title: Wigger

text: The term is generally considered derogatory, reflecting stereotypes of African-American, black British, and white culture (when used as a synonym of white trash). The "wannabe" connotation may be used pejoratively. It is also sometimes used in a racist manner by some non-black persons, not only belittling the person perceived as "acting black", but also demeaning black people and culture, by extension.


title: Wigger

text: The phenomenon of white people adopting stereotypical black mannerisms, speech, music taste, and apparel has appeared in several generations since slavery was abolished in the Western world. The concept has been documented in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, and other countries with a significant white population. An early form of this was the "white negro" in the jazz and swing music scenes of the 1920s and 1930s; as examined in the 1957 Norman Mailer essay "The White Negro". It was later seen in the zoot suiter of the 1930s and 1940s, the hipster of the 1940s, the beatnik of the 1950s-1960s, the fascination with Jamaican ska and rude boy culture in Britain's 1960s mod subculture, the blue-eyed soul of the 1970s (soul music sung by white singers), and the hip hop done by white rappers in the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Wigger

text: Bakari Kitwana, "a culture critic who's been tracking American hip hop for years," has written "Why White Kids Love Hip Hop: Wankstas, Wiggers, Wannabes, and the New Reality of Race in America." In 1993, an article in the UK newspaper "The Independent" described the phenomenon of white, middle-class kids who were "wannabe Blacks".


title: Wigger

text: The African-American hip hop artist Azealia Banks has criticized white rapper Iggy Azalea "...for failing to comment on 'black issues' despite capitalising on the appropriation of African American culture in her music." Banks has called Azalea a "wigger" and there have been "...accusations of racism against Azalea" focused on her "...insensitivity to the complexities of race relations and cultural appropriation."


title: Wigger

text: Robert A. Clift's documentary, "Blacking Up: Hip-Hop's Remix of Race and Identity," questions white enthusiasts of black hip-hop culture. The term of art "wigger" "...is used both proudly and derisively to describe white enthusiasts of black hip-hop culture." Clift's documentary examines "...racial and cultural ownership and authenticity -- a path that begins with the stolen blackness seen in the success of Stephen Foster, Al Jolson, Benny Goodman, Elvis Presley, the Rolling Stones—all the way up to Justin Bieber, Vanilla Ice (popular music's ur-wigger) and Eminem." A review of the documentary refers to the wiggers as "white poseurs."


title: Wigger

text: One of the earliest examples of a wigger is to be found in the fictional character of Felix in Harry Crews' book "All We Need of Hell". Felix is the son of white parents who, as the narrative develops, begins to adopt the mannerisms, speech, and sensibilities of a black Southerner athlete he spends time with. Although the book was published in 1987, it was actually written in the 1970s. The character of Ed Wuncler III on the television series "The Boondocks" is another example of a fictional wigger.


title: Wigger

text: A 2011 class-action lawsuit in the United States District Court for Minnesota alleged that the administration at a predominantly white high school showed a "deliberate indifference" in allowing a group of students to hold a homecoming event called "Wigger Day" or "Wangsta Day" since at least 2008. A plaintiff named Quera Pruitt sought declaratory judgment and $75,000 in punitive damages from the defendants for creating a racially hostile environment. On July 24, 2012, the parties settled out of court, with Pruitt awarded $90,000.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: Terminalia catappa is a large tropical tree in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae, native to Asia, Australia, the Pacific, Madagascar and Seychelles. Common names in English include country almond, Indian almond, Malabar almond, sea almond, tropical almond, beach almond and false kamani.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: The tree grows to tall, with an upright, symmetrical crown and horizontal branches. The fruit are corky and light, and dispersed by water. As the tree gets older, its crown becomes more flattened to form a spreading, vase shape. Its branches are distinctively arranged in tiers. The leaves are large, long and broad, ovoid, glossy dark green, and leathery. They are dry-season deciduous; before falling, they turn pinkish-reddish or yellow-brown, due to pigments such as violaxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: The trees are monoecious, with distinct male and female flowers on the same tree. Both are in diameter, white to greenish, inconspicuous with no petals; they are produced on axillary or terminal spikes. The fruit is a drupe long and broad, green at first, then yellow and finally red when ripe, containing a single seed. Pollen grains measure about 30 microns.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: The tree has been spread widely by humans, so the native range is uncertain. It has long been naturalised in a broad belt extending from Africa to northern Australia and New Guinea through southeast Asia and Micronesia into the Indian subcontinent. More recently, the plant has been introduced to parts of the Americas. Until the mid-20th century, the tree had been used extensively in Brazilian urban landscaping, since being a rare case tropical deciduous, their fallen leaves would give a "European" flair to the street. This practice is currently abolished, and the "amendoeiras" are being replaced by native, evergreen trees.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: "T. catappa" is widely grown in tropical regions of the world as an ornamental tree, grown for the deep shade its large leaves provide. The fruit is edible, tasting slightly acidic. The seeds are edible raw or cooked when ripe and the source of its 'almond' common names, but are small and difficult to extract.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: The wood is red and solid, and has high water resistance; it has been used in Polynesia for making canoes. In Tamil, almond is known as "nattuvadumai".


title: Terminalia catappa

text: The leaves contain several flavonoids (such as kaempferol or quercetin), several tannins (such as punicalin, punicalagin or tercatin), saponines and phytosterols. Due to this chemical richness, the leaves (and the bark) are used in different herbal medicines for various purposes. For instance in Taiwan, fallen leaves are used as an herb to treat liver diseases. In Suriname, an herbal tea made from the leaves has been prescribed against dysentery and diarrhea. The leaves may contain agents for prevention of cancers (although they have no demonstrated anticarcinogenic properties) and antioxidants, as well as anticlastogenic characteristics. Extracts of have shown activity against "Plasmodium falciparum" chloroquine (CQ)-resistant (FcB1) and CQ-sensitive (HB3) strains.


title: Terminalia catappa

text: Keeping the leaves in an aquarium may lower the pH and heavy-metal content of the water. It has been used in this way by fish breeders for many years, and is active against some parasites and bacterial pathogens. It is also believed to help prevent fungus forming on the eggs of the fish.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa , legally British United Provident Association Limited, is an international health insurance and healthcare group with over 38 million customers worldwide.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa's origins and global headquarters are in the United Kingdom. Its main countries of operation are: Australia, Spain, the United Kingdom, Chile, Poland, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Turkey, Brazil, Ireland, Mexico and the United States. It also has a presence across Latin America, the Middle East and Asia, including joint ventures in Saudi Arabia and India.


title: Bupa

text: Health insurance represents 71% of Bupa's revenues worldwide and 21.1 million of its customers. Bupa runs various health provision services for a further 16,9 million customers worldwide (21% of its revenue) including hospitals (primarily in Spain, Poland and Chile), outpatient clinics, dental centres and digital services. Bupa also runs aged care facilities in four countries: UK, Australia, Spain and New Zealand, which make up 8% of its revenue.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa (originally the "British United Provident Association") was established in 1947 when seventeen British provident associations joined together to provide healthcare for the general public. The firm is a private company limited by guarantee; it has no shareholders, and any profits (after tax) are reinvested in the business.


title: Bupa

text: The services offered by Bupa began as private medical insurance, offering policies to individuals, companies and other organisations, and eventually expanded to include privately run hospitals, outpatient clinics, health assessments, GP services, dental centres, digital health, aged care and other health services.


title: Bupa

text: Iñaki Ereño became Group CEO in January 2021. Ereño was previously the CEO of Bupa's Europe and Latin America division.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa has expanded internationally from its UK operations. Malta was the site of Bupa’s first overseas business in 1971 and it started insurance operations in Hong Kong in 1976.


title: Bupa

text: In 1982, Bupa International was launched to provide worldwide medical cover to people working outside their home country. This business division is now branded as 'Bupa Global'.


title: Bupa

text: In 1989, Bupa acquired '"Sanitas"' S.A. de Seguros, now Spain's second largest private medical insurer. This has expanded to become a combined health insurance, hospital, clinic, dental and aged care business operating under the Sanitas brand.


title: Bupa

text: During the 1990s, Bupa continued to expand internationally. An insurance business was established in Thailand which was sold in 2017 to Aetna. Bupa Ireland, a health insurance business, was established in 1996 but sold in 2007.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa also diversified in the UK into care homes with the acquisition of 200 homes through Community Nursing Homes, Goldsborough Healthcare Group and Care First Group.


title: Bupa

text: In 1997, Bupa entered the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in partnership with the Nazer Group to form Bupa Arabia. In 2008, Bupa Arabia was listed on the Tadawul, the Saudi stock market. Bupa Arabia is now the leading health insurance provider in the KSA. Bupa owns 43.25% of this business.


title: Bupa

text: In the 2000s, Bupa entered the Australian health insurance market, opened hospitals in Spain and expanded its network of clinics and care homes in the UK.


title: Bupa

text: In 2007, Bupa completed the sale of its UK hospitals business to Spire Healthcare. Bupa’s rationale was that the scale of both its UK hospitals and insurance businesses meant that they were becoming increasingly constrained by being part of the same group.


title: Bupa

text: Significant acquisitions followed. The largest of these was the merger of Bupa's insurance business in Australia with the insurance group MBF to form what was then Australia’s second largest private medical insurer. In 2011, Bupa Australia brought together the insurance brands MBF, HBA and Mutual Community under the Bupa brand. Bupa acquired the Amity Group of care homes in Australia in 2007.


title: Bupa

text: In 2010, Bupa launched a partnership in India with Max India Ltd. In 2019, Bupa completed the transition to a new partner, True North, while retaining a 44.42% stake in the business, which is now branded Niva Bupa.


title: Bupa

text: In 2012, Bupa acquired the largest private healthcare network in Poland, LUX MED, from the private equity fund Mid Europa Partners for €400m.


