time zone abbreviations, and, for all but the last zone line, the date and time at which the range of date and time governed by that line ends.


title: Tz database

text: The rules for daylight saving time are specified in named rule sets. Each rule set has one or more rule lines in the time zone text files. A rule line contains the name of the rule set to which it belongs, the first year in which the rule applies, the last year in which the rule applies (or "only" if it applies only in one year or "max" if it is the rule currently in effect), the type of year to which the rule applies ("-" if it applies to all years in the specified range, which is almost always the case, otherwise a name used as an argument to a script that indicates whether the year is of the specified type), the month in which the rule takes effect, the day on which the rule takes effect (which could either be a specific day or a specification such as "the last Sunday of the month"), the time of day at which the rule takes effect, the amount of time to add to the offset to UTC when the rule is in effect, and the letter or letters to use in the time zone abbreviation (for example, "S" if the rule governs standard time and "D" if it governs daylight saving time).


title: Tz database

text: The time zones have unique names in the form ""Area"/"Location"", e.g. "America/New_York". A choice was also made to use English names or equivalents, and to omit punctuation and common suffixes. The underscore character is used in place of spaces. Hyphens are used where they appear in the name of a location. The "Area" and "Location" names have a maximum length of 14 characters.


title: Tz database

text: "Area" is the name of a continent, an ocean, or "Etc". The continents and oceans currently used are Africa, America, Antarctica, Arctic, Asia, Atlantic, Australia, Europe, Indian, and Pacific.


title: Tz database

text: The oceans are included since some islands are hard to connect to a certain continent. Some are geographically connected to one continent and politically to another. See also Boundaries between continents.


title: Tz database

text: The special area of "Etc" is used for some administrative zones, particularly for "Etc/UTC" which represents Coordinated Universal Time. In order to conform with the POSIX style, those zone names beginning with "Etc/GMT" have their sign reversed from the standard ISO 8601 convention. In the "Etc" area, zones west of GMT have a positive sign and those east have a negative sign in their name (e.g "Etc/GMT-14" is 14 hours ahead of GMT).


title: Tz database

text: Country names are not used in this scheme, primarily because they would not be robust, owing to frequent political and boundary changes. The names of large cities tend to be more permanent. Usually the most populous city in a region is chosen to represent the entire time zone, although another city may be selected if it is more widely known, and another location, including a location other than a city, may be used if it results in a less ambiguous name. In the event that the name of the location used to represent the time zone changes, the convention is to create an alias in future editions so that both the old and new names refer to the same database entry.


title: Tz database

text: In some cases the "Location" is itself represented as a compound name, for example the time zone "America/Indiana/Indianapolis". Three-level names include those under "America/Argentina/...", "America/Kentucky/...", "America/Indiana/...", and "America/North_Dakota/...".


title: Tz database

text: The location selected is representative for the entire area. However, if there were differences within the area before 1970, the time zone rules only apply in the named location.


title: Tz database

text: These are rule lines for the standard United States daylight saving time rules, rule lines for the daylight saving time rules in effect in the US Eastern Time Zone (called "NYC" as New York City is the city representing that zone) in some years, and zone lines for the America/New_York time zone, as of release version "tzdata2011n" of the time zone database. The zone and rule lines reflect the history of DST in the United States.


title: Tz database

text: For each time zone that has multiple offsets (usually due to daylight saving time), the tz database records the exact moment of transition. The format can accommodate changes in the dates and times of transitions as well. Zones may have historical rule changes going back many decades (as shown in the example above).


title: Tz database

text: The file zone.tab is in the public domain and lists the zones. Columns and row sorting are described in the comments of the file, as follows:


title: Tz database

text: Data before 1970 aims to be correct for the city identifying the region, but is not necessarily correct for the entire region. This is because new regions are created only as required to distinguish clocks since 1970.


title: Tz database

text: For example, between 1963-10-23 and 1963-12-09 in Brazil only the states of Minas Gerais, Espirito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, and São Paulo had summer time. However, a requested split from America/Sao_Paulo was rejected in 2010 with the reasoning that, since 1970, the clocks were the same in the whole region.


title: Tz database

text: Time in Germany, which is represented by Europe/Berlin, is incorrect for the year 1945 when the Trizone used daylight saving time rules different from Berlin's.


title: Tz database

text: There are two zones that cover an area that was covered by two countries after 1970. The database follows the definitions of countries as per ISO 3166-1, whose predecessor, ISO 3166, was first published in 1974.


title: Tz database

text: The tz reference code and database is maintained by a group of volunteers. Arthur David Olson makes most of the changes to the code, and Paul Eggert to the database. Proposed changes are sent to the tz mailing list, which is gatewayed to the comp.time.tz Usenet newsgroup. Source files are distributed via the IANA FTP server. Typically, these files are taken by a software distributor like Debian, compiled, and then the source and binaries are packaged as part of that distribution. End users can either rely on their software distribution's update procedures, which may entail some delay, or obtain the source directly and build the binary files themselves. The IETF has published , "Procedures for Maintaining the Time Zone Database" documenting best practices based on similar principles.


title: Tz database

text: The standard path for the timezone database is codice_3 in Linux distributions, macOS, and some other Unix-like systems.


title: Tz database

text: Geographical boundaries in the form of coordinate sets are not part of the tz database, but boundaries are published by Eric Muller in the form of vector polygons. Using these vector polygons, one can determine, for each place on the globe, the tz database zone in which it is located.


title: Tz database

text: The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) refers to zones in the tz database. However, as the name for a zone can change from one tz database release to another, the CLDR assigns the UN/LOCODE for the city used in the name for the zone, or an internally-assigned code if there is no such city for the zone, to a tzdb zone.


title: Tz database

text: The tz database is used for time zone processing and conversions in many computer software systems, including:


title: Tz database

text: The Olson timezone IDs are also used by the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository (CLDR) and International Components for Unicode (ICU). For example, the CLDR Windows–Tzid table maps Microsoft Windows time zone IDs to the standard Olson names, although such a mapping cannot be perfect because the number of time zones in Windows systems is significantly lower than in the IANA TZ database.


title: Tz database

text: On 30 September 2011, a lawsuit, "Astrolabe, Inc. v. Olson et al.", was filed concerning copyright in the database. As a result, on 6 October 2011, the database's mailing list and FTP site were shut down. The case revolved around the database maintainers' use of "The American Atlas", by Thomas G. Shanks, and "The International Atlas", by Thomas G. Shanks and Rique Pottenger. It complained of unauthorised reproduction of atlas data in the timezone mailing list archive and in some auxiliary link collections maintained with the database, though it did not actually point at the database itself. The complaint related only to the compilation of historical timezone data, and did not cover current tzdata world timezone tables.


title: Tz database

text: This lawsuit was resolved on 22 February 2012 after the involvement of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, when Astrolabe voluntarily moved to dismiss the lawsuit without having ever served the defendants and agreed to a covenant not to sue in the future.


title: Tz database

text: ICANN took responsibility for the maintenance of the database on 14 October 2011. The full database and a description of current and future plans for its maintenance are available online from IANA.


title: Family Radio Service

text: The Family Radio Service (FRS) is an improved walkie-talkie radio system authorized in the United States since 1996. This personal radio service uses channelized frequencies around 462 and 467 MHz in the ultra high frequency (UHF) band. It does not suffer the interference effects found on citizens' band (CB) at 27 MHz, or the 49 MHz band also used by cordless telephones, toys, and baby monitors. FRS uses frequency modulation (FM) instead of amplitude modulation (AM). Since the UHF band has different radio propagation characteristics, short-range use of FRS may be more predictable than the more powerful license-free radios operating in the HF CB band.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Initially proposed by RadioShack in 1994 for use by families, FRS has also seen significant adoption by business interests, as an unlicensed, low-cost alternative to the business band. New rules issued by the FCC in May 2017 clarify and simplify the overlap between FRS and General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS) radio services.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Worldwide, a number of similar personal radio services exist; these share the characteristics of low power operation in the UHF (or upper VHF) band using FM, and simplified or no end-user licenses. Exact frequency allocations differ, so equipment legal to operate in one country may cause unacceptable interference in another. None of these radios working with frequencies in the FRS frequency band are legal to operate anywhere in Europe.


title: Family Radio Service

text: FRS radios use narrow-band frequency modulation (NBFM) with a maximum deviation of 2.5 kilohertz. The channels are spaced at 12.5 kilohertz intervals.


title: Family Radio Service

text: After May 18, 2017, FRS radios are limited to 2 Watts on channel 1-7 and channels 15–22. Previously, FRS radios were limited to 500 milliwatts. All 22 channels are shared with the GMRS.


title: Family Radio Service

text: FRS radios frequently have provisions for using sub-audible tone squelch (CTCSS and DCS) codes, filtering out unwanted chatter from other users on the same frequency. Although these codes are sometimes called "privacy codes" or "private line codes" (PL codes), they offer no protection from eavesdropping and are intended only to help reduce unwanted audio when sharing busy channels. Tone codes also do nothing to prevent desired transmissions from being swamped by stronger signals having a different code.


