title: The Settlers

text: In an October 2006 press release, Ubisoft explained that for the next entry in the main series, "", the designers had been working to identify "the "Settler" gene"; that quintessential component or components which make the "Settlers" series unique. Grindel explained that the design philosophy behind the game was "to understand the "Settlers" series in its entirety", whilst co-designer Andreas Suika said that "we're taking something from all the "Settlers" parts, and making the best "Settlers" there can be". At Ubisoft's Ubidays event in July 2007, Grindel reiterated: "We really wanted to grab the essence of what people like about the different games, to make one "Settlers" game that really summarises what the series is about".


title: The Settlers

text: Blue Byte made sure to address the reaction to "Heritage of Kings", assuring fans that "Rise" would be a very different type of game. Suika stated, "if you look at "Heritage of Kings", and develop the series consistently from that point, we would have a pure RTS with no economy. And we don't want that. There are many people who say there was too much fighting in "Settlers 5", and we agree. We want to reduce this in favour of economic-based gameplay". On the same subject, Grindel opined, "we strayed too far from the basic concept of "The Settlers"". Hoping to rectify this with "Rise of an Empire", he explained that, for the first time in the series, combat is "not the ultimate goal of each map".


title: The Settlers

text: The next release in the series was "Die Siedler: Aufbruch der Kulturen", a 2008 German-only spiritual successor to "10th Anniversary" featuring very similar gameplay. Speaking prior to its release, Ronald Kaulbach, Ubisoft's International Brand Manager spoke about that project:


title: The Settlers

text: Developed by Gameloft, the next entry in the franchise was "The Settlers HD", a 2009 handheld remake of "The Settlers IV", released for multiple operating systems. The next game was the seventh entry in the main series, "". In the early stages of development, Blue Byte looked at the two previous games, "Heritage of Kings" and "Rise of an Empire", both of which had been unpopular with fans, to see why they didn't work as "Settlers" titles. Whilst "Heritage" had gone too far in the direction of real-time strategy, with far more emphasis on combat than city-building, "Rise" had restored the centrality of city-building, but also featured a significantly simpler economic model than any previous title in the series, with little focus on the daisy-chain economic processes upon which the first four "Settlers" titles were built. In the lead-up to the release of "Paths to a Kingdom", Grindel admitted, "with "Settlers 5" and "6", we lost many loyal fans, despite having a larger base target group."


title: The Settlers

text: With this in mind, the designers looked both forward and backwards - introducing new game mechanics such as a Victory Points system and greatly improving the graphics, but also going back to, for example, "The Settlers II" for the centrality of building a good road network and "The Settlers III" for the complexity of the production chains. Lead designer Andreas Nitsche explained that the importance of the Victory Point system would mean combat is no longer more important than economic micromanagement: "It's always been a pity that behind every fish that was caught, every iron ingot that was cast, there was only one motivation - to fight the enemy. This situation has been changed by the Victory Point system. Now there are many ways to use your economy to win, not just totally annihilating the enemy; now, economic competition for technologies, trading posts, or land can lead to victory". Blue Byte also hired Bruce Shelley, co-designer of "Railroad Tycoon" and "Civilization", and lead designer on the first three "Age of Empires" games, as a design consultant on "Paths to a Kingdom", specifically with an eye to making the game more appealing to a North American market and correcting some of the perceived problems with "Heritage of Kings" and "Rise of an Empire".


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers: Kingdoms of Anteria" was announced in June 2014, with Blue Byte citing it as "the most innovative "Settlers" game we have ever created". In August, Ubisoft released the first screenshots and revealed that the game would be a combination of city-building and action role-playing. At Gamescom that month, lead designer Guido Schmidt touted the game's economic system, which he explained was the most complex in the franchise's history, with some of the more advanced economic processes involving up to 19 buildings. Discussing the differentiation between combat missions and city-building, he said the designers were acting on feedback from fans, who disliked being under pressure whilst they tried to build up their city, as that city could be attacked at any time. With this in mind, Blue Byte decided to completely divorce combat from city-building, structuring the combat more in the vein of a dungeon crawler than the kind of real-time strategy combat seen in previous titles.


title: The Settlers

text: A German closed beta began in August and an international beta in September. However, by late October, it had become apparent that the beta was generating predominantly negative feedback from both fans and journalists. Many found the combat gameplay too similar to "Diablo", and criticised the repetitiveness of the missions, chaotic fights, a non-rotatable camera, and poor AI. There was also an especially strong feeling that the game didn't feel like a "Settlers" title. In January 2015, Ubisoft abruptly ended the beta several months early. In a statement on the game's official forums, they said that "this step is unusual but necessary so that we can fully concentrate on modifications, new content, and solutions to known problems. Many upcoming changes are based on the huge amount of valuable feedback that has been collected to date". Little more was heard about the game until April 2016, when Blue Byte published an open letter on their forums, explaining that "Kingdoms of Anteria" would be released in August, albeit no longer as a "Settlers" title, with the new name of "Champions of Anteria", and with redesigned gameplay.


title: The Settlers

text: At Gamescom in 2018, Ubisoft announced the eighth title in the main series. Initially, named simply "The Settlers", it was intended as a reboot of sorts, and was originally slated for release in 2019, then rescheduled for the third quarter of 2020, but in July, the game's release was postponed indefinitely and preorders were refunded. In January 2022, Ubisoft revealed that the game was nearing completion and was scheduled for release in March of that year. However, the game's closed beta received highly negative feedback. Acting on this feedback, Ubisoft announced in early March that the game was postposed until "a later date." In November 2022, they revealed the game had a new title ("The Settlers: New Allies") and was slated for release in February 2023. They also revealed that for the first time in the series' history, a "Settlers" game would be a multi-platform title, with plans to release the game on the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X/S, GeForce Now, and Amazon Luna.


title: The Settlers

text: The original game received positive reviews, with critics especially praising the complexity of the economic system and the interrelatedness of the various buildings. "Amiga User International" called it "a true masterpiece". "CU Amiga"s Tony Dillon argued that "there are so many variations on the basic game, that you will wonder if you could ever play the same game twice". "Computer Gaming World"s Robert L. Hayes, Jr. called it "the most realistic medieval economic model ever built into a computer system", although he found combat "dull and predictable".


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers II" received very positive reviews, with critics especially praising the gameplay, the economic system, and the graphics. "PC Games" Petra Maueröder called it "world class". "PC Player"s Jörg Langer wrote "there is no more constructive, more relaxing strategy game". On the other hand, "GameSpot"s Trent Ward called combat "snore-inducing."


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers III" received mixed reviews. Whilst the economic system was praised, most critics felt the game was too similar to previous "Settlers" titles. "PC Gamer"s James Flynn called the economic system "perfectly designed". "PC Games" Petra Maueröder wrote "the depth of the game is immense", although she was critical of the single-player campaign and poor pathfinding. "GameRevolution"s Mark Cooke lauded the "level of complexity". On the other hand, "GameSpot"s Ron Dulin argued that it played almost identically to "The Settlers II", citing "surface changes [which] make only a moderate improvement". "Next Generation" called the game "a disappointment, lacking the creativity needed to compete in today's overcrowded RTS market".


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers IV" received mixed reviews, with most critics feeling it was too similar to "The Settlers III", and many opining that Blue Byte had failed to steer the gameplay away from an over-reliance on combat. Although the graphics and animations were generally praised, the AI, mission variety, and combat were criticised. "PC Player"s Damian Knaus was critical of the lack of any "real innovations". "PC Games" Rüdiger Steidle wrote that "Blue Byte has not altered the concept at all". "IGN"s Dan Adams criticised the similarities to "The Settlers III", writing, "it's hard to tell this is really a new game". "GameSpot"s Ron Dulin called it "just the same old game with the same old problems".


title: The Settlers

text: "Heritage of Kings" received mixed reviews, with many critics arguing the graphical changes, streamlining of micromanagement, and foregrounding of combat stripped the game of the unique "Settlers" identity. "PC Games" Petra Fröhlich argued it was a "Settlers" game in name only, noting "economic cycles are virtually non-existent". "Eurogamer"s Kieron Gillen called it ""brutally" average". "Computer Gaming World"s Erik Wolpaw felt the game featured nothing to distinguish it from late '90s real-time strategy titles.


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers II (10th Anniversary)" received mixed reviews. Whilst the graphics and sound effects were generally praised, and the designers were lauded for retaining so much of the original game's mechanics, some critics felt it was too reverential to the original, and, as a result, seemed dated. "Gameswelt"s André Linken lamented the designers' "unwillingness to restructure" the repetitive mission goals of the original, although "VideoGamer.com"s Paul Devlin called it a "lovingly crafted remake".