title: Bupa

text: Other acquisitions in this period included: Dental Corporation, Australia and New Zealand’s largest dental provider; Quality HealthCare, a private clinic network in Hong Kong; a 49% stake in Highway to Health, Inc., a US health insurer specialising in providing international health insurance for US residents planning to live or work abroad.


title: Bupa

text: In February 2015, Bupa acquired a controlling share in Chilean private healthcare network Cruz Blanca. In 2016, Bupa became the sole owner of Cruz Blanca (branded as Bupa Chile). Bupa Chile opened a major hospital in Santiago in 2018.


title: Bupa

text: In 2017, Bupa completed the purchase of Oasis Dental Care, the UK's leading private dental provider with 380 practices, for £835 million, from Bridgepoint, a Private Equity group. As a result Bupa became a major dental provider. The business has since grown to around 490 clinics in the UK and the Republic of Ireland. Bupa operates dental practices in the Republic of Ireland under the Smiles Dental brand.


title: Bupa

text: In the UK, in August 2017, it sold 122 care homes, with 9,000 beds, to HC-One for £300 million. 22 further homes were sold to Advinia Healthcare.


title: Bupa

text: In January 2019, Bupa acquired Acibadem Sigorta in Turkey. Bupa Acıbadem Sigorta is Turkey's second largest health insurer with both corporate and individual customers. Headquartered in Istanbul, it insures 600,000 people. In December 2020, Bupa México announced the acquisition of BBVA México's medical services provider Vitamédica. In January 2021, in the UK, the transfer of CS Healthcare’s business and 17,500 members to Bupa completed.


title: Bupa

text: Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the resulting war, Bupa announced that it would be ending relations with businesses in Russian and Russian-controlled businesses.


title: Bupa

text: Through its business in Poland, Lux/Med, Bupa has been working with the authorities and other institutions to offer urgent free medical assistance to refugees from Ukraine through its 258 medical centres and 13 hospitals.  It has set up teams of paramedics, doctors and medical equipment to solve the problems of the refugees and their families, as well as providing employment for Ukrainian medial staff in its facilities.


title: Bupa

text: This is taken from published corporate information by Bupa and regulatory reports, financial disclosures. Bupa's global operations across its group are structured across three divisions ("Market Units") together with a number of other business and partnerships.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa has its global and UK head offices in central London. In the UK, there are also major offices in Staines, Salford Quays, Brighton, Bristol and Leeds.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa also has associate health insurance businesses in Saudi Arabia (Bupa Arabia) and India (Niva Bupa).


title: Bupa

text: Bupa supports a number of grant-giving foundations in different countries which work on health and social issues. During the COVID19 pandemic there was an extra effort to support communities through its charitable foundations in Australia, UK and Spain. A Healthy Communities Fund was established, with a special emphasis on mental health and wellbeing in schools.


title: Bupa

text: The Bupa UK Foundation focuses on grant-giving and charity partnerships around mental health. These include Beyond Words for World Mental Health Day supported by Cheltenham Festivals, Mind, National Literacy Trust.


title: Bupa

text: The Bupa Health Foundation is one of the leading charitable foundations dedicated to health in Australia. The foundation invests in research that claims to improve health and it collaborates with researchers across academic, industry and healthcare communities. It advocates for researchers, organisations and initiatives that are improving health capacity building by developing skills and networks of health and medical researchers. Over the last 10 years the foundation has invested more than AUS$35 million in partnerships. Focus areas include youth mental health including partnerships with Kids Helpline, Macquarie University Centre for Emotional Health, Edith Cowan University.


title: Bupa

text: The Fundacion Sanitas focuses on inclusive sports, the recognition of young doctors in Spain, the health and well-being of caregivers of people with dementia, cooperation in health and research in cardiovascular diseases.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa UK has been criticised by some judges, coroners and regulators regarding failures to meet regulatory standards in some of its residential care homes.


title: Bupa

text: Staff and families of residents in some care homes have criticised Bupa for allegedly prioritising profits to the detriment of care.


title: Bupa

text: Bupa's operations in Australia have been the subject of regulatory action and criticism in news media, particularly in 2018 and 2019.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The Opel Mokka is a subcompact crossover SUV that has been produced by the German automaker Opel since 2012. Sales began with the model year of 2013, at the end of 2012. In 2016, the Opel Mokka was renamed to the Mokka X. It is also sold under the Vauxhall brand in the United Kingdom, and as the Buick Encore in North America and in China.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The second generation Mokka was launched in 2020. It marked the switch to PSA platform, after the acquisition of Opel and Vauxhall brands in 2017. It was renamed back to Mokka, ditching the 'X' suffix.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The Mokka was positioned below the Antara and the Zafira Tourer in the Opel line-up, and was available in both front wheel and four wheel drive versions. The "Mokka" name derives from the small, round coffee beans of the Coffea Arabica variety. The Mokka is based on GM's Gamma II platform.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The four wheel drive option was an intelligent AWD system that maintains 100% drive at the front wheels until the system detects slip, fast starts or tight cornering, in which case it can send up to 50% of torque to the rear wheels.


title: Opel Mokka

text: Production and sales started in autumn of 2012. By February 2013, Opel had over 80,000 Mokka orders, and after two months 100,000 orders. By October 2014, over 300,000 Mokkas were ordered in Europe. In January 2016, Opel announced 500,000 firm orders for Mokka overall.


title: Opel Mokka

text: In 2019, Opel ceased production of the first generation Mokka as part of Opel/Vauxhall's full switch to Groupe PSA car platforms. The vehicle is still sold under the Buick marque.


title: Opel Mokka

text: A variant of the Mokka/Encore vehicle having significantly different sheet metal and trim is sold as the Chevrolet/Holden Trax.


title: Opel Mokka

text: In April 2016, Opel and Vauxhall unveiled an updated version of the Mokka for the model year of 2017, designated as the Mokka X, which went on sale in the end of 2016. The new Mokka X sports a facelift with sleeker headlights, restyled bumpers, new LED tail lights, and a revised interior with an all new dash, instrument cluster, and center stack. The more powerful optional 150 hp petrol engine was also introduced with the Mokka X.


title: Opel Mokka

text: Bitter has been producing a luxury version of the Mokka since 2016. Facelifted in the end of 2016 along with the Vauxhall and Opel models, the name was also changed to Mokka X. The differences between the Bitter and Opel versions are mainly cosmetic.


title: Opel Mokka

text: As introduced in 2012, the Mokka was offered with a choice of three engines: a 1.6-litre petrol, a 1.4-litre turbo petrol, and a 1.7-litre diesel.


title: Opel Mokka

text: Other petrol and diesel engines were offered later, including a 1.4-litre direct injection turbo petrol engine with a controversial start/stop feature introduced for model year 2016.


title: Opel Mokka

text: Most engines are paired standard with the 5-speed (1.6-litre MPI petrol engine only) or 6-speed manual transmission, with stop/start engine technology beginning as early as model year 2014. A six speed automatic transmission having active select mode is optionally available for select petrol and diesel engines including the 1.4-litre MPI Turbo petrol and 1.7-litre CDTI diesel engines for both FWD and AWD models.


title: Opel Mokka

text: Start/Stop technology on vehicles with automatic transmissions first appeared with the introduction of the new, more powerful (112 kW; 150 hp), B14XFT 1.4-litre direct injection (DI) VVT Turbo petrol engine for model year 2016 and was incorporated on other select petrol and diesel engines paired with automatic transmissions by model year 2018.


title: Opel Mokka

text: In the market in Russia, a version with a 1.8-litre A18XER (Korean designation F18DA) petrol engine is available. The cars for the Russian market were assembled by Avtotor (Kaliningrad, Russia) and later by Unison (Minsk, Belarus) in 2015. In October 2014, for the model year of 2015, Opel introduced its all new "whisper diesel" 1.6-litre CDTI engine which replaced the 1.7-litre CDTI diesel. The engine specifications in the following tables is from the 2013, 2015, and 2018 Opel owner manual.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The second-generation Mokka was announced in August 2018 by the show car Opel GT X Experimental concept, and unveiled in 24 June 2020. Now based on the ex-PSA Group's Common Modular Platform (CMP), the car is available with an electric version dubbed as the Mokka-e.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The ICE version was unveiled in 2 September 2020. Sales of the second-generation Mokka began with the model year of 2021, on 23 December 2020. There are three engine options, including a 1.2-liter turbocharged three-cylinder petrol rated at and of torque with a 6-speed manual transmission and a 1.2-liter turbo making and of torque in combination with a standard 6-speed manual or 8-speed automatic transmissions. While the only diesel engine on offer is a 1.5-liter four-cylinder rated at and of torque, offered exclusively with a 6-speed manual transmission.


title: Opel Mokka

text: The Mokka-e, the all-electric version of the Mokka, is powered by a 50kWh lithium-ion battery with a WLTP range of 201 miles. Three driving modes are available, Sport, Eco and Normal.