title: Family Radio Service

text: All equipment used on FRS must be certified according to FCC regulations. Radios are not certified for use in this service if they exceed limits on power output, have a detachable antenna, allow for unauthorized selection of transmitting frequencies outside of the 22 frequencies designated for FRS, or for other reasons. After December 2017, the FCC no longer accepts applications to certify hand-held FRS units providing for transmission in any other radio band.


title: Family Radio Service

text: FRS radios must use only permanently attached antennas; there are also table-top FRS "base station" radios that have whip antennas. This limitation intentionally restricts the range of communications, allowing greatest use of the available channels by the community. The use of duplex radio repeaters and interconnects to the telephone network are prohibited under FRS rules.


title: Family Radio Service

text: The range advertised on specific devices might not apply in real-world situations, since large buildings, trees, etc., can interfere with the signal and reduce range. Under exceptional conditions, (such as hilltop to hilltop, or over open water) communication is possible at or more, but that is rare. Under normal conditions, with line of sight blocked by a few buildings or trees, FRS has an actual range of about 0.5 to 1.5 km (0.3 to 1 mile).


title: Family Radio Service

text: In May 2017, the FCC significantly revised the rules for combination FRS/GMRS radios. Combination radios will be permitted to radiate up to 2 watts on 15 of the 22 channels (as opposed to 0.5 watts), and all FRS channels are now considered shared with the GMRS service. Operation over 2 watts, or operation on GMRS repeater input channels, will still require GMRS licensing. The FCC will not certify combination FRS/GMRS radios that exceed the current power limits for the FRS service.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Hybrid FRS/GMRS consumer radios have been introduced that have 22 channels. Before May 2017, radios had been certified for unlicensed operation on the 7 FRS frequencies, channels 8–14, under FRS rules.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Prior to the 2017 revision, FCC rules required a GMRS license to operate on channels 1–7 using more than 0.5 watts. Many hybrid radios have an ERP that is lower than 0.5 watts on channels 1–7, or can be set by the user to operate at low power on these channels. This allows hybrid radios to be used under the license-free FRS rules if the ERP is less than 0.5 watts and the unit is certified for FRS operation on these frequencies. Beginning September 28, 2017, FRS operation is permitted at up to 2 watts on these channels.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Channels 8–14, formerly exclusive to FRS, since 28 September 2017 can be used by GMRS at 0.5 watts. Channels 15–22, formerly reserved exclusively for GMRS, can be used at up to 2 watts in the FRS.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Effective September 30, 2019, it became unlawful in the US to import, manufacture, sell or offer to sell radio equipment capable of operating under both GMRS and FRS. This does not include amateur and other radio equipment that are not certified under Part 95, such as many handheld radios that are marketed for amateur use but are also able to transmit on FRS and GMRS frequencies.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Personal UHF radio services similar to the American FRS exist in other countries, although since technical standards and frequency bands will differ, usually FCC-approved FRS equipment may not be used in other jurisdictions.


title: Family Radio Service

text: American-standard FRS radios have been approved for use in Canada since April 2000. only low-power (2 W ERP), half duplex GMRS operation is permitted, but a license is not required. Repeater and high-power operations are not permitted. This allows the use of dual-mode FRS/GMRS walkie-talkies, but precludes the use of higher-powered GMRS devices designed for vehicle and base-station purposes.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Since tourists often bring their FRS radios with them, and since trade between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico is of great value to all three countries, the Mexican Secretary of Communication and Transportation has authorized use of the FRS frequencies and equipment similar to that in the US. However, dual-mode FRS/GMRS equipment is not approved in Mexico, so caution should be exercised in operating hybrid FRS/GMRS devices purchased elsewhere.


title: Family Radio Service

text: Dual-mode GMRS/FRS equipment is also approved in Brazil (GMRS only in simplex mode, GMRS frequencies 462.550, 467.550, 462.725, 467.725 are not allowed) and most other South American countries. Portable radios are heavily used in private communications, mainly by security staff in nightclubs and malls, but also in private parking, maintenance, and delivery services.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: Marcus Joseph Tavernier (born 22 March 1999) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Premier League club AFC Bournemouth.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: Tavernier was born in Leeds. Having previously played for Newcastle United, he joined the academy of Middlesbrough at under-14 level and became a regular for the side in the Premier League 2. He also played in two games for his club in the 2015–16 UEFA Youth League.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: Tavernier made his professional debut for the club in the second round of the EFL Cup, starting in a 3–0 win against Scunthorpe United at the Riverside Stadium on 22 August 2017. He scored his first goal for the club on 24 October in the EFL Cup, during a 3–1 loss to Bournemouth at Dean Court, and his first league goal in the Championship in a 1–0 win over rivals Sunderland at the Riverside Stadium on 5 November.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: On 17 January 2018, Tavernier joined relegation-threatened EFL League One side Milton Keynes Dons on loan until the end of the 2017–18 season. He made his debut for the club three days later in a 2–1 defeat to relegation rivals Northampton Town. The club were subsequently relegated to the fourth tier of English football at the end of their unsuccessful campaign, with Tavernier failing to score in any of his eight total appearances.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: In December 2017, Tavernier signed a new contract for 3 years. In January 2020, this was extended until summer 2023.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: On 29 July 2022, Middlesbrough manager Chris Wilder confirmed that the club had accepted a bid for Tavernier from an unnamed Premier League club. On 1 August 2022, Tavernier joined Bournemouth on a five-year deal. Tavernier made his debut for the club on 6 August in a 2–0 home win over Aston Villa in the Premier League. He was praised by manager Scott Parker for his performance in the match.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: Tavernier made his international debut at U19 level, starting in a 2–2 draw against Slovakia U19s at the NTC Senec stadium on 9 October 2017. In July 2018, he was included in the squad for the 2018 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. He scored in a group stage draw against Ukraine.


title: Marcus Tavernier

text: Tavernier was born in Leeds, West Yorkshire. His older brother, James Tavernier, is a footballer who plays for and is captain of Rangers.


title: CME Group

text: CME Group Inc. (Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Chicago Board of Trade, New York Mercantile Exchange, The Commodity Exchange) is an American global markets company. It is the world's largest financial derivatives exchange, and trades in asset classes that include agricultural products, currencies, energy, interest rates, metals, stock indexes and cryptocurrencies futures. The company offers futures contracts and options on futures using its CME Globex trading platforms, fixed income trading via BrokerTec and foreign exchange trading on the EBS platform. In addition, it operates a central counterparty clearing provider, CME Clearing. With a range of pre- and post-trade products and services underpinning the entire lifecycle of a trade, CME Group also offers optimization and reconciliation services through TriOptima, and trade processing services through Traiana.


title: CME Group

text: The company has been described by "The Economist" as, "The biggest financial exchange you have never heard of". In 2019, CME Group was named the world's fastest growing and most valuable exchange brand for the sixth consecutive year by Brand Finance, while it had the fifth greatest brand strength.


title: CME Group

text: Trading is conducted in two methods: an open outcry format and the CME Globex Trading System which is an electronic trading platform.


title: CME Group

text: Operating during regular trading hours (RTH), the open outcry method consists of floor traders standing in a trading pit to call out orders, prices, and quantities of a particular commodity or its derivatives. Different colored jackets are worn by the traders to indicate what firm they are a part of. In addition, complex hand signals (called Arb) are used. These hand signals were first used in the 1970s. Today, however, headsets are also used by the brokers to communicate with the traders. The pits are areas of the floor that are lowered to facilitate communication, somewhat like a miniature amphitheater. The pits can be raised and lowered depending on trading volume. To an onlooker, the open outcry system can look chaotic and confusing, but in reality the system is a tried and true method of accurate and efficient trading. An illustrated project to record the hand signal language used in CME's trading pits has been compiled.


title: CME Group

text: CME Group announced on August 10, 2020 that it will reopen its trading pit for the Eurodollar options. The company will be reconfiguring the pit to meet social distance standards over the next few weeks and implement additional security measures. While the coronavirus problem remains dynamic, the company will continue to track the situation and convey any adjustments when appropriate. The other open outcry exchange pits must stay locked until Phase 5 of their reopening efforts is completed by the City of Chicago and Illinois State.


title: CME Group

text: Operating virtually around the clock, today the CME Globex trading system is at the heart of CME Group. Proposed in 1987, it was introduced in 1992 as the first global electronic trading platform for futures contracts. This fully electronic trading system allows market participants to trade from booths at the exchange or while sitting in a home or office thousands of miles away. On October 19, 2004, the one billionth (1,000,000,000) transaction was recorded. Today, CME Globex operates 24 hours a day, six days a week. More than 90 percent of total volume at the exchange occurs electronically on CME Globex.


