title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: "Eternal Punishment" was first announced in April at the 2000 Tokyo Game Show. During the show, Atlus held a talk spot hosted by Kouji Okada and Kazuma Kaneko, and featuring an appearance by Elisha La'Verne, the singer responsible for the game's theme song. Unlike "Innocent Sin", "Eternal Punishment" was chosen for release in the West. Its localization was significantly different from that of the original "Persona", released in 1996. "Persona" received numerous alterations for its overseas release, including altering character and location names. For "Eternal Punishment" and future titles, Atlus decided to remain as faithful as possible to the Japanese version. According to Atlus, the game marks a "halfway point" in their localization history: while more faithful to the Japanese version than the original "Persona", it still needed to take that previous localization into account for the naming of returning characters. Its release in the West was officially announced the following month at that year's Electronic Entertainment Expo, with Atlus previously teasing it as a "secret RPG". "Eternal Punishment" received a limited reprint exclusive to Amazon.com in 2008 to celebrate the release of "Persona 4".


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: "Eternal Punishment" was remade for the PlayStation Portable. Like the remake of "Innocent Sin", it was directed by Shoji Meguro. The original plan at Atlus was to have "Innocent Sin" and "Eternal Punishment" released as a single game, but both could not fit onto a single UMD. Even before the completion of "Innocent Sin"s remake, when there were no plans for a remake of "Eternal Punishment", Meguro was keen to make one if the opportunity arose. For the remake, the team had two points of reference: the original version, and the remake of "Innocent Sin". The team carried over most of the features implemented "Innocent Sin"s remake while further simplifying and streamlining the mechanics, aiming for a "culmination" to "Persona 2" as a whole. A large portion of the initial work was playing through the original version. A new opening animation was created by anime production company Madhouse. In addition to the gameplay modifications, a new scenario was added focusing on Tatsuya's activities before he joined the party. Satomi, after having written the script for a downloadable quest for "Innocent Sin"s remake, was asked whether he would like to write a new scenario for the "Eternal Punishment"s remake, and accepted willingly. During the writing process, Satomi suggested giving Maya dialogue, but this was vetoed as "Persona" protagonists were silent without exception. The scenario's new characters were designed by Masayuki Doi.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: The remake was announced in February 2012 by "Famitsu". For the packaging, Kaneko was asked to design a new piece of key art. The artwork features Maya and her initial Persona Maia. The remake was not released outside Japan due to "unusual circumstances". "Game Informer" included the game on its list of "RPGs Released Late In The PSP's Life Cycle", games that were likely never to see a release due to the flagging western PSP market. In response to the decision not to localize the remake, the original version was released on PlayStation Network in 2013. As part of the announcement, PlayStation Blog released a guide showing which characters had received name changes in the original localization. Intended to be playable on PSP, PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3, a fault at release meant only the PS3 version was playable, which was fixed after players complained about it. A fan translation of the remake was relesed in July 2022.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: The original music for "Eternal Punishment" was composed by Toshiko Tasaki, Kenichi Tsuchiya and Masaki Kurokawa, the composers for "Innocent Sin". As with "Innocent Sin", Tsuchiya found the writing process difficult for a number of reasons. Tsuchiya's favorite piece for the score, which was carried over from "Innocent Sin", was "Maya's Theme". The tune has remained popular with the "Persona" fan base: Tsuchiya has attributed its popularity to the enduring nature of the "Persona" series as a whole, and compared it to a fashionable item of the time that now requires a "certain courage" to wear in later times. The game's theme song, "Change your Way", was written and sung by British singer-songwriter Elisha La'Verne, and the music was composed by T.Kura. La'Verne wrote the song with the premise of "Eternal Punishment" in mind, and so she wanted the song to sound positive. For inspiration, she drew on her experiences of walking round London and seeing homeless people who appeared unable to improve their status: the song's theme is that there is always a way out of a bad situation and you can change that situation for the better. The title also stemmed from this concept. Together with "Innocent Sin", "Eternal Punishment" is the one of the first entries in the "Megami Tensei" series to feature voice acting.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: For the PSP version, the music was remixed by Toshiki Konishi, Ryota Kozuka and Atsushi Kitajoh, who also worked on the remixed music for "Innocent Sin"s port. The team, while remixing the music, did not want to destroy the original's foundation. The ruling concept, as defined by Konishi, was "not too far and not too close to the original". For the opening animation, Meguro requested Konishi to personally remix the game's original opening theme. It was the first time he had been put in charge of an opening theme, and it proved troublesome for him, as he needed to rerecord the vocals and make sure he did justice to the original version. For Kitajoh, one of the most notable arrangements he did was for "Maya's Theme": Meguro, who had previously remixed this track for "Persona 3: FES", asked for a remix with a faster tempo and hard rock elements incorporated. The new scenario also used remixed music from the original game instead of new tracks.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: During its first week of release in Japan, "Eternal Punishment" reached the top of Japanese sales charts, selling 106,563 copies. The following week, the game was still in the top five, selling a further 16,333 and bringing sales to 122,896. By the end of the year, it ranked at #60 in Japan's best-selling titles of the year, with final sales totaling 200,103 units. The PSP remake debuted at #3 in Japanese sales charts, selling 24,547 copies. The following week, it sold a further 4,885, but had dropped to #20. By October 2012, as stated in Index Holding's announced sales data, the game had sold just 60,000 copies, putting it well behind other Atlus titles such as "" for the Nintendo 3DS and "Persona 4 Golden" for the Vita.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: "Famitsu" praised the improvements made to the gameplay over "Innocent Sin", calling the experience "thrilling" and citing the story as generally enjoyable. One comment was that the game's aesthetics did not deviate much from those of "Innocent Sin". The magazine's later review of the remake was also fairly positive, finding the atmosphere somber and the battles entertaining, stating that the reviewers appreciated being able to play both parts of "Persona 2" on PSP. IGN's David Smith, while noting the game's slower pace than other contemporary RPGs, he generally enjoyed the plot's mature themes and the Rumor and Persona systems. Summing up, he said: "Its unique visual style, its unusual characters, and its absorbing gameplay systems make it a game to kill plenty of hours with this winter."


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: RPGFan's Ken Chu, despite finding the camera's movement speed awkward and disliking some aspects of the graphics, found the characters "reasonably strong" and generally praised the gameplay. He rounded off the review by saying that, because of its difficulty, it may put off more casual RPG players, but that other players "[were] strongly recommended to check it out." GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann generally shared these points of praise with other reviewers, despite finding some aspects of gameplay potentially unbalanced and the graphics unappealing, said that "if [players] can manage to get over these flaws, you'll find an RPG that dares to be different, but not at the sake of an interesting story and exciting gameplay." A common point of praise with reviewers was the improved localization when compared to that of "Persona", although opinions on the voice acting varied and faults in the grammar were mentioned.


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: Jeff Lundrigan of "Next Generation" stated, "It ain't flashy, but this is as thought-provoking, deep, and engrossing an RPG as you'll find." It was a runner-up for "GameSpot"s annual "Best Role-Playing Game" award among console games, losing to "Chrono Cross".


title: Persona 2: Eternal Punishment

text: "Eternal Punishment" was enough of a success to firmly establish the "Persona" franchise in the West, and was also to be the last "Persona" game to not carry the "Shin Megami Tensei" moniker in those regions until the release of "Persona 5" in 2017. The next title in the series, "Persona 3" for the PlayStation 2, was released in 2006. The game, along with "Innocent Sin", received a spin-off manga titled , featuring new characters from Seven Sisters. Its 2011 reprint featured new content connecting the manga to "Innocent Sin". In 2009, Atlus and Bbmf developed and published a mobile version of the game titled . Similar to the mobile port of "Innocent Sin", it incorporates the gameplay functions of the console version while tailoring them to a mobile device. Maya Amano was later featured in an internal tech demo for the graphics engine used in "".


title: Joseph Alliluyev

text: Iosif Grigor'evich Alliluyev (; 22 May 1945 – 2 November 2008) was a Russian cardiologist and a grandson of Joseph Stalin.


title: Joseph Alliluyev

text: The son of Stalin's daughter Svetlana Alliluyeva, Iosif was seven years old when Stalin, his maternal grandfather, died in March 1953. Although he kept a low profile, he did take part in a television interview on Russian Channel One. He spoke about his relationship with his mother and how she fled to the United States.


title: Joseph Alliluyev

text: In 1967, he was living in Moscow with his wife Yelena while studying to be a doctor. During this time, he was also serving his military service.


title: Natarajan Subramaniam

text: Natarajan Subramanian, better known as Natty, is an Indian cinematographer who has worked on Tamil films. He has also worked as an actor in Tamil films and achieved recognition through his performance as a conman in "Sathuranga Vettai" (2014).


title: Natarajan Subramaniam

text: Born into a Tamil-speaking family, Natarajan pursued an interest in photography and quit school at 18, choosing to take up a series of odd jobs to fund his interest rather than going through college. He worked as a still photographer at weddings, and then performed as a videographer at ceremonies. He briefly assisted cinematographer B. R. Vijayalakshmi but was unable to get a break in the film industry, so chose to work on documentaries instead, before venturing into work on commercials and music videos. He shot videos of the music band Euphoria's first album, and his work was well received. He became acquainted with director Ram Gopal Varma and the pair discussed a film project which did not materialise, before he was recommended by Varma to Anurag Kashyap, whom he worked with for three Hindi projects - "Last Train to Mahakali" (1999), "Paanch" (2003), and "Black Friday" (2004). In between he had also worked for Tamil romantic-comedy "Youth" (2002) starring Vijay, and had briefly agreed to be a part of AR Murugadoss's "Ramanaa" (2001), which he later opted out from. Despite being active in Tamil films, he has chosen to prioritise work as a cinematographer in Hindi films, working on successful films including "Jab We Met" (2007), "Golmaal Returns" (2008), "Raanjhanaa" (2013) and "" (2014).