title: Opel Mokka

text: In June 2022, the Mokka-e won Auto Trader UK's New Car Award for the Erin Baker Award. "Auto Trader" awarded the Mokka-e four stars out of five in its review of the car.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Diana Blanche Barrymore Blythe (March 3, 1921 – January 25, 1960), known professionally as Diana Barrymore, was an American film and stage actress.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Born Diana Blanche Barrymore Blythe in New York, New York, Diana Barrymore was the daughter of actor John Barrymore and his second wife, poet Blanche Oelrichs.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Her parents divorced when she was four years old. Educated in Paris and New York City, Barrymore had little contact with her father.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: While in her teens, Barrymore decided to study acting and enrolled at the American Academy of Dramatic Arts. Because of the prominence of the Barrymore name in the world of theatre, her move onto the stage began with much publicity including a 1939 cover of "Life". At age 19, Barrymore made her Broadway debut and the following year made her first appearance in movies with a small role in a Warner Bros. production. In 1942, she signed a contract with Universal Studios who capitalized on her Barrymore name with a major promotional campaign billing her as "1942's Most Sensational New Screen Personality." However, alcohol and drug problems soon emerged and negative publicity from major media sources dampened her prospects. After less than three years in Hollywood, and six significant film roles at Universal, Barrymore's personal problems ended her career.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Her father John died in 1942 from cirrhosis of the liver after years of alcoholism. Diana Barrymore's life became a series of alcohol- and drug-related disasters marked by bouts of severe depression that resulted in several suicide attempts and extended sanitarium stays. She squandered her movie earnings and her inheritance from her father's estate, and when her mother died in 1950, Diana was left with virtually nothing from a once-vast family fortune. In 1949, she was offered her own television talk show titled "The Diana Barrymore Show". The show was prepared for broadcast, but Barrymore didn't show up, and the program was immediately canceled. Had she gone through with the show, it would have been the first talk show in television history, predating Joe Franklin by two years. In the early 1950s, she and her third husband toured Australia and upon returning to the United States, she expressed her dislike for the continent.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: After three bad marriages to addicted and sometimes abusive men, in 1955 Barrymore had herself hospitalized for nearly a full year of treatment. In 1957, she published her autobiography, "Too Much, Too Soon", with help and encouragement from ghostwriter Gerold Frank, which included her portrait painted by Spurgeon Tucker. In July 1957, she promoted the book by appearing on Mike Wallace's TV show "The Mike Wallace Interview". Her statements, accessible with online viewing, included: “At the moment, I don’t drink. I hope to be able, one day, in perhaps the near future [or] the very distant future, to be able to drink like a normal human being. That may never be possible.”


title: Diana Barrymore

text: The following year, Warner Bros. released a movie version of "Too Much, Too Soon" starring Dorothy Malone as Barrymore and Errol Flynn as her father. The film was not a success with critics or moviegoers.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Barrymore was married three times in eight years. Her first was to actor Bramwell Fletcher, who was 17 years her senior and had appeared with her father in his 1931 classic "Svengali". Then she married John Howard, a tennis player. Her last marriage was to actor Robert Wilcox. The marriage to Wilcox ended in June 1955 when he died of a heart attack at the age of 45, while traveling by train.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Barrymore died on January 25, 1960, and she is interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York, next to her mother.


title: Diana Barrymore

text: Her death has been attributed to a drug overdose, but her autopsy failed to find a cause of death and found no indication of overdose.


title: Fundraising

text: Fundraising or fund-raising is the process of seeking and gathering voluntary financial contributions by engaging individuals, businesses, charitable foundations, or governmental agencies. Although fundraising typically refers to efforts to gather money for non-profit organizations, it is sometimes used to refer to the identification and solicitation of investors or other sources of capital for-profit enterprises.


title: Fundraising

text: Traditionally, fundraising has consisted mostly of asking for donations through face-to-face fundraising, such as door-knocking. In recent years, though, new forms such as online fundraising or reformed version of grassroots fundraising have emerged.


title: Fundraising

text: Fundraising is a significant way that non-profit organizations may obtain the money for their operations. These operations can involve a very broad array of concerns such as religious or philanthropic groups such as research organizations, public broadcasters, political campaigns and environmental issues.


title: Fundraising

text: Some examples of charitable organizations include student scholarship merit awards for athletic or academic achievements, humanitarian and ecological concerns, disaster relief, human rights, research, and other social issues.


title: Fundraising

text: Some of the most substantial fundraising efforts in the United States are conducted by colleges and universities. Commonly the fundraising, or "development" / "advancement," program, makes a distinction between annual fund appeals and major campaigns. Most institutions use professional development officers to conduct superior fundraising appeals for both the entire institution or individual colleges and departments (e.g. School of Art, School of Math, School of Science, etc... as well as campus institutions like athletics and libraries.). The number of people involved, often having socialized at such "fund-raisings", will vary widely depending on the size of the institution they sponsor.


title: Fundraising

text: Equally important are fundraising efforts by virtually all recognized religious groups throughout the world. These efforts are organized on a local, national, and global level. Sometimes, such funds will go exclusively toward assisting the basic needs of others, while money may at other times be used only for evangelism or proselytism. Usually, religious organizations mix the two, which can sometimes cause tension.


title: Fundraising

text: Fundraising also plays a major role in political campaigns. This fact, despite numerous campaign finance reform laws, continues to be a highly controversial topic in American politics. Political action committees (PACs) are the best-known organizations that back candidates and political parties, though others such as 527 groups also have an impact. Some advocacy organizations conduct fundraising "for-or-against" policy issues in an attempt to influence legislation.


title: Fundraising

text: While public broadcasters are completely government-funded in much of the world, there are many countries where some funds must come from donations from the public. In the United States less than 15% of local public broadcasting stations' funding comes from the federal government. Pledge drives, a type of annual giving, commonly occur about three times each year, usually lasting one to two weeks each time. Viewership and listenership often decline significantly during funding periods, so special programming may be aired in order to keep regular viewers and listeners interested.


title: Fundraising

text: The efforts of the Fundraising team, while it should be focused on acquisition, should also equally ensure that acquired donors are retained as happy repeat donors. As the adage goes, 'A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush', it is a common mistake to see existing donors either over-bombarded with funding requests or under-serviced that they fall away. In order for effective fund raising to happen, the systems and operations in place, reporting, etc. should be in order to ensure that both new and existing donors are not just satisfied, but delighted to support.


title: Fundraising

text: According to Giving USA 2019, a study of charitable giving in the United States, the sources of funds donated to charities are as follows:


title: Fundraising

text: "*NOTE - This chart does not include government grants, which are technically contracts to perform a service, not a charitable gift.


title: Fundraising

text: Fundraising is just one of several revenue sources for a nonprofit organization. Additional revenue can come in the form of grants from government agencies, endowments, and sales and services. Income from endowment is not strictly fundraising but rather the fruits of the investment of previous fundraising.


title: Fundraising

text: The donor base (often called a "donor file" or simply "constituents") for higher education includes alumni, parents, friends, private foundations, and corporations. Gifts of appreciated property are important components of such efforts because the tax advantage they confer on the donor encourages larger gifts. The process of soliciting appreciated assets is called planned giving. Charitable giving by individuals in the U.S. was estimated to be $286.65 billion in 2017.


title: Fundraising

text: The classic development program at institutions of higher learning include prospect identification, prospect research and verification of the prospect's viability, cultivation, solicitation, and finally stewardship, the latter being the process of keeping donors informed about how past support has been used. When goods or professional services are donated to an organization rather than cash, this is called an in-kind gift.


title: Fundraising

text: A number of charities and non-profit organizations are increasingly using the internet as a means to raise funds; this practice is referred to as online fundraising. In addition, crowdfunding has begun to be used as a method to engage small-donation donors for small, specific opportunities.


title: Fundraising

text: Comparing traditional and online fundraising, 55% of donors worldwide prefer to give online with a credit or debit card, while 12% prefer to give by bank/wire transfer, and only 8% choose to donate in cash. 51% of donors are enrolled in a recurring giving program with 87% of recurring donors opting to give monthly. Worldwide, 45% of donors donate to crowdfunding campaigns that benefit NPOs, 13% create online peer-to-peer fundraising campaigns to benefit NPOs, and 60% have donated to an NPO in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Fundraising

text: Non-profit organizations also raise funds through competing for grant funding. Grants are offered by governmental units and private foundations/charitable trusts to non-profit organizations for the benefit of all parties to the transaction. Charitable giving by foundations in the U.S was estimated to be $66.90 billion in 2017.


title: Fundraising

text: Charitable giving by corporations in the U.S was estimated to be $20.77 billion in 2017. This consists of corporate grants as well as matching gift and volunteer grants. 65% of Fortune 500 companies offer employee matching gift programs and 40% offer volunteer grant programs. These are charitable giving programs set up by corporations in which the company matches donations made by employees to eligible nonprofit organizations or provides grants to eligible nonprofit organizations as a way to recognize and promote employee volunteerism.


title: Fundraising

text: A bequest is a gift that is written into a donor’s will that is fulfilled after their death. These gifts can be written in the will itself or added as a codicil (addendum) after the main will has been ratified. These gifts are separated from individual giving by Giving USA to illustrate the importance of Planned Giving, which is a type of fundraising that focuses on asking donors to include charitable gifts in their estate plans.


title: Fundraising

text: While fundraising often involves the donation of money as an outright gift, money may also be generated by selling a product of some kind, also known as product fundraising. Girl Scouts of the USA are well known for selling cookies in order to generate funds. It is also common to see on-line impulse sales links to be accompanied by statements that a proportion of proceeds will be directed to a particular charitable foundation. Tax law may require differentiating between the cost of an item versus its gift value, such as a $100.00 per person dinner, for a $25.00 cost meal. Fundraising often involves recognition to the donor, such as naming rights or adding donors to an honor roll or other general recognition. Charity Ad Books are another form of donation for recognition, sponsorship or selling of ads often in an event related program or group directory.


title: Fundraising

text: Fund raising is typically undertaken for one of two broad objectives: Opex (Operational Expenditure) or Capex (Capital Expenditure). Opex includes salary, overheads such as electricity, rent, transport, etc. whereas Capex includes the 'brick-and-mortar' kind of expenses such as infrastructure, equipment or supplies. Therefore, in a nutshell, Organizations raise funds to support capital projects, endowments, or operating expenses of current programs.


title: Fundraising

text: Capital fundraising is when fundraising is undertaken to raise major sums for a building or endowment; generally such funds are kept separate from operating funds. This is often done over a period of time (in a capital campaign) to encourage donors to give more than they would normally give and tap donors, especially corporations and foundations who would not otherwise give. A capital campaign normally begins with a private phase before launching a public appeal.


