title: Westwood Studios

text: Westwood Studios, Inc. was an American video game developer, based in Las Vegas, Nevada. It was founded by Brett Sperry and Louis Castle in 1985 as Brelous Software, but got changed after 2 months into Westwood Associates and was renamed to Westwood Studios when Virgin Games (later Virgin Interactive Entertainment) bought the company in 1992. The company was bought by Electronic Arts alongside Virgin Interactive's North American operations in 1998. In January 2003, it was announced that Westwood, alongside Westwood Pacific (EA Pacific), would be merged into EA Los Angeles. The main studio location closed in March of that year.


title: Westwood Studios

text: Westwood is best known for developing video games in the real-time strategy, adventure and role-playing genres. It was listed in "Guinness World Records" for selling more than 10 million copies of "Command & Conquer" worldwide.


title: Westwood Studios

text: Brett Sperry and Louis Castle met in late 1983 in Las Vegas. Sperry had a background in architecture and psychology and was already working in the gaming industry. Both Sperry and Castle worked as contract programmers. The two eventually became friends and decided to form a company together and named it Brelous Software.


title: Westwood Studios

text: According to Louis Castle, the company was named after the "entertainment meets professional" character of the Westwood neighborhood in Los Angeles.


title: Westwood Studios

text: The company's first projects consisted of contract work for companies like Epyx and Strategic Simulations, Inc. (SSI), porting 8-bit titles to 16-bit systems like Commodore Amiga and Atari ST. Proceeds from contract work allowed the company to expand into designing its own games in-house. Their first original title was "Mars Saga", a game developed for Electronic Arts and released in 1988. They laid the foundations for the real-time strategy genre with the release of real-time tactics game "", one of the more literal translations of the tabletop game "BattleTech".


title: Westwood Studios

text: One of the company's first great successes was "Eye of the Beholder" (1991), a real-time role-playing video game based on the "Dungeons & Dragons" license, developed for SSI. Other publishers of early Westwood games included Infocom and Disney. Their company was eventually acquired by Virgin Games in 1992.


title: Westwood Studios

text: The company in the late 1980s was known for shipping products late, but by 1993 it had so improved that, "Computer Gaming World" reported, "many publishers would assure [us] that a project was going to be completed on time "because" Westwood was doing it". The magazine added that it "not only has a solid reputation for getting product out on time, but a reputation for "good" product", citing "Eye of the Beholder", "The Legend of Kyrandia", and "Dune II" as examples. By then Westwood had about 50 employees, including up to 20 artists. Other Westwood titles from the early 1990s include "Lands of Lore" and Westwood's greatest commercial success, the 1995 real-time strategy game "Command & Conquer". Building on the gameplay and interface ideas of "Dune II", it added pre-rendered 3D graphics for gameplay sprites and video cinematics, an alternative pop/rock soundtrack with techno elements streamed from disk, and online play. "Command & Conquer", "Kyrandia", and "Lands of Lore" spawned several sequels.


title: Westwood Studios

text: In August 1998, Westwood and sister company Burst Studios was acquired by Electronic Arts for $122.5 million from Virgin Interactive's North American operations, which EA also acquired. At the time, Westwood games had a 5% to 6% share of the PC game market, especially the "Command & Conquer" franchise was considered very valuable. The 50,000 square foot building in Las Vegas included motion capture facilities, comfortable offices and was considered a showcase for the industry. According to Westwood Studios designer and programmer Joe Bostic, Electronic Arts did not interfere with Westwood's operations primarily due to Westwood co-founder Brett Sperry's efforts in keeping the corporate cultures of the two companies separate, but eventually Westwood succumbed to wishes that every game had to be a hit.