title: Natarajan Subramaniam

text: Away from cinematography in big-budget Hindi films, Natarajan has embarked on an alternate career as an actor in small-budget Tamil films. He initially appeared in two films by his friend Uday Mahesh, "Naalai" (2006) and "Chakkara Viyugam" (2008), both of which went unnoticed at the box office but he won positive acclaim for his performance in "Naalai". He starred in two further action-masala films aimed at the village and town audiences, "Milaga" (2010) and "Muthukku Muthaaga" (2011), which received similar lukewarm responses. In 2014, Natarajan featured in the Tamil caper film, "Sathuranga Vettai" directed by newcomer Vinoth and produced by Manobala. The film opened to positive reviews and became a surprise success at the box office, with a critic noting Natarajan "is brilliant as Gandhi Babu. He does his part with relish using his brains more than brawn with expressive body and eye language". However, his 2015 action film "Katham Katham" is not very impressive. Once again, Natty plays the good-man-turned-evil-mind, whose biggest weakness is spondulicks. His dialogue delivery is titch and screen presence, casual, on a believable act of bad cop. In 2017, he had three film releases including "Enkitta Mothathe", "Bongu" and "Richie". In 2018, Natty was approached by the duo directors Hari and Harish for a thriller titled "Silk" which is supposed to be a Kanchipuram-based storyline, but the shooting has not yet been started. In Pandiraj's "Namma Veettu Pillai" (2019), he has a muscular presence, perfect for a character actor. He acted in the lead role in "Sandimuni" (2020) and "Godfather" (2020). He has played an important role in Sibi's cop drama "Walter" (2020), which was directed by U. Anbarasan. Natty experienced playing the ruthless cop Kannabiran in Mari Selvaraj in "Karnan" (2021). The film was Natty's second collaboration with Dhanush, the first being as the cinematographer of the latter's Hindi debut, "Raanjhanaa".


title: Rice Krispies

text: Rice Krispies (known as Rice Bubbles in Australia and New Zealand) is a breakfast cereal, marketed by Kellogg's in 1927 and released to the public in 1928. Rice Krispies are made of crisped rice (rice and sugar paste that is formed into rice shapes or "berries", cooked, dried and toasted), and expand forming very thin and hollowed out walls that are crunchy and crisp. When milk is added to the cereal the walls tend to collapse, creating the "snap, crackle and pop" sounds.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Rice Krispies cereal has a long advertising history, with the elf cartoon characters Snap, Crackle and Pop touting the brand. In 1963, The Rolling Stones recorded a short song for a Rice Krispies television advertisement.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Rice Krispies are made by the Kellogg Company. The "Snap, Crackle and Pop" slogan was in use by 1939 when the cereal was advertised as staying "crackly crisp in milk or cream...not mushy!" with claims that the cereal would remain floating (without sinking to the bottom of the bowl) even after 2 hours in milk. They were not a shredded or flaked cereal type, but were instead created by a patented process that Kellogg's called "oven-popping".


title: Rice Krispies

text: The original patent called for using partially dried grain, which could be whole or broken, that would have 15–30% moisture which could then be shaped by existing processes for cereal production that include rolling, flaking, shredding, etc. After being processed to the desired shape the grain is dried to around 5–14% moisture content at which stage the grain will expand when subjected to a high temperature creating a light, low-density product that is crisp and easy to chew.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Rice Krispies contain rice, sugar, salt, malt flavoring, iron, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), alpha tocopherol acetate (vitamin E), niacinamide, vitamin A palmitate, pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B6), riboflavin (vitamin B2), thiamin hydrochloride (vitamin B1), folic acid, vitamin B12 (as cyanocobalamin) and vitamin D.


title: Rice Krispies

text: According to Kellogg's, the rice used in the US version of the cereal is grown in the states of Louisiana and Arkansas.


title: Rice Krispies

text: In 2010 the Kellogg Company was found by the Federal Trade Commission to be making unsubstantiated and misleading health claims in advertising on Rice Krispies boxes. Claims made by the company included "now helps support your child's immunity" and "has been improved to include antioxidants and nutrients that your family needs to help them stay healthy." The FTC had previously found fault with Kellogg's claims that Frosted Mini-Wheats cereal improved children's attentiveness by nearly 20%.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Many generic versions of Rice Krispies (including frosted and chocolate variants) have been produced by other manufacturers under many different names.


title: Rice Krispies

text: In the late 1990s, Kellogg's sold Halloween versions of their regular cereal. This included Halloween Rice Krispies which featured a variety of orange krispies.


title: Rice Krispies

text: In 1939, Kellogg's employee Mildred Day concocted and published a recipe for a Camp Fire Girls bake sale consisting of Rice Krispies, melted marshmallows, and margarine. It has remained a very popular snack dubbed Rice Krispies Treats. Kellogg's themselves have now produced commercial varieties of both marshmallow and chocolate-based treats under the name Rice Krispies Squares in Canada and the UK, as well as versions under the original Rice Krispies Treats name sold in the United States.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Kellogg's also produces commercial versions of Rice Krispie treats known as Rice Krispies Squares, cereal bars, and a multi-grain cereal known as Rice Krispies Multi-Grain (formerly Muddles) sold on the UK market. Primarily aimed at children, Multi-Grain contains a prebiotic and is claimed by Kellogg's to promote good digestive health.


title: Rice Krispies

text: In Australia, Rice Bubbles are found in a well-known homemade sweet, the chocolate crackle. This is often found at fetes and consists of Rice Bubbles, copha and cocoa, amongst other things. In the UK, a similar treat is made of Rice Krispies and melted chocolate. White Christmas is another Australian sweet made with Rice Bubbles, milk powder, copha and dried fruit.


title: Rice Krispies

text: In 2018 the South African branch of Kellogg's replaced the classic Rice Krispies with Rice Krispies Vanilla, thereby discontinuing the production of the original Rice Krispies in the country. This change was met with a lot of public complaints.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Kellogg's South Africa posted the following on their Facebook page in response to the outrage of South African consumers: "Rice Krispies Vanilla is a new product that was launched in South Africa in June this year, responding to many of our customers’ calls for more innovation and variety. With Rice Krispies Vanilla we have moved from a single grain to a multi-grain formula which has additional nutritional benefits and allows us to source locally, promoting local farmers and jobs. The New recipe also contains 9 vitamins & iron. While we fully understand that in some instances people prefer the original plain Rice Krispies, several different recipes were tested in market, and the vanilla formulation was significantly preferred by our local consumers. We will continue to provide opportunities for testing and tasting in-store to share our new taste with consumers."


title: Rice Krispies

text: The new Rice Krispies Vanilla now contained 21.7 g sugar for every 100 g, up from only 9 g previously, and the taste was very poorly received. Despite the public's obvious and vocal disgust with the product, Kellogg's decided to stay firm in their decision on replacing the original Rice Krispies with the new Rice Krispies Vanilla, until 2020 when Kellogg's returned the original product to shelves.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Zandi Mposelwa, head of external relations at Kellogg Sub Saharan Africa, released the following statement: "We have decided to relaunch [the original Rice Krispies] in the market, whilst keeping the Rice Krispies Vanilla variant to ensure that we meet different consumer needs for variety. We are importing the product from the UK because we no longer have manufacturing capability to manufacture the product in South Africa.”


title: Rice Krispies

text: This meant that South African consumers would be paying more for the standard Rice Krispies: a 510 g box of imported original Rice Krispies will cost around ZAR 70. A 600 g box of Vanilla Rice Krispies currently costs ZAR 47.99.


title: Rice Krispies

text: Snap! Crackle! and Pop!, the animated cartoon mascots for Rice Krispies, were created by illustrator Vernon Grant in the 1930s. The original gnome-like Snap first appeared in 1933 on a package of Kellogg's Rice Krispies. Crackle and Pop came later, and since 1939, the three have been together in many forms of advertising, including radio, movie shorts, and comic strips. An updated version of the elf-like Snap Crackle and Pop appeared for the first time on television in 1960; before that it was advertised by Woody Woodpecker. They are the first and longest-running cartoon characters to represent a Kellogg's product.


title: Rice Krispies

text: The cereal is marketed on the basis of the noises it produces when milk is added to the bowl. The onomatopoeic noises differ by country and language:


title: Rice Krispies

text: In 1938 and 1939, Vernon Grant, the illustrator who created Snap, Crackle and Pop, produced a set of six illustrations of Mother Goose themes including Humpty Dumpty, Jack and Jill, Jack Be Nimble, Little Jack Horner, Peter Peter Pumpkin Eater, and Twinkle Twinkle Little Star that were offered as premiums in exchange for two Rice Krispies boxtops and a three-cent stamp.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is a city in Lee County, Alabama, United States. It is the largest city in eastern Alabama, with a 2020 population of 76,143. It is a principal city of the Auburn-Opelika Metropolitan Area. The Auburn-Opelika, AL MSA with a population of 158,991, along with the Columbus, GA-AL MSA and Tuskegee, Alabama, comprises the greater Columbus-Auburn-Opelika, GA-AL CSA, a region home to 501,649 residents.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is a historic college town and is the home of Auburn University. It is Alabama's fastest-growing metropolitan area and the nineteenth fastest-growing metro area in the United States since 1990. U.S. News ranked Auburn among its top ten list of best places to live in the United States for the year 2009. The city's unofficial nickname is "The Loveliest Village On The Plains," taken from a line in the poem "The Deserted Village" by Oliver Goldsmith: "Sweet Auburn! Loveliest village of the plain..."