title: Fundraising

text: Many non-profit organizations solicit funds for a financial endowment, which is a sum of money that is invested to generate an annual return. Although endowments may be created when a sizable gift is received from an individual or family, often as directed in a will upon the death of a family member, they more typically are the result of many gifts over time from a variety of sources.


title: Fundraising

text: A fundraising event (also called a fundraiser) is an event or campaign whose primary purpose is to raise money for a cause, charity or non-profit organization. Fundraisers often benefit charitable, non-profit, religious, or non-governmental organizations, though there are also fundraisers that benefit for-profit companies and individuals.


title: Fundraising

text: Special events are another method of raising funds. These range from formal dinners to benefit concerts to walkathons. Events are used to increase visibility and support for an organization as well as raising funds. Events can feature activities for the group such as speakers, a dance, an outing or entertainment, to encourage group participation and giving. Events can also include fundraising methods such as a raffle or charity auction. Events often feature notable sponsors or honoree. Events often feature a charity "ad book" as a program guide for the event, but more importantly, as another fundraiser providing members, supporters and vendors to show their support of and to the group at the event by way of placing an ad-like page, 1/2 page, 1/4 page, stating or showing support. Events and their associated fundraisers can be a major source of a group's revenue, visibility and donor relations.


title: Fundraising

text: One specific type of event is the "ad book" fundraiser, where those who wish to give funds to a fundraising group do so through the sponsorship or statement within a book of advertisements.


title: Fundraising

text: Online fundraising pages have become very popular for people taking part in activities such as charities and crowdfunding. Those pages facilitate online payments in support of the charity.


title: Fundraising

text: Popular charity fundraisers in major American cities include lavish black-tie gala benefit dinners that honor celebrities, philanthropists, and business leaders who help to fundraise for the event's goals through solicitations of their social and business connections.


title: Fundraising

text: Often called donor cultivation, relationship building is the foundation on which most fundraising takes place. Most fundraising development strategies divide donors into a series of categories based on the amount and frequency of donations. For instance, annual giving and recurring gifts represent the base of a fundraising pyramid. This would be followed by mid-level gifts, planned gifts, major gifts, and principal gifts.


title: Fundraising

text: More sophisticated strategies use tools to overlay demographic and other market segmentation data against their database of donors in order to more precisely customize communication and more effectively target resources. Research by Peter Maple in the UK shows that charities generally underinvest in good marketing research spending around a quarter of what an equivalent sized for profit company might spend.


title: Fundraising

text: Donor relations and stewardship professionals support fundraisers by recognizing and thanking donors, and demonstrating the impact of their donations in a fashion that will cultivate future giving to nonprofit organizations.


title: Fundraising

text: Recent research by Adrian Sargeant and the Association of Fundraising Professionals' Fundraising Effectiveness Project suggests the sector has a long way to go in improving the quality of donor relations. The sector generally loses 50–60% of its newly acquired donors between their first and second donations and one in three, year on year thereafter. The economics of regular or sustained giving are rather different, but even then organizations routinely lose 30% of their donors from one year to the next.


title: Fundraising

text: A capital campaign is "an intensive fundraising effort designed to raise a specified sum of money within a defined time period to meet the varied asset-building needs of an organization". Asset-building activities include the construction, renovation or expansion of facilities (for example, a new building), the acquisition or improvement of land, equipment, or other items, and additions to a financial endowment. Two characteristics set capital campaigns apart from other forms of fundraising activities. First, "the gifts solicited are much larger than those generally sought during an annual fund". Second, "pledges are emphasized as commitments payable over a number of years convenient to the donor or through the transfer of appreciated real or personal property".


title: Fundraising

text: Various types of capital campaigns have been identified. The traditional "brick and mortar" campaign, focused on building construction or improvements, was considered a "once in a lifetime" campaign in the past because of the ambitious goals of the campaign. Today, however, organizations frequently schedule capital campaigns every five to ten years, and "the megagoals announced by large institutions often are the result of 'counting everything' during a five-to seven-year campaign period".


title: Fundraising

text: A second type of campaign is the comprehensive, integrated, or total development campaign, which aims for a longer fundraising program based on a long-term analysis of the organization's needs and direction. This form of campaign can wrap together capital projects, endowment and operating expenses as its purpose, and use a variety of fundraising activities, such as annual gift drives, which are "slower-paced and lack the intensity of the traditional capital campaign".


title: Fundraising

text: Some non-profit organizations demonstrate greater accountability by showing donors the direct impact of their fundraising efforts. This accountability may comes in the form of a vote, where the members select a specific program or charity that they would like their money to go to. Another example is put in place a mechanism which allows donors to contraint usage of funds toward a specific purpose and closely monitor/allow spending to ensure proper usage.


title: Fundraising

text: Many non-profit organizations take advantage of the services of professional fundraisers. These fundraisers may be paid for their services either through fees unrelated to the amounts of money to be raised, or by retaining a percentage of raised funds (percentage-based compensation). The latter approach is expressly forbidden under the Code of Ethics of the Association of Fundraising Professionals (AFP), a professional membership body.


title: Fundraising

text: However, by far the most common practice of American non-profits is to employ a staff person whose main responsibility is fund raising. This person is paid a salary like any other employee, and is usually a part of the top management staff of the organization.


title: Fundraising

text: Some non-profit organizations nonetheless engage fundraisers who are paid a percentage of the funds they raise. In the United States, this ratio of funds retained to funds passed on to the non-profit is subject to reporting to a number of state's Attorneys General or Secretaries of state. This ratio is highly variable and subject to change over time and place, and it is a point of contention between a segment of the general public and the non-profit organizations.


title: Fundraising

text: The term "professional fundraiser" is in many cases a legislated term referring to third-party firms whose services are contracted for, whereas "fundraising professionals" or development officers are often individuals or staff at charitable non-profits. Although potentially confusing, the distinction is an important one to note.


title: Fundraising

text: Online and mobile fundraising had become a popular fundraising method over the last few years due to its accessibility. Fundraising organizations are developing technical options like mobile apps and donate buttons to attract donors around the globe. Common online and mobile fundraising methods include online donation pages, text to give, mobile silent auctions, and peer to peer fundraising.


title: Fundraising

text: Since 2016, online giving has grown by 17% in the United States. In 2018, digital fundraising accounted for 8.5% percent of charitable donations and 24% of online donations were made on a mobile device in the United States.


title: Fundraising

text: Organizations in the United States established for charitable purposes are allowed to raise funds from many sources. They are given a specific designation by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), commonly noted as 501(c)(3) organizations. Other nonprofits such as fraternal associations have different IRS designations, and may or may not be eligible to raise funds. Financial information on many nonprofits, including all nonprofits that file annual IRS 990 forms is available from GuideStar.


title: Oral Torah

text: According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law () are those purported laws, statutes, and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah (), but nonetheless are regarded by Orthodox Jews as prescriptive and given at the same time. This holistic Jewish code of conduct encompasses a wide swathe of rituals, worship practices, Godman and interpersonal relationships, from dietary laws to Sabbath and festival observance to marital relations, agricultural practices, and civil claims and damages.


title: Oral Torah

text: According to Rabbinic Jewish tradition, the Oral Torah was passed down orally in an unbroken chain from generation to generation until its contents were finally committed to writing following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, when Jewish civilization was faced with an existential threat, by virtue of the dispersion of the Jewish people.


title: Oral Torah

text: The major repositories of the Oral Torah are the "Mishnah", compiled between 200–220 CE by Rabbi Yehudah haNasi, and the "Gemara", a series of running commentaries and debates concerning the Mishnah, which together form the "Talmud", the preeminent text of Rabbinic Judaism. In fact, two "versions" of the Talmud exist: one produced in the Galilee 300–350 CE (the Jerusalem Talmud), and a second, more extensive Talmud compiled in Babylonia 450–500 CE (the Babylonian Talmud).


title: Oral Torah

text: Belief that at least portions of the Oral Torah were transmitted orally from God to Moses on Mount Sinai during the Exodus from Egypt is a fundamental tenet of faith of Orthodox Judaism, and was recognized as one of the Thirteen Principles of Faith by Maimonides. However, not all branches of Rabbinic Judaism accept the literal Sinaitic provenance of the Oral Torah, characterizing it instead as the product of a historical process of continuing interpretation.


title: Oral Torah

text: There have also been historical dissenters to the Oral Torah in its entirety, including the ancient Sadducees, Essenes, and adherents to modern Karaite Judaism, who derive their religious practice strictly from the Written Torah, using Scripture's most natural meaning to form their basis of Jewish law. Karaites often look to traditions of interpretation but, unlike Rabbinic Jews, do not ascribe to those traditions authoritative or normative parity with the Written Torah. The Beta Israel, who traditionally adhere to a form of Judaism referred to as Haymanot, also reject the idea of an Oral Torah.


title: Oral Torah

text: The term "Oral Torah" should not be understood as a monolith. The "Jewish Encyclopedia" divides the Oral Torah into eight categories, ranked according to the relative level of authoritativeness, which are found within the Talmud, the Tosefta and the halakhic Midrashim.


title: Oral Torah

text: The laws in the last three groups were not considered equal in validity to the written law (""De'oraita""), but were regarded merely as rabbinical regulations (""de-rabbanan"").


title: Oral Torah

text: According to modern scholarship, the traditions embodied in what later became known as the "Oral Torah" developed over generations among the inhabitants of Judea and were passed down through various modes of cultural transmission, including but not restricted to oral transmission. It is hypothesized that, sometime prior to the Babylonian exile of 586-530 BCE, in applying the Mosaic code to daily life and Temple worship, "a multitude of usages arising out of practical necessity or convenience or experience became part of the routine of observance of the code, and, in the course of time, shared the sanctity and authority which were inherent in the divinely inspired code itself."