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers DS" received a very negative reaction, with critics citing unresponsive controls, a poorly implemented HUD, and, especially, game-breaking bugs. "IGN"s Jack Devries criticised it as "not even a functional game". "GameSpot"s Kevin VanOrd called it "a buggy mess". "Pocket Gamer"s Mark Walbank found the number of bugs "staggering". "Eurogamer"s Dan Whitehead called it "one of the most clumsy and broken games to [ever] receive a commercial release".


title: The Settlers

text: "Rise of an Empire" received mixed reviews, with many critics finding the streamlined gameplay too simplistic, and the overall game lacking depth. Although the graphics were praised, the mission design, AI, and single-player storyline were criticised. "PC Games" Petra Fröhlich argued that it didn't seem to matter what the player does, as "even the worst settlement somehow runs fine".</ref>"GameSpy"s Allen Rausch found it "decidedly mediocre." "IGN"s Dan Adams called the economic model "simple to the extreme". On the other hand, "GameSpot"s Brett Todd called it "the most fulfilling game in the series".


title: The Settlers

text: "The Settlers HD" received positive reviews, and was lauded for replicating the original game on a portable device, and for successfully adapting the controls to a touchscreen. The most common criticism concerned the lack of free play and multiplayer modes. "AppSpy"s Andrew Nesvadba said the iOS version "is everything great about strategy games". Arron Hirst of "148Apps" called it "both immersive and addicting". "Pocket Gamer"s Tracy Erickson praised the "deep economic strategy gameplay". "Pocket Gamer"s Brendan Caldwell called the Android version "an almost resounding victory" and praised "a depth not often enjoyed by Android titles".


title: The Settlers

text: "Paths to a Kingdom" received positive reviews, with many critics citing it as the best "Settlers" game since "The Settlers II". Especially lauded were the graphics, Victory Points system, mission variety, and map design. "PC Games" Christian Schlütter called it "the best "Settlers" game in a long time". "Eurogamer"s Quintin Smith found it "ungodly compelling". "GameSpot"s Kevin VanOrd cited it as "the series' most charming to date".


title: The Settlers

text: By June 1996, the original game had sold over 215,000 units worldwide across both Amiga and MS-DOS, well beyond Blue Byte's expectations. By May 1998, it had sold over 400,000 units. "The Settlers II" sold even better, and by May 1998, it had sold over 600,000 units worldwide. By April 1999, "The Settlers III"s global sales had surpassed 600,000 units, of which nearly 400,000 were sold in Germany. By June 2000, it had sold over 700,000 units worldwide. "The Settlers IV" was 2001's highest selling German-developed game, and by August 2002, it had sold over 300,000 units domestically. By July 2006, "Heritage of Kings" had sold over 500,000 units worldwide, with 350,000 sold in Germany. "Rise of an Empire" was the highest selling German-developed game of 2007.


title: The Settlers

text: By March 2001, the series as a whole had sold just under 3 million units in total. By June 2002, that number had increased to 3.5 million; by March 2004, it had reached 5 million; by August 2008, it exceeded 6 million; by September 2009, it reached 8 million; and by September 2014, it had topped 10 million units.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) or European beaver is a beaver species that was once widespread in Eurasia, but was hunted to near-extinction for both its fur and castoreum. At the turn of the 20th century, only about 1,200 beavers survived in eight relict populations in Europe and Asia. It has been reintroduced to much of its former range, and now occurs from Spain, Central Europe, Great Britain and Scandinavia to a few regions in China and Mongolia. It is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List, as it recovered well in most of Europe. It is extirpated in Portugal, Moldova, and Turkey.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: "Castor fiber" was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the beaver in his work "Systema Naturae". Between 1792 and 1997, several Eurasian beaver zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, including:


title: Eurasian beaver

text: These descriptions were largely based on very small differences in fur colour and cranial morphology, none of which warrant a subspecific distinction.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2005, analysis of mitochondrial DNA of Eurasian beaver samples showed that only two evolutionarily significant units exist: a western phylogroup in Western and Central Europe, and an eastern phylogroup in the region east of the Oder and Vistula rivers. The eastern phylogroup is genetically more diverse, but still at a degree below thresholds considered sufficient for subspecific differentiation.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver's fur colour varies between regions. Light, chestnut-rust is the dominant colour in Belarus. In Russia's Sozh River basin, it is predominantly blackish brown, while in the Voronezh Reserve beavers are both brown and blackish-brown.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver is one of the largest living rodent species and the largest rodent native to Eurasia. Its head-to-body length is with a long tail length. It weighs around . In Norway, adult males average , while females average . Adults from the same country average . By the average weights known, it appears to be the world's second heaviest rodent after the capybara, and is slightly larger and heavier than the North American beaver. One exceptionally large recorded specimen weighed , but it is possible for the species to exceptionally exceed reportedly.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Although the Eurasian beaver appears superficially similar to the North American beaver, there are several important differences, chief among these being that the North American beaver has 40 chromosomes, while the Eurasian beaver has 48. The two species are not genetically compatible: After more than 27 attempts in Russia to hybridise the two species, the result was one stillborn kit that was bred from the pairing of a male North American beaver and a female Eurasian beaver. The difference in chromosome count makes interspecific breeding unlikely in areas where the two species' ranges overlap.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The guard hairs of the Eurasian beaver have longer hollow medullae at their tips. There is also a difference in the frequency of fur colours: 66% of Eurasian beavers overall have beige or pale brown fur, 20% have reddish brown, nearly 8% are brown, and only 4% have blackish coats; among North American beavers, 50% have pale brown fur, 25% are reddish brown, 20% are brown, and 6% are blackish.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver has a larger, less rounded head; a longer, narrower muzzle. The Eurasian beaver also has longer nasal bones, with the widest point being at the end of the snout; in the case of the North American beaver, the widest point is at the middle of the snout. The Eurasian beaver has a triangular nasal opening, unlike those of the North American beavers, which are square. Furthermore, the foramen magnum is rounded in the Eurasian beaver, but triangular in the North American beaver.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver has shorter shin bones than the North American species and a narrower, less oval-shaped tail, making it less capable of bipedal locomotion. The anal glands of the Eurasian beaver are larger, and thin-walled, with a large internal volume, relative to that of the North American beaver.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver is a keystone species, as it helps to support the ecosystem which it inhabits. It creates wetlands, which provide habitat for European water vole, Eurasian otter and Eurasian water shrew. By coppicing waterside trees and shrubs it facilitates their regrowth as dense shrubs, thus providing cover for birds and other animals. Beavers build dams that trap sediment, improve water quality, recharge groundwater tables and increase cover and forage for trout and salmon. Also, abundance and diversity of vespertilionid bats increase, apparently because of gaps created in forests, making it easier for bats to navigate.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Eurasian beavers have one litter per year, coming into estrus for only 12 to 24 hours, between late December and May, but peaking in January. Unlike most other rodents, beaver pairs are monogamous, staying together for multiple breeding seasons. Gestation averages 107 days and they average three kits per litter with a range of two to six kits. Most beavers do not reproduce until they are three years of age, but about 20% of two-year-old females reproduce.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: European beavers are herbivorous, eating "water and river bank plants", including tubers, "rootstocks of myrtles, cattails, water lilies", and also trees, including softwood tree bark. Their long appendices and the microorganisms within make possible the digestion of bark cellulose. Their daily food intake is approximately 20% of their body weight.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver is recovering from near extinction, after depredation by humans for its fur and for castoreum, a secretion of its scent gland believed to have medicinal properties. The estimated population was only 1,200 by the early 20th century. In many European nations, the Eurasian beaver became extinct, but reintroduction and protection programmes led to gradual recovery so that by 2003, the population comprised about 639,000 individuals. It likely survived east of the Ural Mountains from a 19th-century population as low as 300 animals. Factors contributing to their survival include their ability to maintain sufficient genetic diversity to recover from a population as low as three individuals, and that beavers are monogamous and select mates that are genetically different from themselves. About 83% of Eurasian beavers live in the former Soviet Union due to reintroductions.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2004, 18 European beavers were detected between Milagro and Alfaro, Spain, in the Ebro river near the Navarre-La Rioja border. An investigation determined that the animals proceeded from farms in Bavaria and were released in March 2003, though the people responsible were never identified. The regional governments attempted to remove the animals, receiving criticism from conservation groups who defended that the European beaver is a Iberian native with a fossil history of 1,4 million years and historical references in Spain until around 1583. After consulting with the European Union, the removal plans were terminated. By 2020, beavers had colonized the Ebro in La Rioja, Navarre, and Zaragoza; the Zadorra river up to Vitoria-Gasteiz, the Arga up to Pamplona, the Huerva up to Mezalocha, and the Jalón into the province of Soria. In November 2021, a young beaver was photographed for the first time outside of the Ebro basin, in the upper Duero in Soria.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In France, the Eurasian beaver was almost extirpated by the late 19th century, with only a small population of about 100 individuals surviving in the lower Rhône valley. Following protection measures in 1968 and 26 reintroduction projects, it re-colonized the Rhône river and other river systems in the country such as Loire, Saône, Moselle, Tarn and Seine rivers. In 2011, the French beaver population was estimated at 14,000 individuals living along watercourses.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Germany, around 200 Eurasian beavers survived by the end of the 19th century in the Elbe river system in Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Brandenburg. By 2019, beavers numbered above 40,000 across Germany, even appearing in many urban areas. The largest beaver population lives in eastern Germany with about 6,000 individuals descended from Elbe beavers, and in Bavaria along the Danube and its tributaries. After a resettlement programme started in 1966, around 14,000 individuals are estimated in Bavaria.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Switzerland, the Eurasian beaver was extirpated in the early 19th century due to hunting for its fur, meat and castoreum. Between 1956 and 1977, 141 individuals were reintroduced to 30 sites in the Rhone and Rhine catchment areas. They originated in France, Russia and Norway. As of 2019, an estimated 3,500 beavers were living in Switzerland (a sharp increase from 1,600 beavers in 2008), with permanent beaver presence along most larger rivers of the Swiss plateau and the Swiss Alps (with the exception of Ticino).