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Inhabited in antiquity by the Creek, the land on which Auburn sits was opened to settlement in 1832 with the Treaty of Cusseta. The first settlers arrived in the winter of 1836 from Harris County, Georgia. These settlers, led by Judge John J. Harper, intended to build a town that would be the religious and educational center for the area.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn was incorporated on February 2, 1839, in what was then Macon County, covering an area of . By that time, Methodist and Baptist churches had been established, and a school had been built and had come into operation. In the mid-1840s, separate academies for boys and girls were established in addition to the primary school. This concentration of educational institutions led to a rapid influx of families from the planter class into Auburn in the 1840s and 1850s. By 1858, of the roughly 1,000 free residents of Auburn, some 500 were students.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: In 1856, the state legislature chartered a Methodist college, the East Alabama Male College in Auburn. This college, now Auburn University, opened its doors in 1859, offering a classical and liberal education.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: With the advent of the Civil War in 1861, Auburn quickly emptied. All of the schools closed, and most businesses shuttered. Auburn was the site of a hospital for Texan Confederate soldiers, but only saw direct combat with the raids of Rousseau in 1864 and Wilson in 1865.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: After the Civil War, Auburn's economy entered a prolonged depression that would last the remainder of the century. Public schools did not reopen until the mid-1870s, and most businesses remained closed. A series of fires in the 1860s and 1870s gutted the downtown area. East Alabama Male College was turned over to the state in 1872, and with funds from the federal Morrill Act was renamed Alabama Agricultural and Mechanical College with a new mission as a land grant college. Passage of the Hatch Act in 1887 allowed for expansion of agricultural research facilities on campus.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: In 1892, the college became the first four-year college in Alabama to admit women. This, combined with increased interest in scientific agriculture and engineering and new funding from business licenses, allowed the city to start expanding again. By 1910, Auburn's population had returned to its antebellum level. SIAA Conference championships won by the Auburn college's football team brought attention and support to Auburn, and helped fill the city's coffers.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Fortunes were quickly reversed with the collapse of cotton prices in the early 1920s and the subsequent Great Depression a decade later. Due to these events, the state government became unable to fund the college, and—as Auburn's economy was completely derived from the college—residents were forced into a barter economy to support themselves.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Money began to flow into Auburn again with America's entry into World War II. Auburn's campus was turned into a training ground for technical specialists in the armed forces. After the war, Auburn was flooded by soldiers returning to school on the G.I. Bill.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Primarily due to this influx of students, Auburn began a period of growth that lasted through the 1950s and 1960s. A considerable amount of residential and business construction pushed Auburn's growth outside of the original boundaries of the city, leading to a series of large annexations which expanded Auburn to nearly . Construction of Interstate 85 beginning in 1957 connected Auburn to the major cities of the state. This allowed for Auburn University (renamed in 1960) to schedule more home football games in Auburn rather than in larger cities, creating a strong tourism component in Auburn's economy. Auburn Mall opened as "Village Mall" in 1973.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Growth slowed somewhat in the 1970s, and a series of budget cuts made it clear that Auburn's sole economic reliance on Auburn University put the city in a tenuous position.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Backlash against what was seen as an ineffectual city council led to the election of Jan Dempsey as mayor in 1980 and the removal of the previous city government system in favor of a council-manager system. With a new government in place, the city began aggressively pursuing industry, leading to a nearly 1,200% increase in the number of industrial jobs over the next twenty years. As public satisfaction with the city administration reached record levels, Auburn began very rapid residential growth.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: A series of reports in the 1980s and 1990s ranking the Auburn public school system among the top in the state and nation convinced thousands of new residents to move to Auburn over the past 25 years. Between 1980 and 2003, Auburn's population grew by 65%, and Auburn's economy expanded by 220%.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The population growth has only accelerated into the 21st century, both organically within the city and through annexation and incorporation of surrounding portions of Lee County. Auburn's population has grown over 77% from 2000 to the latest 2020 decennial census figures. With the continued rapid growth comes issues of urban sprawl and expansions to infrastructure, which has become two of Auburn's primary political issues.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The city of Auburn lies in western Lee County and is bordered by the city of Opelika to the northeast and by Chambers County to the north. The city stretches south to the Macon County line in the southwest.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn sits on the Fall Line at the juncture of the piedmont plateau and the coastal plain. Portions of Auburn also include the southernmost exposure of rocks indicating the Appalachian orogeny—as such, the last foothill of the Appalachian Mountains lies in Chewacla State Park in southern Auburn. As a result of these three varied physical environments, Auburn has an extremely diverse geology.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The southwest and west regions of the city on the plateau are marked by rolling plains and savannahs, with the undeveloped portion primarily being used for cattle grazing and ranching. South of this region sits the coastal plain, with sandy soil and pine forest. Parts of north Auburn have much more rugged topographies, with thick forests in high hills and deep hollows of the type common to parts of eastern Tennessee. The region surrounded by Chewacla Park in the south of the city contains sharp peaks and sudden drops of elevation as the 1.05 billion-year-old rock of the Appalachians meets the coastal plain.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn sits near the divide between the Chattahoochee and Tallapoosa River watersheds, though the vast majority of the city resides in the latter. Auburn is drained by three main creek systems: in the south, by the Chewacla/Opintlocco Creek system; in the north, by the Saugahatchee Creek system; and in the extreme northern reaches of Auburn by Sandy Creek. The dividing line between the Chewacla and Saugahatchee watersheds roughly follows railroad line east–west through the center of town.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is located at (32.597684, −85.480823) and according to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2000, the city has a total area of , of which, of it is land and of it (1.11%) is water. The elevation of Auburn at City Hall is above sea level; though due to Auburn's diverse topography, elevation ranges from above sea level where Chewacla Creek crosses Sand Hill Road to above sea level in northern Auburn near the Chambers County line.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Typical of the Deep South, Auburn has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cfa"), marked by mild winters, early springs, long, hot, muggy summers, and warm autumns. Due to its position near the Gulf of Mexico, the city receives a significant amount of rainfall—on average, per year—though there is a distinct dry season in the late summer and early fall. Severe storm activity – thunderstorms producing damaging winds and/or large hail – is common from the late winter through early summer. There is the risk of tornadoes. Owing to its proximity to the Gulf, Auburn is also subject to fringe effects from tropical storms and hurricanes in the summer and fall. Hurricanes Opal in 1995 and Ivan in 2004 are among two of the most notable tropical systems to affect the Auburn area in recent memory, bringing torrential rains and high winds.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Winters are typically mild, with an average of snowfall, though more than three-fourths of all seasons do not have any measurable snow. Most days have + highs, and from December to February, an average total of 10–11 days of + highs, while it rarely stays below freezing all day. However, the city straddles the border between USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 7B and 8A, and there are an average of 5.6 nights with sub- lows. On the other end, summers are long, hot, and humid, with 57 days of + highs. Although the actual air temperature reaching is uncommon (1.2 days annually), high humidity can push daytime heat indices over that mark.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The record high for Auburn is , set on July 15, 1980 (needs updating), and August 10, 1980, while the record low was , set on February 13, 1899, and January 21, 1985.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: As of the 2010 census, there were 53,380 people, 22,111 households, and 9,939 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 20,043 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 75.1% White, 16.5% Black or African American, 0.3% Native American, 5.3% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 1.10% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. 2.9% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: There were 22,111 households, out of which 22.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.4% were married couples living together, 8.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 55.2% were non-families. 33.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.99.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 17.5% under the age of 18, 38.0% from 18 to 24, 23.1% from 25 to 44, 14.6% from 45 to 64, and 6.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.4 males.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The median income for a household in the city was $35,857, and the median income for a family was $72,771. Males had a median income of $51,644 versus $36,898 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,656. About 9.2% of families and 25.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.0% of those under age 18 and 3.6% of those age 65 or over. The reason for this enormous inequality between households and families is due to the large number of students living in the area.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 76,143 people, 26,156 households, and 13,269 families residing in the city.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The Auburn Beat (Lee County 2nd Beat) first appeared on the 1870 U.S. Census. In 1890, "beat" was changed to "precinct." In 1870, 1930 and 1940 when racial demographics were reported, it showed a Black majority. In 1960, the precinct was changed to "census division" as part of a general reorganization of counties. The city boundaries and that of the census division were contiguous by that census. In 1980, the census divisions of Auburn and Opelika, along with parts of Loachapoka-Roxana, Opelika Rural-Pepperell were consolidated into the new division of Auburn-Opelika.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The Auburn-Opelika Census Division was created in 1980 by the merger of Auburn and Opelika census divisions and parts of Loachapoka-Roxana, Opelika Rural-Pepperell divisions.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn has a council-manager government led by an eight-member city council, a mayor, and an appointed city manager.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The city council acts as a legislative body of the city, passing laws and regulations and appointing citizens to the city's various boards, including the Auburn City Board of Education. Each member of the city council is elected for a four-year term from one of eight geographic wards.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The mayor of Auburn is elected in the city at-large to a four-year term. The duties of the mayor are, per State Code: 1) ceremonial, 2) to serve as the Governor's contact in the event of an emergency and 3) to conduct Council meetings, and to be the tie breaking vote for the city council legislative body. The Mayor has no administrative duties, as the City Manager serves as the CEO. As such, the position of mayor in Auburn is primarily symbolic. The current mayor of Auburn is Ron Anders, elected in 2018.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The day-to-day operations of Auburn are run by the City Manager. The City Manager is appointed by and serves at the leisure of the City Council. The City Manager is responsible for the appointment and dismissal of all department heads, advises the council on policy matters, and creates and administers the city budget. The current City Manager of Auburn is Megan McGowen Crouch.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn's economy is centered on Auburn University and providing university-affiliated services. Auburn University employs 4,300 people, which is roughly one-quarter of the city's total workforce. In addition, 2,400 Auburnites are employed by the federal and state government in positions which are generally connected with the university. Some 8,500 are employed in service sector jobs.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn's industrial base is built around mid-sized, high tech manufacturing and research firms. Auburn has one industrial park and four technology parks where main areas of industrial focus are on the manufacture of small engines, automotive wheels, fuel cells, plastic injection technology, and vehicle armor. The Auburn Research Park opened in September 2008 and will be anchored by a firm which specializes in research in high-resolution, dark field optical microscopy. The Research Park includes several buildings housing research in many different specialties, including the MRI Research Center which features both a 3 Tesla and a 7 Tesla MRI scanner. Overall, the manufacturing sector accounts for some 5,000 jobs in Auburn.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is located between the Kia and Hyundai automobile manufacturing facilities with the Kia Motors manufacturing plant about east on I-85 and the Hyundai Motors manufacturing plant about west on I-85/I-65.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The Public Safety Department has five divisions: Police, Fire, Communications, Codes Enforcement, and Administration. The department provides all law enforcement, public safety services, and emergency 911 response and dispatch services for the City of Auburn and the campus of Auburn University. Construction activities in the city are monitored and inspected by the Codes Enforcement Division. Ambulance services are provided via a contract with East Alabama Medical Center.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn, as a college town, is largely driven by the influence of education. Auburn has one post-secondary school, Auburn University, which has an enrollment of 31,526 as of 2021-2022. Auburn University is a land-grant university and a sea and space grant university with traditionally strong programs in business, engineering, agriculture, and veterinary medicine. The university is largely focused on undergraduate education, with a graduate program of 5,000. Auburn University is a research institution, with primary areas of research focus including wireless engineering, molecular biosciences, transportation, aquaculture, and forest sustainability.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn's public school system includes eight elementary schools, two middle schools, one junior high school, and one high school. Auburn's school system has repeatedly been ranked among the top public school systems in the state and nation. Auburn City Schools has been ranked among the top 100 school districts in the United States by Parenting magazine and as the best educational value in the Southeast by "The Wall Street Journal". Auburn's Early Education Center has specialized programs for autism education, has been recognized as a national Blue Ribbon school, and is an Intel and Scholastic School of Distinction. Wrights Mill Road Elementary School was recognized as a national Blue Ribbon school in 2009, while Auburn Junior High School is recognized nationally for its 21st Century Laptop Learning Initiative, which places laptops in the hands of students in grades 8 and 9. Auburn High School has strong International Baccalaureate, widely offered Advanced Placement, and renowned music programs, and was ranked in 2006 by "Newsweek" as the top non-magnet public high school in Alabama, and one of the top 30 in the United States.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The Auburn City Schools public school system is currently served by one high school for the entire city, a 350,000 square-foot, $72 million facility that opened in 2017 and houses students in 10th through 12th grade. As of the 2021–22 school year, the student population at Auburn High is the most of any high school in the state of Alabama. After the completion of the new high school facility, the old Auburn High School site was converted into a Junior High School, serving students in 8th and 9th grade. The old Auburn Junior High School became East Samford School, a 7th grade academy, while Drake Middle School hosts all 6th graders in the city school system. Elementary school zones are in pairs throughout the city; one school in the zone houses kindergarten through 2nd grade, while the other school serves grades 3 through 5. While official construction plans have yet to materialize, a second high school is in the Auburn City Schools facilities master plan, slated to open in the mid-2020s.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is located in the southeastern part of Alabama and is accessible by Interstate 85, US 29, and US 280. The city also has a general aviation airport, the Auburn University Regional Airport (AUO) (formerly Auburn-Opelika Robert G. Pitts Airport), which is east of downtown Auburn. The major commercial airports closest to Auburn are the Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport (ATL) (Atlanta) and the Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport (BHM) (Birmingham). Each of these airports is within 2 hours driving distance from Auburn and together they offer air service to most of the world's major airports. There are also two regional airports close to Auburn: Montgomery Regional Airport (MGM) (Montgomery) and the Columbus Metropolitan Airport (CSG) (Columbus). Until 1971, neighboring Opelika saw daily passenger train service on the "City of Miami."


