title: Tailor

text: Although clothing construction goes back to prehistory, there is evidence of tailor shops in Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as tailoring tools such as irons and shears. The profession of tailor in Europe became formalized in the High Middle Ages through the establishment of guilds. Tailors' guilds instituted a system of masters, journeymen, and apprentices. Guild members established rules to limit competition and establish quality standards. In 1244, members of the tailor's guild in Bologna established statutes to govern their profession and required anyone working as a tailor to join the guild.


title: Tailor

text: In England, the Statute of Artificers, passed in 1563, included the profession of tailor as one of the trades that could be entered only by serving a term of apprenticeship, typically seven years.


title: Tailor

text: A typical tailor shop would have a master, a foreman, several journeymen and apprentices. The apprentices, often beginning their training as young adolescents and indentured to the master by their parents (for a fee), performed menial tasks such as cleaning, managing the fires to heat the pressing-irons, running errands, and matching fabric and trims. Apprentices were also taught the "tailor's posture", to sit cross-legged on a raised board or bench while they sewed. A tailoring establishment then generally consisted of a well-appointed room in which the master would measure customers. Cutting, sewing, buttonholes, and finishing work were performed in adjoining rooms.


title: Tailor

text: In England, there were many negative associations with the profession of tailoring. Tailors were often called "snips", "bodkins", "thimbles", "shreds", ", and "geese" (referring to the tailor's "goose" or iron). In William Shakespeare's plays, a tailor was variously called a "thread", a "thimble", and a "rag". By reputation, tailors were generally presumed to drink to excess and to have effeminate tendencies (likely because of the view of sewing as a woman's activity). Tailors were presumed to be physically weak and to have delicate constitutions. It was commonly asserted that their diets consisted of cabbage. In comics, they were portrayed as cuckolds or henpencked husbands. A common saying at the time was "Nine tailors make a man".


title: Tailor

text: As with other artisanal trades, tailors relied on the "house of call" or "call houses", a trade club at which they could procure workmen. Sometimes, a skilled journeyman assigned by the call house would be taken on permanently by the master. Master tailors who failed to comply with laws of wages or hours could lose access to the call houses, and journeymen whose work was reported as poor could be removed from the call book. Many tailors became virtually blind from the extensive hours of stitching by hand with only candelight to illumine the work. The call for tailoring peaked in the winter, and tailors were often unemployed for several months over the summer.


title: Tailor

text: During the 18th century, the profession began to shift toward large-scale and specialized production. A hierarchy of skills resulted, with the most prestigious level reserved for those who cut the cloth. "Mere sewers" ranked below the "cutters". More respect was given to those who worked in a master's workshop than those who took in piecework in their own home. Tasks grew more specialized; by the end of the century, one individual might focus solely on collars and sleeves.


title: Tailor

text: The trade was one of the first in England to exhibit labor disputes, with tailors frequently on strike against lengthy working hours, low wages, and the use of laborers outside the workshop such as women and children. The strikes generally failed; some participants were imprisoned or transported to America or Australia. The unrest eventually influenced Parliament to establish rules for wages, hours, and working conditions in the tailoring industry. Tailors were one of the first trades in England to form a labor union.


title: Tailor

text: The British census in 1851 identified 152,672 tailors, more than the entire railway industry at the time, and that number increased throughout the century. By then, living and working conditions of many tailors had deteriorated, but the trade was still the fourth largest of London professions. One factor was the growing availability and popularity of "slops": cheap ready-made clothing. Another was a shift from the vast majority of tailors being engaged in workshops to most working outside the shops of employers. Master tailors who relied on outside workers saved themselves the costs of lighting and heating, as well as some supplies. Rather than pay for foremen to supervise the work, masters would fine the outside workers for inferior products. Using outside workers also freed masters from the legal constraints that dictated hours and wages. Tailors who worked outside of workshops began to use their wives and family members in manufacturing garments, which increased their production to maximize their incomes. Some tailors would subcontract aspects of the work to laborers. The house of call system was abandoned. When the Statute of Artificers was repealed in 1814, it abolished the apprenticeship requirement and so tailors could no longer control admission to the trade. Tailor strikes in 1827 and 1834 were largely motivated by opposition to employing women as outworkers. Unlike other industries, in which technological advances contributed to decline of trades, the changes to the work methods in the tailoring industry that led to its decline had occurred several decades before the development of the mechanical sewing machine.


title: Tailor

text: Tailoring men's jackets by adding underlayers of padding became fashionable in Europe by the 14th century. Over the years, additional areas were padded to provide an understructure that helped the garment lie neatly on the body. By the 19th century, well-tailored garments were carefully fit to the wearer with a more subtly shaped understructure. Even with the advent of modern machines, nearly 75 percent of a custom-tailored suit's stitching is still done by hand.


title: Tailor

text: The earliest extant work on cutting by tailors is from Spain in 1580. Juan de Alcega, a Spanish tailor in the 16th century, published "Libro de Geometría, practica, y traça" ("Book on Geometry, Practice, and Pattern") which documented methods of laying out patterns to achieve the most economical use of the fabric. Alcega illustrated 163 patterns to scale in 23 categories of men's and women's garments.


title: Tailor

text: Master tailors used proprietary methods for creating their clothing patterns. Up until approximately 1790, patterns to be used for cutting were considered trade secrets to be exclusively owned by the masters. By the late 18th century, publications that not only printed patterns but also gave directions for cutting and layout were widely available.


title: Tailor

text: In addition to patterns and templates, some master tailors and cutters use the rock of eye method of cutting: which is a freehand way of drafting a pattern by trusting your eye and experience rather than focusing on numbers. Instead of using pencil to draft the pattern, the rock of eye typically involves chalk to mark.


title: Tailor

text: Just as there are various methods of tailoring, there are also styles that differ regionally. This is due to different climates and cultures in the world, causing "house style" cuts of the trade.


title: Tailor

text: The silhouette of a British cut suit is influenced by military tailoring, with a defined waist and shoulders. The target image is that of an upper-class gentleman.


title: Tailor

text: The British cut of tailoring can be defined by various ways of inner construction. Since the United Kingdom has a cooler climate than (for example) the Mediterranean, the cut of the British is more heavy, with a more military influence. This style of canvassing has 3 layers, a wool or camel-hair canvas for the body, a horsehair chest piece for the breast area, and a flannel domette for a more masculine pronounced bulk. The shoulders of the British are more padded. The fabrics used by the British are in the range of 9-13 oz due to the colder climate. This style of cut can be credited to Henry Poole & Co, and H. Huntsman & Sons. The British are also credited in creating their ever-so-popular trademark, the Drape cut, credited to Frederick Scholte who at the time worked at Anderson & Sheppard.


title: Tailor

text: An Italian cut suit offers a flattering shape with soft tailoring, aiming for the most attractive appearance for the wearer. A suit jacket in northern Italy will usually have a square shoulder, while in southern Italy, the preference is for a more natural shoulder.


title: Tailor

text: Like the British cut, the Italian cut is defined by its inner construction. Since Italy lies in southern Europe and has a warm climate, the Italian tailors developed a cut that was light and cooler to coincide with the conditions. What they developed is called the Italian/European cut. This cut is more light, with fabrics ranging from 7-9 oz. This way of doing canvas has a range of 1-2 layers, a linen body canvas, and a light horsehair canvas. The Italian shoulder is more natural, and sometimes has a “shirt sleeve” with a roping head. The cut is also slimmer than the British, with a more casual setting. The tailors credited with these cuts are Brioni and Rubinacci.


title: Tailor

text: Bespoke suits created by an Italian tailor are called "su misura". The average cost of a "si misura" suit is between and , although one might cost more than from the finest tailoring houses. A master tailor can create a suit in approximately 40 hours. The number of tailors in Italy decreases at a rate of 8 percent annually, with fewer than 750 tailors as of 2016.


title: Tailor

text: The American cut of tailoring is a mix of the Italian and the British ways. The American cut is more baggy and full, with a natural shoulder that is lightly padded. American tailoring usually involves doing light canvas, where only the canvas and the flannel domette are used. The most well-known cut developed by the Americans is the Ivy League cut. The tailors credited with this cut remain anonymous.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: "The Quarterback" is the third episode of the fifth season of the American musical television series "Glee", and the ninety-first episode overall. Written by all three of the show's creators—Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan—and directed by Falchuk, it first aired on Fox in the United States on October 10, 2013. The episode sees the death of character Finn Hudson, and acts as a tribute to Hudson and to actor Cory Monteith, who had played the character since the start of the series, and who died on July 13, 2013. The episode's plot centers on the impact Finn's death has on the characters, specifically Kurt Hummel (Chris Colfer), Will Schuester (Matthew Morrison), Santana Lopez (Naya Rivera), Noah Puckerman (Mark Salling), and Rachel Berry (Lea Michele).


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: The episode has been received positively by critics, though some commented negatively on the show not revealing a cause of death for Hudson. Upon its initial airing, this episode was viewed by 7.40 million American viewers and garnered a 2.9 rating in the 18–49 age group. The total viewership and ratings for this episode were up significantly from the previous episode. It was the show's highest rating since the fourth season episode "Britney 2.0".