title: CME Group

text: In 2019, CME Group's non-U.S. average daily volume reached a record 4.9 million contracts, up 10% compared with 2018, including 7% growth in Europe, 20% growth in Asia and 47% growth in Latin America. In addition to maintaining offices across the Americas, Europe and Asia, the company also partners with other global exchanges including Bursa Malaysia Berhad, The Dubai Mercantile Exchange and Singapore Exchange Limited.


title: CME Group

text: CME Group has received numerous industry awards. The company was named Exchange of the Year, Clearing House of the Year and Exchange Innovation of the Year in the 2019 Risk Awards. CME Group won in four categories at the FOW International Awards including Global Exchange of the Year, Americas Exchange of the Year, Best New Interest Rates Contract and Proprietary Traders' Exchange of the Year. In 2019, CME Group was named to the Forbes list of America's Best Mid-Size Employers. CME Group was also named to Computerworld's 2019 Best Places to work in IT list. In 2019, the company earned a perfect score of 100 on the Human Rights Campaign's Corporate Equality Index.


title: CME Group

text: The company pioneered the CME SPAN software that is used around the world as the official performance bond (margin) mechanism of 50 registered exchanges, clearing organizations, service bureaus, and regulatory agencies throughout the world. In 2019, CME Group announced that it would launch the next generation of CME Span Margin Methodology (CME Span 2) in the first half of 2020, pending regulatory approval.


title: CME Group

text: On October 17, 2006, The Chicago Mercantile Exchange announced a merger with its historic rival the Chicago Board of Trade for $8 billion in stock, joining the two financial institutions as CME Group Inc. The merger agreement was modified on December 20, 2006, May 11, 2007, June 14, 2007 and on July 6, 2007. The merger was approved by shareholders of both CME and the Chicago Board of Trade on July 9, 2007. and closed on July 12, 2007, after which the Chicago Board of Trade shares (old symbol: BOT) stopped trading and were converted into CME shares as agreed, and the overarching holding company began life as CME Group, a CME/Chicago Board of Trade Company. On January 13, 2008 electronic trading at the Chicago Board of Trade shifted to CME Globex.


title: CME Group

text: On March 17, 2008, New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) (owner of both the NYMEX exchange and the Commodity Exchange (COMEX)) accepted an offer from CME Group, to purchase NYMEX for $8.9 billion in cash and CME Group Stock. The acquisition was formally completed on August 22, 2008, and the NYMEX systems were fully integrated by September 30, 2009. Also in 2007, NYMEX in a joint venture with partners on the Arabian Peninsula opened the Dubai Mercantile Exchange (DME).


title: CME Group

text: On February 10, 2010, CME announced its purchase of 90% of Dow Jones Indexes, including the Dow Jones Industrial Average. CME subsequently contributed Dow Jones Indexes to the formation of S&P Dow Jones Indices in exchange for a 24.4% ownership interest. In April 2013, CME purchased the remaining 10% interest in Dow Jones Indexes for $80.0 million. As a result, CME's interest in S&P Dow Jones Indices increased from 24.4% to 27.0%.


title: CME Group

text: On October 17, 2012, CME Group announced it would acquire the Kansas City Board of Trade for $126 Million in cash. KCBOT was the dominant venue for the sale of hard red winter wheat. The Chicago Board of Trade was the leading trade platform for soft red winter wheat.


title: CME Group

text: On March 29, 2018, CME Group announced that it was buying London-based NEX Group for $5.5 billion. The acquisition was completed on November 2, 2018.


title: Data processing

text: Data processing is the collection and manipulation of digital data to produce meaningful information.


title: Data processing

text: Data processing is a form of "information processing", which is the modification (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer.


title: Data processing

text: The term "Data Processing", or "DP" has also been used to refer to a department within an organization responsible for the operation of data processing programs.


title: Data processing

text: The United States Census Bureau history illustrates the evolution of data processing from manual through electronic procedures.


title: Data processing

text: Although widespread use of the term "data processing" dates only from the 1950's, data processing functions have been performed manually for millennia. For example, bookkeeping involves functions such as posting transactions and producing reports like the balance sheet and the cash flow statement. Completely manual methods were augmented by the application of mechanical or electronic calculators. A person whose job was to perform calculations manually or using a calculator was called a "computer."


title: Data processing

text: The 1890 United States Census schedule was the first to gather data by individual rather than household. A number of questions could be answered by making a check in the appropriate box on the form. From 1850 to 1880 the Census Bureau employed "a system of tallying, which, by reason of the increasing number of combinations of classifications required, became increasingly complex. Only a limited number of combinations could be recorded in one tally, so it was necessary to handle the schedules 5 or 6 times, for as many independent tallies." "It took over 7 years to publish the results of the 1880 census" using manual processing methods.


title: Data processing

text: The term "automatic data processing" was applied to operations performed by means of unit record equipment, such as Herman Hollerith's application of punched card equipment for the 1890 United States Census. "Using Hollerith's punchcard equipment, the Census Office was able to complete tabulating most of the 1890 census data in 2 to 3 years, compared with 7 to 8 years for the 1880 census. It is estimated that using Hollerith's system saved some $5 million in processing costs" in 1890 dollars even though there were twice as many questions as in 1880.


title: Data processing

text: Computerized data processing, or Electronic data processing represents a later development, with a computer used instead of several independent pieces of equipment. The Census Bureau first made limited use of electronic computers for the 1950 United States Census, using a UNIVAC I system, delivered in 1952.


title: Data processing

text: The term "data processing" has mostly been subsumed by the more general term "information technology" (IT). The older term "data processing" is suggestive of older technologies. For example, in 1996 the "Data Processing Management Association" (DPMA) changed its name to the "Association of Information Technology Professionals." Nevertheless, the terms are approximately synonymous.


title: Data processing

text: Commercial data processing involves a large volume of input data, relatively few computational operations, and a large volume of output. For example, an insurance company needs to keep records on tens or hundreds of thousands of policies, print and mail bills, and receive and post payments.


title: Data processing

text: In science and engineering, the terms "data processing" and "information systems" are considered too broad, and the term "data processing" is typically used for the initial stage followed by a data analysis in the second stage of the overall data handling.


title: Data processing

text: Data analysis uses specialized algorithms and statistical calculations that are less often observed in a typical general business environment. For data analysis, software suites like SPSS or SAS, or their free counterparts such as DAP, gretl or PSPP are often used.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Chase Alan Hooper (born September 13, 1999) is an American mixed martial artist currently competing in the Featherweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper began his amateur MMA career while he was still attending Enumclaw High School. On the regional circuit of Washington, Hooper compiled an undefeated 5–0 record with 4 stoppage wins before making his professional debut on October 7, 2017, against Edson Penado. Hooper won the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the first round utilizing his heavy skills in Brazilian jiu-jitsu, in which he's a juvenile Pan American champion as a blue belt.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper competed at Dana White's Contender Series 14 against Canaan Kawaihae. He won the fight via unanimous decision and was awarded a development league contract.


title: Chase Hooper

text: He competed in three more fights (winning two of them and the other one ending in a draw) in notable minor promotions such as CFFC and Titan FC before being signed by the UFC.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper made his promotional debut against Daniel Teymur on December 14, 2019, at UFC 245. He won the fight via technical knockout in the first round.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper faced Alex Caceres on June 6, 2020, at UFC 250. He lost the fight via unanimous decision, marking his first professional defeat.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper faced Peter Barrett at UFC 256 on December 12, 2020. He earned a comeback win in the third round via heel hook submission.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper faced Steven Peterson on June 12, 2021, at UFC 263. At the weigh-ins, Peterson weighed in at 148.5 pounds, two and a half pounds over the featherweight non-title fight limit. The bout proceeded at catchweight and he was fined 20% of his purse, which went to Hooper. Hooper lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper faced Felipe Colares on May 21, 2022, at UFC Fight Night 206. He won the fight via technical knockout in round three. This win earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Chase Hooper