title: Oral Torah

text: Such practices experienced exponential growth from the time of Ezra to the Romans' destruction of the Second Temple due to the changing social and religious conditions experienced by inhabitants of Judea. Many of these practices were advocated by the Pharisees, a sect of largely lower- and middle-class Jews who stood in opposition to the Sadducees, the priestly caste who dominated the Temple cult. The Sadducees rejected the legitimacy of any extra-biblical law or tradition, as well as increasingly popular notions such as the immortality of the soul and divine intervention. Danby notes the following:


title: Oral Torah

text: It is a reasonable hypothesis that a result of this controversy—a controversy which continued for two centuries—was a deliberate compilation and justification of the unwritten tradition by the Pharisean party, perhaps unsystematic and on a small scale in the earlier stages, but stimulated and fostered from time to time both by opposition from the Sadducees and by internal controversy (such as, e.g., the disputes between the House of Hillel and Shammai) within the ranks of the Pharisees, culminating in the collections of traditional laws ("Halakoth") from which the present Mishnah draws its material.


title: Oral Torah

text: With the destruction of the Second Temple around 70 CE, the Sadducees were divested of their main source of authority, without which their theology could not survive. On the other hand, the Pharisees became the progenitor of the rabbinic class, who formalized the traditions of their predecessors. Following the fall of the Temple, it appears that the Pharisaic leader Johanan ben Zakkai (30-90 CE) settled in Yavneh, where he established a school that came to be regarded by fellow Jews as the successors of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin. Upon this Council of Jabneh fell the duty of administering and interpreting religious law, conserving tradition, and solving problems that arose by the past dependence of numerous observances on the existence of the Temple and priesthood. Thus, from 70 to 130 CE, when the Bar Kochba revolt further decimated the Jewish community, the Oral Law experienced a significant period of development and an unprecedented level of legal and religious authority among the populace.


title: Oral Torah

text: The destruction of the Second Temple and the fall of Jerusalem in the 1st and early 2nd centuries CE devastated the Jewish community. The First Jewish–Roman War of 66–73 CE and the Bar Kokhba revolt cost hundreds of thousands of Jewish lives, the destruction of leading yeshivot, and thousands of scholars and students. At that point, it became apparent that the Hebrew community and its learning were threatened, and that publication was the only way to ensure that the law could be preserved. Thus, around 200 CE, a redaction of the Oral Law in writing was completed. Both Rabbinic tradition and scholarship ascribe this effort to Rabbi Judah HaNasi. The product of this effort, the Mishnah, is generally considered the first work of rabbinic literature.


title: Oral Torah

text: "Mishnah" is the name given to the sixty-three tractates that HaNasi systematically codified, which in turn are divided into six "orders." Unlike the Torah, in which, for example, laws of the Sabbath are scattered throughout the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, all the Mishnaic laws of the Sabbath are located in a single tractate called "Shabbat" (Hebrew for "Sabbath"). Moreover, the laws contained in the twenty-four chapters that make up that tractate are far more extensive than those contained in the Torah, reflecting the extensiveness of the Oral Law. Some authority suggests HaNasi made use of as many as 13 separate collections of Halakhot from different schools and time periods, and reassembled that material into a coherent whole, arranged it systematically, summarized discussions, and in some cases rendered his own rulings where alternative traditions existed.


title: Oral Torah

text: The Mishnah does far more than expound upon and organize the Biblical commandments. Rather, important topics covered by the Mishnah "rest on no scriptural foundations whatsoever," such as portions of the civil law tractates of "Bava Kamma", "Bava Metzia" and "Bava Batra". In other words, "To perfect the [Written] Torah, the Oral tradition had to provide for a variety of transactions left without any law at all in Scripture." Just as portions of the Torah reflect (according to the documentary hypothesis) the agenda of the Levite priesthood in centralizing worship in the Temple in Jerusalem and legitimizing their exclusive authority over the sacrificial cult, so too can the Mishnah be seen as reflecting the unique "program" of the Tannaim and their successors to develop an egalitarian form of Judaism with an emphasis on social justice and an applicability throughout the Jewish diaspora. As a result, the Talmud often finds the rabbis combing scripture for textual support to justify existing religious practice, rather than deriving the practice organically from the language of scripture.


title: Oral Torah

text: HaNasi's method of codification, in which he often included minority viewpoints and citation by name to rabbis who championed different viewpoints, became a template for the Gemara, a compendium of discussions and commentaries on the Mishnah's laws by generations of leading rabbis during the next four centuries in the two centers of Jewish life, Judea and Babylonia. The Gemara with the Mishnah came to be edited together into compilations known as the Talmud. Both the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud have been transmitted in written form to the present day, although the more extensive Babylonian Talmud is widely considered to be more authoritative.


title: Oral Torah

text: The Talmud's discussions follow the order of the Mishnah, although not all tractates are discussed. Generally, a law from the Mishnah is cited, which is followed by a rabbinic deliberation on its meaning. The discussion often, but not always, results in a decision regarding the more persuasive or authoritative position based on available sources or anecdotal evidence. (See "Aliba dehilchasa".)


title: Oral Torah

text: Rabbinic Judaism holds the Oral Law to be of divine origin. The divinity and authoritativeness of the Oral Law as transmitted from God to Moses on Mount Sinai, continues to be universally accepted by Orthodox and Haredi Judaism as a fundamental precept of Judaism. The Oral Law was the basis for nearly all subsequent rabbinic literature. It is therefore intricately related to the development of Halacha. As such, despite codification, interpretation of the Oral Law is likewise required.


title: Oral Torah

text: Rabbis of the Talmudic era conceived of the Oral Torah in two distinct ways. First, Rabbinic tradition saw the Oral Torah as an unbroken chain of transmission. The distinctive feature of this view was that Oral Torah was "conveyed by word of mouth and memorized." Second, the Rabbis also viewed the Oral Torah as an interpretive tradition, and not merely as memorized traditions. They saw the written Torah as containing many levels of interpretation. It was left to later generations, who were steeped in the "oral tradition" of interpretation, to discover those ("hidden") interpretations not revealed by Moses. Instead, Moses was obligated to impart the explanations orally to students, children, and fellow adults. It was thus forbidden to write and publish the Oral Torah.


title: Oral Torah

text: Jewish tradition identifies the unbroken historical chain of individuals who were entrusted with passing down the Oral Law from Moses to the early rabbinic period: "Moses received the Torah and handed it down to Joshua; Joshua to the Elders; the Elders to the prophets; and the prophets handed it down to the men of the Great Assembly." Similarly, Maimonides provides a generation by generation account of the names of all those in the direct line that transmitted this tradition, beginning with Moses up until Ravina and Rav Ashi, the rabbis who compiled the Babylonian Talmud.


title: Oral Torah

text: According to traditional Judaism, the Oral Law must have been disseminated at the same time as the Written Torah because certain Torah commandments would be indecipherable without a separate explanatory codex (and, presumably, God would not demand adherence to commandments that could not be understood). Many terms used in the Torah are left undefined, such as the word "totafot", usually translated as "frontlets," which is used three times in the Pentateuch (in Exodus 13:9 and Deuteronomy 6:8 and 11:18) but only identified with tefillin in the Mishnah (see Menachot 3:7).


title: Oral Torah

text: Similarly, many procedures are mentioned without explanation or instructions, or assume familiarity on the part of the reader. For example, the discussion of "shechita" (kosher slaughter) in Deuteronomy 12 states "you shall kill of your herd and of your flock which God Lord has given you, "as I have commanded you"," without any clear indication of what had been "commanded"; only in the Oral Torah are the various requirements of ritual slaughter explicated. Similarly, Deuteronomy 24 discusses the laws of divorce in passing; these laws are set forth with great specificity in the Mishnah and Gemara. Another example: the blue string of tekhelet on the tzitzit is to be dyed with an extraction from what scholars believe to be a snail; a detail only spoken of in the oral Torah. For other examples and further discussion here see "Kuzari" 3:35.


title: Oral Torah

text: Moreover, according to the traditional view, without an Oral Law, blind adherence to the plain text of certain Torah commandments would lead to unethical acts, or would cause the practitioner to violate a commandment elsewhere in the Torah. Neither of these results could have been intended by God; and thus, "a priori", a set of supplementary "instructions" must have been provided. A classic example involves the phrase "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a hand for a hand, a foot for a foot" is held in the oral tradition to imply monetary compensation – as opposed to a literal "Lex talionis".


title: Oral Torah

text: Further, the interpretation as “monetary compensation” is borne out by , implying that only in the case of murder is "Lex talionis" applied; this relationship paralleling the logic of the preceding paragraph.


title: Oral Torah

text: Finally, and similarly, the Oral Torah is needed to explain actions of biblical actors, seemingly discordant with other verses. For example, the marriage of Boaz, a member of the tribe of Judah to Ruth, a Moabitess, as described in the Book of Ruth, appears on its face to contradict the prohibition of against marrying Moabites; however, the Oral Torah explains that this prohibition is limited to Moabite "men". Similarly, the rabbinic practice for the Counting of the Omer () is at odds with the Karaite practice, which appears to accord with a more literal reading of these verses, but is in fact borne out by .


title: Oral Torah

text: Much Talmudic analysis similarly demonstrates how the Mishnah's rulings, and / or disputes, in fact derive from - and are hence consistent with - the much earlier Biblical texts; see Gemara #Biblical exposition.


title: Oral Torah

text: Relatedly, the 1st century Targum Onkelos is largely consistent with the oral tradition as recorded in the midrash, redacted into writing only in the 3rd or 4th century.


title: Oral Torah

text: Complementary to the above textual and internal evidence, archaeologists have uncovered various physical evidence relating to religious rituals and practices which were current prior to the codification of the Mishnah; from which it can be inferred that Judah HaNasi and his contemporaries recorded, rather than innovated, normative Judaism as practiced during the 1st century CE and prior.