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Members of New Directions perform "Seasons of Love" at Finn Hudson's funeral. Three weeks later, they reunite at McKinley High, where glee club director Will Schuester invites them to honor Finn through song, as their personal memorials for him. Mercedes Jones performs "I'll Stand by You", a song Finn previously sang when he believed he was going to become a father. Principal Sue Sylvester allows the students to turn Finn's old locker into a memorial, and plants a tree in his honor, which is later stolen. Kurt Hummel helps his parents to sort Finn's belongings, keeping Finn's letterman jacket and giving Burt Hummel Finn's lamp and football. Carole Hudson-Hummel breaks down in grief and the family comes together to comfort one another.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: The next day, the glee club perform "Fire and Rain". Santana Lopez, unable to cope with her grief, leaves to visit Finn's memorial, only to find a group of Cheerios taking it apart on Sue's orders. Santana accuses Sue of hating Finn and shoves her in anger. Guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury, Will's wife, tells Will she is worried that he is slighting his own feelings, but Will claims he is fine. Football coach Shannon Beiste notices that Noah "Puck" Puckerman is continuously drunk following Finn's funeral and confronts him. Puck confesses that he feels lost without Finn's guidance. Beiste reassures him that his own instincts will be enough, and reveals that she knows Puck stole Finn's tree, which he promises to return.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Santana sings "If I Die Young", but breaks down in hysterics before she can finish. Kurt finds her in the auditorium, where she confesses that she regrets not being nicer to Finn. Kurt reassures her that Finn cared for her and knew she was a good person; Kurt gives Santana the jacket. Puck performs "No Surrender"; Santana then accuses him of stealing Finn's jacket, which Puck denies. New Directions places drumsticks in Finn's memorial, where they meet Rachel Berry, who performs "Make You Feel My Love". Santana apologizes to Sue, who reveals she is heartbroken Finn died believing she hated him. Santana then tells Will that she doubts she will return to Lima. Puck replants the tree and reveals to Beiste that he has joined the Air Force to honor Finn's memory. As Puck is leaving, Beiste discovers that he had carved the word "Quarterback" into the tree.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Rachel confesses to Will she still talks to Finn and is uncertain of the future, as she always planned to have a successful Broadway career before reuniting with Finn, and being together for the rest of their lives. Will asks her if she ever told Finn her plan and Rachel explains that she didn’t have to as he already knew. Will reassures her that, although her life might have a different outcome than the one she planned, it might be even better than she expects, though Rachel disagrees, as Finn was her soulmate. Rachel gives Will a plaque with Finn's picture and a quote of his, which reads: ""The show must go...all over the place...or something"". Will hangs it in the choir room.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Later, at home, Will pulls Finn's jacket out of his bag, having taken it himself. Emma finds Will weeping while holding the jacket, and comforts her husband as he grieves.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: As the screen fades, a tribute message for Monteith is displayed, which read “Cory Monteith, 1982–2013”.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Shooting for the episode, which is set in Lima, Ohio, began on August 23, 2013, in parallel with the previous episode—the second of two Beatles tribute episodes—which had started shooting earlier in the month and continued into the following week with scenes featuring new recurring cast member Demi Lovato.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: The episode is written by all three of the show's creators—Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan—and directed by Falchuk. Murphy said that "almost everything in that episode is from the first take of every performance because the actors and the crew had a really hard time shooting it." He added, "I've never seen a crew that you can't continue shooting because they've left the room sobbing." Many cast members called to request that they be included in the episode although they weren't under contract to do so, including Iqbal Theba, who plays Figgins on the show, and appears in the episode. The episode was finalized for broadcast—"locked"—on October 3, 2013. The broadcast episode was followed by a dedication: "Cory Monteith 1982–2013".


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Cory Monteith, who played Finn, was set to return to "Glee" for the fifth season after having missed the last few episodes of the fourth season while undergoing drug rehabilitation treatment from late March through late April in 2013. At Monteith's request, Finn was to be featured prominently during the season. In the wake of his death, a number of planned story arcs for the season had to be revised or replaced.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Fox President Kevin Reilly told the Television Critics Association on August 1, 2013 that Finn would be written off the show in the season's third episode, and also that the contents might include previously unused footage and outtakes involving the character. The death of Finn is to be established as the episode begins, though Murphy has said that the cause of death would not be deliberately mentioned.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: The filming of the episode has been "incredibly hard" according to Matthew Morrison, who plays glee club director Will Schuester—"We've mourned Cory, but now we're mourning Finn. So it's kind of like two people in that one person." Kevin McHale, who plays Artie Abrams, noted that some in the cast are finding it "weird" when they "are having to play reactions that they obviously would not feel in real life"—for example, a number of the characters "aren’t dealing with the loss of Finn" and are in denial, unlike the actors who "were all very much dealing with it."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Reilly said that a series of public service announcements dealing with the topic of drug addiction would be filmed by the "Glee" cast and creators for airing during this episode. In addition, a fund in Monteith's name would be started using the proceeds from the music contained in the episode.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Recurring characters in this episode include former glee club members Mercedes Jones (Amber Riley), Noah "Puck" Puckerman (Mark Salling) and Mike Chang (Harry Shum, Jr.), Finn's mother Carole Hudson-Hummel (Romy Rosemont) and stepfather Burt Hummel (Mike O'Malley), McKinley guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury (Jayma Mays), football coach Shannon Beiste (Dot-Marie Jones), McKinley janitor and former principal Figgins (Iqbal Theba), cheerleader Bree (Erinn Westbrook) and McKinley freshman Dottie Kazatori (Pamela Chan).


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Six songs from the episode were released as part of the EP "" on October 7, 2013. The six featured songs are "Seasons of Love" from "Rent" performed by members of New Directions past and present, The Pretenders' "I'll Stand by You" sung by Riley, James Taylor's "Fire and Rain" performed by Chord Overstreet and Kevin McHale, The Band Perry's "If I Die Young" sung by Naya Rivera, Bruce Springsteen's "No Surrender" performed by Salling and Adele's cover of Bob Dylan's "Make You Feel My Love" sung by Lea Michele.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: "The Quarterback" drew in 7.4 million viewers and a 2.9 rating among adults 18-49, Glee's best rating in about a year (the show's highest rating since September 20, 2012). It was soaring up 40 percent from season five premiere episode "Love, Love, Love" which drew in 5.06 million viewers. And it was up 75 percent from the previous week episode "Tina in the Sky with Diamonds," which drew in 4.42 million viewers. Including DVR viewing, the episode was watched by 10.54 million viewers, and received a 4.3 18-49 rating.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: In Canada, the episode was watched by 1.38 million viewers, placing fourth for the night and twenty-first for the week.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: The episode was received positively by most critics. Miranda Wicker of "TV Fanatic" gave the episode a 5 out of 5, saying "There's really only so much to be said about this episode. It was, in a word, heartbreaking. But it was also sort of perfect in the way that Glee can be when faced with tough moments." She also praised the writers, who in her opinion "met that challenge in the best possible ways."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Allison Keene of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave a positive review to the episode saying "Ultimately, "The Quarterback" was respectful, and was successful as the cathartic memorial—for both the cast and viewers—that it was intended to be. But beyond anything else that happened in the episode, the real sadness that stays with us about Monteith was said the best, as so many things usually are, by Sue: "It's just so pointless ... all that potential." While noting that Lea Michele's performance was the best, she said that "the most heartbreaking scene was without singing. Kurt, his father Burt (Mike O'Malley), and Finn's mother Carole (Romy Rosemont) all talked about the sadness and tragedy of losing a family member, and the moment when the three of them huddled together on the floor to cry and comfort one another was truly the episode's show-stopper." She also commented positively on Santana's performance of "If I Die Young," calling it "genuinely moving." Lauren Hoffman of "Vulture" gave the episode a 4 out of 5 saying that "If you want to distill last night’s Glee down into two sentences, those (spoken to Puck by Coach Bieste) might be the best...It’s tragic. There’s no other word for it." She praised the episode's opening number stating "“Seasons of Love” is the perfect choice to open the episode...It's the most lovingly mixed track Glee's produced in quite some time...It's an offering. And a beautiful one at that."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Katy Kroll of "Rolling Stone" acknowledged the emotional strength of this episode and that "even if you were just a casual viewer or tuned in for the very first time to rubberneck, you probably shed a tear during the emotionally charged special episode". However, she criticized the way the writers left the cause of Finn's death. Rae Votta of "Billboard" praised the way "Glee" was able to deal with grief right upfront in a way other TV shows are not able to do. Also stating "There's no perfect way to do this sort of an episode, but "Glee" gave Cory and Finn a heartfelt send-off the way they knew best."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Hank Stuever of The "Washington Post" was more critical of the episode, noting the show's "erasing Finn," and that the lack of previous footage of him during the episode "undermined the episode's strongest scenes, including one in which Finn's mother, Carole [...] broke down in tears while packing her son's bedroom. It also left a little hollow spot in the final minute when Will Schuester [...] sobbed in Finn's varsity letter jacket." He did, however, comment positively on the episode's transition from comedic to serious; its song choices; and its overall effect, which "was indeed a sense of finality, particularly as it relates to the fleetingness of fame."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Jeff Jensen of "Entertainment Weekly" also criticized the episode, specifically the show creators' choice not to address how Finn died, calling it "the most conspicuous and debatable choice made by the "Glee" creators." He then commented positively on Santana's role and song; and Mike O'Malley and Romy Rosemont's scene; but he was critical of Will Schuester's role in the episode, saying


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: I had trouble connecting with Will throughout this episode, and I wondered if Morrison did, too — which, by the way, would be understandable, given the circumstances. (How difficult this thing must have been to make for everyone!) Or maybe disconnection was exactly the emotional point: The irony of Will was that he had been denying his agony even as he was trying to create room for everyone else to enter into theirs. And so he, too, summed up an episode of good intentions and mixed success, that was less a story and more of a loosely structured narrative space to contend with the theme of grief, messy and hard.