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: There is daily ground transportation between Auburn and the Atlanta airport. Tiger Taxi, Eagle Town Taxi, Spirit Town Taxi all provide both local taxi service and flat-rate transportation service to other cities. Auburn University provides the Tiger Transit bus system, which runs near the campus and to area apartment complexes part of the year. Lee-Russell Public Transit (LRPT) offers Dial-A-Ride services in Lee and Russell counties. Hail-a-ride apps available: Gata Hub.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: There are few sidewalks and no city bus system in Auburn. It is a heavily car-dependent community. It has received an award for being a bike friendly town from the League of American Bicyclists. The Auburn Bike Committee posts a list of bike rides and events.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is the home to the Jule Collins Smith Museum of Fine Art. The Smith Museum maintains a collection of primarily 19th- and 20th-century American and European art. The museum's exhibits include the Advancing American Art Collection, consisting of 36 works by mid-20th-century American artists including Jacob Lawrence, Ben Shahn, and Georgia O'Keeffe, a collection of engravings by naturalist John James Audubon, and works by Dalí, Chagall, Renoir, Picasso, and Matisse. Major sculptural works at the museum include a collection of Tibetan bronzes, Jean Woodham's "Spinoff", and Dale Chihuly's "Amber Luster Chandelier".


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Also in Auburn is the Telfair Peet Theatre, which performs a series of plays and musicals each year. The Auburn Community Orchestra, as well as the bands of Auburn University and the Auburn High School Honors Band perform dozens of yearly concerts, including a series of outdoor concerts in the fall at Kiesel Park. Other musical series in Auburn include that of the Auburn Knights Orchestra, a big band jazz orchestra, and the Sundilla Acoustic Concert Series. The theatre is rumoured to be haunted by a ghost named Sydney, who the theatre department appeases before every performance with an offering of orange and blue M&M's.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is also home to Auburn Area Community Theater (AACT), a community-based organization that puts on three productions a year, including a spring children's show. All performances are rehearsed and performed at the Jan Dempsey Community Arts Center.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: There are a number of dance schools in the city that give classes in a variety of dance styles, such as ballet, jazz, hip-hop, ballroom, and even Irish dancing, which is supported by the Drake School of Irish Dance.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Recreational opportunities in Auburn include 16 parks, highlighted by Chewacla State Park, a park in the Appalachian foothills, Kiesel Park, a "passive" park with numerous trails, and the Louise Kreher Forest Ecology Preserve. The Donald E. Davis Arboretum showcases 150 different tree species native to Alabama and the Southeast. Auburn is also ringed by miles of multi-use trails and several lakes.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn has no professional sports teams, but nonetheless has a vibrant sports culture due to the presence of Auburn University's NCAA Division I athletic squads. Auburn University football in particular is a major force in Auburn's culture and economy. When Auburn University has home football games in the fall, the city often sees over 100,000 visitors, and the yearly economic impact is measured at nearly $100 million. While other sports do not attract as many tourists to Auburn, the university's 17 varsity sports offer citizens a variety of other opportunities for viewing competition at virtually the highest level.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Home football games particularly change the face of Auburn for several weekends a year. Tens of thousands of fans flood the campus hours—sometimes days—before the game to tailgate, creating a festival-like atmosphere throughout the weekend. Football games in Auburn are played in 87,451 seat Jordan–Hare Stadium, which sits on the main campus, just a few blocks from downtown.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Basketball is played at 9,600-seat Neville Arena, while baseball games are held at 4,096-seat Plainsman Park, which was named the top collegiate ballpark in the nation by "Baseball America" in 2003. One of Auburn's most competitive sports is the swimming program, which has won seven of the last nine NCAA national championships including the last five straight and 11 consecutive SEC men's championships. Also, the women's program have won five NCAA national titles and four SEC championships. The teams compete at the James E. Martin Aquatics Center. More Olympic swimmers have come from Auburn's swimming program than any other university swimming program.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: The Auburn Metro Area is home to 146 holes of golf at six courses, and has played host to several professional and amateur golf tournaments. Auburn Links was rated as one of the top three new courses in the nation when it opened in 1996, and the Robert Trent Jones-designed Grand National course in the Auburn metro is often cited as one of the top public courses in the nation. Because of this, in 2005, the Auburn Metro Area was ranked number 1 in the United States for golf by Golf Digest.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn is served by the (DMA). Some Montgomery, Alabama stations are carried on cable systems and WSFA is designated by the FCC as a significantly viewed station for the area. Charter Communications and W.O.W. (Wide Open West) provide cable television service. DirecTV and Dish Network provide direct broadcast satellite television including both local and national channels. The On-Campus television station, Eagle Eye TV, is broadcast twenty-four hours a day for residents living on-campus and the immediate surrounding areas.