text: Hooper faced Steve Garcia on October 29, 2022 at UFC Fight Night 213. He lost the fight via TKO in the first round.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Margaret ( ) is a 2011 American epic psychological drama film written and directed by Kenneth Lonergan. The film stars Anna Paquin, Jean Reno, Matt Damon, Mark Ruffalo, J. Smith-Cameron, Jeannie Berlin, Kieran Culkin, Olivia Thirlby, and Rosemarie DeWitt. "Margaret" was filmed in 2005 and originally scheduled for release that year by Fox Searchlight Pictures, but was repeatedly delayed while Lonergan struggled to create a final cut he was satisfied with, resulting in multiple lawsuits. The litigation ended in 2014.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: While the studio insisted the film's running time could not exceed 150 minutes, Lonergan's preferred version was closer to three hours. Martin Scorsese and Thelma Schoonmaker contributed to editing a 165-minute version that Lonergan approved; the cut was never released because producer Gary Gilbert refused to approve it. Eventually, Fox Searchlight Pictures released the 150-minute film in a limited release in the United States on September 30, 2011, to moderately positive reviews from critics. Some considered it overlong, but it was praised for its acting and later appeared in several publications' lists of the year's best films. Critical praise has grown over time, and "Margaret" is now regarded as one of the best films of its decade and of the new century, and was ranked 31st in a BBC critics poll of the 21st century's 100 greatest films.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Lonergan completed a three-hour extended version incorporating extra footage with a revised score and sound mix, which was released on DVD in July 2012.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: The film's title is drawn from Gerard Manley Hopkins' poem "Spring and Fall: to a young child", which is discussed in Lisa's English class.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: A 17-year-old Manhattan student, Lisa Cohen, shopping on the Upper West Side, interacts with bus driver Gerald Maretti as she runs alongside his moving bus; he allows himself to become distracted, leading to a fatal accident by missing a red light, in which a pedestrian, Monica Patterson, is hit by the bus and subsequently dies in Lisa's arms. Initially, Lisa reports to the police that the driver had a green traffic signal, but later, out of remorse, changes her story. She confronts Maretti, who first pretends to have forgotten the details of the accident, and then reveals to her in anger that he does remember them, but believes he did nothing wrong, causing Lisa to pursue his firing from the company with passion. In collaboration with Monica's best friend, Emily, and cousin, Abigail, Lisa ultimately becomes involved in a wrongful death lawsuit against the Metropolitan Transit Authority, seeking the dismissal of the driver (who is revealed to have caused two previous accidents), as well as monetary damages, which would be awarded to Abigail as the victim's next of kin. Meanwhile, Lisa's life takes various turns, including a flirtation with her math teacher, Aaron Caije, her decision to lose her virginity to a classmate, Paul Hirsch, and various vehement debates with classmates about politics and terrorism.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Lisa and her actress mother have a rocky relationship, with sporadic fighting and Lisa expressing ambivalence toward her mother's boyfriend Ramon. An after-show dinner, attended by Lisa, her mother, Emily and Ramon, ends with Ramon making a remark perceived as anti-Semitic toward Emily. Ramon dies of a heart attack not long after. Lisa has sex with Caije, then later confronts Caije, telling him, in the presence of another teacher, that she has had an abortion. She expresses doubt about who the father was and mentions that there are several possibilities.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: The lawsuit reaches a conclusion, with an award of $350,000, but the MTA refuses to fire Maretti, out of concern that it would inflame a labor dispute. Abigail claims the settlement offer, revealing the monetary settlement to have been her primary motivation; this causes Lisa to become very upset and disillusioned with the outcome of the case.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Lisa and her mother plan to attend an opera that Ramon and she were to see before his death. On the way, Lisa sees Maretti driving the same bus that had killed the pedestrian and there is a brief moment where the two see each other. During the opera performance, Lisa's accumulated emotion from the sequence of events bursts out and she and her mother affectionately reconnect, crying together and holding each other as the opera goes on.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Filmed in 2005, the film's lengthy post-production sparked multiple lawsuits, which were scheduled to be tried in 2009. In July 2010, Fox Searchlight stated that Lonergan finally completed work on the film, and that it would be released in 2011.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: "Margaret" has an unusual digressive structure, with the plot only one part of a wider mosaic that explores a teenage girl's emerging consciousness and realization of the world's indifference to her anger and grief. While protagonist Lisa tries to make sense of the tragedy by variably acting out sexually, clashing with her mother, arguing about politics with classmates, and getting involved in issues that concern her only peripherally, she comes up against a city unmoved by her plight. This feeling of insignificance is enhanced by film's sound design (in the extended cut), which emphasizes other people's conversations intruding on Lisa's experiences, rendering her emotional states insignificant in the grand scheme of things. Lonergan contrasts these difficulties with scenes of Lisa's mother acting on stage as well as opera performances which provide dramatically satisfying experiences far removed from Lisa's messy real world experience. In essence, Lisa's teenage narcissism and "emotional, physical, and maturational limitations" prevent her from seeing that the adults around her are not supporting characters in her life, but part of a wider humanity that grieves and suffers. The film also incorporates numerous shots of the Manhattan skyline as well as ground level footage of people walking in real time and in slow motion, emphasizing the varied topography of the city and accentuating the gulf between Lisa's personal troubles and those of the people around her, as they all live in the mournful shadow of 9/11.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: "Margaret" received mostly positive reviews from critics. , the film holds a 74% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 100 reviews, with an average rating of 7.15 out of 10. The critical consensus states, "A surfeit of ideas contributes to "Margaret"s excessive run time, but Anna Paquin does an admirable job of guiding viewers through emotional hell." The film also holds a score of 61 out of 100 on Metacritic (based on 27 critics), indicating "generally favorable reviews."


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: For her role as Lisa Cohen, Paquin shared the 2011 Best Actress Award from the London Film Critics Circle and received a nomination for Best Actress from the Chicago Film Critics Association. She placed first in critics’ polls from the "LA Weekly", the "Village Voice", and the International Cinephile Society.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: It also ranked 31st in a 2016 BBC poll of the 21st century's greatest films. It has made many best of decade lists for the 2010s. In 2019, critic Richard Brody named it one of the 27 best movies of the decade.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Some critics have cited the film as an example of a great New York City movie and a portrait of a traumatized Manhattan in the wake of 9/11.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: Despite being well received critically, "Margaret" was commercially unsuccessful. The film was given a limited release in North America in 14 theaters and earned $46,495. In the UK, it débuted on only one screen in one cinema – Odeon Panton Street in London. Such was the interest in the film that it took £4,595 in its opening weekend, giving it by some margin the highest screen average of any film on release at the time. In France, it débuted on only one screen in one cinema – Publicis Champs Elysées in Paris. The worldwide total for the film was $623,292, well below its $14 million production budget.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: An extended cut of the film was released on DVD in July 2012 in both the UK and the US. The US release also includes a Blu-ray of the film featuring the theatrical cut in high definition. The Canadian release uses identical packaging and claims to include both cuts but, in actuality, includes only the theatrical cut twice.


title: Margaret (2011 film)

text: The film also features two scenes at the Metropolitan Opera, featuring "Casta diva" from Bellini's "Norma", and "Belle nuit, ô nuit d'amour" (Barcarolle) from Jacques Offenbach's "Les contes d'Hoffmann".


title: Degaussing

text: Degaussing is the process of decreasing or eliminating a remnant magnetic field. It is named after the gauss, a unit of magnetism, which in turn was named after Carl Friedrich Gauss. Due to magnetic hysteresis, it is generally not possible to reduce a magnetic field completely to zero, so degaussing typically induces a very small "known" field referred to as bias. Degaussing was originally applied to reduce ships' magnetic signatures during World War II. Degaussing is also used to reduce magnetic fields in cathode ray tube monitors and to destroy data held on magnetic storage.


title: Degaussing

text: The term was first used by then-Commander Charles F. Goodeve, Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve, during World War II while trying to counter the German magnetic naval mines that were wreaking havoc on the British fleet.


title: Degaussing

text: The mines detected the increase in the magnetic field when the steel in a ship concentrated the Earth's magnetic field over it. Admiralty scientists, including Goodeve, developed a number of systems to induce a small "N-pole up" field into the ship to offset this effect, meaning that the net field was the same as the background. Since the Germans used the gauss as the unit of the strength of the magnetic field in their mines' triggers (not yet a standard measure), Goodeve referred to the various processes to counter the mines as "degaussing". The term became a common word.


title: Degaussing

text: The original method of degaussing was to install electromagnetic coils into the ships, known as "coiling." In addition to being able to bias the ship continually, coiling also allowed the bias field to be reversed in the southern hemisphere, where the mines were set to detect "S-pole down" fields. British ships, notably cruisers and battleships, were well protected by about 1943.


title: Degaussing

text: Installing such special equipment was, however, far too expensive and difficult to service all ships that would need it, so the navy developed an alternative called "wiping," which Goodeve also devised, and which is now also called "deperming". This procedure dragged a large electrical cable along the side of the ship with a pulse of about 2000 amperes flowing through it. This induced the proper field into the ship in the form of a slight bias. It was originally thought that the pounding of the sea and the ship's engines would slowly randomize this field, but in testing, this was found not to be a real problem. A more serious problem was later realized: as a ship travels through Earth's magnetic field, it will slowly pick up that field, counteracting the effects of the degaussing. From then on captains were instructed to change direction as often as possible to avoid this problem. Nevertheless, the bias did wear off eventually, and ships had to be degaussed on a schedule. Smaller ships continued to use wiping through the war.


title: Degaussing

text: During World War II, the United States Navy commissioned a specialized class of degaussing ships that were capable of performing this function. One of them, USS "Deperm" (ADG-10), was named after the procedure.


title: Degaussing

text: After the war, the capabilities of the magnetic fuzes were greatly improved, by detecting not the field itself, but changes in it. This meant a degaussed ship with a magnetic "hot spot" would still set off the mine. Additionally, the precise orientation of the field was also measured, something a simple bias field could not remove, at least for all points on the ship. A series of ever-increasingly complex coils were introduced to offset these effects, with modern systems including no fewer than three separate sets of coils to reduce the field in all axes.