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: Robert Bianco of "USA Today" gave the episode a mixed review, saying "perhaps it is best to think of Thursday's broadcast as a labor of love, and to presume it worked best for those who are most devoted to the show and its often heady blend of musical flash, after-school-special preachiness and high-and-low humor. It could not have surprised anyone that the episode whipsawed between clashing tones: A scene with Sue spewing out no-one-would-ever-say-that insults crashing up against a that's-how-it-must-feel monologue from Finn's mother about the loss of her child. And if people behaved even more irrationally than usual (would an adult really steal a dead teenager's letter jacket), you can chalk it up to their not being in their right minds." He then concluded "It's almost impossible to do a story about the death of a teenager that doesn't induce tears, particularly when the plot is tied into the real-life loss of a well-liked young actor. One just wishes the writers had put a bit more trust into that natural response, and not tugged at our heartstrings quite so strenuously." Alessandra Stanley of the "New York Times" also commented on the absence of an explanation for Finn's death, saying "teens and young adults often die for highly preventable reasons much like Monteith did, and while a drug overdose would have been too on the nose, any of numerous other explanations — from drunk driving to other risky behaviors — would have made this not just a somber sendoff, but a teachable moment to the younger quadrant of the program’s audience."


title: The Quarterback (Glee)

text: An extended play, "", was released on October 7, 2013, featuring the six songs performed on the episode. On October 16, 2013, it debuted at number 7 on the "Billboard" 200, selling 47,000 copies. This was the franchise's first album to chart in the top 10 in the US in nearly two years; the last "Glee" album to chart in the top 10 was "", which charted at number 9. This album was also the fourteenth to chart in the top 10. All the grosses from the downloads on iTunes in the US and Canada were destined to Project Limelight, a charity that Monteith supported.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: Gamba Osaka is among the most accomplished Japanese clubs, having won several top-tier domestic titles, as well as the 2008 AFC Champions League.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: It was founded in 1980 as Matsushita Electric SC by the company, now known as Panasonic, in Nara Prefecture and became a member of the Japan Soccer League. It was mostly made of remaining players and staff of the defunct Yanmar Club, the former B-team of Yanmar Diesel SC, later to be known as Cerezo Osaka. Gamba Osaka was an original member ("Original Ten") of the first J.League season.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In 2005, the club claimed its first J.League championship on a dramatic final day during which any of five clubs could have claimed the championship. Gamba needed to win, and have cross town rivals Cerezo Osaka draw or lose. Gamba defeated a valiant Kawasaki Frontale 4–2, while victory was snatched from Cerezo by a last-minute FC Tokyo equalizer. In an AFC Champions League match in 2006, Gamba Osaka defeated Vietnamese side Da Nang FC in a record-equaling victory of 15–0. In the 2008 Pan-Pacific Championship final, Gamba Osaka beat MLS club Houston Dynamo 6–1 to win the tournament, in large part because of Bare who scored 4 goals in the final (5 in all at the tournament). After his brilliant display and having just scored 10 goals in 18 games for Gamba in the domestic league, he was sold to UAE club Al-Ahli for 1 billion yen.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In October 2008, Gamba for the first time in their history, reached the final of the AFC Champions League after defeating fellow Japanese league rivals Urawa Red Diamonds 4–2 on aggregate after a 1–1 draw at home in the first leg, Gamba registered one of the most historic comebacks in Champions League history when they came back from being behind 1–0 before half time to win 1–3 with all goals scored in the second half at Saitama. Gamba Osaka went on to win the 2008 AFC Champions League title after winning 5–0 on aggregate against the giant-killing Australian club Adelaide United in the Final. They became the fifth Japanese club to win the maximum Asian title, after Urawa, Júbilo Iwata, then-company-affiliated Yomiuri (now Tokyo Verdy), and Furukawa Electric (now JEF United Ichihara Chiba).


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In December 2008, Gamba made it to the semi finals of the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup after beating Australian club Adelaide United 1–0. They were beaten in the semifinals by 2007–08 Premier League and UEFA Champions League winners Manchester United. On 21 December 2008 they played for third place against Mexican side C.F. Pachuca with Gamba winning the match 1–0.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In December 2012, Gamba were relegated from Division 1 after losing 2–1 to Júbilo Iwata. Gamba finished 17th in the league despite scoring more goals than any other club, including Champion Sanfrecce Hiroshima. Ultimately, although Gamba had a positive goal difference at the end of the season, Gamba could not overcome their poor defense, which allowed the second most goals in Division 1 after Consadole Sapporo. This also made Gamba Osaka the fastest club to suffer relegation from the top division after winning the AFC Champion's League and playing in the FIFA Club World Cup, the relegation being only four years later. However, the club bounced back in the 2013 season, becoming the J2 Champion and directly promoting to Division 1 again after only one season.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In 2014, Gamba won the Division 1 title, a year after winning the second division, becoming the second club in the professional era to achieve this feat (after Kashiwa Reysol in 2011). That same year, Gamba also became the second club to win the domestic treble (after Kashima Antlers in 2000), by winning the J.League Cup and the Emperor's Cup as well.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: Year 2015 saw Gamba Osaka return to the AFC Champions League for the first time since 2012, where they advanced to the semi-finals before being eliminated by The Tournament Winner and 2015 FIFA Club World Cup Fourth Place Guangzhou Evergrande 1–2 on aggregate. Domestically, Gamba Osaka advanced to the final of both the J.League Cup and the J1 League Championship, losing to Kashima Antlers 0–3 and Club World Cup Third Place Sanfrecce Hiroshima 3–4 respectively. Gamba Osaka successfully defended their status as Emperor's Cup winners, defeating Urawa Red Diamonds 2–1.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: Gamba Osaka used the Osaka Expo '70 Stadium in the Expo Commemoration Park as its home stadium from 1980 through 2015, which seats around 21,000.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: The club began construction in December 2013 of a new soccer-specific stadium called Suita City Football Stadium in the same park, with a seating capacity of 39,694. The new stadium had its inaugural official match during the Panasonic Cup on February 14, 2016, an exhibition match during which Gamba Osaka hosted fellow J1 club Nagoya Grampus.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: Gamba's fiercest rival are fellow locals Cerezo Osaka with whom they contest the Osaka derby. Also have a heavy rivalry with Saitama's Urawa Red Diamonds, which they make the "National Derby" of Japan.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In 2011, as part of the club's official celebration of their 20th anniversary, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever team.


title: Gamba Osaka

text: The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup, while playing for Gamba Osaka:


title: Gamba Osaka

text: The following players have represented their country at the Summer Olympic Games whilst playing for Gamba Osaka:


title: Gamba Osaka

text: In the Captain Tsubasa manga series, two characters are from Gamba Osaka: the defender Makoto Soda and the forward Takashi Sugimoto.


title: Cocytus

text: Cocytus or Kokytos (, literally "lamentation") is the river of wailing in the underworld in Greek mythology. Cocytus flows into the river Acheron, on the other side of which lies Hades, the underworld, the mythological abode of the dead. There are five rivers encircling Hades: the Styx, Phlegethon, Lethe, Acheron and Cocytus.


title: Cocytus

text: The Cocytus river was one of the rivers that surrounded Hades. Cocytus, along with the other rivers related to the underworld, was a common topic for ancient authors. Of the ancient authors, Cocytus was mentioned by Virgil, Homer, Cicero, Aeschylus, Apuleius and Plato, among others.


title: Cocytus

text: Cocytus also makes an appearance in John Milton's epic poem "Paradise Lost". In Book Two, Milton speaks of "Cocytus, named of lamentation loud / Heard on the rueful stream".


title: Cocytus

text: It is also mentioned in William Shakespeare's "Titus Andronicus" and in Rick Riordan's "The House of Hades".


title: Cocytus

text: Cocytus also appears in Friedrich Schiller's poem ""Gruppe aus dem Tartarus"": ...Hohl sind ihre Augen—ihre Blicke/ Spähen bang nach des Cocytus Brücke... (...Hollow are their eyes, their looks / Peering anxiously to the bridge of Cocytus...)


title: Cocytus

text: The river is also mentioned in Rafael Sabatini's novel "Captain Blood: His Odyssey", when Colonel Bishop's nemesis, Peter Blood, addresses him as follows: "And now, ye greasy hangman, step out as brisk and lively as ye can, and behave as naturally as ye may, or it's the black stream of Cocytus ye'll be contemplating."


title: Cocytus

text: In "Inferno", the first "cantica" of Dante's "Divine Comedy", Cocytus is the ninth and lowest circle of The Underworld. Dante and Virgil are placed there by the giant Antaeus. There are other Giants around the rim that are chained; however Antaeus is unchained as he died before the Gigantomachy. Cocytus is referred to as a frozen lake rather than a river, although it originates from the same source as the other infernal rivers, the tears of a statue called The Old Man of Crete which represents the sins of humanity. Dante describes Cocytus as being the home of traitors and those who committed acts of complex fraud. Depending on the form of their treachery, inhabitants are buried in ice to a varying degree, anywhere from neck-high to completely submerged in ice. Cocytus is divided into four descending "rounds", or sections:


title: Cocytus

text: Dante's Satan is at the center of the circle buried waist-high in ice. He is depicted with three faces and mouths. The central mouth gnaws Judas. Judas is chewed head foremost with his feet protruding and Satan's claws tearing his back while those gnawed in the side mouths, Brutus and Cassius, leading assassins of Julius Caesar, are both chewed feet foremost with their heads protruding. Under each chin Satan flaps a pair of wings, which only serve to increase the cold winds in Cocytus and further imprison him and other traitors. Dante and his guide Virgil proceed then to climb down Satan's back and then upwards towards Purgatory, though Dante is at first confused at their turning round, but Virgil explains it is due to the change in forces as they pass through the center of the Earth.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: "La La La" is a song released by British record producer Naughty Boy, featuring vocals from Sam Smith. It was released on 18 May 2013 as the second single from Naughty Boy's debut album "Hotel Cabana" (2013) and it appears on the deluxe version of Smith's debut album "In the Lonely Hour" (2014). The track reached number one on the music charts for 26 countries, including Italy, the Czech Republic, Russia and the United Kingdom. Upon its release, it was confirmed by the Official Charts Company as the fastest-selling single of 2013 in the UK. By the end of 2013, the song was the sixth fastest-selling single of the year in the UK, selling 145,000 copies in the first week.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: According to Naughty Boy, "La La La" was conceived from experiences similar to the song "Don't Speak" by No Doubt, which "came from something [he] felt". He states that, "It was just before everything popped up and she was somebody I neglected while I was trying to find me. When I found me, she found it best to neglect me. It's cool... Covering my ears like a kid and saying, 'La. La. La.' It's the man-kid in me."


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: "La La La" was written by Khan, Jonny Coffer, Al-Hakam El Kaubaisy, Frobisher Mbabazi, James Murray, Jimmy Napes, Mustafa Omer, and Sam Smith. Although Naughty Boy originally intended to write the song with Emeli Sandé, she was on tour at the time, and he wrote it with Sam Smith instead. Naughty Boy said "It just had to be Sam because where it went from there is perfect." Naughty Boy and Komi produced the track, with co-production handled by Mojam. The song was produced using Logic Pro, FL Studio 11 and Reason. It was recorded and mixed at Cabana Studios (Ealing Studios) in Ealing, West London, and mastered by Stuart Hawkes at Metropolis Mastering Studios in London, UK. The song was finished in three hours, and was the last done for "Hotel Cabana".