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Newspapers serving the city include "The Opelika-Auburn News", "The Auburn Villager", and "The Auburn Plainsman".


title: Auburn, Alabama

text: Auburn has had many notable citizens in its 170-year history, including Nobel Prize winners such as Frederick C. Robbins and George F. Smoot, world-class architects including Paul Rudolph and Samuel "Sambo" Mockbee, artists, governors, generals and admirals, and professional athletes. Robert Gibbs, the 28th White House Press Secretary and the first Press Secretary for President Barack Obama, is a graduate of Auburn High School.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut (from the Latin "rugire", meaning "to roar") is the mating season of certain mammals, which includes ruminants such as deer, sheep, camels, goats, pronghorns, bison, giraffes and antelopes, and extends to others such as skunks and elephants. The rut is characterized in males by an increase in testosterone, exaggerated sexual dimorphisms, increased aggression, and increased interest in females. The males of the species may mark themselves with mud, undergo physiological changes or perform characteristic displays in order to make themselves more visually appealing to the females. Males also use olfaction to entice females to mate using secretions from glands and soaking in their own urine.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: During the rut (known as the "rutting period" and in domestic sheep management as "tupping"), males often rub their antlers or horns on trees or shrubs, fight with each other, wallow in mud or dust, self-anoint and herd estrus females together. These displays make the male conspicuous and aids in mate selection.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut in many species is triggered by shorter day lengths. For different species, the timing of the rut depends on the length of the gestation period (pregnancy), usually occurring so the young are born in the spring. This is shortly after new green growth has appeared thereby providing food for the females, allowing them to provide milk for the young, and when the temperatures are warm enough to reduce the risk of young becoming hypothermic.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut for white-tailed deer ("Odocoileus virginianus") usually lasts three weeks in the Northern Hemisphere and may occur most of the year in tropical zones. The rut is the time when white-tail deer, especially bucks, are more active and less cautious than usual. This makes them easier to hunt, as well as more susceptible to being hit by motor vehicles.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Outdoors writer Charles Alsheimer has done research demonstrating the white-tailed deer rut is also controlled by the lunar phase and that the rut peaks seven days after the second full moon during October and November (the rutting moon), while elk begin rutting during the September equinox on 21 September.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: A white-tail doe may be in estrus for up to 72 hours and may come into estrus up to seven times if she does not mate. Cows may come into estrus up to four or more times if they do not mate.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut can start as early as the end of September and can last all the way through the winter months. Bucks usually begin this process when the velvet is falling off their antlers, and it can last all the way until they start to shed their antlers. The peak of the rut, however, is right in the middle. The average peak day for the white-tail rut in the U.S. is November 13. Around this period of time, the bucks and does are very active, with the rut in full swing. For a hunter sitting in a tree stand at this time of the year, it is not uncommon to see many deer pass through his specific area, due to other deer chasing others.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: There are many behaviors a buck will exhibit during the rut. During pre-rut, bucks will spar with each other. Sparring is low-intensity aggressive behavior, involving mostly pushing and shoving. Bucks of different sizes will do this to each other. After pre-rut is finished, a buck will rub his antlers on a tree (thus making a "rub"), and make scrapes on the ground with his hooves: both of these are ways a buck will mark its territory and proclaim his dominance for other bucks to see. These activities are usually done at night.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The most prominent behavior of all during the heat of the rut is fighting, where bucks show their true dominance to others. In fighting, bucks usually battle against similar-sized deer, and small bucks do not normally challenge mature large ones: more often than not, smaller bucks fear the more mature bucks and leave or avoid the dominant deer's territory. The fights can go on and on, with the winner getting the group of does. Some fights go on until death, and if not, it is not unusual to see one of them get injured.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The energy expenditure of chasing and fighting during the breeding season can result in a buck losing an immense amount of weight, with some research documenting losses of as much as 20% of body weight. On average, a buck before breeding season can weigh up to . After he has gone through the stages of the rut, he can lose about of weight, which is quite large, especially for only a few months of time. In the post-rut, a buck will need to replenish his body and catch up on the weight and energy he has lost.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Sources have stated that after the rut, a buck will go to a bedding spot and will remain "motionless" for a large amount of time, even to the extent of about two days, as he is thoroughly exhausted. After he has rested, he will get up and start to feed extensively, trying to catch up on all the nutrients his body requires. Croplands have much high carbohydrate grain in them, and a buck can be found here often, eating and getting nutrients. When the climate is extremely cold, a buck will sometimes resort to swamps and bogs, because of the warmer temperatures these areas hold.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The timing of the elk rut depends on where they live. In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs between mid-August and mid-October. In the Southern Hemisphere it occurs between mid-February and mid-April.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut tends to last somewhere between 20 and 45 days. This varies on latitude, which affects the timing of spring and autumn and which can give elk a longer calving season and a longer rut. During the rut, elk frequently use areas around fresh water, and tend to bed in heavy timber five to six hours per day. A cow elk will remain in estrus for 12 to 15 hours, if they are not bred during this time frame they will normally have another estrus cycle 18 to 28 days later.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Elk use several different vocalizations during the rut. Some are made only by a certain sex or age class, and each is used for a different reason. The first of which being the cohesion call which is made by both sexes of elk, and is used to locate one another. An alarm squeal is made by both sexes of elk when they are on alert, during the rut these are used frequently by young bulls (male elks) being run off by the herd bull. Satellite bulls frequently spar with one another during the rut, and in turn make sparring squeaks.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: A bugle is a vocalization made exclusively by bulls. The typical bugle consists of three acoustic parts, a low frequency "on-glide" that sounds guttural in tone, which then ascends into the highest frequency part of the call termed the "whistle", and the last portion of the call, the "off-glide" that returns to a low-frequency tone. The function behind this acoustic structure of the bugle is directly correlated to the male's physiology and how different frequencies travel through varied environments. In terms of physiology, the larger an animal gets the lower frequency of sound it is able to produce. This is because with an increase in size comes an increase in vocal fold length, and longer vocal folds confer an increased ability to produce lower frequency sounds. Because of this relationship, a bugle can be directed toward other bulls or toward cows to demonstrate the size and thus fitness of the bull vocalizing. A bull will direct his bugle toward his cows while gathering them or while chasing an estrus cow. A herd bull will direct his bugle toward another bull to express his dominance over the herd, while a satellite bull may use his bugle to challenge the herd bull.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The reason for the high-frequency portion of the bugle is due to the propagative efficiency of differing frequencies through varying environments. Studies have shown that as a bull's harem increases in diameter, meaning the cows become more dispersed, he tends to vocalize more frequently than if they were within closer proximity. The higher-pitched section of the call propagates through the environment better which is why the bull uses it to congregate a harem that is becoming more spatially dispersed and thus harder to defend. Acoustic analyses comparing bull elk bugles with cow elk cohesion calls show a notable degree of acoustic similarity, indicating that both vocalizations may perform a congregating function, which is why the bugle is often used by the bull to condense his harem.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The ability to produce such a high-frequency vocalization by such a large animal is unusual. As explained above, this is because larger body mass positively correlates with longer vocal folds and thus lower frequency emission. Larger body size also corresponds with a decreased ability to emit high frequency vocalizations. Bull elk overcome this by a unique anatomical mechanism that produces sound using a different pathway than the vibrations of the vocal folds. Bull elk constrict their supra laryngeal vocal tract, specifically in the nasal cavity in order to create a smaller opening for exhaled air to pass through. As air moves through this opening it causes the tissues to vibrate and produce the high frequency sound waves which comprise the "whistle" portion of the bugle. This anatomical development for bioacoustics in elk was discovered upon sonographic analysis of bugle vocalizations which revealed a biphonetic (two simultaneous frequencies) display. One frequency was high (the result of the supra laryngeal constriction), and the other was low (the result of normal vocal fold oscillations).


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Yelping also known as "grunting" is usually only made by herd bulls when they are excited. They are made more often while interacting with cows than with other bulls. "Yelping commonly was accompanied by contractions of the penile region with simultaneous emission of short spurts of urine."


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The rut has six phases: the pre-rut, the first breeding phase, the first rest phase, the second breeding phase, the second rest phase, and the third breeding phase.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: The fallow deer ("Dama dama)" is an ungulate which employs an unusual strategy for mating during the rut. This strategy is the creation of a lek, a display area presented to the females where the males gather and allow the females to choose a mate based upon their traits alone while reducing predation risk, disturbance to copulation, parasite transmission and the cost of looking for a mate. When females come to the lek they leave soon after mating but the males will tend to stay in the lek to court other females until the end of the rutting season. However, male fallow deer which are unsuccessful in mating will leave the lek sooner than other males and they will adopt other strategies to compensate for their lack of mating success in the lek. Furthermore, the duration spent in the lek is positively correlated with the behavioral traits of male display frequency and aggression, male hierarchical position and secondary sex characteristics such as antler size. Overall, lekking species such as the fallow deer have a short intense rutting season where the males face intrasexual competition, territory defense and management of females within their territory.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: In elephants, the breeding season is less pronounced than in other ungulates and it usually spikes when the rains season occurs or shortly thereafter. The rut is observed in both African and Asian elephants and it is referred to as musth. Its meaning is derived from the Urdu word "mast" meaning intoxication. The most prominent characteristics of an elephant in rut are heightened sexual and aggressive activity along with copious temporal gland secretion and continual urine discharge. Also it has been observed that males will have a higher concentration of testosterone and an increased likelihood of associating with female groups during musth. Similarly to deer or mountain goats, elephants will tusk the ground throwing vegetation, logs and objects into the air and occasionally at subordinates.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Moose have a series of rutting events that are similar to those seen in other deer species, however, they have several characteristic behaviors which give them a distinct rut. The first of these behaviors is a challenger gait where the bull moose will sway back and forth and circle the rival bull while dipping his antlers down. Another typical behaviour seen in moose especially during the pre-rut stage is mock battling. This is a display meant to scare away other rival males where the bull moose will destroy trees and vegetation prior to engaging in a fight. Also, a behaviour known as displacement feeding is observed in male moose and it refers to the hasty movements made by the moose while it is feeding as it keeps an intense gaze upon rival bull moose. Furthermore, as seen in other deer species male moose will dig mud pits and soak them in urine and the females will fight over possession of these wallows. The pre-rutting season typically begins during August and is marked by bull moose leaving the younger satellite bulls. During this stage there is much mock fighting and the pre-rut ends in September when the bull moose emerge from the solidarity of heavily wooded areas. Then begins the searching stage of the rut where the male seeks the moose cow in estrus and the instances of displacement feeding and tension between rival males increases. Once a potential mate has been found the male enters the display stage of the stage which lasts one to three days. During this time he will court the female by standing sidewise three to five yards from the female moose to show himself as a mate. If successful he will get to mate with her for several days and then move on to a new partner. This pattern of behaviours will then repeat with successive mates until late October or early November. Following the mating season, bull moose spend long hours resting and feeding before forming their usual winter groupings.