title: Oral Torah

text: excavations at Qumran (Cave 4) have yielded specimens of "tefillin" and parchment scrolls; these reflecting later Talmudic discussion.


title: Oral Torah

text: Likewise, the structure and placement of ritual baths at Masada appears to be consistent with the rabbinic requirements per the Mishnaic tractate "Mikvaot", although they were constructed approximately 120 years before the Mishnah was compiled.


title: Oral Torah

text: A clay seal discovered in Jerusalem in 2011 is consistent with the tradition recorded in tractate "Shekalim" chapter 5.


title: Oral Torah

text: The Elephantine papyri include a "Passover letter" (419 BCE) which already included many of the Pesach observances of today,


title: Oral Torah

text: The Qumran "Halachic Letter", which records approximately a dozen disputes regarding the application of halakha, also testifies to the evolutionary process of the Oral Law.


title: Oral Torah

text: This section, discusses the Rabbinic treatment of the Written Law in light of the Oral Law, and the consequent overlap of the oral and written, and is not a general discussion of rabbinic Literature, "per se".


title: Oral Torah

text: As above, the Oral Law is recorded in the Midrash and Talmud, while later rabbinic literature builds on these works.


title: Oral Torah

text: Here, it is important to note that these source, "oral", documents, are nevertheless intimately connected to the written.


title: Oral Torah

text: Thus, the midrash provides a verse by verse discussion of the entire (written) Tanakh, per the oral Torah.


title: Oral Torah

text: Similarly, the Talmud, although applying a different framework, discusses and analyses the written Torah—both from an aggadic and halakhic perspective—drawing from (and recording) the oral tradition; here the discussion is organized around the Mishnah, and the discussion does not proceed verse-wise as with the Midrash.


title: Oral Torah

text: The era of the "Rishonim" sees the Oral Law incorporated into the first formal Torah commentaries, where the biblical text is discussed and / or analysed based on the various Midrashic and Talmudic traditions. The chief of these is perhaps Rashi's commentary on Tanakh. This work clarifies the "simple" meaning of the text, by addressing questions implied by the wording or verse or paragraph structure, by drawing on the Midrashic, Talmudic and Aggadic literature. It has given rise to numerous counter- (e.g., Ramban) and super-commentaries (e.g., Mizrachi), all similarly drawing on the Oral Torah, and widely studied to this day (see "Mikraot Gedolot", Yeshiva #Torah and Bible study).


title: Oral Torah

text: several (Orthodox) commentaries have been produced, which, in some sense, "reverse" the direction of the analysis. These originated in response to the (erstwhile) challenges of "haskalah" and Biblical criticism, and were intended "to demonstrate the indivisibility of the written Torah and its counterpart, the oral Torah", and in so doing, "showing the organic relationship between the Written Law and the Oral Law", often in the light of the above. Given this purpose, these provide a further detailed and explicit analysis here. The main of these:


title: Oral Torah

text: A more recent work of this type is the Israeli "Da'at Miqra" (and to some extent "Da'at Sofrim" by Chaim Dov Rabinowitz); see also Mordechai Breuer #Literary contribution .


title: Oral Torah

text: Contemporaneous with, and complementary to these commentaries, were specific, monograph-like works discussing the Oral Torah in concept and historically. These included:


title: Oral Torah

text: Other well known works here, if perhaps less modern in orientation, include Maimonides' (Rambam's) "Introduction to the Mishnah"—dealing with the nature of the Oral Law, the distinction between the prophet and the sage, and the organizational structure of the Mishnah—as well as Isaiah Horowitz's ("The Shelah") "Introduction to the Oral Torah" in part 2 of his "Shenei Luchot HaBerit"


title: Oral Torah

text: From Pharisaic times, there has always been some level of opposition to the concept of a "Dual Torah" within the umbrella of Judaism, although today only the Karaite sect formally opposes the incorporation of any extra-biblical law into their practice. Rather, the branches of modern Judaism differ more in their views regarding the divinity and immutability of the Oral Torah than they do in their belief in the importance of an interpretive tradition as exemplified in the Talmud.


title: Oral Torah

text: Sadducees rejected the Pharisaic oral traditions. They based their interpretations on their own traditions emphasizing a more literal understanding of the verses. In many respects, this led to a more severe observance than that of the Pharisees especially as regards purity laws and temple practice. Most aspects of Sadduceean law and methods of interpretation are not known.


title: Oral Torah

text: Essenes, a monastic group of people, had a "monastic organization". Though they had non-biblical rules and customs, they rejected much of the oral traditions.


title: Oral Torah

text: The Samaritans, an ancient sect that has survived in small numbers to the present day, have their own rich interpretative tradition, as reflected in the Medieval Samaritan legal collection called the "Hilukh", which shares etymological roots with the term "Halakhah". However, the concept of a divinely ordained Oral Law having equal value with the written one is foreign to Samaritan theology.


title: Oral Torah

text: Karaite Judaism or Karaism is a Jewish denomination that began in eighth century Baghdad to form a separate sect that rejected of the Oral Torah and Talmud, and placed sole reliance on the Tanakh as scripture. Thus, for example, Karaite understood Exodus 35:3 ("Do not light a fire in any of your dwellings on the Sabbath day") as forbidding the use of any kind of fire on the Sabbath, including fires lit before the start of the Sabbath, which are permitted by the Oral Law. Karaites also do not adhere to widespread customs such as the donning of "tefillin" and the prohibition against eating milk and meat together on the grounds that such practices are grounded in the Oral Law.


title: Oral Torah

text: Some Karaites strive to adhere only to the "peshat"' (plain meaning) of the text. This is in contrast to Rabbinic Judaism, which relies on the Oral Torah and employs several interpretive methods which, at times, stray from the literal meaning.


title: Oral Torah

text: According to Torat Eretz Yisrael and Minhagei Eretz Yisrael, it is important to notice that Torah sages can err, just as the Sanhedrin could (Leviticus 4:13).


title: Oral Torah

text: Reform Judaism generally considers the Oral Law to reflect interpretations or perspectives on the Torah authored by groups of rabbis in Babylonia and Palestine over a period of time, which are not inherently more legitimate or authoritative than the opinions of Jewish scholars, philosophers, or religious leaders at any other time, including the present.


title: Oral Torah

text: Conservative Judaism (also known as "Masorti" outside North America) takes an intermediate perspective, claiming that the Oral tradition is entitled to authority, but regarding its rulings as flexible guidelines rather than immutable precepts, that may be viewed through the lens of modernity. Jewish scholar and philosopher Ismar Schorsch has postulated that Conservative Judaism is tied to "sensing divinity both in the Torah and in the Oral Law," but not in a literalist manner. Rabbi Zecharias Frankel, considered intellectual founder of Conservative Judaism, was respected by many Orthodox until writing in 1859 that the Talmudic term "Law given to Moses at Sinai" always meant ancient customs accepted as such. His opponents demanded that he issue an unequivocal statement of belief in the total divinity of Oral Law, yet he refrained from doing so. He was consequently ostracized and declared a heretic by several authorities.


title: Amrutha Srinivasan

text: Amrutha Srinivasan is an Indian actress who has appeared in Tamil-language films. She is known for her role in the web series "Kallachirippu".


title: Amrutha Srinivasan

text: Amrutha Srinivasan made her lead film debut in "Aviyal" playing the only female protagonist in the film. In 2017, she made her Telugu debut with "Mental Madhilo" in which she portrayed one of the lead actresses before playing one of the leads in the web series "Livin'". She later starred in the lead role in the Tamil web series "Kallachirippu", for which she garnered acclaim. Regarding her role in the web series, "India Today" stated that "For once, the heroine isn't a self-sacrificing fantasy. She puts herself and her life first and thinks and behaves like an actual woman." She starred in "Dev" (2019) as Karthi's friend.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The Catholic Church in England and Wales (; ) is part of the worldwide Catholic Church in full communion with the Holy See. Its origins date from the 6th century, when Pope Gregory I through the Benedictine missionary, Augustine of Canterbury, intensified the evangelization of the Kingdom of Kent linking it to the Holy See in 597 AD. This unbroken communion with the Holy See lasted until King Henry VIII ended it in 1534. Communion with Rome was restored by Queen Mary I in 1555 following the Second Statute of Repeal and eventually finally broken by Elizabeth I's 1559 Religious Settlement, which made "no significant concessions to Catholic opinion represented by the church hierarchy and much of the nobility."


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: For two hundred and fifty years the government forced members of the pre-Reformation Catholic Church known as recusants to go underground and seek academic training in Catholic Europe, where exiled English clergy set up schools and seminaries for the sons of English recusant families. The government also placed legislative restrictions on Catholics, some continuing into the 20th century, while the ban on Catholic worship lasted until the Catholic Relief Act 1791. The ban did not, however, affect foreign embassies in London, although serving priests could be hounded. During this time, the English Catholic community was divided between the upper classes, aristocracy and gentry, and the working class.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: At the 2001 United Kingdom census, there were 4.2 million Catholics in England and Wales, some 8% of the population. One hundred years earlier, in 1901, they represented only 4.8% of the population. In 1981, 8.7% of the population of England and Wales were Catholic. In 2009, post the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, when thousands of Central Europeans (mainly heavily Catholic Poles, Lithuanians, Slovakians and Slovenians) came to England, an Ipsos Morioka poll found that 9.6%, or 5.2 million people, were Catholics in England and Wales. In the 2021 census, 81.7% of the population of the two countries were white, down from 86% in 2011, with the Christian population (of Catholic, Anglican, non-Conformists, and unaffiliated Christians together) dropping to 46% (about 27.6 million people).