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: "La La La" plays for three minutes and 42 seconds. The piece is performed in F minor, with the chord progression of Fm—Cm—Bm followed for most of the song, and Sam Smith's vocals range two octaves, from C to C. The song performs in common time at a tempo of 126 beats per minute. "The track has tones of liquid drum and bass and old-school garage, and a hook layered with a Hindi-Bollywood sample".


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: "La La La" premiered on BBC Radio 1Xtra in May 2013. Smith and Naughty Boy performed "La La La" at the 2013 Jingle Bell Ball held by Global Radio.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: The track's producer and co-writer Komi also released a remix ("La La La" – Komi and JL remix) which received considerable airplay.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: A music video to accompany the release of "La La La" was first released on YouTube on 18 April 2013 at a total length of four minutes and three seconds. The video is directed by Ian Pons Jewell (who studied at the University College for the Creative Arts, now the University for the Creative Arts) and shot in four days in La Paz, Salar de Uyuni and Potosí (Cerro Rico), Bolivia. Ian Pons Jewell was commissioned by Virgin EMI to create the concept for the video, which focuses on a child's magical journey. Jewell said that others compared the video to the "Wizard of Oz" and a local legend of the demon El Tío and that both legends influenced the concept of the video. As of August 2021, the video has received over 1.1 billion views.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: The video starts with the opening of a door marked with the number 1111, a number related to be a sign of change. In the music video, a young boy is being verbally abused by a man who is presumably his father. Looking out of his apartment window, he sees an unusually dressed man and his dog standing on the pavement outside. This man could be the representation of the "Ekeko", a South American figure representative of good luck and abundance. The boy then puts his fingers in his ears and begins singing 'La la la' in response to his father's outburst. Running out of the apartment, the boy joins the mysterious figure outside and pets his dog. Seeing the boy outside, the father picks up an egg from a bird's nest on the window-sill and throws it down at the boy.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: The boy and dog run away and the scene cuts from evening to daytime. The boy is walking the dog along a city street, in what is inferred to be La Paz, Bolivia, and he goes into a store front and downstairs. In the basement of the building, he finds a gym and a scared-looking man who is covered in dust; this man looks like a disgraced "Ekeko." The man holds a stereo which is providing music for a group of women doing aerobics with one woman who is obviously a leader and abuses both the man and the others since their mascara is running down their cheeks from crying. The boy encourages the man to leave, but he appears reluctant. The boy then mimes the act of putting his fingers in his ears and singing 'La la la', and the man responds by turning off the volume on the stereo. The leader begins yelling at the man, and he puts his fingers in his ears and sings 'La la la' in response to her tirade. The dusty man, boy and dog leave the gymnasium and are followed by the woman who yells after them as they leave.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: The pair then come across an ice cream vendor on the street; a popular figure easy to find on the streets of some South American cities. The boy gives him some coins, and he takes out what appears to be a human heart from a collection in his cart. He holds the heart in the air, the boy looks at him and then slips it inside the jacket pocket of the dusty man. Echoing the Tin Man in "The Wizard of Oz", the man now has a heart. The boy then looks onto the road and sees a traffic policeman dressed in an unusually colored police uniform with an elephant-like mask covering his face. His uniform, as well as his exaggerated nose and ears, are made of herringbone tweed. He looks like Kusillo – the spirit of festivity. The traffic policeman is dancing as he directs traffic, but the cars and pedestrians seem to ignore him. The boy once again mimes plugging his ears to the policeman, who then performs the gestures himself. This figure is reminiscent of artists and clowns who often perform on the streets in South American cities for money. The three leave together with the dog, and the scene cuts to their journey into a mountainous region outside of the city. They walk along disused railway tracks and pass a discarded, unplugged television that still shows images on the screen. Their journey takes them across long plains of salt flats, with the traffic policeman carrying the sleeping boy and the dusty man walking the dog.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: The scene cuts to nightfall where they have set up a camp fire. The boy sleeps in the arms of the traffic policeman while the dusty man holds and pats the dog. The scene cuts to the next day, where they walk up a hillside towards an abandoned mine. Leaving the dog tied at the entrance, they enter the mine. They discover El Tío sitting immobile at the end of a tunnel. At the sight of the figure, the boy begins crying and is hugged and comforted by both men. The men then leave, and the boy remains kneeling before the figure and singing 'la la la' with his fingers in his ears. The video ends with the two men and the dog walking away from the mine.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: It won in both the "Best Song" and "Best Video" categories at the 2013 MOBO Awards. The song was nominated for a 2014 BRIT Award for Best British Single.


title: La La La (Naughty Boy song)

text: "La La La" debuted at number one becoming both Naughty Boy and Sam Smith's first UK number one. It was also declared to be the fifth biggest-selling song of 2013 in the United Kingdom. Its video was the eighth most popular YouTube video of 2013, and the United Kingdom's top trending video of the year. By September 2017, it had sold 1.07 million copies in the UK. In the United States, it reached number nine on the "Billboard" Pop Digital Songs chart.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Christopher A. Chaney (born June 14, 1970) is an American musician. He is best known as the former bassist of alternative rock band Jane's Addiction, and as a member of Alanis Morissette's touring and recording band for six years. Chaney was also a member of Taylor Hawkins and the Coattail Riders and Camp Freddy. A prolific and versatile session musician, he has played with a variety of recording artists ranging from Joe Cocker, Shakira, Slash, Beth Hart, Adam Lambert, Alanis Morissette, Avril Lavigne, Bryan Adams, Sara Bareilles, Gavin Degraw, Cher, John Fogerty, Lisa Marie Presley, Meat Loaf, Rob Zombie, Romeo Santos, James Blunt, Shinedown, and Celine Dion.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Chaney was raised in Mill Valley, California. He attended Berklee College of Music, and then moved to Los Angeles in 1991 to pursue music and played at the L.A. jazz club the Baked Potato and the Dragonfly in Hollywood. Chaney was first invited to tour with Alanis Morissette in 1995 on the Jagged Little Pill Tour and continued to work with Morissette until 2001, appearing on three studio albums and two live albums.


title: Chris Chaney

text: While working with Morissette, Chaney developed a reputation as a versatile professional bassist. He has since recorded and/or toured with a wide variety of artists. His next high-profile job was as the full-time replacement for Eric Avery in the 2002 reunion of Jane's Addiction, contributing to the album "Strays". He then formed the band The Panic Channel with Jane's Addiction members Dave Navarro and Stephen Perkins; the group released the album "(ONe)" in 2006. In 2006, he joined the band Taylor Hawkins and the Coattail Riders, formed by Taylor Hawkins of the Foo Fighters. Chaney and Hawkins had previously worked together in Morissette's band. The group released the albums "Taylor Hawkins and the Coattail Riders" in 2006 and "Red Light Fever" in 2010. Chaney is also bassist for all-star cover band Camp Freddy.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Chaney has played with several recording artists and over 25 film scores and soundtracks. Artists include: Celine Dion, Michelle Branch, Ben Taylor, Eric Hutchinson, Carly Simon, Rob Zombie, Joe Satriani, Andrew W.K., Tommy Lee's Methods of Mayhem, and Will Hoge. He joined Johnny Rzeznik of The Goo Goo Dolls for the song "I'm Still Here" from soundtrack to the animated movie "Treasure Planet". He is also featured on the 2007 album "Little Voice" by Sara Bareilles, and the 2008 album "The Sound of Madness" by Shinedown (replacing departed bassist Brad Stewart). Chaney has worked with James Stephen Hart on his project Burn Halo.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Chaney is featured as the primary bassist on guitarist Slash's 2010 solo album, "Slash". In March 2010, Slash described Chaney as a "godsend", stating: "Chris is just the best session player that I know so I called him up. I didn’t want to use Duff McKagan so I was tryin’ to think of bass players and Chris I’ve worked with so many times and he's easy going, and he learns quickly."


title: Chris Chaney

text: In 2022, Chaney played bass on Beth Hart’s “A Tribute to Led Zeppelin” album and will join Eddie Vedder´s band in the Earthlings tour.


title: Chris Chaney

text: He is married to voice actress Tifanie Christun, daughter of Cheryl Saban and the stepdaughter of Haim Saban.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Chaney's influences include Geddy Lee, John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin, Paul McCartney, James Jamerson, Jaco Pastorius, Marcus Miller, and Stevie Wonder.


title: Chris Chaney

text: Chaney is endorsed exclusively with Fender. He also has endorsements with Aguilar Amps, Dunlop, and Audimute. As of the June 2003 issue of Bass Player magazine, Chaney's gear listing for recording and touring is as follows:


title: Vasilije Micić

text: Vasilije Micić (, born 13 January 1994) is a Serbian professional basketball player for Anadolu Efes of the Turkish Basketball Super League and the EuroLeague. He also represents the Serbian national basketball team internationally. He was selected by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 52nd overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: A three-time All-EuroLeague selection, Micić led Anadolu Efes to two EuroLeague titles, for 2021 and 2022, winning the EuroLeague MVP in 2021 as well as the both Final Four MVPs.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: From 2002 to 2006, Micić played for the OKK Beograd youth system. In 2006–07, he played for Crvena zvezda juniors, and then from 2007 to 2010, he played for FMP Železnik juniors.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: In 2010, Micić signed with Mega Vizura. At the age of 16, he made his Basketball League of Serbia debut, going on to play 35 games in 2010–11. In his first season with the club, he appeared in 35 games of the Serbian League and averaged 8.5 points, 3.1 rebounds, and 2.8 assists per game. On 22 November 2011, just 8 games into the 2011–12 season, Micić suffered a season-ending knee injury. Over 8 games, he averaged 15.9 points, 5 assists and 3.5 rebounds per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: In the 2012–13 season, he became a leader with Boban Marjanović of the team which was promoted to the Adriatic League for the first time in the club's history at the end of the season. Over 41 games in the Serbian League, he averaged 11.8 points and 5 assists per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 6 June 2013, Micić signed a two-year contract extension with Mega Vizura. On 8 April 2014, he broke his hand which sidelined him off the court for one month. In his first ABA League season, he averaged 12.1 points, 3.2 rebounds and 5.8 assists over 25 games.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 4 August 2014, Micić signed a two-year deal with an option for one more season with the German team Bayern Munich. On 28 November 2014, in a EuroLeague game against Panathinaikos, he partially ruptured collateral ligament in his right elbow and was expected to miss six weeks of play. He appeared in 32 games of the German League averaging 7 points and 3.3 assists per game. He also made a debut in the 2014–15 Euroleague, but appeared in only 6 games and averaging 7.5 points per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: With the start of 2015–16 season, his playing time furtherly decreased in Bayern. In mid-season, on 27 December 2015, Micić was loaned to Crvena zvezda for the rest of the 2015–16 season. He appeared in 17 games of the 2015–16 Euroleague for Crvena zvezda, averaging 5.5 points and 3.6 assists per game. With loan being ended, Micić was released by Bayern on 25 July 2016.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 26 July 2016, Micić signed with Turkish BSL club Tofaş for the 2016–17 Basketbol Süper Ligi season. In 24 games with Tofaş, Micić averaged 13.2 points, 3.9 assists and 2.7 rebounds while shooting 46% from the field.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 15 June 2017, Micić signed a two-year contract with the Lithuanian club Žalgiris Kaunas. Žalgiris Kaunas had a historic season in which it won yet another Lithuanian League championship and qualified to EuroLeague Final Four tournament. In 2018 EuroLeague Final Four, it lost to the Fenerbahçe Basketball in the semifinal and won in the third-place game against the CSKA Moscow. Over 36 in 2017–18 EuroLeague season, Micić averaged 7.7 points, 4.2 assists, and 2.2 rebounds per game. After the season, Micić along with his teammate Kevin Pangos parted ways with the team.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 20 June 2018, Micić signed a two-year contract with Turkish club Anadolu Efes. In 2018–19 season, Micić led his team to the 2019 EuroLeague Final Four, where they lost in the final game to the CSKA Moscow. Over 37 games in 2018–19 EuroLeague season, he averaged career-highs of 12.1 points, 5.5 assists, and 2.2 rebounds per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: On 25 May 2019, Micić signed two-year contract extension with Anadolu Efes. On 10 August 2020, his agent confirmed that he was returning to the team for the 2020-21 season, rather than try for the NBA.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: By the end of his 2020–21 EuroLeague campaign, Micić became just the fourth EuroLeague player of all-time to score at least 100 two-pointers, 70 threes, and 100 free throws in a single season. He also became the first player ever to have made more than 132 two-pointers while making at least 70 triples and 100 free throws. For his major performances all season long, Micić was named to the All-EuroLeague First Team, and received the EuroLeague MVP award. As well, Micić and his fellow Serbian countryman Nikola Jokić became the first-ever pair of players from the same country to be awarded both NBA MVP and EuroLeague MVP honors in the same season. On 30 May 2021, he led his team to their first Euroleague Championship and was named the EuroLeague Final Four MVP. Over 40 EuroLeague games, he averaged then-career-high 16.7 points per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: Over 34 games of the 2021–22 EuroLeague season, Micić averaged season-leading and career-high 18.2 points (for which he received the Alphonso Ford EuroLeague Top Scorer Trophy), 4.6 assists and 2.7 rebounds per game. Micić won back-to-back EuroLeague title with Anadolu Efes, after scoring the winning three-pointer in the 2022 EuroLeague Final Four semifinal game against Olympiacos, and later scoring 23 points in the final game against Real Madrid. For his performances, he was once again named the EuroLeague Final Four MVP.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: In June 2014, alongside his teammates Nemanja Dangubić and Nikola Jokić, Micić attended the Eurocamp, a basketball camp based in Treviso for the NBA draft prospects. He impressed scouts, putting 14 points and 10 assists in 25 minutes of the game. In March 2014, Micić confirmed that he would enter the 2014 NBA draft. On 26 June 2014, Micić was selected by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 52nd overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft. On 8 December 2020, Micić's draft rights were acquired by the Oklahoma City Thunder as part of the trade that sent Danny Green to the 76ers.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: In 2011, Micić won a silver medal with the Serbian U18 team at the 2011 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship. In 2013, he again won a silver medal with the Serbian U19 team at the 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Cup, where he was to the All-Tournament Team. In the same year, he debuted for the senior Serbian national team at the EuroBasket 2013 in Slovenia, where he averaged 4.4 points, 1.5 rebounds and 1.3 assists per game.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: Micić also represented Serbia at the EuroBasket 2017, where they won the silver medal, after losing in the final game to Slovenia.


title: Vasilije Micić

text: At the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup, the national team of Serbia was dubbed as favorite to win the trophy, but was eventually upset in the quarterfinals by Argentina. With wins over the United States and Czech Republic, it finished in fifth place. Micić averaged 5.6 points, 1.8 rebounds and 3.3 assists over 8 games.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Ludwig's angina (lat.: Angina ludovici) is a type of severe cellulitis involving the floor of the mouth and is often caused by bacterial sources. Early in the infection, floor of the mouth raises due to swelling, leading to difficulty swallowing saliva. As a result, patients may present with difficulty speaking and drooling. As the condition worsens, the airway may be compromised and hardening of the spaces on both sides of the tongue may develop. Overall, this condition has a rapid onset over a few hours.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: The majority of cases follow a dental infection. Other causes include a parapharyngeal abscess, mandibular fracture, cut or piercing inside the mouth, or submandibular salivary stones. The infection spreads through the connective tissue of the floor of the mouth and is normally caused by infectious and invasive organisms such as "Streptococcus", "Staphylococcus", and "Bacteroides".


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Prevention is by appropriate dental care including management of dental infections. Initial treatment is generally with broad-spectrum antibiotics and corticosteroids. In more advanced cases endotracheal intubation or tracheostomy may be required.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: With the advent of antibiotics in 1940s, improved oral and dental hygiene, and more aggressive surgical approaches for treatment, the risk of death due to Ludwig's angina has significantly reduced. It is named after a German physician, Wilhelm Frederick von Ludwig, who first described this condition in 1836.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Ludwig's angina is a form of severe, widespread cellulitis of the floor of the mouth, usually with bilateral involvement. Infection is usually primarily within the submandibular space, and the sublingual and submental spaces can also be involved. It presents with an acute onset and spreads very rapidly, therefor early diagnosis and immediate treatment planning is vital and lifesaving. The external signs may include bilateral lower facial swelling around the jaw and upper neck. Signs inside the mouth may include elevation of the floor of mouth due to sublingual space involvement and posterior displacement of the tongue, creating the potential for a compromised airway. Additional symptoms may include painful neck swelling, drooling, tooth pain, dysphagia, shortness of breath, fever, and general malaise. Stridor, trismus, and cyanosis may also be seen when an impending airway crisis is nearing.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: The most prevalent cause of Ludwig's angina is dental related, accounting for approximately 75% to 90% of cases. Infections of the lower second and third molars are usually implicated due to their roots extending below the mylohyoid muscle. Periapical abscesses of these teeth also result in lingual cortical penetration, leading to submandibular infection.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Other causes such as oral ulcerations, infections secondary to oral malignancy, mandible fractures, sialolithiasis-related submandibular gland infections, and penetrating injuries of the mouth floor have also been documented as potential causes of Ludwig's angina. Patients with systemic illness, such as diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, compromised immune system, and organ transplantation are also commonly predisposed to Ludwig's angina. A review reporting the incidence of illnesses associated with Ludwig angina found that 18% of cases involved diabetes mellitus, 9% involved acquired immune deficiency syndrome, and another 5% were human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Infections originating in the roots of teeth can be identified with a dental X-ray. A CT scan of the neck with contrast material is used to identify deep neck space infections. If there is suspicion of the infection of the chest cavity, a chest scan is sometimes done.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Angioneurotic oedema, lingual carcinoma and sublingual hematoma formation following anticoagulation should be ruled out as possible diagnoses.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: There are a few methods that can be used for determining the microbiology of Ludwig's angina. Traditionally, a culture sample is collected although it has some limitations, primarily being the time-consuming and sometimes unreliable results if the culture is not processed correctly. Ludwig's angina is most often found to be polymicrobial and anaerobic. Some of the commonly found microbes are Viridans Streptococci, Staphylococci, Peptostreptococci, Prevotella, Porphyromonas and Fusobacterium.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: For each patient, the treatment plan should be consider the patient's stage of infection, airway control, and comorbidities. Other things to consider include physician experience, available resources, and personnel are critical factors in formulation of a treatment plan. There are four principles that guide the treatment of Ludwig's Angina: Sufficient airway management, early and aggressive antibiotic therapy, incision and drainage for any who fail medical management or form localized abscesses, and adequate nutrition and hydration support.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Airway management has been found to be the most important factor in treating patients with Ludwig's Angina, i.e. it is the “primary therapeutic concern”. Airway compromise is known to be the leading cause of death from Ludwig's Angina.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Adequate nutrition and hydration support is essential in any patient following surgery, particularly young children. In this case, pain and swelling in the neck region would usually cause difficulties in eating or swallowing, hence reducing patient's food and fluid intake. Patients must therefore be well-nourished and hydrated to promote wound healing and to fight off infection.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: Extubation, which is the removal of endotracheal tube to liberate the patient from mechanical ventilation, should only be done when the patient's airway is proved to be patent, allowing adequate breathing. This is indicated by a decrease in swelling and patient's capability of breathing adequately around an uncuffed endotracheal tube with the lumen blocked.


title: Ludwig's angina

text: The term “angina”, is derived from the Latin word “"angere"”, which means “choke”; and the Greek word “"ankhone"”, which means “strangle”. Placing it into context, Ludwig's angina refers to the feeling of strangling and choking, secondary to obstruction of the airway, which is the most serious potential complication of this condition.