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Beavers were reintroduced in the Netherlands in 1988 after being completely exterminated in the 19th century. After its reintroduction in the Biesbosch, the Dutch population has spread considerably (supported by additional reintroductions), and can now be found in the Biesbosch and surrounding areas, along the Meuse in Limburg, and in the Gelderse Poort and Oostvaardersplassen. In 2012, the population was estimated to be about 600 animals and could easily grow to 7000 in 20 years' time. According to the Mammal Society and the Dutch Water Board, this will cause a threat to the river dikes. The main problem is that beavers excavate corridors and caves in dikes, thereby undermining the stability of the dike, just as the muskrat and the coypu do. If problems become unmanageable, as local administrators in Limburg fear, the beaver will be captured again.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: As of 2014, the beaver population in Poland reached 100,000 individuals. and was still growing. After major flooding in Poland in May and June 2010, the local authorities of Konin in central Poland held beavers responsible for causing the flooding and demanded the culling of 150 beavers.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Romania, beavers became extinct in 1824, but were reintroduced in 1998 along the Olt River, spreading to other rivers in Covasna County. In 2014, the animals were confirmed to have reached the Danube Delta.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: By 1917, beavers remained in Russia in 4 isolated territories: in the Dnieper basin; in the Don basin along the tributaries of the Voronezh; in the northern Urals and in the upper reaches of the Yenisei along the Azas River. The total number of beavers did not exceed 800-900 heads. Since 1922, hunting them has been universally prohibited. In 1923, a hunting reserve was organized in the Voronezh region along the Usman River, which in 1927 was transformed into the Voronezh State Reserve. At the same time, two more reserves were created: Berezinsky and Kondo-Sosvinsky. Their main task was to protect the beavers and restore their numbers. Since 1927, the first attempts to resettle beavers began. As a result of the measures taken, by the end of the 1960s, the beaver in the USSR settled in an area almost equal in area to the range of the 17th century. The increased number of beavers made it possible to organize their commercial capture again. In 2016, there were 661,000 beavers in Russia. In 2019, the population of these animals amounted to 774.6 thousand individuals.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In the former Soviet Union, almost 17,000 beavers were translocated from 1927 to 2004, of which 12,000 were to Russia, and the remainder to Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic States, and Kazakhstan. The beaver is now common in Estonia and Latvia.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Greece, the Eurasian beaver was present in the Last Glacial Period as remains were found in Epirus. In the Holocene, during the Neolithic remains were found in coastal Evros and Argura, during the Neolithic to Bronze Age transition in Ptolemaida basin and Sitagroi and during Early Helladic II in northeastern Peloponnese. In 4th century BCE Aristotle described this species under the name Λάταξ/Latax. He wrote that it is wider than the otter, with strong teeth and that it gets often in the night to the river banks to cut down trees with these teeth. Ιt remains unclear when they vanished from Kastoria which was possibly named after Kastor/Castor which means beaver, but in the 18th century CE the locals were still hunting them for their fur. Leclerc also wrote that they were very rare in Greece during his time (18th century). In the 19th century, it still occurred in Alpheius in the Peloponnese and in Mesolongi.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Bulgaria, fossil, subfossil and subrecent remains were found in 43 localities along 28 Bulgarian lowland (till 550 m a.s.l.) rivers, ranging from Struma and Maritsa in the south till the Danube in the north, while the last data from Nicopolis ad Istrum date to the 1750-1850 period. In 2021 the Eurasian beaver was confirmed to have returned in Bulgaria.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Serbia, beavers were mainly extinct by the 1870s, the last specimens being spotted in the 1900-1902 period. Four families with five members each, plus 11 single animals (31 in total) were reintroduced in 2004 in the Zasavica reserve, by the Biology Faculty of the Belgrade University in collaboration with the Bavarian Science Society. Additional 45 animals were released in the Obedska bara reserve. They began building dams and to reproduce almost right away. By 2020, they spread for in the north, west and east direction, inhabiting rivers in the Sava-Danube system (Drina, Jadar, Great Morava, Tamnava, Tisza, Bega, Timiș, canal system in Vojvodina), including the capital Belgrade and the neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2018, beavers returned to Italy after an absence of almost 500 years, when they were spotted in the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The recently resurgent beaver population in Eurasia has resulted in increases in human-beaver encounters. Indeed, in May 2013, a Belarusian fisherman died after being bitten several times by a beaver, severing an artery in his leg and causing him to bleed to death.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Denmark, the Eurasian beaver became extinct around the year 1000. In 1999, 18 Eurasian beavers were reintroduced to the Flynder creek in the Klosterhede Plantage state forest in west-central Jutland, Denmark, that originated from Elbe river in Germany. This population nearly tripled until 2003 and spread in the whole creek. , this population was estimated at 139 individuals. At Arresø in northern Zealand, 23 Eurasian beavers were reintroduced between 2009 and 2011. By 2019, it was estimated that the Jutland population had increased to 240-270 individuals and it had spread well beyond the region where first introduced, with records ranging from Hanstholm in north to Varde and Kolding in south. The population in northern Zealand, which had yet to significantly expand its geographic range beyond the region where first introduced, had increased to 50-60 individuals in 2019.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Sweden, the Eurasian beaver had been hunted to extinction by around 1870. Between 1922 and 1939, about 80 individuals were imported from Norway and introduced to 19 separate sites within the country. Beavers were reintroduced to central Norway's Ingdalselva River watershed on the Agdenes peninsula in Sør-Trøndelag County in 1968–1969. The area is hilly to mountainous with many small watersheds. Rivers are usually too steep along most of their length for beaver colonisation, so that suitable habitat is scattered, with rarely room for more than one territory in a habitat patch. While widespread signs of vagrant beavers were found, spread as a breeding animal was slowed by watershed divides in the hilly terrain. Suitable sites within watersheds were rapidly colonised. Some spread could only be plausibly explained by assuming travel through sheltered sea water in fjords.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Some Eurasian beavers are present in Finland, but most of the Finnish population is a released North American beaver population.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver became extinct in Britain in the 16th century. The last reference to beavers in England dates to 1526.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: A population of Eurasian beaver of unknown origin has been present on the River Otter, Devon in south-west England since 2008. An additional pair was released to increase genetic diversity in 2016. As part of a scientific study, a pair of Eurasian beaver was released in 2011 into a 3 ha fenced enclosure near Dartmoor in southern Devon. The 13 beaver ponds now in place impacted flooding to the extent of releasing precipitation over days to weeks instead of hours.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Free-living beaver populations also occur around the River Tay and Knapdale areas in Scotland. The Knapdale population was released by the Scottish Wildlife Trust and the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, while the other populations are of unknown origin. Sixteen beavers were released between 2009 and 2014 in Knapdale forest, Argyll. In 2016, the Scottish government declared that the beaver populations in Knapdale and Tayside could remain and naturally expand. This is the first successful reintroduction of a wild mammal in the United Kingdom.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2019, a beaver pair was reintroduced in East Anglia for the first time. The four hectare enclosure on a farm in North Essex is part of a flood risk reduction project designed to reduce property flooding. The impact on flooding, wildlife and rural tourism is monitored by a private landowner.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey, subfossil evidence of beavers extends down to the floodplains of the Tigris-Euphrates basin, and a carved stone stela dating between 1,000 and 800 BC in the Tell Halaf archaeological site along the Khabur River in northeastern Syria depicts a beaver. Although accounts of 19th-century European visitors to the Middle East appear to confuse beavers with otters, a 20th-century report of beavers by Hans Kummerlöwe in the Ceyhan River drainage of southern Turkey includes the diagnostic red incisor teeth, flat, scaly tail, and presence of gnawed willow stems. According to the "Encyclopaedia Iranica", early Iranian Avestan and Pahlavi, and later Islamic literature, all reveal different words for otter and beaver, and castoreum was highly valued. Johannes Ludwijk Schlimmer, a noted Dutch physician in 19th-century Iran reported beavers below the confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates in small numbers, along the bank of the Shatt al-Arab in the provinces of Shushtar and Dezful. Austen Layard reported finding beavers during his visit to the Kabur River in Syria the 1850s, but noted they were being rapidly hunted to extirpation. Beavers were specifically sacred to Zoroastrianism (which also revered otters), and there were laws in place for unlawful killing of these animals.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In China, a few hundred beavers live in the basin of the Ulungur River near the international border with Mongolia. The Bulgan Beaver Nature Reserve (; ) was established in 1980 to protect the creatures.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The Eurasian beaver "Castor fiber" was once widespread in Europe and Asia but by the beginning of the 20th century both the numbers and range of the species had been drastically diminished, mainly due to hunting. At this time, the global population was estimated to be around 1,200 individuals, living in eight separate sub-populations. Conservation of the Eurasian Beaver began in 1923 in the USSR, with the establishment of the Voronezh Nature Reserve. From 1934 to 1977, approximately 3,000 Eurasian Beavers from Voronezh were reintroduced to 52 regions of the USSR, from Poland to Mongolia. In 2008, the IUCN granted the Eurasian Beaver a status of least concern, with the justification that the species had recovered sufficiently with the help of global conservation programmes. Currently the largest numbers can be found across Europe, where reintroductions have been successful in 25 countries and conservation efforts are ongoing. However, populations in Asia remain small and fragmented, and are under considerable threat.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: The first sustained and significant population of wild-living beavers in the United Kingdom became established on the river Tay catchment in Scotland as early as 2001, and spread widely in the catchment, numbering from 20 to 100 individuals. Because these beavers were either escapees from any of several nearby sites with captive beavers, or illegal releases, Scottish Natural Heritage initially planned to remove the Tayside beavers in late 2010. Proponents of the beavers argued that no reason existed to believe that they were of "wrong" genetic stock, and that they should be permitted to remain. One beaver was trapped by Scottish Natural Heritage on the River Ericht in Blairgowrie, Perthshire, in early December 2010, and was held in captivity in the Edinburgh Zoo. In March 2012 the Scottish Government reversed the decision to remove beavers from the Tay, pending the outcome of studies into the suitability of reintroduction.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2005, the Scottish government had turned down a licence application for unfenced reintroduction. However, in late 2007, a further application was made by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, Scottish Wildlife Trust and Forestry Commission Scotland for a release project in Knapdale, Argyll. This application, termed the Scottish Beaver Trial, was accepted, and the first beavers were released on 29 May 2009 after a 400-year absence, with further releases in 2010. In August 2010, at least two kits, estimated to be eight weeks old and belonging to different family groups, were seen in Knapdale Forest in Argyll. Alongside the trial, the pre-existing population of beavers along the Tay was monitored and assessed.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: Following receipt of the results of the Scottish Beaver Trial, in November 2016 the Scottish Government announced that beavers could remain permanently, and would be given protected status as a native species within Scotland. Beavers will be allowed to extend their range naturally from Knapdale and the River Tay, however to aid this process and improve the health and resilience of the population a further 28 beavers will be released in Knapdale between 2017 and 2020. A survey of beaver numbers during the winter of 2017-18 estimated that the Tayside population had increased to between 300 and 550 beavers, with beavers now also present in the catchment of the River Forth, and the Trossachs area.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: A group of three beavers was spotted on the River Otter in Devon in 2013, apparently successfully bearing three kits the next year. Following concern from local landowners and anglers, as well as farmers worrying that the beavers could carry disease, the government announced that it would capture the beavers and place them in a zoo or wildlife park. A sport-fishing industry lobbyist group, the Angling Trust, said, "it would be irresponsible even to consider reintroducing this species into the wild without first restoring our rivers to good health." These actions were protested by local residents and campaign groups, with environmental journalist George Monbiot describing the government and anglers as 'control freaks': "I'm an angler, and the Angling Trust does not represent me on this issue...most anglers, in my experience, have a powerful connection with nature. The chance of seeing remarkable wild animals while waiting quietly on the riverbank is a major part of why we do it." On 28 January 2015, Natural England declared that the beavers would be allowed to remain on condition that they were free of disease and of Eurasian descent. These conditions were found to be met on 23 March 2015, following the capture and testing of five of the beavers. DNA testing showed that the animals were the once-native Eurasian beaver, and none of the beavers was found to be infected with "Echinococcus multilocularis", tularaemia, or bovine TB. On 24 June 2015, video footage from local filmmaker Tom Buckley was featured on the BBC news website showing one of the wild Devon females with two live young.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: A study has been undertaken on the feasibility and desirability of a reintroduction of beavers to Wales by a partnership including the Wildlife Trusts, Countryside Council for Wales, Peoples Trust for Endangered Species, Environment Agency Wales, Wild Europe, and Forestry Commission Wales, with additional funding from Welsh Power Ltd. The resulting reports were published in 2012 with the launch of the Welsh Beaver Project, which is a partnership led by the Wildlife in Wales, and are downloadable from www.welshbeaverproject.org. A 2009 report by Natural England, the government's conservation body, and the People's Trust for Endangered Species recommended that beavers be reintroduced to the wild in England. This goal was realised in November 2016, when beavers were recognised as a British native species. In October 2022, this animal was recognized as a European protected species in England, which legally protected it from being captured, killed, injured, hunted, or disturbed. This decision also limited damaging beaver's dams and burrows.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In 2001, the Kent Wildlife Trust with the Wildwood Trust and Natural England imported two families of Eurasian beavers from Norway to manage a wetland nature reserve. This project pioneered the use of beavers as a wildlife conservation tool in the UK. The success of this project has provided the inspiration behind other projects in Gloucestershire and Argyll. The Kent beaver colony lives in a fenced enclosure at the wetland of Ham Fen. Subsequently, the population has been supplemented in 2005 and 2008. The beavers continue to help restore the wetland by rehydrating the soils. Six Eurasian beavers were released in 2005 into a fenced lakeside area in Gloucestershire. In 2007, a specially selected group of four Bavarian beavers was released into a fenced enclosure in the Martin Mere nature reserve in Lancashire. The beavers hopefully will form a permanent colony, and the younger pair will be transferred to another location when the adults begin breeding again. The progress of the group will be followed as part of the BBC's "Autumnwatch" television series. On 19 November 2011, a pair of beaver sisters was released into a enclosure at Blaeneinion, A colony of beavers is also established in a large enclosure at Bamff, Perthshire.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In June 2017, a pair of beavers was released into a secured area in Cornwall near Ladock, called The Beaver Project.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: In July 2018 two Eurasian beavers were released into a fenced area in size surrounding Greathough Brook near Lydbrook in the Forest of Dean. The UK Government hopes that the presence of the beavers on Forestry Commission land will help to alleviate flooding in a natural way as the animals will construct dams and ponds, slowing the flow of water in the area. The village of Lydbrook was badly affected by flooding in 2012.