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: In North West England one in five are church adherents, a result of large-scale Irish migration in the nineteenth century as well as the high number of English recusants in Lancashire.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Much of Great Britain was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 43 AD, after Claudius led the Roman conquest of Britain, conquering lands inhabited by Celtic Britons. The indigenous religion of the Britons under their priests the Druids was suppressed; most notably Gaius Suetonius Paulinus launched an attack on Ynys Môn in 60 AD and destroyed the shrine and sacred groves there. In the years following this, Roman influence saw the importation of several religious cults into Britain, including Roman mythology, Mithraism and the imperial cult. One of these sects, then disapproved by the Roman authorities, was the Levantine-originated religion of Christianity. While it is unclear exactly how it arrived, the earliest British figures considered saints by the Christians are St. Alban followed by Ss Julius and Aaron, all in the 3rd century.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Eventually, the position of the Roman authorities on Christianity moved from hostility to toleration with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, and then enforcement as state religion following the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 AD, becoming a key component of Romano-British culture and society. Records note that Romano-British bishops, such as Restitutus, attended the Council of Arles in 314, which confirmed the theological findings of an earlier convocation held in Rome (the Council of Rome) in 313. The Roman departure from Britain in the following century and the subsequent Germanic invasions sharply decreased contact between Britain and Continental Europe. Christianity, however, continued to flourish in the Brittonic areas of Great Britain. During this period certain practices and traditions took hold in Britain and in Ireland that are collectively known as Celtic Christianity. Distinct features of Celtic Christianity include a unique monastic tonsure and calculations for the date of Easter. Regardless of these differences, historians do not consider this Celtic or British Christianity a distinct church separate from general Western European Christianity.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: During the Heptarchy, the English people (referred to as the Anglo-Saxons) were converted to Christianity from Anglo-Saxon paganism, from two main directions:


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The Gregorian mission, as it is known, is of particular interest in the Catholic Church as it was the first official Papal mission to found a church. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, particularly Bertha, the Merovingian Frankish consort of the then pagan King Æthelberht, Augustine established an archbishopric in Canterbury, the old capital of Kent. Having received the pallium earlier (linking his new diocese to Rome), Augustine became the first in the series of Catholic archbishops of Canterbury, four of whom (Laurence, Mellitus, Justus and Honorius) were part of the original band of Benedictine missionaries. (The last Catholic archbishop of Canterbury was Reginald Pole, who died in 1558.)


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: During this time of mission, Rome looked to challenge some different customs which had been retained in isolation by the Celts (the Gaels and the Britons), due in part to their geographical distance from the rest of Western Christendom. Of particularly importance was the Easter controversy (on which date to celebrate it) and the manner of monastic tonsure. Columbanus, his fellow countryman and churchman, had asked for a papal judgement on the Easter question, as did abbots and bishops of Ireland. This was particularly important in Northumbria, where the issue was causing factionalism. Later, in his "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", Bede explained the reasons for the discrepancy: "He [Columba] left successors distinguished for great charity, Divine love, and strict attention to the rules of discipline following indeed uncertain cycles in the computation of the great festival of Easter, because far away as they were out of the world, no one had supplied them with the synodal decrees relating to the Paschal observance." A series of synods were held to resolve the matter, culminating with the Synod of Whitby in 644. The missionaries also introduced the Rule of Benedict, the continental rule, to Anglo-Saxon monasteries in England. Wilfrid, a Benedictine consecrated archbishop of York (in 664), was particularly skilled in promoting the Benedictine Rule. Over time, the Benedictine continental rule became grafted upon the monasteries and parishes of England, drawing them closer to the Continent and Rome. As a result, the pope was often called upon to intervene in quarrels, affirm monarchs, and decide jurisdictions. In 787, for example, Pope Adrian I elevated Lichfield to an archdiocese and appointed Hygeberht its first archbishop. Later, in 808, Pope Leo III helped restore King Eardwulf of Northumbria to his throne; and in 859, Pope Leo IV confirmed and anointed Alfred the Great king, according to "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". Individual Benedictines seemed to play an important role throughout this period. For example, before Benedictine monk St. Dunstan was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury in 960; Pope John XII had him appointed legate, commissioning him (along with Ethelwold and Oswald) to restore discipline in the existing monasteries of England, many of which were destroyed by Danish invaders.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Control of the English Church passed from the Anglo-Saxons to the Normans following the Norman conquest of England. The two clerics most prominently associated with this change were the continental-born Lanfranc and Anselm, both Benedictines. Anselm later became a Doctor of the Church. A century later, Pope Innocent III had to confirm the primacy of Canterbury over four Welsh churches for many reasons, but primarily to sustain the importance of the Gregorian foundation of Augustine's mission.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: During mediaeval times, England and Wales were part of western Christendom: monasteries and convents, such as those at Shaftesbury and Shrewsbury, were prominent institutions, and provided lodging, hospitals and education. Likewise, centres of education like Oxford University and Cambridge University were important. Members of religious orders, notably the Dominicans and Franciscans, settled in both universities and maintained houses for students. Archbishop Walter de Merton founded Merton College, Oxford and three different popes – Gregory IX, Nicholas IV, and John XXII – gave Cambridge the legal protection and status to compete with other European medieval universities. Augustinians also had a significant presence at Oxford. Osney Abbey, the parent house of the college, lay on a large site to the west, near the current railway station. Another Augustinian house, St Frideswide's Priory, later became the basis for Christ Church, Oxford.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Pilgrimage was a prominent feature of mediaeval Catholicism, and England and Wales were amply provided with many popular sites of pilgrimage. The village of Walsingham in Norfolk became an important shrine after a noblewoman named Richeldis de Faverches reputedly experienced a vision of the Virgin Mary in 1061, asking her to build a replica of the Holy House at Nazareth. Some of the other holiest shrines were those at Holywell in Wales which commemorated St Winefride, and at Westminster Abbey to Edward the Confessor. In 1170, Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his cathedral by followers of King Henry II and was quickly canonised as a martyr for the faith. This resulted in Canterbury Cathedral attracting international pilgrimage and inspired the "Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: An Englishman, Nicholas Breakspear, became Pope Adrian IV, reigning from 1154 to 1159. Fifty-six years later, Cardinal Stephen Langton, the first of English cardinals and later Archbishop of Canterbury (1208–28), was a pivotal figure in the dispute between King John and Pope Innocent III. This critical situation led to the signing and later promulgation of the "Magna Carta" in 1215, which, among other things, insisted that the English church should be free of ecclesiastical appointments fixed by the king.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The dynamics of the pre-Reformation bond between the Catholic Church in England and the Apostolic See remained in effect for nearly a thousand years. That is, there was no doctrinal difference between the faith of the English and the rest of Catholic Christendom, especially after calculating the date of Easter at the Council of Whitby in 667 and formalizing other customs according to the See of Rome. The designation "English Church" ("Ecclesia Anglicana" in Latin) was made, but always in the sense of the term as indicating that it was part of one Catholic Church in communion with the Holy See and localised in England. Other regions of the church were localised in Scotland ("Ecclesia Scotticana"), France ("Ecclesia Gallicana"), Spain ("Ecclesia Hispanica"), etc. These regional cognomens or designations were commonly used in Rome by officials to identify a locality of the universal church but never to imply any breach with the Holy See.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: When King Henry VIII "suddenly became alerted to the supposedly ancient truth" that he was truly the "Supreme Head of the Church within his dominions", he backed a series of legislative acts through the English Parliament between 1533 and 1536 that initiated an attack on papal authority and English Catholics. "The centrepiece of the new legislation was an Act of Supremacy of 1534." In some cases those adhering to Catholicism faced capital punishment.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: In 1534, during the reign of Henry VIII, the English church became independent of the Holy See for a period as a "local church" with Henry declaring himself its Supreme Head. This breach was in response to the Pope's refusal to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Although Henry did not himself accept Protestant innovations in doctrine or liturgy, he nevertheless extended toleration, and even promotion, to clergy with Protestant sympathies in return for support for his break with Rome. On the other hand, failure to accept this break, particularly by prominent persons in church and state, was regarded by Henry as treason, resulting in the execution of Thomas More, former Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, among others. The See of Rome Act 1536 legitimised the separation from Rome, while the Pilgrimage of Grace of 1536 and Bigod's Rebellion of 1537, risings in the North against the religious changes, were bloodily repressed.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: All through 1536–41, Henry VIII engaged in a large-scale dissolution of the Monasteries in order to gain control of most of the wealth of the church and much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, sold off artefacts stolen from them, and provided pensions for the robbed monks and former residents. He did not turn these properties over to his local Church of England. Instead they were sold, mostly to pay for the wars. The historian G. W. Bernard argues that the dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. There were nearly 900 religious houses in England, around 260 for monks, 300 for regular canons, 142 nunneries and 183 friaries; some 12,000 people in total, 4,000 monks, 3,000 canons, 3,000 friars and 2,000 nuns. One adult man in fifty was in religious orders. In the Catholic narrative, Henry's action was sacrilegious, a national violation of things consecrated to God, and evil. The fate of the English Carthusians was one of the worst of the period. Thomas Cromwell had them "savagely punished" with their leaders "hanged and disembowelled at Tyburn in May 1535, still wearing their monastic habits." Even today, Henry's act is still considered controversial. Anglicans like Giles Fraser have noted that the property "was stolen" from the Roman Catholic Church and that "this theft of land is the really dirty stuff – the original sin of the Church of England." Nevertheless, Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of his local church, the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry's reign saw the trial for heresy of Protestants as well as Catholics who resisted his policies.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The 1547 to 1553 reign of the boy King Edward VI saw the Church of England become more influenced by Protestantism in its doctrine and worship. In 1550, John Laski—a Polish ex-Catholic cleric and nephew of the Polish primate, whose Catholic career came "to an abrupt end in 1540 when he married", and who later become a Calvinist—arrived in London and became superintendent of the Strangers' Church of London. He, among other Protestants, became an associate of Thomas Cranmer and of John Hooper. He had some influence on ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of Edward VI. For instance, the Tridentine Mass was replaced by the (English) "Book of Common Prayer", representational art and statues in church buildings destroyed, and Catholic practices which had survived during Henry's reign, such as public prayers to the Virgin Mary, e.g. the "Salve Regina", ended. In 1549 the Western Rising in Cornwall and Devon broke out to protest against the abolition of the Mass – the rebels called the 1549 Holy Communion Service, "commonly called the Mass", a Christian game. The rebellion—resistance to Protestantism—was put down ruthlessly.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Under Queen Mary I, in 1553, the fractured and schismatic English Church was linked again to continental Catholicism and the See of Rome through the doctrinal and liturgical initiatives of Reginald Pole and other Catholic reformers. Mary was determined to return the whole of England to the Catholic faith. This aim was not necessarily at odds with the feeling of a large section of the populace; Edward's Protestant reformation had not been well received everywhere, and there was ambiguity in the responses of the parishes.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Mary also had some powerful families behind her. The Jerningham family together with other East Anglian Catholic families such as the Bedingfelds, Waldegraves, Rochesters together with the Huddlestons of Sawston Hall were "the key to Queen Mary's successful accession to the throne. Without them she would never have made it." However, Mary's execution of 300 Protestants by burning them at the stake proved counterproductive as this measure was extremely unpopular with the populace. For example, instead of executing Archbishop Cranmer for treason for supporting Queen Jane, she had him tried for heresy and burned at the stake. "Foxe's Book of Martyrs", which glorified the Protestants killed at the time and vilified Catholics, ensured her a place in popular memory as "Bloody Mary", though some recent historians have noted that most of the Protestants Foxe highlights in his book, who were tried for heresy, were primarily Anabaptists, which explains why mainstream Protestants like Stephen Gardiner and William Paget (who were members of Philip's "consejo codigo") went along with it. These historians also note that it was Bartolome Carranza, an influential Spanish Dominican of Philip II's workforce, who insisted that Thomas Cranmer's sentence be put into effect. "It was Carranza, not Mary, who insisted that the sentence against Cranmer be carried out."