title: Zydeco

text: Zydeco ( or , ) is a music genre that evolved in southwest Louisiana by French Creole speakers which blends blues, rhythm and blues, and music indigenous to the Louisiana Creoles and the Native American people of Louisiana. Although it is distinct in origin from the Cajun music of Louisiana, the two forms influenced each other, forming a complex of genres native to the region.


title: Zydeco

text: Zydeco music is typically played in an uptempo, syncopated manner with a strong rhythmic core, and often incorporates elements of blues, rock and roll, soul music, R&B, Afro-Caribbean, Cajun, and early Creole music. Zydeco music is centered on the accordion, which leads the rest of the band, and a specialized washboard, called a vest frottoir, as a prominent percussive instrument. Other common instruments in zydeco are the electric guitar, bass, keyboard, and drum set. If there are accompanying lyrics, they are typically sung in English or French. Many zydeco performers create original zydeco compositions, though it is also common for musicians to adapt blues standards, R&B hits, and traditional Cajun tunes into the zydeco style.


title: Zydeco

text: The origin of the term "zydeco" is uncertain. One theory is that it derives from the French phrase "Les haricots ne sont pas salés", which, when spoken in Louisiana French, is pronounced . This literally translates as "the snap beans aren't salty" and is used idiomatically to express hardship.


title: Zydeco

text: Initially, several different spellings of the word existed, including "zarico" and "zodico" (in some dialects of French, "r" has the same pronunciation used by certain dialects of American English for specific instances of "d"). In 1960, musicologist Mack McCormick wrote liner notes for a compilation album, "A Treasury of Field Recordings", and used the spelling "zydeco". The word was used in reviews, and McCormick began publicizing it around Houston as a standard spelling. Its use was also accepted by musician Clifton Chenier, who had previously recorded "Zodico Stomp" in 1955, in his recording "Zydeco Sont Pas Salés". Chenier later claimed credit for having invented the word.


title: Zydeco

text: Another possible root word for zydeco is as a West African term for "musicking". Recent studies based on early Louisiana recordings made by Alan and John Lomax suggest that the term, as well as the tradition, may have African origins. The west African languages of tribes affected by the slave trade provide some clues as to the origins of zydeco. In at least a dozen languages from this culture-area of Africa, the phonemes "za", "re", and "go" are frequently associated with dancing and/or playing music". It is also possible that "za re go" evolved into "les haricots" by French-Creole speaking generations unfamiliar with the original language, turning what would have been unfamiliar words into a phonetically similar phrase in the regional language.


title: Zydeco

text: The word "zydeco" can refer to the musical genre, the dance style, or a social gathering at which the music is played.


title: Zydeco

text: The original French settlers came to Louisiana in the late 1600s, sent by the Regent of France, Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, to help settle the Louisiana Territory. Arriving in New Orleans on seven ships, the settlers quickly moved into the bayous and swamps. There, the French culture permeated those of the Irish, Spanish, Native Indian and German peoples already populating the area.


title: Zydeco

text: For 150 years, Louisiana Creoles enjoyed an insular lifestyle, prospering, educating themselves without the government and building their invisible communities under the Code Noir. The French created the Code Noir in 1724 to establish rules for treatment of slaves, as well as restrictions and rights for "gens de couleur libres", a growing class of free people of color. They had the right to own land, something few blacks in the American South had at that time.


title: Zydeco

text: The disruption of the Louisiana Creole community began when the United States made the Louisiana Purchase and Americans started settling in the state. The new settlers typically recognized only the system of race that prevailed where they came from. When the Civil War ended and the black slaves were freed, Louisiana Creoles often assumed positions of leadership. However, segregationist Democrats in Louisiana classified Creoles with freedmen and by the end of the 19th century had disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites under rules designed to suppress black voting (despite the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution). Creoles continued to press for education and advancement while negotiating the new society.


title: Zydeco

text: Zydeco's rural beginnings and the prevailing economic conditions at its inception are reflected in the song titles, lyrics, and bluesy vocals. The music arose as a synthesis of traditional Creole music, some Cajun music influences, and African American traditions, including R&B, blues, jazz, and gospel. It was also often just called French music or "le musique Creole" known as "la-la." Amédé Ardoin, the second musician to record the Creole music of southwest Louisiana and its most influential, made his first recordings in 1929. This Creole music served as a foundation for what later became known as zydeco. Originally performed at house dances in the community, the music eventually expanded into the Catholic Church community centers, as Creoles were mostly Catholic, as well as to rural dance halls and nightclubs.


title: Zydeco

text: During World War II with the Great Migration, many French-speaking and Louisiana Creole speaking Créoles from the area around Marksville and Opelousas, Louisiana left a poor and prejudiced state for better economic opportunities in Texas. Even more southern blacks migrated to California, where buildup of defense industries provided good jobs without the restrictions of the segregated South. In California blacks from Louisiana could vote and began to participate in political life. Today, there are many Cajun and zydeco festivals throughout the US.


title: Zydeco

text: Zydeco music pioneer Clifton Chenier, "The King of Zydeco", made zydeco popular on regional radio stations with his bluesy style and keyboard accordion. In the mid-1950s, Chenier's popularity brought zydeco to the fringes of the American mainstream. He signed with Specialty Records, the same label that first recorded Little Richard and Sam Cooke for wide audiences. Chenier, considered the architect of contemporary zydeco, became the first major zydeco artist with early hits like "Les Haricots Sont Pas Salés" ("The Snap Beans Ain't Salty" — a reference to the singer being too poor to afford salt pork to season the beans).


title: Zydeco

text: The first zydeco vest frottoir was designed by Clifton Chenier in 1946 while he and his brother Cleveland were working at an oil refinery in Port Arthur, Texas. The instrument was created at Chenier's request by Willie Landry, a welder-fabricator who worked at the same refinery. Landry's original frottoir is held in the permanent collection of the Smithsonian Institution.


title: Zydeco

text: Tejano music performers of the 1950s-1970s such as Little Joe and Freddie Fender were known for their zydeco roots and inspiration, and they helped popularize the style in South Texas within mainstream country music.


title: Zydeco

text: In the mid-1980s, Rockin' Sidney brought international attention to zydeco music with his hit tune "My Toot Toot". Clifton Chenier, Rockin' Sidney and Queen Ida all garnered Grammy awards during this pivotal period, opening the door to emerging artists who would continue the traditions. Rockin' Dopsie recorded with Paul Simon and also signed a major label deal during this time.


title: Zydeco

text: John Delafose was extremely popular regionally. The music made major advances when emerging bands burst exuberantly onto the national scene, fusing new sounds and styles with the music. Boozoo Chavis, Roy Carrier, Zydeco Force, Nathan and the Zydeco Cha Chas, the Sam Brothers, Terrance Simien, Chubby Carrier, and many others were breathing new life into the music. Zydeco superstar Buckwheat Zydeco was already well into his career, and also signed his deal with Island Records in the mid-1980s. Combined with the national popularity of Creole and Cajun food, and the feature film "The Big Easy", set in New Orleans, zydeco music had a revival. New artists were cultivated, the music took a more innovative direction, and zydeco increased in mainstream popularity.


title: Zydeco

text: Young zydeco musicians such as C. J. Chenier (son of Clifton Chenier), Chubby Carrier, Geno Delafose, Terrance Simien, Nathan Williams and others began touring internationally during the 1980s. Beau Jocque was a monumental songwriter and innovator who infused zydeco with powerful beats and bass lines in the 1990s, adding striking production and elements of funk, hip-hop and rap. Young performers like Chris Ardoin, Keith Frank, and Zydeco Force added further by tying the sound to the bass drum rhythm to accentuate or syncopate the backbeat even more. This style is sometimes called "double clutching".


title: Zydeco

text: Hundreds of zydeco bands continue the music traditions across the U.S. and in Europe, Japan, the UK and Australia. A precocious 7-year-old zydeco accordionist, Guyland Leday, was featured in an HBO documentary about music and young people.


title: Zydeco

text: In 2007, zydeco achieved a separate category in the Grammy awards, the Grammy Award for Best Zydeco or Cajun Music Album category. But in 2011 the Grammy awards eliminated the category and folded the genre into its new Best Regional Roots Album category.


title: Zydeco

text: More recent zydeco artists include Lil' Nate, Leon Chavis, Mo' Mojo and Kenne' Wayne. Torchbearer Andre Thierry has kept the tradition alive on the West Coast.


title: Zydeco

text: Leading the world of traditional zydeco today is Dwayne Dopsie (son of Rockin' Dopsie) and his band, the Zydeco Hellraisers. They were nominated for best Regional Roots Album in the 2017 Grammy Awards.


title: Zydeco

text: While zydeco is a genre that has become synonymous with the cultural and musical identity of Louisiana and an important part of the musical landscape of the United States, this southern black music tradition has received wide recognition throughout the country. Because of the migration of the French-speaking blacks and multiracial Creoles, the mixing of Cajun and Creole musicians, and the warm embrace of people from outside these cultures, there are multiple hotbeds of zydeco: Louisiana, Texas, Oregon, California, and Europe as far north as Scandinavia. There are zydeco festivals throughout America and Europe.


title: Point of Entry

text: Point of Entry is the seventh studio album by English heavy metal band Judas Priest, released on 27 February 1981 by Columbia Records. Following the commercial success of their previous album "British Steel" (1980), Priest pursued a more radio-friendly direction on "Point of Entry". Following the conclusion of the British Steel Tour, the band began work on their next project. By this time, the band possessed sufficient funds to fly all their equipment to the state-of-the-art Ibiza Studios in Spain. This gave "Point of Entry" a louder, stronger, more "live" sound than previous Judas Priest albums.


title: Point of Entry

text: Three singles were released from the album: "Heading Out to the Highway", "Don't Go" and "Hot Rockin, all of which had accompanying music videos. The song "Heading Out to the Highway" has been a staple in live shows since its release, "Desert Plains" was regularly played throughout the 1980s and in 2002 and "Hot Rockin was returned to the setlist for the 2005 Reunited Tour, where Priest also played "Solar Angels" on rare occasions. On the World Wide Blitz Tour of 1981 supporting "Point of Entry", "Solar Angels" had been the opening song of every show, while "Troubleshooter" was also performed on parts of the supporting tour. On the contrary, five songs from the album – "Don't Go", "Turning Circles", "You Say Yes", "All the Way" and "On the Run" – have never been performed live.