title: Degaussing

text: The US Navy tested, in April 2009, a prototype of its High-Temperature Superconducting Degaussing Coil System, referred to as "HTS Degaussing". The system works by encircling the vessel with superconducting ceramic cables whose purpose is to neutralize the ship's magnetic signature, as in the legacy copper systems. The main advantage of the HTS Degaussing Coil system is greatly reduced weight (sometimes by as much as 80%) and increased efficiency.


title: Degaussing

text: A sea-going metal-hulled ship or submarine, by its very nature, develops a magnetic signature as it travels, due to a magneto-mechanical interaction with Earth's magnetic field. It also picks up the magnetic orientation of the Earth's magnetic field where it is built. This signature can be exploited by magnetic mines or facilitate the detection of a submarine by ships or aircraft with magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) equipment. Navies use the deperming procedure, in conjunction with degaussing, as a countermeasure against this.


title: Degaussing

text: Specialized deperming facilities, such as the United States Navy's Lambert's Point Deperming Station at Naval Station Norfolk, or Pacific Fleet Submarine Drive-In Magnetic Silencing Facility (MSF) at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam, are used to perform the procedure. During a closed-wrap magnetic treatment, heavy-gauge copper cables encircle the hull and superstructure of the vessel, and high electrical currents (up to 4000 amperes) are pulsed through the cables. This has the effect of "resetting" the ship's magnetic signature to the ambient level after flashing its hull with electricity. It is also possible to assign a specific signature that is best suited to the particular area of the world in which the ship will operate. In drive-in magnetic silencing facilities, all cables are either hung above, below and on the sides, or concealed within the structural elements of facilities. Deperming is "permanent". It is only done once unless major repairs or structural modifications are done to the ship.


title: Degaussing

text: With the introduction of iron ships, the negative effect of the metal hull on steering compasses was noted. It was also observed that lightning strikes had a significant effect on compass deviation, identified in some extreme cases as being caused by the reversal of the ship's magnetic signature. In 1866, Evan Hopkins of London registered a patent for a process "to depolarise iron vessels and leave them thenceforth free from any compass-disturbing influence whatever". The technique was described as follows: "For this purpose he employed a number of Grove's batteries and electromagnets. The latter were to be passed along the plates till the desired end had been obtained... the process must not be overdone for fear of re-polarising in the opposite direction." The invention was, however, reported to be "incapable of being carried to a successful issue", and "quickly died a natural death".


title: Degaussing

text: Color CRT displays, the technology underlying many television and computer monitors before the early 2010s, use degaussing. Many CRT displays use a metal plate near the front of the tube to ensure that each electron beam hits the corresponding phosphors of the correct color. If this plate becomes magnetized (e.g. if someone sweeps a magnet on the screen or places loudspeakers nearby), it imparts an undesired deflection to the electron beams and the displayed image becomes distorted and discolored.


title: Degaussing

text: To minimize this, CRTs have a copper, or often in the case of cheaper appliances, aluminum, coil wrapped around the front of the display, known as the degaussing coil. Monitors without an internal coil can be degaussed using an external handheld version. Internal degaussing coils in CRTs are generally much weaker than external degaussing coils, since a better degaussing coil takes up more space. A degauss causes a magnetic field inside the tube to oscillate rapidly, with decreasing amplitude. This leaves the shadow mask with a field opposing any external field (such as that of the Earth), removing the discoloration.


title: Degaussing

text: Many televisions and monitors automatically degauss their picture tube when switched on, before an image is displayed. The high current surge that takes place during this automatic degauss is the cause of an audible "thunk", a loud hum or some clicking noises, which can be heard (and felt) when televisions and CRT computer monitors are switched on, due to the capacitors discharging and injecting current into the coil. Visually, this causes the image to shake dramatically for a short period of time. A degauss option is also usually available for manual selection in the operations menu in such appliances.


title: Degaussing

text: In most commercial equipment the current surge to the degaussing coil is regulated by a simple positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor device, which initially has a low resistance but quickly changes to a high resistance due to the heating effect of the current flow. Such devices are designed for a one-off transition from cold to hot at power up; "experimenting" with the degauss effect by repeatedly switching the device on and off may cause this component to fail. The effect will also be weaker, since the PTC will not have had time to cool off.


title: Degaussing

text: Data is stored in the magnetic media, such as hard drives, floppy disks, and magnetic tape, by making very small areas called magnetic domains, change their magnetic alignment to be in the direction of an applied magnetic field. This phenomenon occurs in much the same way a compass needle points in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field. Degaussing, commonly called erasure, leaves the domains in random patterns with no preference to orientation, thereby rendering previous data unrecoverable. There are some domains whose magnetic alignment is not randomized after degaussing. The information these domains represent is commonly called magnetic remanence or remanent magnetization. Proper degaussing will ensure there is insufficient magnetic remanence to reconstruct the data.


title: Degaussing

text: Erasure via degaussing may be accomplished in two ways: in AC erasure, the medium is degaussed by applying an alternating field that is reduced in amplitude over time from an initial high value (i.e., AC powered); in DC erasure, the medium is saturated by applying a unidirectional field (i.e., DC powered or by employing a permanent magnet). A "degausser" is a device that can generate a magnetic field for degaussing magnetic storage media. The magnetic field needed for degaussing magnetic data storage media is a powerful one that normal magnets cannot easily achieve and maintain.


title: Degaussing

text: Many forms of generic magnetic storage media can be reused after degaussing, including reel-to-reel audio tape, VHS videocassettes, and floppy disks. These older media types are simply a raw medium which are overwritten with fresh new patterns, created by fixed-alignment read/write heads.


title: Degaussing

text: For certain forms of computer data storage, however, such as modern hard disk drives and some tape drives, degaussing renders the magnetic media completely unusable and damages the storage system. This is due to the devices having an infinitely variable read/write head positioning mechanism which relies on special servo control data (e.g. Gray Code) that is meant to be permanently recorded onto the magnetic media. This servo data is written onto the media a single time at the factory using special-purpose servo writing hardware.


title: Degaussing

text: The servo patterns are normally never overwritten by the device for any reason and are used to precisely position the read/write heads over data tracks on the media, to compensate for sudden jarring device movements, thermal expansion, or changes in orientation. Degaussing indiscriminately removes not only the stored data but also the servo control data, and without the servo data the device is no longer able to determine where data is to be read or written on the magnetic medium. The servo data must be rewritten to become usable again; with modern hard drives, this is generally not possible without manufacturer-specific and often model-specific service equipment.


title: Degaussing

text: In reel-to-reel and compact cassette audio tape recorders, remnant magnetic fields will over time gather on metal parts such as guide posts tape heads. These are points that come into contact with the magnetic tape. The remnant fields can cause an increase in audible background noise during playback. Cheap, handheld consumer degaussers can significantly reduce this effect.


title: Degaussing

text: Degaussers range in size from small ones used in offices for erasing magnetic data storage devices to industrial-size degaussers for use on piping, ships, submarines, and other large-sized items, equipment to vehicles. Rating and categorizing degaussers depends on the strength of the magnetic field the degausser generates, the method of generating a magnetic field in the degausser, the type of operations the degausser is suitable for, the working rate of the degausser based on whether it is a high volume degausser or a low volume degausser, and mobility of the degausser among others. From these criteria of rating and categorization, there are thus electromagnetic degaussers, permanent magnet degaussers as the main types of degaussers.


title: Degaussing

text: An electromagnetic degausser passes an electrical charge through a degaussing coil to generate a magnetic field. Sub-types of electromagnetic degaussers are several such as Rotating Coil Degaussers and Pulse Demagnetization Technology degaussers since the technologies used in the degaussers are often developed and patented by respective manufacturing companies such as Verity Systems and Maurer Magnetic among others, so that the degausser is suitable for its intended use. Electromagnetic degaussers generate strong magnetic fields, and have a high rate of work.


title: Degaussing

text: Performance of a degaussing machine is the major determinant of the effectiveness of degaussing magnetic data storage media. Effectiveness does not improve when the media passes through the same degaussing magnetic field more than once. Rotating the media by 90 degrees improves effectiveness of degaussing the media.


title: Degaussing

text: One magnetic media degaussers’ manufacturer, Verity Systems, has used this principle in a rotating coil technique they developed. Their rotating coil degausser passes the magnetic data storage media being erased through a magnetic field generated using two coils in the degaussing machine with the media on a variable-speed conveyor belt. The two coils generating a magnetic field are rotating; with one coil positioned above the media and the other coil positioned below the media.


title: Degaussing

text: Pulse degaussing technology involves the cyclic application of electric current for a fraction of a second to the coil being used to generate a magnetic field in the degausser. The process starts with the maximum voltage applied and held for only a fraction of a second to avoid overheating the coil, and then the voltages applied in subsequent seconds are reduced in sequence at varying differences until no current is applied to the coil. Pulse degaussing saves on energy costs, produces high magnetic field strength, is suitable for degaussing large assemblies, and is reliable due to zero-error degaussing achievement.