title: Westwood Studios

text: The last games "" and "Earth & Beyond" did not meet expectations of the publisher. In January 2003, EA announced their intent to close Westwood, as well as EA Pacific, and merge them into EA Los Angeles as part of a consolidation plan. This move included "significant layoffs" for Westwood, which at the time employed 100 people, while the remaining people were given the option to transfer to the Los Angeles studio or EA's headquarters. Most employees were let go by January 31, while some staff stayed with Westwood transitionally until it was fully closed on March 31, 2003. Some formed Petroglyph Games in April 2003, while another three (Brett Sperry, Adam Isgreen and Rade Stojsavljevic) formed a development studio called Jet Set Games in 2008, both based in Las Vegas, Nevada.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: In neuroscience, glutamate refers to the anion of glutamic acid in its role as a neurotransmitter: a chemical that nerve cells use to send signals to other cells. It is by a wide margin the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the vertebrate nervous system. It is used by every major excitatory function in the vertebrate brain, accounting in total for well over 90% of the synaptic connections in the human brain. It also serves as the primary neurotransmitter for some localized brain regions, such as cerebellum granule cells.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Biochemical receptors for glutamate fall into three major classes, known as AMPA receptors, NMDA receptors, and metabotropic glutamate receptors. A fourth class, known as kainate receptors, are similar in many respects to AMPA receptors, but much less abundant. Many synapses use multiple types of glutamate receptors. AMPA receptors are ionotropic receptors specialized for fast excitation: in many synapses they produce excitatory electrical responses in their targets a fraction of a millisecond after being stimulated. NMDA receptors are also ionotropic, but they differ from AMPA receptors in being permeable, when activated, to calcium. Their properties make them particularly important for learning and memory. Metabotropic receptors act through second messenger systems to create slow, sustained effects on their targets.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Because of its role in synaptic plasticity, glutamate is involved in cognitive functions such as learning and memory in the brain. The form of plasticity known as long-term potentiation takes place at glutamatergic synapses in the hippocampus, neocortex, and other parts of the brain. Glutamate works not only as a point-to-point transmitter, but also through spill-over synaptic crosstalk between synapses in which summation of glutamate released from a neighboring synapse creates extrasynaptic signaling/volume transmission. In addition, glutamate plays important roles in the regulation of growth cones and synaptogenesis during brain development.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate is a very major constituent of a wide variety of proteins; consequently it is one of the most abundant amino acids in the human body. Glutamate is formally classified as a non-essential amino acid, because it can be synthesized (in sufficient quantities for health) from α-ketoglutaric acid, which is produced as part of the citric acid cycle by a series of reactions whose starting point is citrate. Glutamate cannot cross the blood–brain barrier unassisted, but it is actively transported out of the nervous system by a high affinity transport system, which maintains its concentration in brain fluids at a fairly constant level.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate is synthesized in the central nervous system from glutamine as part of the glutamate–glutamine cycle by the enzyme glutaminase. This can occur in the presynaptic neuron or in neighboring glial cells.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate itself serves as metabolic precursor for the neurotransmitter GABA, via the action of the enzyme glutamate decarboxylase.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate exerts its effects by binding to and activating cell surface receptors. In mammals, four families of glutamate receptors have been identified, known as AMPA receptors, kainate receptors, NMDA receptors, and metabotropic glutamate receptors. The first three families are ionotropic, meaning that when activated they open membrane channels that allow ions to pass through. The metabotropic family are G protein-coupled receptors, meaning that they exert their effects via a complex second messenger system.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate transporters, EAAT and VGLUT, are found in neuronal and glial membranes. They rapidly remove glutamate from the extracellular space. In brain injury or disease, they often work in reverse, and excess glutamate can accumulate outside cells. This process causes calcium ions to enter cells via NMDA receptor channels, leading to neuronal damage and eventual cell death, and is called excitotoxicity. The mechanisms of cell death include