title: Point of Entry

text: The European distribution of the album featured "an intriguing and colorful sort of futuristic metal wing over a horizon shot" designed by Roslav Szaybo, who had done all of the band's CBS albums to date. The cover featured in the North American and Japanese markets, however, was designed by Columbia Record's John Berg, and instead depicted continuous stationary paper to simulate the line in the middle of the road with white cardboard boxes on the back. "The sleeve was awful," guitarist Glen Tipton said of the covers, "and we've got to blame management for that because they didn't shop around enough to get one that was suitable. The American cover was different, but that turned out to be even worse!'" The latter version was once again used for the 2001 remaster of the album.


title: Point of Entry

text: The American artwork also saw the introduction of the extruded '3D' Judas Priest logo, which would be used up to "Turbo".


title: Point of Entry

text: The album was remastered in 2001, with two bonus tracks added, a live version of "Desert Plains" and "Thunder Road", a track from the "Ram It Down" sessions.


title: Point of Entry

text: In 2005, "Point of Entry" was ranked number 352 in "Rock Hard" magazine's book "The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time". In the 2007 book "Metal: The Definitive Guide", author Garry Sharpe-Young wrote that the album consists of "radio-friendly fillers." Moreover, Sharpe-Young called the original British artwork "bland" and subsequent American alternative artwork "an even worse compromise."


title: Point of Entry

text: Opinions about the album from within the band have been mixed. Ian Hill has stated, "It came across… people think it's just a commercial album. And it's not, there are some good songs in there. And I think it's overlooked.". In a Louder article, it is noted that "Halford admits to being "dismayed" by the reaction it received." In the same Louder article, K.K. Downing takes on a more mixed perspective, stating, "People don't understand how pressurised we were by the label, either to do covers or make hits", he says. "With that album, we gave them what they wanted."


title: Philippi

text: Philippi (; , "Philippoi") was a major Greek city northwest of the nearby island, Thasos. Its original name was Crenides (, "Krenides" "Fountains") after its establishment by Thasian colonists in 360/359 BC. The city was renamed by Philip II of Macedon in 356 BC and abandoned in the 14th century after the Ottoman conquest. The present municipality of Filippoi is located near the ruins of the ancient city and is part of the region of East Macedonia and Thrace in Kavala, Greece. The archaeological site was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016 because of its exceptional Roman architecture, its urban layout as a smaller reflection of Rome itself, and its importance in early Christianity.


title: Philippi

text: Thasian colonists established a settlement at Krenides in Thrace in 360/359 BC near the head of the Aegean Sea at the foot of Mt. Orbelos, now called Mt. Lekani, about north-west of Kavalla, on the northern border of the marsh that, in antiquity, covered the entire plain separating it from the Pangaion Hills to the south. In 356 BC, King Philip II of Macedon conquered the city and renamed it to Philippi.


title: Philippi

text: The Macedonian conquerors of the town aimed to take control of the neighbouring gold mines and to establish a garrison at a strategic passage: the site controlled the route between Amphipolis and Neapolis, part of the great royal route which runs east-west across Macedonia which the Roman Republic reconstructed in the 2nd century BC as part of the "Via Egnatia". Philip II endowed the city with important fortifications, which partially blocked the passage between the swamp and Mt. Orbelos, and sent colonists to occupy it. Philip also had the marsh partially drained, as the writer Theophrastus ( 371 – 287 BC) attests. Philippi preserved its autonomy within the kingdom of Macedon and had its own political institutions (the "Assembly" of the "demos"). The discovery of new gold mines near the city, at Asyla, contributed to the wealth of the kingdom and Philip established a mint there. The city became fully integrated into the kingdom during the last years of the reign (221 to 179 BC) of Philip V of Macedon or the reign of Perseus of Macedon.


title: Philippi

text: When the Romans destroyed the Antigonid dynasty of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War (168 BC), they divided the kingdom into four separate states ("merides"). Amphipolis (rather than Philippi) became the capital of the eastern Macedonian state.


title: Philippi

text: Almost nothing is known about the city in this period, but archeological remains include walls, the Greek theatre, the foundations of a house under the Roman forum and a little temple dedicated to a hero cult. This monument covers the tomb of a certain Exekestos, is possibly situated on the agora and is dedicated to the κτίστης ("ktistēs"), the foundation hero of the city.


title: Philippi

text: The city reappears in the sources during the Liberators' civil war (43–42 BC) that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Caesar's heirs Mark Antony and Octavian confronted the forces of the assassins Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Philippi on the plain to the west of the city during October in 42 BC. Antony and Octavian won this final battle against the partisans of the Republic. They released some of their veteran soldiers, probably from Legion XXVIII, to colonize the city, which was refounded as "Colonia Victrix Philippensium". From 30 BC Octavian established his control of the Roman state, becoming Roman emperor from 27 BC. He reorganized the colony and established more settlers there, veterans (possibly from the Praetorian Guard) and other Italians. The city was renamed "Colonia Iulia Philippensis", and then "Colonia Augusta Iulia Philippensis" after January, 27 BC, when Octavian received the title Augustus from the Roman Senate.


title: Philippi

text: Following this second renaming, and perhaps after the first, the territory of Philippi was centuriated (divided into squares of land) and distributed to the colonists. The city kept its Macedonian walls, and its general plan was modified only partially by the construction of a forum, a little to the east of the site of Greek agora. It was a "miniature Rome", under the municipal law of Rome, and governed by two military officers, the "duumviri", who were appointed directly from Rome, similar to Roman colonies


title: Philippi

text: The colony recognized its dependence on the mines that brought it its privileged position on the "Via Egnatia". Many monuments evidence its wealth – particularly imposing considering the relatively small size of the urban area: the forum, laid out in two terraces on both sides of the main road, was constructed in several phases between the reigns of the Emperors Claudius (41–54 AD) and Antoninus Pius (138–161), and the theatre was enlarged and expanded to hold Roman games. An abundance of Latin inscriptions also testifies to the prosperity of the city.


title: Philippi

text: The New Testament records a visit to the city by the apostle Paul during his second missionary journey (likely in AD 49 or 50). On the basis of the Acts of the Apostles and the letter to the Philippians, early Christians concluded that Paul had founded their community. Accompanied by Silas, by Timothy and possibly by Luke (the author of the Acts of the Apostles), Paul is believed to have preached for the first time on European soil in Philippi. According to the New Testament, Paul visited the city on two other occasions, in 56 and 57. The Epistle to the Philippians dates from around 61–62 and is believed to show the immediate effects of Paul's instruction.


title: Philippi

text: The development of Christianity in Philippi is indicated by a letter from Polycarp of Smyrna addressed to the community in Philippi around AD 160 and by funerary inscriptions.


title: Philippi

text: The first church described in the city is a small building that was probably originally a small prayer-house. This "Basilica of Paul", identified by a mosaic inscription on the pavement, is dated around 343 from a mention by the bishop Porphyrios, who attended the Council of Serdica that year.


title: Philippi

text: Despite Philippi having one of the oldest congregations in Europe, attestation of a bishopric dates only from the 4th century.


title: Philippi

text: The prosperity of the city in the 5th and 6th centuries was attributed to Paul and to his ministry. As in other cities, many new ecclesiastical buildings were constructed at this time. Seven different churches were built in Philippi between the mid-4th century and the end of the 6th, some of which competed in size and decoration with the most beautiful buildings in Thessalonica, or with those of Constantinople. The relationship of the plan and of the architectural decoration of Basilica B with Hagia Sophia and with Saint Irene in Constantinople accorded a privileged place to this church in the history of early Christian art. The complex cathedral which took the place of the Basilica of Paul at the end of the 5th century, constructed around an octagonal church, also rivaled the churches of Constantinople.


title: Philippi

text: In the same age, the Empire rebuilt the fortifications of the city to better defend against growing instability in the Balkans. In 473 Ostrogothic troops of Theodoric Strabo besieged the city; they failed to take it but burned down the surrounding villages.


title: Philippi

text: Already weakened by the Slavic invasions at the end of the 6th century – which ruined the agrarian economy of Macedonia – and probably also by the Plague of Justinian in 547, the city was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake around 619, from which it never recovered. There was a small amount of activity there in the 7th century, but the city was now hardly more than a village.


title: Philippi

text: The Byzantine Empire possibly maintained a garrison there, but in 838 the Bulgarians under "kavhan" Isbul took the city and celebrated their victory with a monumental inscription on the stylobate in Basilica B, now partially in ruins. The site of Philippi was so strategically sound that the Byzantines attempted to recapture it around 850. Several seals of civil servants and other Byzantine officials, dated to the first half of the 9th century, prove the presence of Byzantine armies in the city.


title: Philippi

text: Around 969, Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas rebuilt the fortifications on the acropolis and in part of the city. These gradually helped to weaken Bulgar power and to strengthen the Byzantine presence in the area. In 1077 Bishop Basil Kartzimopoulos rebuilt part of the defenses inside the city. The city began to prosper once more, as witnessed by the Arab geographer Al Idrisi, who mentions it as a centre of business and wine production around 1150.


title: Philippi

text: After a brief occupation by the Franks after the Fourth Crusade and the capture of Constantinople in 1204, the city was captured by the Serbs. Still, it remained a notable fortification on the route of the ancient "Via Egnatia"; in 1354, the pretender to the Byzantine throne, Matthew Cantacuzenus, was captured there by the Serbs.


title: Philippi

text: The city was abandoned at an unknown date. When the French traveller Pierre Belon visited the area in the 1540s there remained nothing but ruins, used by the Turks as a quarry. The name of the city survived – at first in a Turkish village on the nearby plain, Philibedjik (Filibecik, "Little Filibe" in Turkish), which has since disappeared, and then in a Greek village in the mountains.