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: For centuries after, the idea of another reconciliation with Rome was linked in many English people's minds with a renewal of Mary's fiery stakes. Ultimately, her alleged harshness was a success but at the cost of alienating a fairly large section of English society which had been moving away from some traditional Catholic devotional practices. These English were neither Calvinist nor Lutheran, but certainly leaning towards Protestant reformation (and by the late sixteenth century, were certainly Protestant).


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: When Mary died and Elizabeth I became queen in 1558, the religious situation in England was confused. Throughout the alternating religious landscape of the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, and Mary I, a significant proportion of the population (especially in the rural and outlying areas of the country) were likely to have continued to hold Catholic views, or were conservative. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was a Protestant and the "very rituals with which the parish had celebrated her accession would be swept away". Thus Elizabeth's first act was to reverse her sister's re-establishment of Catholicism by Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. The Act of Supremacy of 1558 made it a crime to assert the authority of any foreign prince, prelate, or other authority, and was aimed at abolishing the authority of the Pope in England. A third offence was high treason became punishable by death. The Oath of Supremacy, imposed by the Act of Supremacy 1558, provided for any person taking public or church office in England to swear allegiance to the monarch as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Failure to so swear was a crime, although it did not become treason until 1562, when the Supremacy of the Crown Act 1562 made a second offence of refusing to take the oath treason.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: During the first years of her reign from 1558 to 1570 there was relative leniency towards Catholics who were willing to keep their religion private, especially if they were prepared to continue to attend their parish churches. The wording of the official prayer book had been carefully designed to make this possible by omitting aggressively "heretical" matter, and at first many English Catholics did in fact worship with their Protestant neighbours, at least until this was formally forbidden by Pope Pius V's 1570 bull, "Regnans in Excelsis", which also declared that Elizabeth was not a rightful queen and should be overthrown. It formally excommunicated her and any who obeyed her and obliged all Catholics to attempt to overthrow her.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: In response, the "Act to retain the Queen's Majesty's subjects in their obedience", passed in 1581, made it high treason to reconcile anyone or to be reconciled to "the Romish religion", or to procure or publish any papal Bull or writing whatsoever. The celebration of Mass was prohibited under penalty of a fine of two hundred marks and imprisonment for one year for the celebrant, and a fine of one hundred marks and the same imprisonment for those who heard the Mass. This act also increased the penalty for not attending the Anglican service to the sum of twenty pounds a month, or imprisonment until the fine was paid or until the offender went to the Protestant Church. A further penalty of ten pounds a month was inflicted on anyone keeping a schoolmaster who did not attend the Protestant service. The schoolmaster himself was to be imprisoned for one year.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: England's wars with Catholic powers such as France and Spain, culminated in the attempted invasion by the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Papal bull had unleashed nationalistic feelings which equated Protestantism with loyalty to a highly popular monarch and made Catholics "vulnerable to accusations of being traitors to the crown." The Rising of the North, the Throckmorton plot and the Babington plot, together with other subversive activities of supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, all reinforced the association of Catholicism with treachery in the minds of many, notably in middle and southern England.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The climax of Elizabeth's anti-Catholic legislation was in 1585, two years before the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, with the Act against Jesuits, Seminary priests and other such like disobedient persons. This statute, under which most of the English Catholic martyrs were executed, made it high treason for any Jesuit or any seminary priest to be in England at all, and a felony for any one to harbour or relieve them.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The last of Elizabeth's anti-Catholic laws was the Act for the Better Discovery of Wicked and Seditious Persons Terming Themselves Catholics, but Being Rebellious and Traitorous Subjects. Its effect was to prohibit all recusants from going more than five miles from their place of abode, and to order all persons suspected of being Jesuits or seminary priests, and not answering satisfactorily, to be imprisoned until they did so.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: However, Elizabeth did not believe that her anti-Catholic policies constituted religious persecution, though "she strangled, disembowelled, and dismembered more than 200" English Catholics and "built on the actions of Mary." In the context of the uncompromising wording of the Papal Bull against her, she failed to distinguish between those Catholics in conflict with her from those with no such designs. The number of English Catholics executed under Elizabeth was significant, including Edmund Campion, Robert Southwell, and Margaret Clitherow. Elizabeth herself signed the regicidal death warrant of her cousin, Mary, Queen of Scots. As MacCulloch has noted, "England judicially murdered more Roman Catholics than any other country in Europe, which puts English pride in national tolerance in an interesting perspective." So distraught was Elizabeth over Catholic opposition to her throne, she was secretly reaching out to the Ottoman Sultan Murad III, "asking for military aid against Philip of Spain and the 'idolatrous princes' supporting him."


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Because of the persecution in England, Catholic priests were trained abroad at the English College in Rome, the English College in Douai, the English College at Valladolid in Spain, and at the English College in Seville. Given that Douai was located in the Spanish Netherlands, part of the dominions of Elizabethan England's greatest enemy, and Valladolid and Seville in Spain itself, they became associated in the public eye with political as well as religious subversion. It was this combination of nationalistic public opinion, sustained persecution, and the rise of a new generation which could not remember pre-Reformation times and had no pre-established loyalty to Catholicism, that reduced the number of Catholics in England during this period – although the overshadowing memory of Queen Mary I's reign was another factor that should not be underestimated (the population of the country was 4.1 million). Nevertheless, by the end of Elizabeth's reign probably 20% of the population were still Catholic, with 10% dissident "Puritan" Protestants and the remainder more or less reconciled to the Anglican church as "parish Anglicans". By then most English people had largely been de-catholicised but were not Protestant. Religious "uniformity," however, "was a lost cause," given the presence of Dissenting, Nonconformist Protestants, and Catholic minorities.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The reign of James I (1603–1625) was marked by a measure of tolerance, though less so after the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot conspiracy of a small group of Catholic conspirators who aimed to kill both King and Parliament and establish a Catholic monarchy. A mix of persecution and tolerance followed: Ben Jonson and his wife, for example, in 1606 were summoned before the authorities for failure to take communion in the Church of England, yet the King tolerated some Catholics at court; for example George Calvert, to whom he gave the title Baron Baltimore, and the Duke of Norfolk, head of the Howard family.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: The reign of Charles I (1625–49) saw a small revival of Catholicism in England, especially among the upper classes. As part of the royal marriage settlement Charles's Catholic wife, Henrietta Maria, was permitted her own royal chapel and chaplain. Henrietta Maria was in fact very strict in her religious observances, and helped create a court with continental influences, where Catholicism was tolerated, even somewhat fashionable. Some anti-Catholic legislation became effectively a dead letter. The Counter-Reformation on the continent of Europe had created a more vigorous and magnificent form of Catholicism (i.e., Baroque, notably found in the architecture and music of Austria, Italy and Germany) that attracted some converts, like the poet Richard Crashaw. Ironically, the explicitly Catholic artistic movement (i.e., Baroque) ended up "providing the blueprint, after the fire of London, for the first new Protestant churches to be built in England".


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: While Charles remained firmly Protestant, he was personally drawn towards a consciously "High Church" Anglicanism. This affected his appointments to Anglican bishoprics, in particular the appointment of William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. How many Catholics and Puritans there were is still open to debate.


title: Catholic Church in England and Wales

text: Religious conflict between Charles and other "High" Anglicans and Calvinists – at this stage mostly still within the Church of England (the Puritans) – formed a strand of the anti-monarchical leanings of the troubled politics of the period. The religious tensions between a court with "Papist" elements and a Parliament in which the Puritans were strong was one of the major factors behind the English Civil War, in which almost all Catholics supported the King. The victory of the Parliamentarians meant a strongly Protestant, anti-Catholic regime, content for the English Church to become "little more than a nationwide federation of Protestant parishes."