title: Rut (mammalian reproduction)

text: Although the battle between males is the main contest, there is also a battle between females. Usually, this occurs between an older cow moose and a younger female. The mature cow will attempt to stop the younger one from coming near to the wallow in a vicious attack with her forelegs and if the younger female gets to lie in the wallow the older female will drive her out of it only to return to lie in it and take up as much space as possible. During this event the bull moose will not interfere and he will just watch in plain sight.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Joseph Simon Donnelly Sr. (born September 29, 1955) is an American attorney, politician, and diplomat who served as a United States senator from Indiana from 2013 to 2019. Since 2022, he has served as the United States Ambassador to the Holy See.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Born in Massapequa, New York, Donnelly graduated from the University of Notre Dame. He began his political career on the Indiana State Election Board while working as an attorney in practice. From 1997 to 2001 he was on the Mishawaka Marian School Board, serving as its president from 2000 to 2001. In 2004, he won the Democratic nomination for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives, losing to Republican incumbent Chris Chocola in the general election. In 2006, he challenged Chocola again, and won election with 54% of the vote. He represented Indiana's 2nd congressional district from 2007 to 2013, winning reelection in 2008 and 2010.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In May 2011, Donnelly announced his intention to run for the U.S. Senate, winning the Democratic nomination one year later in an uncontested primary. He then faced Indiana State Treasurer Richard Mourdock who had defeated 36-year incumbent Richard Lugar in the Republican primary. On November 6, 2012, Donnelly defeated Mourdock in the general election with 50% of the vote to Mourdock's 44%; Mourdock's loss was attributed by some to his controversial comments about sexual assault. In 2018, Donnelly ran for reelection to a second term, but was defeated by former Republican state representative Mike Braun.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On October 8, 2021, President Joe Biden announced he would nominate Donnelly to serve as the United States ambassador to the Holy See. He presented his letters of credence to Pope Francis on April 11, 2022.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly was born and raised in Massapequa, New York. His mother died when he was 10, and he was raised by his father. He graduated from the University of Notre Dame with a Bachelor of Arts in government in 1977, and earned his Juris Doctor from Notre Dame Law School in 1981.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: He practiced at the law firm Nemeth, Feeney and Masters until 1996, when he opened Marking Solutions, a printing and rubber-stamp company.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly served on the Indiana Election Commission from 1988 to 1989. He was a member of the Mishawaka Marian School Board from 1997 to 2001 and its president from 2000 to 2001.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: He ran for Indiana attorney general in 1988, but lost at the Democratic state convention. He also ran an unsuccessful campaign for the Indiana Senate in 1990.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2004, Donnelly ran for the U.S. Congress from Indiana's 2nd congressional district. He won the Democratic nomination unopposed, but lost the election to incumbent Republican Chris Chocola, 54%–45%.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On May 2, 2006, Donnelly defeated Steve Francis for the Democratic nomination for U.S. Congress from Indiana's 2nd district, setting up a rematch against incumbent Chris Chocola. Because of President George W. Bush's waning popularity, the race was expected to be competitive. The website MoveOn.org targeted Chocola and ran advertising against him. Chocola maintained a decisive lead in fundraising, raising $3.2 million to Donnelly's $1.5 million. The campaign was heated, with the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee sponsoring ads attacking Chocola as beholden to moneyed interests in the insurance, pharmaceutical, and energy industries. Chocola returned fire by attacking Donnelly over a late tax filing and attempting to link him to Democratic House leader Nancy Pelosi.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On November 7, 2006, Donnelly defeated Chocola 54%–46%, a difference of 15,145 votes. The key difference between the 2006 and 2004 elections lay in the results in St. Joseph County, the location of South Bend and by far the district's largest county. Donnelly won that county with 58% of the vote.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination. In the general election, he won reelection to a second term with 67% of the vote.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination. In the general election, he was challenged by Republican nominee State Representative Jackie Walorski. Despite the Republican wave in the 2010 midterm elections, Donnelly won reelection to a third term, defeating Walorski 48%–46%.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On May 8, 2012, Donnelly ran unopposed for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate after acknowledging the difficulty of winning reelection in his new home district drawn per the 2010 census. He faced a Tea Party favorite, Indiana State Treasurer Richard Mourdock, who had defeated six-term incumbent Richard Lugar in the Republican primary, and Libertarian nominee Andy Horning.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: An issue in the campaign was the auto bailout of 2009, which Donnelly supported and Mourdock said was unconstitutional. Donnelly fashioned himself "a common-sense Hoosier" in the tradition of Richard Lugar and Evan Bayh.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: During the campaign, Mourdock became embroiled in a controversy after stating that pregnancy from rape is "something that God intended". His remarks were made in a debate on October 23, 2012, during which he explained his opposition to abortion even in the case of rape.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly ran for reelection against Republican Mike Braun and Libertarian Lucy Brenton. Braun won the election.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On January 3, 2013, Donnelly was sworn into the United States Senate in the 113th Congress by Vice President Joe Biden. Donnelly was the first Democrat to hold his seat since Vance Hartke's defeat by Richard Lugar in 1977. The Lugar Center, a Washington, D.C.-based nonprofit Lugar founded in 2013, ranked Donnelly the fourth most bipartisan Senator in the first session of the 115th United States Congress as well as the most bipartisan Democrat in the Senate.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly was considered a moderate Democrat who "sometimes bucks his party on issues such as abortion, defense spending and the environment". According to "Politico", "Donnelly is constantly dogged by Republicans aiming to unseat him" while also facing "disgruntled Democrats who think he's far too conservative". In 2013, the "National Journal" gave Donnelly a composite score of 52% conservative and 48% liberal. According to FiveThirtyEight, which tracks Congressional votes, Donnelly voted with President Trump's position 54.5% of the time. "Congressional Quarterly" published a study finding that Donnelly voted with Trump's positions 62% of the time. According to GovTrack, Donnelly was the second most conservative Democrat, after Joe Manchin, and to the right of moderate Republican Senator Susan Collins. He supported progressive taxation and organized labor, but opposed same-sex marriage and abortion, even in the case of rape, during his 2012 campaign (though he supported an exception in the case of rape in the 2018 campaign). On April 5, 2013, Donnelly endorsed same-sex marriage on his Facebook page.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly voted against the Temporary Payroll Tax Cut Continuation Act of 2011 (a two-month extension of an expiring provision from the American Recovery Act, forestalling an increase in the payroll tax from 4.2% to 6.2%); he voted for the Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012 (a one-year extension of the same provision). In 2012 Donnelly also voted for H.R. 9, the Small Business Tax Cut Act, which would allow businesses with fewer than 500 employees to receive a tax deduction equal to 20% of their domestic business income.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly was one of 276 members of Congress who voted for the Tax Relief and Unemployment Insurance Act of 2010, extending the 2001 and 2003 Bush-era tax cuts and a 13-month extension of unemployment benefits. In an interview, Donnelly said that he favored making the tax cuts permanent for middle-class Americans and temporarily extending the cuts for families making at least $250,000. In a speech at the 2012 Indiana Democratic Convention, Donnelly said that he would support a temporary one-year extension of all Bush-era tax cuts. "Given our continued economic challenges," he said, "now is the time to keep tax rates low... We need to create jobs, we need to help the middle class and support small businesses, and we need to avoid partisan bickering and delay."


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On September 27, 2013, Donnelly voted for the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2014 (H.J.Res 59).


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2016, Donnelly received a rating of 10% from FreedomWorks and 15% from Club for Growth; in 2015–16, the National Tax Limitation Committee gave him a 36% rating.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly opposed the Republican tax reform legislation, the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, saying in October 2017 that he was open to supporting the plan but wanted to see more detail and be assured it would focus on substantial middle-class tax relief.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: During his second term, Donnelly voted for the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: A March 2012 letter signed by Donnelly and other Democratic members of the House and Senate, urged Commodity Futures Trading Commission Chairman Gary Gensler to curb oil speculation in the commodity market through new provisions in the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In July 2012, Donnelly voted in favor of H.R. 459, the Federal Reserve Transparency Act, sponsored by Texas Congressman Ron Paul. The bill requires a full audit of the Federal Reserve, the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, and Federal reserve banks by the Comptroller General. He also joined Republicans in writing a bill to deregulate certain banks. He was one of four Democrats who helped write the bill. In 2018, Donnelly broke with the majority of his party and voted with Republicans to loosen banking regulations.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2007, Donnelly co-sponsored the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007. The act allowed Congress to gradually raise the federal minimum wage from $5.15 per hour to $7.25 per hour. Donnelly voted in favor of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act. Donnelly has pushed for the passage of the "Forty Hours is Full Time Act" along with Republican senator Susan Collins, which would define a full-time employment as 40 hours a week rather than 30.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly, along with 197 members of the House, was a cosponsor of the Medicare Prescription Drug Price Negotiation Act of 2007. He voted against the Prescription Drug Imports Act, which would have "allowed funds to be used to prohibit the importation of prescription drugs by anyone who is not a legally sanctioned importer of drugs, a wholesaler, or a pharmacist".