title: Degaussing

text: Permanent magnet degaussers use magnets made using rare earth materials. They do not require electricity for their operation. Permanent magnet degaussers require adequate shielding of the magnetic field they constantly have to prevent unintended degaussing. The need for shielding usually results in permanent magnet degaussers being bulky. When small-sized, permanent magnet degaussers are suited for use as mobile degaussers.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Yoshida was born on 22 September 1878, in Kanda-Surugadai, Tokyo, the fifth son of political activist and former samurai Tsuna Takeuchi. Tsuna was a devout supporter of Itagaki Taisuke and would later serve in the first National Diet in 1890. Yoshida's biological mother's identity is not known. Shortly before his birth, his biological father was arrested for anti-government conspiracy, and his mother gave birth to him at the house of Kenzō Yoshida, a friend of his father. As young samurai, Tsuna and Kenzō had made a name amidst the decades of unrest around the time of Meiji Restoration. In August 1881, Yoshida was adopted by Kenzō Yoshida and his wife Kotoko. Kenzō was a wealthy trade merchant, former Jardine Matheson Yokohama branch manager and former samurai, and Kotoko was the daughter of an Edo period Confucian scholar.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Yoshida began his education in a rural boarding school. He graduated elementary school in 1889. That same year, Kenzō Yoshida died, and Shigeru inherited a substantial fortune from him. Kotoko subsequently raised Shigeru on the family's estate in Ōiso. Shigeru finished secondary school in 1894, and attended junior high school until 1895, after which he briefly attended business school. He attended an academy run by the crown prince's ethics tutor in Tokyo, and briefly studied at Keio University and the Tokyo Physics School (now the Tokyo University of Science). He also spent a year ill at home in Ōiso. In 1897, he entered the prestigious Peers' School, which prepared members of the elite for the public service, and was run by Duke Konoe Atsumaro. After completing his education there, Yoshida attended a college for diplomats also run by Duke Atsumaro. Shortly after Atsumaro's death in 1904, the college became defunct, and Yoshida then studied law at Tokyo Imperial University, graduating with a law degree in 1906. He passed the Foreign Service Entry Exam and entered Japan's diplomatic corps that same year, shortly after Japan's victory against Russia in the Russo-Japanese War. He has long been regarded as prioritising the economy over defense, but recent years have seen a reevaluation of this viewpoint.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Yoshida's diplomatic career began with a posting in China, first at the Japanese mission in Tianjin in November 1906, then in Fengtian (now Shenyang) in 1907. In 1909, he was assigned to Italy, and in 1912, he was posted to Andong in Japanese-ruled Korea. In 1916, he was assigned to the Japanese embassy in the United States, and in 1918 he was assigned to Jinan, China. In 1919, he was a member of the Japanese legation at the Paris Peace Conference. In 1920, he was named first secretary to the Japanese embassy in the United Kingdom. In 1922, he returned to China and served in Tianjin until 1925, then in Fengtian until 1928.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: In 1928, he briefly served as minister to Sweden, Norway, and Denmark before being appointed deputy foreign minister that same year, serving until 1930. In 1930, after the army vetoed his appointment as foreign minister, he was appointed ambassador to Italy, and in 1936, he became ambassador to the United Kingdom, serving until 1938. During the 1930s, he supported increasing Japanese influence in China, and advocated for the independence of Manchuria and Mongolia to weaken the Republic of China. After his ambassadorship to the United Kingdom ended in 1938, he retired from the diplomatic service.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Although considered a "hawk" on China, Yoshida was firmly against war with the United States and United Kingdom. Despite holding no official positions during World War II, he was active in trying to prevent war with the Allies, and then to try to bring about an early end of the war, allying himself with Prince Fumimaro Konoe.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Right before the Pacific War began, Yoshida joined Konoe in unsuccessfully attempting to deescalate the situation. During the war, Yoshida continued to associate with Konoe in trying to get the government to negotiate a peace with the Allies. In April 1945, he was arrested and briefly imprisoned over his association with Prince Konoe.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, the Allied occupation of the country began. In November 1945, the new Liberal Party was formed, and Yoshida joined it. The 1946 general election brought the Liberal Party to power. Its leader, Ichirō Hatoyama, became prime minister, but Hatoyama was purged by the Allied occupation authorities soon afterwards, and Yoshida was appointed in his stead, becoming the 45th prime minister of Japan on 22 May 1946. His pro-American and pro-British ideals and his knowledge of Western societies, gained through education and political work abroad, are what made him the perfect candidate in the eyes of the occupation authorities.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: After being replaced with Tetsu Katayama on 24 May 1947, he returned to the post as the 48th prime minister on 15 October 1948. In 1951, he signed the Treaty of San Francisco, a peace treaty with the Allies that would serve as a formal peace agreement and bring about the end of the occupation of Japan in 1952. During a stopover in Hawaii on the way back from San Francisco, he also paid a visit to Pearl Harbor.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Under Yoshida's leadership, Japan began to rebuild its lost industrial infrastructure and placed a premium on unrestrained economic growth. Many of these concepts still impact Japan's political and economic policies. However, since the 1970s environmental movement, the bursting of Japan's economic bubble, and the end of the Cold War, Japan has been struggling to redefine its national goals.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: He was retained in three succeeding elections (49th: 16 February 1949; 50th: 30 October 1952; and 51st: 21 May 1953).


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: According to CIA files that were declassified in 2005, there was a 1952 plot to assassinate Yoshida and replace him with Ichirō Hatoyama as prime minister. The plot was led by Takushiro Hattori, who served as an Imperial Japanese Army officer, and had the support of 500,000 Japanese.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Dissatisfaction with his leadership led to the defection of many Diet members from his party to the new Democratic Party, causing his cabinet to resign on December 7, 1954, rather than face a no-confidence vote. He was replaced by Ichirō Hatoyama. on December 10, 1954. Yoshida remained in the Diet until his retirement in 1963.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: The Yoshida Doctrine was a strategy adopted by Japan under Yoshida starting in 1951. He concentrated upon reconstructing Japan's domestic economy while relying heavily on the security alliance with the United States. First, Japan is firmly allied with the United States in the Cold War against communism. Second, Japan relies on American military strength and limits its own defense forces to a minimum. Third, Japan emphasizes economic diplomacy in its world affairs. The Yoshida doctrine was accepted by the United States; the actual term was coined in 1977. The economic dimension was fostered by Hayato Ikeda who served as his finance minister and later was prime minister. The Yoshida Doctrine shaped Japanese foreign policy into the 21st century. Most historians argue the policy was wise and successful, but a minority criticize it as naïve and inappropriate.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: He died in 1967. He was baptized on his deathbed, having hidden his Catholicism throughout most of his life. His funeral was held in St. Mary's Cathedral, Tokyo.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: In 1909, Yoshida married Makino Yukiko, the eldest daughter of Makino Nobuaki. They had four children: Sakurako, Kenichi, Kazuko, and Masao. Two of Yoshida's grandchildren are Tarō Asō, who served as the 92nd prime minister of Japan from 2008 to 2009, and Nobuko Asō, who later married Prince Tomohito of Mikasa, a first cousin of Emperor Akihito.


title: Shigeru Yoshida

text: Yoshida's published writings encompass 159 works in 307 publications in 6 languages; His work can be found in the collections of 5,754 libraries worldwide (as of 5 June 2001).


title: Wat Tyler

text: Wat Tyler (c. 1320/4 January 1341 – 15 June 1381) was a leader of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England. He led a group of rebels from Canterbury to London to oppose the institution of a poll tax and to demand economic and social reforms. While the brief rebellion enjoyed early success, Tyler was killed by officers loyal to King Richard II during negotiations at Smithfield, London.


title: Wat Tyler

text: Not much is known of Wat Tyler's early life. There are varying sources of his birth. One claims that he was born on January 4, 1341, while another source claims he was born around 1320. Most historians agree that he was born around 1341. He was fascinated by John Ball, his group having broken the radical priest out of jail. He was probably born in Kent or Essex. “Wat” may have been his given name (derived from the Old English name "Watt)", or a diminutive form of the name "Walter"; his original surname was unknown. It is thought that the name "Tyler" came from his occupation as a roof tiler, but this is not confirmed. Prior to the Peasants' Revolt, it is probable that he lived in Kent or Essex; he has variously been represented as coming from Dartford and Maidstone in Kent, from Deptford, which was in Kent at the time, and from Colchester in Essex.