title: Eurasian beaver

text: "The beaver has a special place in English heritage and the Forest of Dean. This release is a fantastic opportunity to develop our understanding of the potential impacts of reintroductions and help this iconic species, 400 years after it was driven to extinction."


title: Load cell

text: A load cell converts a force such as tension, compression, pressure, or torque into an electrical signal that can be measured and standardized. It is a force transducer. As the force applied to the load cell increases, the electrical signal changes proportionally. The most common types of load cell are pneumatic, hydraulic, and strain gauges.


title: Load cell

text: Strain gauge load cells are the kind most often found in industrial settings. It is ideal as it is highly accurate, versatile, and cost-effective. Structurally, a load cell has a metal body to which strain gauges have been secured.  The body is usually made of aluminum, alloy steel, or stainless steel which makes it very sturdy but also minimally elastic. This elasticity gives rise to the term "spring element", referring to the body of the load cell.  When force is exerted on the load cell, the spring element is slightly deformed, and unless overloaded, always returns to its original shape. As the spring element deforms, the strain gauges also change shape. The resulting alteration to the resistance in the strain gauges can be measured as voltage. The change in voltage is proportional to the amount of force applied to the cell, thus the amount of force can be calculated from the load cell's output.


title: Load cell

text: A strain gauge is constructed of very fine wire, or foil, set up in a grid pattern and attached to a flexible backing. When the shape of the strain gauge is altered, a change in its electrical resistance occurs. The wire or foil in the strain gauge is arranged in a way that, when force is applied in one direction, a linear change in resistance results. Tension force stretches a strain gauge, causing it to get thinner and longer, resulting in an increase in resistance. Compression force does the opposite. The strain gauge compresses, becomes thicker and shorter, and resistance decreases. The strain gauge is attached to a flexible backing enabling it to be easily applied to a load cell, mirroring the minute changes to be measured.


title: Load cell

text: Since the change in resistance measured by a single strain gauge is extremely small, it is difficult to accurately measure changes. Increasing the number of strain gauges applied collectively magnifies these small changes into something more measurable. A set of 4 strain gauges set in a specific circuit is an application of a Wheatstone bridge.


title: Load cell

text: A Wheatstone bridge is a configuration of four balanced resistors with a known excitation voltage applied as shown below:


title: Load cell

text: Excitation voltage formula_1 is a known constant and output voltage formula_2 is variable depending on the shape of the strain gauges. If all resistors are balanced, meaning formula_3 then formula_2is zero. If the resistance in even one of the resistors changes, then formula_5will likewise change. The change in formula_2 can be measured and interpreted using Ohm's law. Ohm's law states that the current (formula_7, measured in amperes) running through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the voltage formula_8 across the two points. Resistance (formula_9, measured in ohms) is introduced as the constant in this relationship, independent of the current. Ohm's law is expressed in the equation formula_10.


title: Load cell

text: In a load cell, the resistors are replaced with strain gauges and arranged in alternating tension and compression formation. When force is exerted on the load cell, the structure and resistance of the strain gauges changes and formula_2 is measured. From the resulting data, formula_2 can be easily determined using the equation above.


title: Load cell

text: The pneumatic load cell is designed to automatically regulate the balancing pressure. Air pressure is applied to one end of the diaphragm and it escapes through the nozzle placed at the bottom of the load cell. A pressure gauge is attached to the load cell to measure the pressure inside the cell. The deflection of the diaphragm affects the airflow through the nozzle as well as the pressure inside the chamber.


title: Load cell

text: The hydraulic load cell uses a conventional piston and cylinder arrangement with the piston placed in a thin elastic diaphragm. The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell. Mechanical stops are placed to prevent over strain of the diaphragm when the loads exceed certain limit. The load cell is completely filled with oil. When the load is applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm results in an increase of oil pressure. This pressure is then transmitted to a hydraulic pressure gauge via a high pressure hose. The gauge's Bourdon tube senses the pressure and registers it on the dial. Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell applications include tank, bin, and hopper weighing. By example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning) so these type of load cells might be a more effective device in outdoor environments. This technology is more expensive than other types of load cells. It is a more costly technology and thus cannot effectively compete on a cost of purchase basis.


title: Load cell

text: Vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low amounts of drift, and capacitive load cells where the capacitance of a capacitor changes as the load presses the two plates of a capacitor closer together.


title: Load cell

text: Piezoelectric load cells work on the same principle of deformation as the strain gauge load cells, but a voltage output is generated by the basic piezoelectric material – proportional to the deformation of load cell. Useful for dynamic/frequent measurements of force. Most applications for piezo-based load cells are in the dynamic loading conditions, where strain gauge load cells can fail with high dynamic loading cycles. The piezoelectric effect is dynamic, that is, the electrical output of a gauge is an impulse function and is not static. The voltage output is only useful when the strain is changing and does not measure static values.


title: Load cell

text: However, depending on conditioning system used, "quasi static" operation can be done. Using a charge amplifier with a long time constant allows accurate measurement lasting many minutes for small loads up to many hours for large loads. Another advantage of Piezoelectric load cells conditioned with a charge amplifier is the wide measuring range that can be achieved. Users can choose a load cell with a range of hundred of kilonewtons and use it for measuring few newtons of force with the same signal-to-noise ratio; again this is possible only with the use of a charge amplifier for conditioning.


title: Load cell

text: The bridge is excited with stabilized voltage (usually 10V, but can be 20V, 5V, or less for battery powered instrumentation). The difference voltage proportional to the load then appears on the signal outputs. The cell output is rated in millivolts per volt (mV/V) of the difference voltage at full rated mechanical load. So a 2.96 mV/V load cell will provide 29.6 millivolt signal at full load when excited with 10 volts.