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2007, Donnelly was a co-sponsor of the Children's Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act (CHIP), which would have added $35 billion and 4 million children to the program over five years by raising the federal cigarette tax by 61 cents to $1 per pack. After passing the House and Senate, the measure was vetoed by President George W. Bush. Donnelly joined 217 Democrats and 42 Republicans in a failed effort to override Bush's veto.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In March 2010, Donnelly voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (commonly called Obamacare or the Affordable Care Act). In 2013, Donnelly proposed changing the Affordable Care Act's definition of full-time work from 30 hours a week to 40. He also supported repealing the medical device excise tax, a 2.3% tax on the sale of certain medical devices by the manufacturer, producer or importer of the device. In 2012, Donnelly cosponsored the Protect Medical Innovation Act, which would repeal the tax.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: After Donnelly voted in 2012 to repeal the medical-device tax that is part of Obamacare, his 2012 election opponent, Richard Mourdock, said: "Joe Donnelly wants to pick apart Obamacare, but that begs the question: Why didn't he just hold out and not vote for it?"


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2017 campaign messages, Donnelly called President Donald Trump's proposed changes to Obamacare "unacceptable and cruel" and "half-baked", asserting that Obamacare "benefits millions of Hoosiers". In January 2018, Donnelly was one of six Democrats to join Republican senators in voting to confirm Alex Azar, Trump's nominee for Health Secretary.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly opposed Trump's nomination of Betsy DeVos as Secretary of Education. "After reviewing her record," he explained, "I share the concerns expressed by many Hoosier educators, students, and families that Betsy DeVos lacks the commitment to public education needed to effectively lead the Department of Education."


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2011, Donnelly voted to allow Department of Defense funds to be used for military actions as part of the NATO Intervention in Libya. He also voted in support of the failed resolution to authorize the President to continue the limited use of U.S. Forces in Libya. The resolution stated that Congress does not support deploying, establishing, or maintaining the presence of units and members of U.S. Armed Forces on the ground in Libya unless the purpose of the presence is limited to the defense of U.S. government officials or NATO member forces from imminent danger.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly voted against the Iraq War troop surge of 2007. In July 2007, he joined 221 other House members in voting for HR 2956, the Responsible Redeployment from Iraq Act. This legislation contained a deadline for withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2011, Donnelly aligned himself with Republicans and seven other members of the Blue Dog Coalition in a 204–215 House vote against an accelerated withdrawal from the war in Afghanistan.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: He reaffirmed opposition to an accelerated withdrawal from Afghanistan in voting against the Lee amendment, proposed in H.R. 4310, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013. The Lee amendment would have prohibited the military spending any money in Afghanistan except for non-combat humanitarian activities, and on activities leading to the withdrawal of American military forces from the country.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly supported a Senate resolution condemning the UN Security Council resolution on Israeli settlements built on the occupied Palestinian territories in the West Bank.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In May 2017, Donnelly co-sponsored the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (s. 720), which made it a federal crime for Americans to encourage or participate in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories if protesting actions by the Israeli government.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2011, Donnelly voted against H.R. 2219, which would have cut the U.S. military budget by $8.5 billion, stipulating that no cuts were to be taken from pay or benefit programs supporting members and veterans of the armed forces. These cuts would have reduced the emphasis of the U.S. budget on weapons programs. Donnelly also voted against the failed Polis amendment, which would have cut $640 million in a 2% across-the-board reduction in spending from the 2012 United States Department of Homeland Security appropriations bill. He voted for the 2012 National Defense Authorization Act. Civil liberties advocates have criticized Donnelly for voting for Section 1021, expanding the president's authority to detain suspected al-Qaeda, Taliban, or associated forces (including U.S. citizens) without a trial.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly has voted to reauthorize the Patriot Act, and to require FISA warrants for wiretaps in the U.S., but not abroad.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly voted against the DREAM Act on December 8, 2010. In 2018, Donnelly voted in favor of the McCain-Coons comprehensive immigration bill, which would have provided a pathway to citizenship but did not include any funding for a border wall; he also voted to withhold funds from sanctuary cities, in favor of Susan Collins's bipartisan proposal that included both a pathway to citizenship for Dreamers and funding for border security, and in support of Trump's proposal to allow a pathway to citizenship while funding a border wall and reducing legal immigration. Donnelly said that he supports more funding for the border wall proposed by Trump.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2017, NumbersUSA, which seeks to reduce both legal and illegal immigration, gave him a 0% score; in 2015–16, the Federation for American Immigration Reform, which also supports immigration controls, gave him a 25% rating.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2016, the Defenders of Wildlife Action Fund gave him a 77% rating; in 2015–16 EarthRights International gave him a 40% rating; in 2015–16, Environment America gave him a 55% rating.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2018, Donnelly was rated a "D" by the National Rifle Association for his vote "to criminalize the private transfer of firearms between close friends and some family members, which according to the Obama Justice Department, is only enforceable through a federal firearms registry. Donnelly also supports ammunition restrictions on law-abiding citizens."


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly was previously one of the few Senate Democrats who had received an "A" rating from the National Rifle Association (NRA) for his consistent support of policies that the NRA supports. He has commended the NRA for its work with children on gun safety.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2007, he co-sponsored a bill that repealed the requirement in Washington, D.C. to have guns registered. The bill also repealed the ban on semi-automatic firearms and trigger locks. Two years later, Donnelly supported a law that would enact concealed carry reciprocity across state lines.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2013, Donnelly joined three other Senate Democrats in voting against the proposed ban on assault weapons. He also voted to support expanded background checks that same year.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2017, he participated in the Chris Murphy gun control filibuster that was intended to persuade Republicans to support legislation that would have barred suspected terrorists and convicted criminals from purchasing guns. "I am a supporter of the Second Amendment," he said. "I'm also someone who believes it's reasonable for all of us to consider smart and responsible ways to reduce gun violence. Those things are not in opposition to each other." Despite Donnelly's participation in the filibuster, a liberal Donnelly supporter, "Indianapolis Star" columnist Matthew Tully, complained on June 15, 2016, that "Donnelly's overall record on gun policies, first in the House and now in the Senate, and his general avoidance of taking a leadership position on the issue, seems much less tolerable than it did four years ago."


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly opposes abortion, and identifies as pro-life. He has described himself as "committed to protecting the sanctity of life". He has mixed ratings from pro-choice and anti-abortion political action committees. Planned Parenthood, which supports legal abortion, has given him a lifetime score of 67% in line with their positions. NARAL Pro-Choice America gave him a 0% score based on their 2016 pro-choice positions. The National Right to Life Committee, which opposes legal abortion, has scored him as voting 40% in line with their positions in 2018, 25% in 2015, 70% in 2012, and 83% in 2010, his highest score. The anti-abortion Campaign for Working Families gave him a 38% grade in 2018. He was endorsed by Democrats for Life of America, a pro-life Democratic PAC.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: He has voted for a 20-week abortion ban and co-sponsored a bill that would prohibit transporting a minor across state lines for an abortion. In 2011, he co-sponsored HR 3, the No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act. He voted to defund Planned Parenthood before 2015, but has since voted in support of Planned Parenthood. In August 2015, his campaign treasurer, Kathy Davis, who had worked on a volunteer basis for four years, resigned from his campaign because he voted to defund Planned Parenthood after videos surfaced of Planned Parenthood officials discussing fetal tissue donations. He was one of only two Democratic Senators who voted to defund Planned Parenthood on this occasion, the other being Joe Manchin of West Virginia.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On March 30, 2017, Donnelly voted against H.J. Res. 43, which, when signed by President Trump, nullified a pending federal regulation that would have disallowed states to withhold money from abortion providers.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In November 2017, Donnelly was criticized by pro-life groups when he did not speak out against the DNC's presentation of a lifetime achievement award to the CEO of Planned Parenthood. "Donnelly is making it clear that he's willing to get in line with the party on abortion to maintain his support from Washington Democrats," complained the NRSC.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In 2018, he was one of three Democratic Senators who voted to ban abortions performed after 20 weeks of pregnancy.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly has an overall mixed voting record on LGBT rights, receiving a rating of 30% from the Human Rights Campaign in 2010. In 2007, Donnelly cosponsored the Employment Non-Discrimination Act, but in 2009, he voted against the Matthew Shepard Act. In October 2009, Donnelly voted for 2009–2010 Defense Appropriations, which included the Matthew Shepard Act, which expanded federal hate crimes to include sexual orientation, gender identity and disabilities. On May 27, 2010, Donnelly voted against repealing Don't Ask, Don't Tell after military review and certification, though the next day, he voted for the 2010-2011 Defense Appropriation Authorizations bill, which included a provision repealing Don't Ask Don't Tell. In December 2010, Donnelly voted for the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010. He was one of 17 Democratic Representatives to vote for H Amdt 1416 the Prohibits Use of Funds in Contravention of the Defense of Marriage Act in July 2012.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Having opposed same-sex marriage during his 2012 senatorial campaign, Donnelly announced in April 2013, five months after his election, that he had changed his position.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly received a rating of 80% from the Human Rights Campaign in 2017 for his time in the 114th Congress.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly was one of four Democrats to vote against the Stream Protection Rule. He was one of three Democrats to vote to confirm President Trump's first Supreme Court nominee, Neil Gorsuch, and the second Democrat to announce that he would meet with Brett Kavanaugh, Trump's second Supreme Court nominee. He ultimately voted against confirming Kavanaugh to the Supreme Court.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In March 2019, Donnelly joined Washington, D.C. law firm Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld as a partner.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In April 2019, with fellow former Senator Heidi Heitkamp (who also lost reelection in 2018), Donnelly launched One Country Project, an organization dedicated to helping Democrats reconnect with rural voters. He is also a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: On October 8, 2021, President Biden nominated Donnelly to be the ambassador to the Holy See. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held hearings on his nomination on December 14, 2021. The committee favorably reported his nomination to the Senate floor on January 12, 2022. On January 20, 2022, Donnelly was confirmed by the U.S. Senate via voice vote. On February 25, 2022, he was sworn into office. He presented his credentials to Pope Francis on April 11, 2022.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: Donnelly met his wife, Jill, while attending the University of Notre Dame; the two married in 1979. They have two children. They live in Granger, an unincorporated suburban community northeast of South Bend.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: , Donnelly was the 74th wealthiest member of the U.S. Senate, with an estimated net worth of $781,504.