title: Wat Tyler

text: The Peasants' Revolt began in May 1381, triggered by a recently imposed poll tax of 4 pence from every adult, whether peasant or wealthy. The revolt was not only about money, as the peasants also sought increased liberty and other social reforms. They demanded that each labourer be allowed to work for the employer of his choice and sought an end to serfdom and other rigid social demarcation. There were uprisings across England, with much of the unrest focused on Essex and Kent. The uprising was opposed by a significant part of English society in those regions, including nobility and wealthy religious establishments. Many peasants and labourers were inspired by the teachings of John Ball, a radical priest who preached that all humans should be treated equally, as descendants of Adam and Eve, and who asked: "When Adam delved and Eve span/Who was then the gentleman?"


title: Wat Tyler

text: How Wat Tyler became involved with the revolt is unknown, although a much later sixteenth-century source indicates that a man of a similar name, John Tyler, was its initiator. This account suggests that a poll-tax collector had indecently assaulted John Tyler's daughter. It is suggested the poll tax collector "pulled up his daughter's clothes to see if she arrived at the age of puberty". In revenge he killed the miscreant and triggered the insurgency. Regardless of the basis of that story, by June 1381, when groups of rebels from across the country began a coordinated assault on London, Wat Tyler had emerged as a leader of the Kentish forces.


title: Wat Tyler

text: On 13 June, the rebels reached the capital and crossed London Bridge. Once in the city, they attacked civil targets, destroying legal records, opening prisons, sacking homes, and killing individuals they thought were associated with the royal government. In response, the king, Richard II (then 14 years old), met with the rebels on 14 June 1381 and agreed to make many concessions and to give full pardons to all those involved in the rebellion. While some of the rebels were satisfied by the king's promises and dispersed, Tyler and his followers were not.


title: Wat Tyler

text: On 15 June 1381, Tyler and his Kentish forces met King Richard at Smithfield, outside London. There, Tyler spoke personally with the king and put forward his demands. At first, the meeting seems to have gone well, with Tyler treating the king in a friendly, if overly familiar, manner, and Richard agreeing the rebels "should have all that he could fairly grant".


title: Wat Tyler

text: However, tensions quickly rose. According to a contemporary chronicler, Tyler acted contemptuously, calling for a flagon of water to rinse his mouth "because of the great heat that he was in" and when he received the water "he rinsed his mouth in a very rude and disgusting fashion before the King's face". Sir John Newton (a servant of the king) insulted Tyler by calling him "the greatest thief and robber in all Kent". Tyler attacked Newton, but was restrained and arrested by the Lord Mayor of London, William Walworth. Tyler then attempted to stab the mayor, who was saved by his armour. Walworth slashed Tyler across the neck and head with his sword, and another of the king's servants, possibly Ralph de Standish, stabbed Tyler again, severely wounding him. Tyler managed to ride thirty yards before he fell from his horse.


title: Wat Tyler

text: In the disorder that followed, he was taken to a hospital for the poor, but was tracked down by the mayor, brought back to Smithfield and publicly decapitated. Tyler's head was placed atop a pole and carried through the city, then displayed on London Bridge. In the wake of their leader's death, his followers were driven from London and the movement was shattered. Subsequently, Richard II revoked all the concessions he had made to the rebels and many were hunted down and executed. That effectively ended the revolt.


title: Wat Tyler

text: John Gower commented on Wat Tyler in his 14th-century poem "Vox Clamantis": "The jay's voice is wild and he has only learnt the art of speaking from the classes with whom the Latin poet is identified." A number of works in the post-medieval period have featured Wat Tyler as protagonist. Tyler was the protagonist of the play "Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, or, The Mob Reformers" (1730) first performed at Bartholomew Fair in 1730. Wat Tyler is represented in Robert Southey's "Wat Tyler, A Dramatic Poem", which was written in 1794 but not published until 1813. The first novel to feature Wat Tyler is Mrs O'Neill's "The Bondman: A Story of the Days of Wat Tyler" (1833). He is the protagonist in Pierce Egan the Younger's novel "Wat Tyler, or the Rebellion of 1381" (1841), a highly radical text published at the height of the second phase of the Chartist movement that argued for republican government in England. Egan's novel was subsequently abridged and plagiarised and published as "The Life and Adventures of Wat Tyler: The Good and the Brave" (1851). Wat Tyler is the protagonist of the penny dreadful serial novel "Wat Tyler; or, The King and the Apprentice" which appeared in weekly parts in "The Young Englishman's Journal" in 1867, and appears as a main character in William Harrison Ainsworth's "Merry England; or, Nobles and Serfs" (1874). In Charles Dickens' "Bleak House" (1853), his name is invoked by Sir Leicester Dedlock as an example of what would happen if any concessions were made to "some person in the lower classes". Tyler features as a sympathetic hero in the novel "A Dream of John Ball" (1888) by William Morris. Wat Tyler is also mentioned in "Redburn" by Herman Melville and in "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" by Mark Twain. Tyler features briefly in the historical fiction "The Mediation of Ralph Hardelot" (1888) by William Minto. The juvenile novel "A March on London" (1897) by G. A. Henty, depicts Tyler briefly as a "sullen and resentful" demagogue. Henty's book was illustrated by W.H. Margetson. "Long Will" (1903), a novel by Florence Converse, depicts a meritorious Wat Tyler. The 1921 play "Wat Tyler" by Halcott Glover interprets Tyler as a sympathetic protester against feudal tyranny, who is driven into violence by John Ball's preaching. "Riot at Gravesend" (1952), a novel by William Howard Woods, focus on the combats between the rebels and the authorities. "Who Then Was The Gentleman?" (1963) is a novel by Charles E. Israel, that renders a courageous and charismatic Wat Tyler. "A Summer Storm" (1976), a novel by Jane Lane, depicts Tyler as a villain. The novel "The Confession of Jack Straw" (1991) by Simone Zelitch features Tyler as a central character. The children's novel "Fire, Bed, and Bone" (1997) by Henrietta Branford has Wat Tyler as one of its characters. Wat Tyler is the principal character in the historical novel, "Now is the Time" (2015) by Melvyn Bragg.


title: Wat Tyler

text: English composer Alan Bush wrote an opera, "Wat Tyler", about Tyler's life. Bush's opera was premiered at the Leipzig Opera in 1953.


title: Wat Tyler

text: Singer-songwriter Martin Newell references Wat Tyler and the Peasant's Revolt in his song "The Jangling Man" from the 1990 album "Number Thirteen", in reference to the poll tax riots.


title: Wat Tyler

text: English folk singer-songwriter Frank Turner references Wat Tyler's negotiations at Smithfield in "Sons of Liberty" from the 2009 album "Poetry of the Deed", and again mentions Tyler by name in "One Foot Before the Other" from 2011 album "England Keep My Bones".


title: Wat Tyler

text: Provisional IRA member and Irish political prisoner Bobby Sands referenced "Wat the Tyler" and his poor in one of his wider-known poems written while in prison, "The Rhythm of Time".


title: Wat Tyler

text: A cultural history survey of Wat Tyler's portrayals in post-medieval literature down to the modern period has been written by Stephen Basdeo who argues that most of Tyler's appropriations in popular culture appear at times of political excitement.


title: Wat Tyler

text: "Tyler's Causeway" running from Newgatestreet Village towards the A1000 in Hertfordshire named for the route taken by some of his followers fleeing the capital following his death.


title: Wat Tyler

text: A memorial commemorating Wat Tyler and the Great Rising of 1381 was unveiled on 15 July 2015 in Smithfield, London.


title: Roast beef

text: Roast beef is a dish of beef that is roasted, generally served as the main dish of a meal. In the Anglosphere, roast beef is one of the meats often served at Sunday lunch or dinner. Yorkshire pudding is a standard side dish. Sliced roast beef is also sold as a cold cut, and used as a sandwich filling. Leftover roast beef may be minced and made into hash.


title: Roast beef

text: Roast beef is a characteristic national dish of England and holds cultural meaning for the English dating back to the 1731 ballad "The Roast Beef of Old England". The dish is so synonymous with England and its cooking methods from the 18th century that a French nickname for the English is "les Rosbifs".


title: Roast beef

text: Despite the song, roast beef was not generally eaten in medieval England: "no medieval feast featured ... roast beef, even in England".


title: Roast beef

text: The beef on weck sandwich is a tradition in western New York dating back to the early 1800s. Roast beef is sometimes served with horseradish or horseradish sauce. In Denmark, it is mostly used in open sandwiches, called" smørrebrød."