title: Load cell

text: The full-bridge cells come typically in four-wire configuration. The wires to the top and bottom end of the bridge are the excitation (often labelled E+ and E−, or Ex+ and Ex−), the wires to its sides are the signal (labelled S+ and S−). Ideally, the voltage difference between S+ and S− is zero under zero load, and grows proportionally to the load cell's mechanical load.


title: Load cell

text: Sometimes a six-wire configuration is used. The two additional wires are "sense" (Sen+ and Sen−), and are connected to the bridge with the Ex+ and Ex- wires, in a fashion similar to four-terminal sensing. With these additional signals, the controller can compensate for the change in wire resistance due to external factors, e.g. temperature fluctuations.


title: Load cell

text: The individual resistors on the bridge usually have resistance of 350 Ω. Sometimes other values (typically 120 Ω, 1,000 Ω) can be encountered.


title: Load cell

text: The bridge is typically electrically insulated from the substrate. The sensing elements are in close proximity and in good mutual thermal contact, to avoid differential signals caused by temperature differences.


title: Load cell

text: If the force can be concentrated to a single point (small scale sensing, ropes, tensile loads, point loads), a single cell can be used. For long beams, two cells at the end are used. Vertical cylinders can be measured at three points, rectangular objects usually require four sensors. More sensors are used for large containers or platforms, or very high loads.


title: Load cell

text: If the loads are guaranteed to be symmetrical, some of the load cells can be substituted with pivots. This saves the cost of the load cell but can significantly decrease accuracy.


title: Load cell

text: Load cells can be connected in parallel; in that case, all the corresponding signals are connected together (Ex+ to Ex+, S+ to S+, ...), and the resulting signal is the average of the signals from all the sensing elements. This is often used in e.g. personal scales, or other multipoint weight sensors.


title: Load cell

text: Less common assignments are red for Ex+, white for Ex−, green for S+, and blue for S−, or red for Ex+, blue for Ex−, green for S+, and yellow for S−. Other values are also possible, e.g. red for Ex+, green for Ex−, yellow for S+ and blue for S−.


title: Load cell

text: Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing. Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.


title: Load cell

text: Load cells are used in several types of measuring instruments such as laboratory balances, industrial scales, platform scales and universal testing machines. From 1993 the British Antarctic Survey installed load cells in glass fibre nests to weigh albatross chicks. Load cells are used in a wide variety of items such as the seven-post shaker which is often used to set up race cars.


title: Load cell

text: Load cells are commonly used to measure weight in an industrial environment. They can be installed on hoppers, reactors, etc., to control their weight capacity, which is often of critical importance for an industrial process. Some performance characteristics of the load cells must be defined and specified to make sure they will cope with the expected service. Among those design characteristics are:


title: Load cell

text: The electrical, physical, and environmental specifications of a load cell help to determine which applications it is appropriate for. Common specifications include:


title: Load cell

text: Load cells are an integral part of most weighing systems in industrial, aerospace and automotive industries, enduring rigorous daily use. Over time, load cells will drift, age and misalign; therefore, they will need to be calibrated regularly to ensure accurate results are maintained. ISO9000 and most other standards specify a maximum period of around 18 months to 2 years between re-calibration procedures, dependent on the level of load cell deterioration. Annual re-calibration is considered best practice by many load cell users for ensuring the most accurate measurements.


title: Load cell

text: Standard calibration tests will use linearity and repeatability as a calibration guideline as these are both used to determine accuracy. Calibration is conducted incrementally starting working in ascending or descending order. For example, in the case of a 60 tonne load cell, then specific test weights that measure in 5, 10, 20, 40 and 60 tonne increments may be used; a five step calibration process is usually sufficient for ensuring a device is accurately calibrated. Repeating this five-step calibration procedure 2-3 times is recommended for consistent results.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Ferenc Szálasi (; 6 January 1897 – 12 March 1946), the leader of the Arrow Cross Party – Hungarist Movement, became the "Leader of the Nation" ("Nemzetvezető") as head of state and simultaneously prime minister of the Kingdom of Hungary's "Government of National Unity" ("Nemzeti Összefogás Kormánya") during the final six months of Hungary's participation in World War II, after Germany occupied Hungary and removed the Regent (Admiral Miklós Horthy) by force in October 1944. During Szálasi's brief rule, his followers murdered 10,000–15,000 Jews. After the war, he was tried by a Hungarian court and sentenced to be executed for war crimes and for crimes against humanity committed during World War II.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Born the son of a soldier in Kassa, Abaúj-Torna County, Kingdom of Hungary (now Košice, Slovakia) of mixed Armenian (the surname of his great-grandfather was Salossian), German, Hungarian (one grandparent), Slovak and Rusyn ancestry. His Armenian ancestors settled down in Ebesfalva, Transylvania during the reign of Prince Michael I Apafi. Szálasi's grandfather, who participated as a "honvéd" in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, married a German woman from Vienna, and their son, Ferenc Szálasi, Sr. (born 1866) attended a military cadet school in Kassa and later became an official in the Honvédség. Szálasi's brothers, Béla, Károly and Rezső also served in the army.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi's mother was the Greek Catholic Erzsébet Szakmár (born 1875), who had Slovak and Rusyn roots. She provided religious education to her sons. Szálasi once said ""I received the power of belief and faith in God through breast milk. My mother made to drink faith through and through me"". Ferenc Szálasi lived with his mother until 1944.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi followed in his father's footsteps and joined the army at a young age. He finished elementary studies in his birthplace, then attended the military academy in Kőszeg, Marosvásárhely (now Târgu Mureș in Romania) and continued studies in Kismarton. Finally, he finished his military education in the Theresian Military Academy of Wiener Neustadt, where he was promoted to Lieutenant in 1915.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: He eventually became an officer and served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. He served on the frontline for 36 months. At the end of the war, he was promoted to First Lieutenant and was involved in the 2nd regiment of k.u.k. Tyrolean Rifle Regiments, widely known as "Kaiserjäger". He was stationed near Merano and Lake Garda in the Italian Front. Later the regiments were ordered to the north to Verdun at the last days of the war. For his service, he was honored with Third Class of the Order of the Iron Crown. Returning to Hungary, Szálasi performed courier service for the newly formed Ministry of Foreign Affairs after the Aster Revolution in November 1918.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Upon the dissolution and break-up of Austria-Hungary after the war, the Hungarian Democratic Republic and then the Hungarian Soviet Republic were briefly proclaimed in 1918 and 1919 respectively. The short-lived communist government of Béla Kun launched what was known as the "Red Terror" and ultimately involved Hungary in an ill-fated war with Romania. In 1920, the country went into a period of civil conflict with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists violently purging the nation of communists, leftist intellectuals, and others they felt threatened by, especially Jews. This period was known as the "White Terror" and, in 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, it led to the restoration of the Kingdom of Hungary ("Magyar Királyság") under Regent Miklós Horthy. During that time, Szálasi was still an apolitical person, and he did not involve himself in events beyond the general interest.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: In 1920–21, Szálasi finished non-commissioned officer training school in Hajmáskér; following that, he served in the 13th Infantry Regiment in Miskolc. In 1923, he enrolled to the General Staff officers' training course at the Ludovica Military Academy. For his outstanding achievements, he was promoted with priority to Captain in 1924. In 1925, Szálasi entered the General Staff of the restored Kingdom. He fulfilled his mandatory field-grade task in 1929 at the 11th Infantry Regiment in Debrecen as a company commander. According to some memoirs by former subordinates, Szálasi was a popular and beloved superior among the infantry. His fellow officers acknowledged his military skills and literacy, but some others thought Szálasi was pedantic and autonomous. According to his future Minister of Defence, Károly Beregfy, ""Szálasi's name among the General Staff was a concept of excellent hunting and tactics, but also a concept with the regards of honesty, truthfulness and Puritanism."" By 1933, Szálasi had attained the rank of Major and became Chief of the 1st Honvéd Mixed-Brigade's General Staff in Budapest.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Around this time, when Gyula Gömbös came to power, Szálasi became fascinated with politics and often lectured on Hungary's political affairs. By this time, the hitherto apolitical Szálasi was a fanatical right-wing nationalist and a strong proponent of "Hungarism" and advocating the expansion of Hungary's territory back to the borders of Greater Hungary as it was prior to the Treaty of Trianon, which in 1920 had reduced the country's territory by 72%. In 1933, to summarize his views, he published his 46-page pamphlet with the title "A magyar állam felépítésének terve" ("Plan for the Building of the Hungarian State") and sent his work to several politicians. Soldiers and military officers were banned from politicizing, thus Szálasi was sentenced to twenty-day detention and expelled from the General Staff by a military court. After his release, Szálasi was ordered to the 14th Infantry Regiment in Eger, where served as staff officer then first adjutant. Szálasi gradually became disillusioned with the army and requested resignation from that in October 1934.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: On 1 March 1935, Szálasi left the army in order to devote his full attention to politics, after which time he established the Party of National Will, a nationalistic group.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: It was eventually outlawed by the conservative government for being too radical. Unperturbed, Szálasi established the Hungarian National Socialist Party in 1937, which was also banned. However, Szálasi was able to attract considerable support to his cause from factory workers and Hungary's lower classes by pandering to their aggrieved sense of nationalism and their virulent antisemitism.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: After Germany's "Union" ("Anschluss") with Austria in 1938, Szálasi's followers became more radical in their political activities, and Szálasi was arrested and imprisoned by the Hungarian Police. However, even while in prison Szálasi managed to remain a powerful political figure, and was proclaimed leader of the National Socialist Arrow Cross Party (a coalition of several right-wing groups) when it was expanded in 1938. The party attracted a large number of followers, and in the 1939 elections, it gained 30 seats in the Hungarian Parliament, thus becoming one of the more powerful parties in Hungary. Freed due to a general amnesty resulting from the Second Vienna Award in 1940, Szálasi returned to politics. When World War II began, the Arrow Cross Party was officially banned by Prime Minister Pál Teleki, thus forcing Szálasi to operate in secret. During this period, Szálasi gained the support and backing of the Germans, who had previously been opposed to Szálasi because his Hungarist nationalism placed Hungarian territorial claims above those of Germany.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Following the Nazi occupation of Hungary in March 1944, the pro-German Döme Sztójay was installed as Prime Minister of Hungary. The Arrow Cross Party was then legalized by the government, allowing Szálasi to expand the party. When Sztójay was deposed in August, Szálasi once again became an enemy of the Hungarian government and Regent Miklós Horthy ordered his arrest. By this time, Horthy realized that Hungary's position was untenable, and began putting out feelers to the Allies. The Germans were concerned that Horthy would succeed in extricating Hungary from the war. They had, however, waiting in the wings, a perfect ally in Szálasi.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: When the Germans learned of the Regent's plan to come to a separate peace with the Soviets and exit the Axis alliance, they kidnapped Horthy's son, Miklós, Jr. and threatened to kill him unless Horthy abdicated in favor of Szálasi. Under duress, Horthy signed a document announcing his own abdication and naming Szálasi prime minister–effectively giving "legal sanction" to an Arrow Cross coup. In his memoirs, Horthy contended the appointment of Szálasi was invalid, saying, "A signature wrung from a man at machine-gun point can have little legality." The Germans then pressured Parliament to install Szálasi as Head of State as well.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi's Government of National Unity turned the Kingdom of Hungary into a puppet state of Nazi Germany formed on 16 October 1944 after Regent of Hungary Miklós Horthy was removed from power during Operation Panzerfaust ("Unternehmen Eisenfaust") .