title: Joe Donnelly

text: In July 2017, the Associated Press reported that Donnelly, who had "long blasted free-trade policies for killing American jobs" and, specifically, "railed against Carrier Corp. for moving manufacturing jobs to Mexico" the previous year, had simultaneously "profited from a family business" that used Mexican labor. For over a year, the business, Stewart Superior Corp., which had been owned by his family "for generations", had been "shipping thousands of pounds of raw materials to Mexico" and then transporting finished products back to the U.S. The company was run by Donnelly's brother, and Donnelly was a corporate officer and the firm's general counsel before entering Congress. In 2016, Donnelly owned up to $50,000 in company stock and between $15,001 and $50,000 in dividends. Alejandro Ruelas-Gossi, a Latin America trade expert, accused Donnelly of "hypocrisy" given his opposition to NAFTA. After the AP report, Donnelly agreed to sell his stock in the family firm. In August 2017, the NRSC hired a mariachi band to play at a campaign stop as a way of reminding voters about his hypocrisy on the issue of exporting jobs to Mexico.


title: Parasitic plant

text: A parasitic plant is a plant that derives some or all of its nutritional requirements from another living plant. They make up about 1% of angiosperms and are found in almost every biome. All parasitic plants develop a specialized organ called the haustorium, which penetrates the host plant, connecting them to the host vasculature – either the xylem, phloem, or both. For example, plants like "Striga" or "Rhinanthus" connect only to the xylem, via xylem bridges (xylem-feeding). Alternately, plants like "Cuscuta" and some members of "Orobanche" connect to both the xylem and phloem of the host. This provides them with the ability to extract water and nutrients from the host. Parasitic plants are classified depending on the location where the parasitic plant latches onto the host (root or stem), the amount of nutrients it requires, and their photosynthetic capability. Some parasitic plants can locate their host plants by detecting volatile chemicals in the air or soil given off by host shoots or roots, respectively. About 4,500 species of parasitic plants in approximately 20 families of flowering plants are known.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Parasitic plants occur in multiple plant families, indicating that the evolution is polyphyletic. Some families consist mostly of parasitic representatives such as Balanophoraceae, while other families have only a few representatives. One example is the North American "Monotropa uniflora" (Indian pipe or corpse plant) which is a member of the heath family, Ericaceae, better known for its member blueberries, cranberries, and rhododendrons.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Plants usually considered holoparasites include broomrape, dodder, "Rafflesia", and the Hydnoraceae. Plants usually considered hemiparasites include "Castilleja", mistletoe, Western Australian Christmas tree, and yellow rattle.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Parasitic behavior evolved in angiosperms roughly 12-13 times independently, a classic example of convergent evolution. Roughly 1% of all angiosperm species are parasitic, with a large degree of host dependence. The taxonomic family "Orobanchaceae" (encompassing the genera "Triphysaria", "Striga", and "Orobanche") is the only family that contains both holoparasitic and hemiparasitic species, making it a model group for studying the evolutionary rise of parasitism. The remaining groups contain only hemiparasites or holoparasites.


title: Parasitic plant

text: The evolutionary event which gave rise to parasitism in plants was the development of haustoria. The first, most ancestral, haustoria are thought to be similar to that of the facultative hemiparasites within "Triphysaria", lateral haustoria develop along the surface of the roots in these species. Later evolution led to the development of terminal or primary haustoria at the tip of the juvenile radicle, seen in obligate hemiparasitic species within "Striga". Lastly, holoparasitic plants, always forms of obligate parasites, evolved over the loss of photosynthesis, seen in the genus "Orobanche".


title: Parasitic plant

text: To maximize resources, many parasitic plants have evolved 'self-incompatibility', to avoid parasitizing themselves. Others such as "Triphysaria" usually avoid parasitizing other members of their species, but some parasitic plants have no such limits. The albino redwood is a mutant "Sequoia sempervirens" that produces no chlorophyll; they live on sugars from neighbouring trees, usually the parent tree from which they have grown (via a somatic mutation).


title: Parasitic plant

text: Parasitic plants germinate in several methods. These can either be chemical or mechanical and the means used by seeds often depends on whether or not the parasites are root parasites or stem parasites. Most parasitic plants need to germinate near their host plants because their seeds are limited in the number of resources necessary to survive without nutrients from their host plants. Resources are limited due in part to the fact that most parasitic plants are not able to use autotrophic nutrition to establish the early stages of seeding.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Root parasitic plant seeds tend to use chemical cues for germination. For germination to occur, seeds need to be quite close to the host plant. For example, the seeds of witchweed ("Striga asiatica") need to be within 3 to 4 millimeters (mm) of its host to receive chemical signals in the soil to trigger germination. This range is important because "Striga Asiatica" will only grow about 4  mm after germination. Chemical compound cues sensed by parasitic plant seeds are from host plant root exudates that are leached nearby from the host's root system into the surrounding soil. These chemical cues are a variety of compounds that are unstable and rapidly degraded in soil and are present within a radius of a few meters of the plant exuding them. Parasitic plants germinate and follow a concentration gradient of these compounds in the soil toward the host plants if close enough. These compounds are called strigolactones. Strigolactone stimulates ethylene biosynthesis in seeds causing them to germinate.


title: Parasitic plant

text: There are a variety of chemical germination stimulants. Strigol was the first of the germination stimulants to be isolated. It was isolated from a non-host cotton plant and has been found in true host plants such as corn and millets. The stimulants are usually plant-specific, examples of other germination stimulants include sorgolactone from sorghum, Orobanche and electoral from red clover, and 5-deoxystrigol from "Lotus japonicus". Strigolactones are apocarotenoids that are produced via the carotenoid pathway of plants. Strigolactones and mycorrhizal fungi have a relationship in which Strigolactone also cues the growth of mycorrhizal fungus.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Stem parasitic plants, unlike most root parasites, germinate using the resources inside their endosperms and can survive for some time. For example, the dodders ("Cuscuta" spp.) drop their seeds to the ground. These may remain dormant for up to five years before they find a host plant. Using the resources in the seed endosperm, the dodder can germinate. Once germinated, the plant has 6 days to find and establish a connection with its host plant before its resources are exhausted. Dodder seeds germinate above ground, then the plant sends out stems in search of its host plant reaching up to 6  cm before it dies. It is believed that the plant uses two methods of finding a host. The stem detects its host plant's scent and orients itself in that direction. Scientists used volatiles from tomato plants (α-pinene, β-myrcene, and β-phellandrene) to test the reaction of "C. pentagona" and found that the stem orients itself in the direction of the odor. Some studies suggest that by using light reflecting from nearby plants dodders can select hosts with higher sugar because of the levels of chlorophyll in the leaves. Once the dodder finds its host, it wraps itself around the host plant's stem. Using adventitious roots, the dodder taps into the host plant's stem with a haustorium, an absorptive organ within the host plant vascular tissue. Dodder makes several of these connections with the host as it moves up the plant.


title: Parasitic plant

text: There are several methods of seed dispersal, but all the strategies aim to put the seed in direct contact with, or within a critical distance of, the host.


title: Parasitic plant

text: A parasitic plant has many obstacles to overcome to attach to a host. Distance from the host and stored nutrients are some of the problems, and the host's defenses are an obstacle to overcome. The first hurdle is penetrating the host since the host has systems to reinforce the cell wall by protein cross-linking so that it stops the parasitic progress at the cortex of the host's roots. The second hurdle is the host's ability to secrete germination inhibitors. This prevents germination of the parasitic seed. The third hurdle is the host's ability to create a toxic environment at the location where the parasitic plant attaches. The host secretes phenolic compounds into the apoplast. This creates a toxic environment for the parasitic plant, eventually killing it. The fourth hurdle is the host's ability to ruin the tubercle using gums and gels or injecting toxins into the tubercle.


title: Parasitic plant

text: Some parasitic plants are generalists and parasitize many different species, even several different species at once. Dodder ("Cuscuta" spp.) and red rattle ("Odontites vernus") are generalist parasites. Other parasitic plants are specialists that parasitize a few or just one species. Beech drops ("Epifagus virginiana") is a root holoparasite only on American beech ("Fagus grandifolia"). "Rafflesia" is a holoparasite on the vine "Tetrastigma". Plants such as "Pterospora" become parasites of mycorrhizal fungi. There is evidence that parasites also practice self-discrimination, species of "Triphysaria" experience reduced haustorium development in the presence of other "Triphysaria". The mechanism for self-discrimination in parasites is not yet known.