title: Roast beef

text: The roast beef sandwich commonly comprises bread, cold roast beef, lettuce, tomatoes, and mustard, although finding cheese, horseradish, fresh/powdered chili pepper, and red onion would not be uncommon. The roast beef 3 way sandwich originated on the north shore of Massachusetts and was re-invented by the Greek community.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Gary Bruce Bettman (born June 2, 1952) is the commissioner of the National Hockey League (NHL), a post he has held since February 1, 1993. Previously, Bettman was a senior vice president and general counsel to the National Basketball Association (NBA). Bettman is a graduate of Cornell University and New York University School of Law. Bettman was elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2018.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Under Bettman, the NHL has seen rapid growth of league revenues, from $400 million when he was hired to over $3 billion in 2010–11. He also oversaw the expansion of the NHL's footprint across the United States, with eight new teams added during his tenure, bringing the NHL to 32 teams as of the start of the 2021–22 season. In May 2014, Bettman was named "sports executive of the year" by the "SportsBusiness Journal" and "SportsBusiness Daily". In 2016, Bettman was inducted as a member of the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Bettman's tenure in the NHL has been controversial. He has often been criticized for attempting to give the game a mass appeal, and for expanding the league into non-traditional hockey markets such as the Sun Belt at the expense of the more traditional markets in Canada and the Northern United States. Bettman has also been a central figure of three labor stoppages, including the 2004–05 NHL lockout that saw the entire season canceled. These controversies have made him unpopular with many fans around the league.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Bettman was born to a Jewish family in Queens, New York. He studied industrial and labor relations at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, where he was a brother of the Alpha Epsilon Pi fraternity, and graduated in 1974. After receiving a Juris Doctor degree from New York University School of Law in 1977, Bettman joined the New York City law firm of Proskauer Rose Goetz & Mendelsohn.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Bettman lives with his wife, Shelli, and their three children Lauren, Jordan, and Brittany. He is a resident of Saddle River, New Jersey. His half-brother Jeffrey Pollack is also a sports executive and has served as President of the XFL since 2018.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Bettman joined the National Basketball Association in 1981, serving mainly in the marketing and legal departments. Bettman rose to third in command of the NBA, spending many years as the league's general counsel and senior vice president. Bettman played a key role in the development of the soft salary cap system implemented and agreed by the NBA in 1983, a system it continues to use today.


title: Gary Bettman

text: On December 12, 1992, Bettman was elected as the first commissioner of the National Hockey League. He took office on February 1, 1993; until July 1 he served alongside Gil Stein, who served as the NHL's final president. The owners hired Bettman with the mandate of selling the game in the U.S. market, ending labor unrest, completing expansion plans, and modernizing the views of the "old guard" within the ownership ranks.


title: Gary Bettman

text: When Bettman started as commissioner, the league had already expanded by three teams to 24 starting with the 1991–92 season, and two more were set to be announced by the expansion committee: the Florida Panthers and Mighty Ducks of Anaheim, who would begin play in 1993–94. Led by Bettman, the league focused expansion and relocation efforts during the rest of the 1990s on the American South, working to expand the league's footprint across the country. The Nashville Predators (1998), Atlanta Thrashers (1999), Minnesota Wild (2000), and Columbus Blue Jackets (2000) completed this expansion period, bringing the NHL to 30 teams. In addition, four franchises relocated during the 1990s under Bettman: The Minnesota North Stars to Dallas (1993), the Quebec Nordiques to Denver (1995), the original Winnipeg Jets to Phoenix (1996), and the Hartford Whalers to North Carolina (1997).


title: Gary Bettman

text: This move towards southern markets was heavily criticized as well, however, with fans in Canada and the Northern United States lamenting the move away from "traditional hockey markets". Critics have also accused Bettman of having an "anti-Canadian" agenda, citing the relocation of the franchises in Quebec City and Winnipeg and his apparent refusal to help stop it, along with the aborted sale of the Nashville Predators in 2007 to interests that would have moved the team to Hamilton, Ontario. Jim Balsillie accused Bettman of forcing the Predators to end negotiations with him to purchase the team. Bettman was satirized in this vein as the character "Harry Buttman" in the 2006 Canadian movie "Bon Cop, Bad Cop".


title: Gary Bettman

text: However, Bettman also championed the Canadian assistance plan, a revenue sharing agreement that saw American teams give money to help support the four small-market Canadian teams—Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa, and Vancouver—throughout the late 1990s and early 2000s.


title: Gary Bettman

text: The results of expanding to southern markets has been mixed. There has been significant growth in the sport of hockey at the grassroots level with children in the U.S. South playing the game in increasing numbers.


title: Gary Bettman

text: However, some of these southern teams have not been financially successful. The Phoenix Coyotes eventually filed for bankruptcy in May 2009, after incurring several hundred million dollars of losses since their 1996 move from Winnipeg. Under Bettman, the league then took control over the team later that year in order to stabilize the club's operations and then resell it to a new owner who would be committed to stay in the Phoenix market. It took several years for the League to find a viable ownership group.


title: Gary Bettman

text: After joining the league in 1999, the Atlanta Thrashers suffered financial losses and ownership struggles, while appearing in the playoffs only one time. In 2011 they were sold to True North Sports and Entertainment, who then relocated the team to Winnipeg, a stark reversal of the league's attempts to expand into the southern markets.


title: Gary Bettman

text: During the late 1990s round of expansion, the league revised its four-division alignment into one containing six divisions that eventually each contained five teams. At the time, seventeen of the league's thirty teams were based in the Eastern Time Zone, meaning that the two westernmost such teams (Detroit Red Wings and Columbus Blue Jackets) were compelled to compete in the Western Conference, which gave a large proportion of their road games an unfavorably late start on local television. There were other grievances with the alignment—for example, the Dallas Stars, being in the Central Time Zone, were not pleased to be in the same division as the Coyotes and the three Californian teams.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Detroit and Columbus were fierce opponents of Balsillie's bids for a team in Hamilton (proposals which would have seen another team added to the Eastern Time Zone) but also strong backers of Winnipeg's bid for the Thrashers, largely since this took the franchise out of the Eastern Time Zone and thus provided them a path to be realigned into the Eastern Conference. Following intense negotiations brokered by Bettman among the owners and with the players, the NHL reverted to a four-division alignment in time for the 2013–14 season, with two divisions of seven teams each for the West and two divisions containing the sixteen remaining Eastern Time Zone teams for the East.


title: Gary Bettman

text: An expansion occurred in the summer of 2017, with Las Vegas, Nevada, gaining the league's 31st team, the Vegas Golden Knights. Bettman later explained that the NHL's new divisional alignment precluded the adding of more franchises in the Eastern Time Zone, at least for the time being.


title: Gary Bettman

text: The most recent expansion occurred on December 4, 2018, with the announcement that Seattle would be the league's 32nd team. The Seattle Kraken started in the 2021–22 NHL season. Bettman chose Seattle as it is one of the fastest growing cities.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Although Bettman was tasked with putting an end to the NHL's labor problems, the league has locked out its players three times during Bettman's tenure.


title: Gary Bettman

text: The 1994–95 lockout lasted 104 days, causing the season to be shortened from 84 to 48 games. A key issue during the lockout was the desire to aid small-market teams. Led by Bettman, the owners insisted on a salary cap, changes to free agency, and arbitration in the hopes of limiting escalating salaries. The union instead proposed a luxury tax system. The negotiations were at times bitter, with Chris Chelios famously issuing a veiled threat against Bettman, suggesting that Bettman should be "worried about [his] family and [his] well-being", because "Some crazed fans, or even a player [...] might take matters into their own hands and figure they get Bettman out of the way."


title: Gary Bettman

text: Last-ditch negotiations saved the season in January 1995. And while the owners failed to achieve a full salary cap, the union agreed to a cap on rookie contracts, changes to arbitration, and restrictive rules for free agency that would not grant a player unrestricted free agency until he turned 31. The deal was initially hailed as a win for the owners.


title: Gary Bettman

text: By the end of the deal in 2004, the owners were claiming that player salaries had grown far faster than revenues, and that the league as a whole lost over US$300 million in 2002–03.


title: Gary Bettman

text: As a result, on September 15, 2004, Bettman announced that the owners again locked the players out prior to the start of the 2004–05 season. Five months later, Bettman announced the cancellation of the entire season:


title: Gary Bettman

text: The NHL therefore became the first North American professional sports league to cancel an entire season because of a labor stoppage, and the second league to cancel a postseason (the first being Major League Baseball, which lost its postseason in 1994 due to a strike).


title: Gary Bettman

text: As in 1994, the owners' position was predicated around the need for a salary cap. In an effort to ensure solidarity amongst the owners, the league's governors voted to give Bettman the right to unilaterally veto any union offer as long as he had the backing of just eight owners. The players initially favored luxury tax system, and a 5% rollback on player salaries—later increased to 24 percent. As the threat of a canceled season loomed, the players agreed to accept a salary cap, but the two sides could not come to terms on numbers before the deadline expired.


title: Gary Bettman

text: Following the cancellation of the season, negotiations progressed quickly, as a revolt within the union led to National Hockey League Players Association president Trevor Linden and senior director Ted Saskin taking negotiations over from executive director Bob Goodenow. Goodenow would resign from the NHLPA in July 2005. By early July, the two sides had agreed to a new collective bargaining agreement. The deal featured a hard salary cap, linked to a fixed percentage of league revenues, a 24% rollback on salaries, and free agency beginning after seven years of service. After being panned as one of the worst managers in business in 2004 for canceling the season, Bettman was lauded as one of the best in 2005 for his role in bringing "cost certainty" to the NHL.