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: The Hungarian parliament approved the formation of a Council of Regency ("Kormányzótanács") of three. On 4 November, Szálasi was sworn as Leader of the Nation ("nemzetvezető"). He formed a government of sixteen ministers, half of which were members of the Arrow Cross Party. While the Horthy regency had come to an end, the Hungarian monarchy was not abolished by the Szálasi regime, as government newspapers kept referring to the country as the Kingdom of Hungary ("Magyar Királyság", also abbreviated as "m.kir."), although "Magyarország" (Hungary) was frequently used as an alternative.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi and his "Quisling government" had little other intention or ability but to execute the party's ideology and to maintain control in Nazi-occupied portions of Hungary as the Soviet Union invaded. He did this in order to reduce the threat to Germany. Szálasi's aim was to create a one-party state based on Hungarism.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Under his rule as a close ally of Germany, the Germans, with the assistance of the Szálasi government, recommenced the deportation of the Jews, which had been suspended by Horthy. He organised the so-called International Ghetto. During that time some diplomats like Raoul Wallenberg gave protective passports to some Jews, which protected them from deportation. Germans argued they weren't valid according to international law, but Szálasi's government accepted them nevertheless. His government promoted martial law and courts-martial, and executed those who were considered dangerous for the state and the continuation of the war. During Szálasi's rule, Hungarian tangible assets (cattle, machinery, wagons, industrial raw material etc.) were sent to Germany. He conscripted young and old into the remaining Hungarian Army and sent them into hopeless battles against the Red Army.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi's rule only lasted 163 days, partly because by the time he took power, the Red Army was already deep inside Hungary. For all intents and purposes, his authority was limited to a narrowing band in the centre of the country, including Budapest. On 19 November 1944, Szálasi was in the Hungarian capital when Soviet and Romanian forces began encircling it. By the time the city was encircled and the 102-day Siege of Budapest began, he was gone. The "Leader of the Nation" ("Nemzetvezető") fled to Szombathely on 9 December. By March 1945, Szálasi was in Vienna just prior to the Vienna Offensive. Later, he fled to Munich.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: The Arrow Cross Party's cabinet, which had fled Hungary, was dissolved on 7 May 1945, a day before Germany's surrender. Szálasi was captured by American troops in Mattsee on 6 May and returned to Hungary on 3 October. He was tried by the People's Tribunal in Budapest in open sessions begun in February 1946, and sentenced to death for war crimes and high treason.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi was hanged on 12 March 1946 in Budapest, along with two of his former ministers, Gábor Vajna and Károly Beregfy, and the party ideologist József Gera. The hanging was conducted in the Austrian pole method. A large post had a rope attached to a hook at the top. Szálasi was marched up steps, placed with his back to the post, his legs and arms were tied, the noose placed around his neck, the rope tightened, and the steps were removed. With the post only leaving a couple feet between Szálasi and the ground it is likely that he died slowly due to strangulation rather than being instantaneously rendered unconscious and dying shortly after as would happen when utilizing the standard drop. This would also explain why his arms and legs were bound as to prevent struggle during the process.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Thirty-two photos of the hanging were donated to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Other photographs of the execution are on display in the Holocaust Room of the Budapest Jewish Museum.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: On 13 March 1946, the day after Szálasi's death, the National Council of People's Tribunals discussed the convicted politicians' plea for mercy and recommended its refusal to Justice Minister István Ries, when Szálasi and his ministers were already executed. Ries forwarded the decision to President Zoltán Tildy, who subsequently approved the death sentence and execution on 15 March 1946.


title: Ferenc Szálasi

text: Szálasi was buried in Rákoskeresztúr New Public Cemetery in the Budapest Capital District, Budapest, Hungary, plot 298. In 2008, historian Tamás Kovács claimed the "Political Department of the Hungarian State Police" (PRO; predecessor of the feared secret police State Protection Authority) falsified his name and birth certificate, and buried him as "Ferenc Lukács" in section 298 of the New Public Cemetery. Other historians, however, rejected this claim, since no written source could be found.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Admiral-General Luis Carrero Blanco (4 March 1904 – 20 December 1973) was a Spanish Navy officer and politician. A long-time confidant and right-hand man of dictator Francisco Franco, Carrero served as the Prime Minister of the Francoist Dictatorship and in various other high ranking offices in the regime until his assassination in a car bombing in December 1973.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Upon graduating from the naval academy Carrero Blanco participated in the Rif War, and later the Spanish Civil War, in which he supported the Rebel faction. He became one of the most prominent figures in the Francoist dictatorship's power structure and held throughout his career a number of high-ranking offices such as those of Undersecretary of the Presidency from 1941 to 1967 and Franco's deputy from 1967 to 1973. He also was the main drafter behind the 1947 Law of Succession to the Headship of the State. Franco handpicked him as his successor in the role of head of government, with Carrero thereby taking office in June 1973.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Shortly after he became prime minister, Carrero Blanco was assassinated in Madrid in a streetside bombing on 20 December 1973 by the Basque nationalist group Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) while he was returning from Mass in his car.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Luis Carrero Blanco was born on 4 March 1904 in the coastal town of Santoña, province of Santander, to Camilo Carrero Gutiérrez (1879–1936), a lieutenant colonel in the Army stationed in nearby Santander, and Ángeles Blanco Abascal (1885–1910) a local woman. He had his early schooling at the in Santoña and in 1918, at the age of 14, he followed the family military tradition by enlisting at the Spanish Naval Academy in San Fernando, Cádiz.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: By 18, he had already achieved the rank of lieutenant, serving aboard the dreadnought "Alfonso XIII" and participated in the Rif War from 1924 to 1926. In 1926, he decided to specialise in submarine warfare, and served as lieutenant commander on the "B-2" and as commander on the "B-5".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: At the outset of the Spanish Civil War, Carrero Blanco was a naval instructor teaching Submarine Tactics at the Naval Warfare College in Madrid. As a military man of conservative views he knew that he was marked; his brother José had already been detained and subsequently executed and his father died on the day of his arrest. Like many nationalists, he sought refuge first in the Mexican embassy and later that of France, from where he was able to cross the border from San Sebastián into France and re-enter on the Nationalist side in June 1937.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero Blanco then served in the Nationalist navy first as corvette captain aboard the destroyer "Huesca" and later the submarine "General Sanjurjo". Following the Nationalist victory and subsequent establishment of "Generalísimo" Franco as "Caudillo" of Spain, Carrero Blanco was appointed Chief of Naval Operations in August 1939.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: In May 1941 Franco appointed Carrero (age 37) as Under-Secretary of the Presidency of the Government, replacing Valentín Galarza Morante. Following the 1942 Begoña incident, Carrero advised Franco to remove Ramón Serrano Suñer from ministerial rank and from the post of president of the Political Junta of FET y de las JONS, and so Franco did. Carrero was—as Joan Maria Thomàs puts it—"extremely faithful and submissive to El Caudillo", a polar opposite of Suñer, of whom the dictator had become weary (despite their family connection).


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero Blanco was made Vice-Admiral in 1963 and Admiral in 1966. He was Deputy Prime Minister from 1967 to 1973. By that time, Franco even if he was still then the Head of State and concurrent Prime Minister, had already delegated the day-to-day running of the government over to Carrero Blanco himself owing to the former's old age and illness. And the latter excelled in this regard, in terms of carrying Franco's policies and in directing the ministries towards that direction.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Upon the nomination of Juan Carlos of Bourbon as heir to Franco in the headship of State in 1969, it was believed than an authoritarian monarchy guided by Carrero would guarantee the continuation of Francoism without Franco, an idea underpinned by Franco's words themselves during the Bourbon's nominating speech: ('all is tied down and well tied down').