title: Philippi

text: Although the site was briefly noted by earlier travellers, first modern archaeological description, based on a visit in 1856, was published in 1860 by Georges Perrot. This was followed by the more extensive investigations of the French Mission Archéologique de Macédoine in 1861, led by the archaeologist Léon Heuzey and the architect Honoré Daumet. Excavations by the École française d'Athènes began in the summer of 1914, were renewed in 1920 after an interruption caused by the First World War, and continued until 1937. During this time the Greek theatre, the forum, Basilicas A and B, the baths, and the walls were excavated. After the Second World War, Greek archaeologists returned to the site. From 1958 to 1978, the Archaeological Society of Athens, followed by the Greek Archaeological Service and the University of Thessalonica, uncovered the bishop's quarter and the octagonal church, large private residences, a new basilica near the Museum, and two others in the necropolis east of the city.


title: Philippi

text: Translated from the , retrieved 11 February 2005. That article, in turn, gives the following references:


title: What Are Little Boys Made Of?

text: "What Are Little Boys Made Of?" is a nursery rhyme dating from the early 19th century. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 821.


title: What Are Little Boys Made Of?

text: The rhyme appears in many variant forms. For example, other versions may describe boys as being made of "snaps", "frogs", "snakes", or "slugs", rather than "snips" as above.


title: What Are Little Boys Made Of?

text: In the earliest known versions, the first ingredient for boys is either "snips" or "snigs", the latter being a Cumbrian dialect word for a small eel.


title: What Are Little Boys Made Of?

text: The rhyme sometimes appears as part of a larger work called "What Folks Are Made Of" or "What All the World Is Made Of". Other stanzas describe what babies, young men, young women, sailors, soldiers, nurses, fathers, mothers, old men, old women, and all folks are made of. According to Iona and Peter Opie, this first appears in a manuscript by the English poet Robert Southey (1774–1843), who added the stanzas other than the two below. Though it is not mentioned elsewhere in his works or papers, it is generally agreed to be by him.


title: Change of basis

text: In mathematics, an ordered basis of a vector space of finite dimension allows representing uniquely any element of the vector space by a coordinate vector, which is a sequence of scalars called coordinates. If two different bases are considered, the coordinate vector that represents a vector on one basis is, in general, different from the coordinate vector that represents on the other basis. A change of basis consists of converting every assertion expressed in terms of coordinates relative to one basis into an assertion expressed in terms of coordinates relative to the other basis.


title: Change of basis

text: Such a conversion results from the "change-of-basis formula" which expresses the coordinates relative to one basis in terms of coordinates relative to the other basis. Using matrices, this formula can be written


title: Change of basis

text: where "old" and "new" refer respectively to the firstly defined basis and the other basis, formula_2 and formula_3 are the column vectors of the coordinates of the same vector on the two bases, and formula_4 is the change-of-basis matrix (also called transition matrix), which is the matrix whose columns are the coordinate vectors of the new basis vectors on the old basis.


title: Change of basis

text: This article deals mainly with finite-dimensional vector spaces. However, many of the principles are also valid for infinite-dimensional vector spaces.


title: Change of basis

text: be the matrix whose th column is formed by the coordinates of . (Here and in what follows, the index refers always to the rows of and the formula_10 while the index refers always to the columns of and the formula_11 such a convention is useful for avoiding errors in explicit computations.)


title: Change of basis

text: Setting formula_12 one has that formula_13 is a basis of if and only if the matrix is invertible, or equivalently if it has a nonzero determinant. In this case, is said to be the "change-of-basis matrix" from the basis formula_14 to the basis formula_15


title: Change of basis

text: Given a vector formula_16 let formula_17 be the coordinates of formula_18 over formula_19 and formula_20 its coordinates over formula_21 that is


title: Change of basis

text: The "change-of-basis formula" expresses the coordinates over the old basis in term of the coordinates over the new basis. With above notation, it is


title: Change of basis

text: where formula_25 and formula_26 are the column vectors of the coordinates of over formula_14 and formula_28 respectively.


title: Change of basis

text: As formula_30 the change-of-basis formula results from the uniqueness of the decomposition of a vector over a basis.


title: Change of basis

text: Consider the Euclidean vector space formula_31 Its standard basis consists of the vectors formula_32 and formula_33 If one rotates them by an angle of , one gets a "new basis" formed by formula_34 and formula_35


title: Change of basis

text: The change-of-basis formula asserts that, if formula_37 are the new coordinates of a vector formula_38 then one has


title: Change of basis

text: Normally, a matrix represents a linear map, and the product of a matrix and a column vector represents the function application of the corresponding linear map to the vector whose coordinates form the column vector. The change-of-basis formula is a specific case of this general principle, although this is not immediately clear from its definition and proof.


title: Change of basis

text: When one says that a matrix "represents" a linear map, one refers implicitly to bases of implied vector spaces, and to the fact that the choice of a basis induces an isomorphism between a vector space and , where is the field of scalars. When only one basis is considered for each vector space, it is worth to leave this isomorphism implicit, and to work up to an isomorphism. As several bases of the same vector space are considered here, a more accurate wording is required.


title: Change of basis

text: Let be a field, the set formula_42 of the -tuples is a -vector space whose addition and scalar multiplication are defined component-wise. Its standard basis is the basis that has as its th element the tuple with all components equal to except the th that is .


title: Change of basis

text: Conversely, such a linear isomorphism defines a basis, which is the image by formula_46 of the standard basis of formula_47


title: Change of basis

text: Let formula_5 be the "old basis" of a change of basis, and formula_49 the associated isomorphism. Given a change-of basis matrix , let consider it as the matrix of an endomorphism formula_50 of formula_47 Finally, let define


title: Change of basis

text: A straightforward verification, allows showing that this definition of formula_55 is the same as that of the preceding section.


title: Change of basis

text: Now, by composing the equation formula_52 with formula_57 on the left and formula_58 on the right, one gets


title: Change of basis

text: A function that has a vector space as its domain is commonly specified as a multivariate function whose variables are the coordinates on some basis of the vector on which the function is applied.


title: Change of basis

text: When the basis is changed, the expression of the function is changed. This change can be computed by substituting the "old" coordinates for their expressions in terms of the "new" coordinates. More precisely, if is the expression of the function in terms of the old coordinates, and if is the change-of-base formula, then is the expression of the same function in terms of the new coordinates.


title: Change of basis

text: The fact that the change-of-basis formula expresses the old coordinates in terms of the new one may seem unnatural, but appears as useful, as no matrix inversion is needed here.


title: Change of basis

text: As the change-of-basis formula involves only linear functions, many function properties are kept by a change of basis. This allows defining these properties as properties of functions of a variable vector that are not related to any specific basis. So, a function whose domain is a vector space or a subset of it is


title: Change of basis

text: if the multivariate function that represents it on some basis—and thus on every basis—has the same property.


title: Change of basis

text: This is specially useful in the theory of manifolds, as this allows extending the concepts of continuous, differentiable, smooth and analytic functions to functions that are defined on a manifold.


title: Change of basis

text: Consider a linear map from a vector space of dimension to a vector space of dimension . It is represented on "old" bases of and by a matrix . A change of bases is defined by an change-of-basis matrix for , and an change-of-basis matrix for .


title: Change of basis

text: Endomorphisms, are linear maps from a vector space to itself. For a change of basis, the formula of the preceding section applies, with the same change-of-basis matrix on both sides of the formula. That is, if is the square matrix of an endomorphism of over an "old" basis, and is a change-of-basis matrix, then the matrix of the endomorphism on the "new" basis is


title: Change of basis

text: As every invertible matrix can be used as a change-of-basis matrix, this implies that two matrices are similar if and only if they represent the same endomorphism on two different bases.


title: Change of basis

text: A "bilinear form" on a vector space "V" over a field is a function which is linear in both arguments. That is, is bilinear if the maps


title: Change of basis

text: The matrix of a bilinear form on a basis formula_67 (the "old" basis in what follows) is the matrix whose entry of the th row and th column is . It follows that if and are the column vectors of the coordinates of two vectors and , one has


title: Change of basis

text: If is a change of basis matrix, then a straightforward computation shows that the matrix of the bilinear form on the new basis is


title: Change of basis

text: A symmetric bilinear form is a bilinear form such that formula_71 for every and in . It follows that the matrix of on any basis is symmetric. This implies that the property of being a symmetric matrix must be kept by the above change-of-base formula. One can also check this by noting that the transpose of a matrix product is the product of the transposes computed in the reverse order. In particular,


title: Change of basis

text: If the characteristic of the ground field is not two, then for every symmetric bilinear form there is a basis for which the matrix is diagonal. Moreover, the resulting nonzero entries on the diagonal are defined up to the multiplication by a square. So, if the ground field is the field formula_74 of the real numbers, these nonzero entries can be chosen to be either or . Sylvester's law of inertia is a theorem that asserts that the numbers of and of depends only on the bilinear form, and not of the change of basis.


title: Change of basis

text: Symmetric bilinear forms over the reals are often encountered in geometry and physics, typically in the study of quadrics and of the inertia of a rigid body. In these cases, orthonormal bases are specially useful; this means that one generally prefer to restrict changes of basis to those that have an orthogonal change-of-base matrix, that is, a matrix such that formula_75 Such matrices have the fundamental property that the change-of-base formula is the same for a symmetric bilinear form and the endomorphism that is represented by the same symmetric matrix. Spectral theorem asserts that, given such a symmetric matrix, there is an orthogonal change of basis such that the resulting matrix (of both the bilinear form and the endomorphism) is a diagonal matrix with the eigenvalues of the initial matrix on the diagonal. It follows that, over the reals, if the matrix of an endomorphism is symmetric, then it is diagonalizable.


title: Maraschino

text: Maraschino ( , ) is a liqueur obtained from the distillation of Marasca cherries. The small, slightly sour fruit of the Tapiwa cherry tree ("Prunus cerasus" var. "marasca"), which grows wild along parts of the Dalmatian coast in Croatia, lends the liqueur its unique aroma.


title: Maraschino

text: In 1759, Francesco Drioli, a Venetian merchant, began industrial-scale production of maraschino in Zadar, Croatia, which was then part of the Republic of Venice. Drioli displayed that Venetian entrepreneurial spirit that had transformed the popular tradition of home distillation of grappa in the Veneto into a refined and renowned industry, following clear and distinct rules and restrictions, as set down by the Arte dell'acqua di vita.