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero reached the peak of his political career on 8 June 1973, when Franco—as envisaged in the 1967 Organic Law of the State that separated the functions of head of government from those of head of state—appointed Carrero as Prime Minister.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: The supporters of the aforementioned authoritarian monarchic continuation to the Francoist regime (the solution) suffered two successive blows in the wake of the assassination of Carrero in 1973, and the overthrow of the neighbouring Portuguese regime in 1974.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Six months after being named prime minister, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on 20 December 1973 in Madrid by four members of an ETA cell, who carried out a bombing near San Francisco de Borja Church on Calle de Serrano while he returned from daily mass in a Dodge 3700.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: One of the members of the cell who had assassinated Carrero Blanco was himself assassinated by a car bomb in southern France on 21 December 1978 by a special team organized within the Navy. This group included a member of the Higher Centre of Defense Information secret service, another from the Naval Intelligence Service and the other belonged to the Defense High Command. In addition, it received assistance from a number of right-wing paramilitary groups through Jean-Pierre Cherid (OAS), José María Boccardo (Argentine Anticommunist Alliance) and Mario Ricci ("Avanguardia Nazionale)".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Argala, the codename by which the ETA member was known, was the only one who could identify the source who had handed Carrero Blanco's schedule and itinerary over to ETA. According to "Leonidas", a former member of the Spanish Army who participated in the bombing against Argala, "The explosives came from a US base. I don't remember exactly if it was from Torrejón or Rota, but I do know that the Americans did not know what they would be used for. It was a personal favour for Pedro el Marino" (Pedro Martínez) who provided the explosives. Argala's assassination was claimed by the Spanish Basque Battalion. However, according to "Leonidas", "BVE, ATE" (Anti-Terrorismo ETA) or "Triple A" are only labels of convenience that are used by the same group.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero Blanco's funeral, which would be one of Franco's last public appearances, was held the following day at the Basilica of Saint Francis the Great, Madrid and he was buried at Mingorrubio Cemetery in the neighbouring municipality of El Pardo. Carrero was posthumously elevated to "Captain general of the Navy" and declared "Duke of Carrero Blanco".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero did not clearly belong to any family within the regime. His ultimate identification was with the work of the Dictator; as such, he can be considered a pure Francoist. Antonio Elorza described the most distinct features of his ideology as being counter-revolution, anticommunism and satanization of Masonry, all according to a conspiracy theory of history, in line with a "degraded Augustinianism".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Also known for his antisemite diatribes, by 1941 he saw the state of affairs of a world at war as follows: "Spain, paladin of the Faith in Christ, is again (acting) against the true enemy: Judaism. ... Because the world, even if it does not look like it, lives in a permanent war of a religious type; it is the struggle of Christianity against Judaism. War to the death, as the fight of good against evil should be."


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero, who held paternalist views when assessing the Spanish presence in Africa, was hostile to the acceptance of the decolonisation process. As he declared that the Western Sahara "had not ever been controlled by the Moroccan Empire", he defended that the territory was "as Spanish as the province of Cuenca is".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Openly germanophile in his articles written for the "Mundo" magazine during the first part of World War II, after the turn in the conflict against the Axis Powers in 1943, he modulated his hostile discourse towards the Allied Powers in those pieces; finally, after the defeat of the Axis, he had wholly replaced the message attacking the liberal democracies by a merely anti-Soviet one. A defender of the idea that the victory of the Francoist side in the Civil War had happened "despite" an alleged international conspiracy against the former, years later, in the 1950s, he insisted again: "this is precisely the Spanish problem, Spain wants to implement the Good, and the forces of Evil, unleashed upon the world, try to prevent her from doing it".


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: He was reportedly among the endorsers of the so-called , an alleged secret plan to develop a nuclear weapon for Spain.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Regarding the future of a post-Franco Spain, Carrero, along with López Rodó, envisaged and promoted the idea of an authoritarian monarchy guaranteeing the continuity of Francoism.


title: Luis Carrero Blanco

text: Carrero Blanco wrote a number of books on the Spanish navy and Spanish naval military history, as well as political treatises on Communism and Freemasonry (under the pseudonym Juan de la Cosa).


title: Jennie Jacques

text: Jennie Jacques is an English actress. She is known for her roles in the BBC Two drama "Desperate Romantics" (2009), the police procedural "WPC 56" (2013–2014), and the History Channel series "Vikings" (2015–2019).


title: Jennie Jacques

text: Jacques was born in Walsgrave Hospital and grew up in Coventry, Leamington Spa, and Warwick. She is the eldest of seven children.


title: Jennie Jacques

text: Jacques made her television debut as Katie Fielding in an episode of the ITV police series "The Bill". Her first major was as artists' model Annie Miller in the six-part BBC Two period drama "Desperate Romantics" (2009) about the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Jacques made her feature film debut as Beth in the urban thriller "Cherry Tree Lane" and Ree Ree in the futuristic thriller "Shank". Jacques has also appeared in "Casualty" on BBC1, where she played Lily Knowles, the carer of Megan Roach, in the episode "Nice and Easy Does It" broadcast on 7 August 2010.


title: Jennie Jacques

text: In 2011, Jacques was featured in the promotional video for the Mason single "Boadicea". She also appeared in slasher film "Demons Never Die" (2011), in which she appeared nude during a sex scene with Robert Sheehan. Jacques appeared in an episode of "Father Brown" in 2013, and was then cast as the lead actress in the BBC afternoon series "WPC 56", about a woman police constable in the male-dominated world of 1956. Both programmes were made by BBC Birmingham.


title: Jennie Jacques

text: Jacques portrays Judith, the fictional daughter of King Aelle, in the third through the fifth seasons of "Vikings" (2014–2019). In 2015, she played the role of Tash in the ITV sitcom "The Delivery Man" (2015), which aired for six episodes. In 2019, Jacques starred in the first series of the drama series "London Kills", playing a homeless witness named Amber Saunders.


title: Jennie Jacques

text: Jacques is an ambassador for the Open Medicine Foundation. In a 2021 interview with "The Sunday Times", she opened up about the ME/CFS and post-exertional malaise she developed after coming down with a severe bout of Epstein–Barr virus in early 2019. She had to put her career "on hold" as her condition affected her mobility. She has also been an advocate for those living with epilepsy as inspired by her sister.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: East Is East is a 1999 British comedy-drama film written by Ayub Khan-Din and directed by Damien O'Donnell. It is set in Salford, Lancashire (now in Greater Manchester), in 1971, in a mixed-ethnicity British household headed by Pakistani father George (Om Puri) and an English mother, Ella (Linda Bassett).


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: "East Is East" is based on Khan-Din's 1996 play of the same name, which opened at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in October 1996 and Royal Court Theatre in November 1996. The title derives from the 1889 Rudyard Kipling poem "The Ballad of East and West", of which the opening line reads: "Oh East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet".


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The film was critically acclaimed, winning the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film at the BAFTA Awards. It was also a major box office success, grossing worldwide and earning over ten times its £1.9 million () budget.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: In 1971, George Khan is a Pakistani Muslim who has lived in Britain since 1937. He has a wife in Pakistan. He and his second wife Ella, a British Roman Catholic woman of Irish descent, have been married for twenty-five years and have seven children; Nazir, Abdul, Tariq, Maneer, Saleem, Meenah (the only daughter) and Sajid. George and Ella run a popular fish and chip shop.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: While George is obsessed with the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War (primarily out of concern for his first family living near the conflict zone) and arranging marriages for his children, the children themselves, born and brought up in Britain, increasingly see themselves as British and reject Pakistani dress, food, religion and culture. After George disowns Nazir for running out on his arranged marriage, he immediately begins making plans to have another of his children married to maintain his image.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: On a trip to Bradford, George is introduced to Mr. Shah, a fellow Pakistani Muslim who wishes to marry off his two unattractive daughters. George arranges in secret for his second and third sons, Abdul and Tariq, to marry them, despite Ella's misgivings, a conversation that the youngest child, Sajid, overhears. During a quarrel, Sajid reveals the arranged marriages to his brothers; Tariq, the most rebellious son who is in a relationship with Stella Moorhouse (whose grandfather is a supporter of Enoch Powell and repatriation), flies into a rage and defiles the wedding garments George had bought. The most obedient son, Maneer, is caught by George trying to tidy the mess up and beaten when he refuses to tell George who was responsible; Ella intervenes and is also beaten. Tariq travels to Eccles and tracks down Nazir, now a hat designer and in a homosexual relationship, who returns to confront George for his actions. However, upon seeing Ella's and Maneer's bruises, he becomes frightened his appearance will anger George further and make the situation worse for his siblings and his mother. Ella urges him to go, so he obeys her wish and flees before George catches sight of him. Tariqand George get in a heated argument over the arranged marriages. Whilst Tariq insists that he is British, George refutes this, stating that the Islamic community is more accepting. Tariq reluctantly agrees to go along with the marriage, but defiantly states that he will follow his father's example of also having a British second wife.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: Mr. and Mrs. Shah arrive with their daughters to meet George's family. Ella maintains her composure despite Mrs. Shah's condescending and rude attitude, but things come to a head when a scuffle ensues over a sculpture of a vagina that Saleem had made as a project for art college, and he accidentally drops it into Mrs. Shah's lap. Angered, Mrs. Shah insults George's entire family and is ejected from the house by Ella along with her husband and daughters. Enraged, George attacks Ella but is stopped by Abdul and the other children long enough for him to see how his actions have turned his entire family against him, and leaves the household in shame to seek solace in his shop.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The film received positive reviews, scoring 78% on Rotten Tomatoes with twenty-five positive and seven negative reviews.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The film was a major box office success. It grossed worldwide, against a production budget of £1.9 million (), earning over ten times its budget.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: In the United Kingdom, the film grossed over or at the box office. In Europe, it sold 4,119,909 tickets at the box office. In the United States and Canada, the film grossed (equivalent to $7,095,508 adjusted for inflation in 2021).


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The film won the Alexander Korda Award for Best British Film at the BAFTA Awards, and was declared Best Comedy Film at the British Comedy Awards. It also won the Espiga de Oro at Valladolid International Film Festival (Seminci) in 1999.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The screenwriter, Ayub Khan-Din, won both a British Independent Film Award and a London Critics' Circle Film Awards for his screenplay. He was also nominated for two BAFTA Awards for Best Adapted Screenplay and the Carl Foreman Award for the Most Promising Newcomer, and for a European Film Award for Best Screenwriter.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: The director, Damien O'Donnell, won Best Debut at the UK Empire Awards, won the Evening Standard British Film Awards and Fantasporto for Best Film, won the OCIC Special Award at the Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema, won the Kingfisher Award at the Ljubljana International Film Festival, and received a number of nominations, among them a British Independent Film Awards nomination and a David di Donatello Awards nomination.


title: East Is East (1999 film)

text: A sequel, "West Is West", premiered at the BFI London Film Festival in the autumn of 2010, and was on general UK release from February 2011.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: The Tuileries Garden (, ) is a public garden located between the Louvre and the Place de la Concorde in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. Created by Catherine de' Medici as the garden of the Tuileries Palace in 1564, it was eventually opened to the public in 1667 and became a public park after the French Revolution. Since the 19th century, it has been a place where Parisians celebrate, meet, stroll and relax.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: In July 1559, after the accidental death of her husband, Henry II, Queen Catherine de' Medici decided to leave her residence of the Hôtel des Tournelles, at the eastern part of Paris, near the Bastille. Together with her son, the new king of France François II, her other children and the royal court, she moved to the Louvre Palace. Five years later, in 1564, she decided to build a new residence with more space for a garden. For that purpose, Catherine bought land west of Paris, just outside the city Wall of Charles V. It was bordered on the south by the Seine, and on the north by the "faubourg Saint-Honoré", a road in the countryside continuing the Rue Saint-Honoré. Since the 13th century this area had been occupied by tile-making factories called "tuileries" (from the French "tuile", meaning "tile"). The new residence was called the Tuileries Palace


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Catherine commissioned a landscape architect from Florence, Bernard de Carnesse, to create an Italian Renaissance garden for the palace. The new garden was an enclosed space five hundred metres long and three hundred metres wide, separated from the new palace by a lane. It was divided into rectangular compartments by six alleys, and the sections were planted with lawns, flower beds, and small clusters of five trees, called quinconces; and, more practically, with kitchen gardens and vineyards. It was further decorated with fountains, a labyrinth, a grotto, and faience images of plants and animals, made by Bernard Palissy, whom Catherine had tasked to discover the secret of Chinese porcelain.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: The development of the garden was interrupted by a civil war. In 1588 Henry III had to flee through the garden to escape capture from the Catholic League on the Day of the Barricades of the French Wars of Religion and did not return. The gardens were pillaged. However, the new King, Henry IV, returned in 1595? and, with his chief landscape gardener Claude Mollet, restored and embellished the gardens. Henry built a chamille, or covered arbor, the length of the garden, Another alley was planted with mulberry trees where he hoped to cultivate silkworms and start a silk industry in France. He also built a rectangular ornamental lake of 65 metres by 45 metres with a fountain supplied with water by the new pump called La Samaritaine, which had been built in 1608 on the Pont Neuf. The area between the palace and the former moat of Charles V was turned into the "New Garden" (Jardin Neuf) with a large fountain in the center. Though Henry IV never lived in the Tuilieries Palace, which was continually under reconstruction, he did use the gardens for relaxation and exercise.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: In 1610, at the death of his father, Louis XIII, age nine, became the new owner of the Tuileries Gardens. It became his enormous playground - he used it for hunting, and he kept a small zoo of exotic animals. On the north side of the gardens, his mother and the regent, Marie de' Medici, built stables and a riding school, the Manége, which survived until The French Revolution, when it was used as the meeting hall of the revolutionary parliament.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: The garden was entirely enclosed, and was used exclusively by the royal family when they were in residence, but When the king and court were absent from Paris, the gardens were turned into a pleasure spot for the nobility. In 1630 a parterre at the west end of the garden, between the Louvre and the Tuileries palace, where the moat of the old city walls had been, was turned into a parterre of flower beds and paths. This parterre was transformed into a sort of a playground for the aristocracy. The daughter of Gaston d'Orléans and the niece of Louis XIII, known as La Grande Mademoiselle, held court there, and it became known as known the "Parterre de Mademoiselle". However, in 1652, "La Grande Mademoiselle" was expelled from the chateau and garden for having supported an uprising, the Fronde, against her cousin, the young Louis XIV. Louis XIV had he space transformed into large parade ground, When his first child was born, on Jun 5-6 1662, the parterre was the setting for a spectacular circular horseback promenade by the nobility, slowly circling the parterre. This became known as a "Carrousel", and gave its name to that portion of the garden.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Louis XIV quickly imposed his own sense of order on the Tuileries Gardens. His architects, Louis Le Vau and François d'Orbay, finally finished the Tuileries Palace, making a proper royal residence. In 1664, Colbert, the king's superintendent of buildings, commissioned the landscape architect André Le Nôtre, to redesign the entire garden. Le Nôtre was the grandson of Pierre Le Nôtre, one of Catherine de' Medici's gardeners, and his father Jean had also been a gardener at the Tuileries. He immediately began transforming the Tuileries into a formal "jardin à la française", a style he had first developed at Vaux-le-Vicomte and perfected at Versailles, based on symmetry, order and long perspectives.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Le Nôtre's gardens were designed to be seen from above, from a building or terrace. He eliminated the street which separated the palace and the garden, and replaced it with a terrace looking down upon flowerbeds bordered by low boxwood hedges and filled with designs of flowers. In the centre of the flowerbeds he placed three ornamental lakes with fountains. In front of the centre of the first fountain he laid out the Grande Allée, which extended 350 metres. He built two other alleys, lined with chestnut trees, on either side. He crossed these three main alleys with small lanes, to create compartments planted with diverse trees, shrubs and flowers.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: On the south side of the park, next to the Seine, he built a long terrace called the Terrasse du bord-de-l'eau, planted with trees, with a view of the river He built a second terrace on the north side, overlooking the garden, called the Terrasse des Feuillants.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: On the west side of the garden, beside the present-day Place de la Concorde, he built two ramps in a horseshoe shape "Fer á Cheval" and two terraces overlooking an octagonal lake "Bassin Octogonal" in diameter, respectively from corner to corner, with one fountain in the centre with a waterjet of height, additional powerful waterjets from each corner to the center. The terraces frame the western entrance of the garden, and provide another viewpoint to see the garden from above.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Le Nôtre wanted his grand perspective from the palace to the western end of the garden to continue outside the garden. In 1667, he made plans for an avenue with two rows of trees on either side, which would have continued west to the present Rond-Point des Champs Élysées.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Le Nôtre and his hundreds of masons, gardeners and earth-movers worked on the gardens from 1666 to 1672. In 1682, however, the king, furious with the Parisians for resisting his authority, abandoned Paris and moved to Versailles.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: In 1667, at the request of the famous author of "Sleeping Beauty" and other fairy tales, Charles Perrault, the Tuileries Garden was opened to the public, with the exception of beggars, "lackeys" and soldiers. It was the first royal garden to be open to the public.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: After the death of Louis XIV, the five-year-old Louis XV became owner of the Tuileries Garden. In 1719, two large equestrian statuary groups, "La Renommée" and "Mercure", by the sculptor Antoine Coysevox, were brought from the king's residence at Marly and placed at the west entrance of the garden. Other statues by Nicolas and Guillaume Coustou, Corneille an Clève, Sebastien Slodz, Thomas Regnaudin and Coysevox were placed along the Grande Allée. A swing bridge was placed at the west end over the moat, to make access to the garden easier. The creation of the place Louis XV (now Place de la Concorde) created a grand vestibule to the garden, though entrance to the north side of the garden, prior to the construction of Rue Saint-Honore by Napoleon, was obstructed by residences, convents and private gardens.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: Certain holidays, such as August 25, the feast day of Saint Louis, were celebrated with concerts and fireworks in the park. Small food stands were placed in the park, and chairs could be rented for a small fee. Public toilets were added in 1780.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: A famous early balloon ascent, the first free flight of a manned hydrogen balloon, was made from the garden on 1 December 1783 by Jacques Alexandre César Charles and Nicolas Louis Robert. The King watched the flight from the tower of the palace. The first trial of the balloon was attended by the first American ambassador to Paris, Benjamin Franklin. The balloon and passengers landed safely at Nesles-la-Vallée, thirty-one miles from Paris.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: On 6 October 1789, as the French Revolution began, King Louis XVI and family were was brought against his will to the Tuileries Palace. The garden reserved exclusively for the royal family in the morning, then open to the public in the afternoon. Queen Marie Antoinette and the Dauphin were given a part of the garden for her private use, first at the west end of the Promenade Bord d'eaux, then at the edge of the Place Louis XV.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: After the king's failed attempt to escape France on 21 June 1791, the King and family were placed under house arrest in the palace. The royal family was allowed to walk in the park on the evening of 18 September 1791, during the festival organized to celebrate the new French Constitution, when the alleys of the park were illuminated with pyramids and rows of lanterns. But as the Revolution took a more radical turn, On 10 August 1792, a mob stormed the Palace, the king was imprisoned, and the king's Swiss guards were chased through the gardens and massacred.


title: Tuileries Garden

text: The new revolutionary government, the National Convention, met in the Salle du Manège,the former riding academy in the northwest corner of the gardens, which was the largest meeting hall in the city. Louis XVI was put trial by the National Convention at the Manege, and was sentenced to death. After the Tuileries became the National Garden (Jardin National) of the new French Republic. The Convention ordered that statues from the former royal gardens of Marly, Versailles and Fontainebleau be brought to Paris and installed in the National Garden. The originals are now in the Louvre, with copies taking their place in the gardens.