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Excitotoxicity due to excessive glutamate release and impaired uptake occurs as part of the ischemic cascade and is associated with stroke, autism, some forms of intellectual disability, and diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, lathyrism, and Alzheimer's disease. In contrast, decreased glutamate release is observed under conditions of classical phenylketonuria leading to developmental disruption of glutamate receptor expression.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamic acid has been implicated in epileptic seizures. Microinjection of glutamic acid into neurons produces spontaneous depolarisations around one second apart, and this firing pattern is similar to what is known as paroxysmal depolarizing shift in epileptic attacks. This change in the resting membrane potential at seizure foci could cause spontaneous opening of voltage-activated calcium channels, leading to glutamic acid release and further depolarization.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Glutamate functions as a neurotransmitter in every type of animal that has a nervous system, including ctenophores (comb jellies), which branched off from other phyla at an early stage in evolution and lack the other neurotransmitters found ubiquitously among animals, including serotonin and acetylcholine. Rather, ctenophores have functionally distinct types of ionotropic glutamate receptors, such that activation of these receptors may trigger muscle contraction and other responses.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Sponges do not have a nervous system, but also make use of glutamate for cell-to-cell signalling. Sponges possess metabotropic glutamate receptors, and application of glutamate to a sponge can trigger a whole-body response that sponges use to rid themselves of contaminants. The genome of "Trichoplax", a primitive organism that also lacks a nervous system, contains numerous metabotropic glutamate receptors, but their function is not yet known.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: In arthropods and nematodes, glutamate stimulates glutamate-gated chloride channels. The β subunits of the receptor respond with very high affinity to glutamate and glycine. Targeting these receptors has been the therapeutic goal of anthelmintic therapy using avermectins. Avermectins target the alpha subunit of glutamate-gated chloride channels with high affinity. These receptors have also been described in arthropods, such as "Drosophila melanogaster" and "Lepeophtheirus salmonis". Irreversible activation of these receptors with avermectins results in hyperpolarization at synapses and neuromuscular junctions resulting in flaccid paralysis and death of nematodes and arthropods.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: The presence of glutamate in every part of the body as a building-block for protein made its special role in the nervous system difficult to recognize: its function as a neurotransmitter was not generally accepted until the 1970s, decades after the identification of acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and serotonin as neurotransmitters. The first suggestion that glutamate might function as a transmitter came from T. Hayashi in 1952, who was motivated by the finding that injections of glutamate into the cerebral ventricles of dogs could cause them to have seizures.


title: Glutamate (neurotransmitter)

text: Other support for this idea soon appeared, but the majority of physiologists were skeptical, for a variety of theoretical and empirical reasons. One of the most common reasons for skepticism was the universality of glutamate's excitatory effects in the central nervous system, which seemed inconsistent with the specificity expected of a neurotransmitter. Other reasons for skepticism included a lack of known antagonists and the absence of a known mechanism for inactivation. A series of discoveries during the 1970s resolved most of these doubts, and by 1980 the compelling nature of the evidence was almost universally recognized.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Dreamer (also known as Dreamer: Inspired by a True Story) is a 2005 American sports drama film written and directed by John Gatins in his directorial debut. The film stars Kurt Russell, Kris Kristofferson, Elisabeth Shue and Dakota Fanning. It is inspired by the true story of an injured Thoroughbred racehorse named Mariah's Storm. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2005 and was theatrically released on October 21, 2005 by DreamWorks Pictures. The film received mixed reviews from critics, and earned $39.5 million on a $32 million budget. It also received a Critics' Choice Award nomination for Best Family Film.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Ben Crane, a horse trainer who takes his work very seriously, neglects his precocious daughter while he pours his heart into the care of the horses that he trains.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Determined to make good on her father's overdue promise, Cale prods him to take her along to work and succeeds. One morning, Soñador, the horse that is to enter the race that day, refuses to leave her stall. Ben mentions that one of her legs feels warm but his boss, Palmer, tells him to get Soñador on the track. During the race, the horse falls and injures herself so badly that Palmer demands the horse be put down. Having Cale along and not wanting her to see something like this, Ben instead strikes a bargain with Palmer and becomes the owner of the wounded horse but ends up losing his job as a result. With no job and facing foreclosure on his property, he decides to breed Soñador (who is nicknamed Sonya). Sonya gets a cast on her injured leg and slowly begins to recover.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Cale, having fallen in love at first sight with Soñador, begins to sneak out to the barn at night to see her. She also sneaks over to see her grandfather, 'Pop', Ben's dad, who loves teaching his granddaughter about horses.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: They go to another farm to pick out a stallion to breed with Soñador, but the stud fee is too high. Ben's father gives Ben some money to use to breed, and Ben reluctantly takes it. But before they can breed, the vet tests Soñador and finds out she is unable to have a foal.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: After, Cale hears her father tell her mother, Lilly, that Soñador has ruined them because she cannot have a foal. Lilly responds that Soñador is the best thing that has ever happened to them, alluding to the fact that Ben is finally spending much-needed time with Cale. Frustrated, Ben says that if Cale wasn't there the day when Soñador was hurt, he would have let her be put down.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Hurt after hearing the conversation, Cale sets out to run away from home and saddles Soñador. Not knowing of Cale's plan, Ben enters the barn. The door slams behind him, and a startled Soñador bolts out of the barn with Cale hanging on for dear life. Ben scrambles to his truck and sets out after them. He catches up and manages to get Cale to safety but also notices how fast Sonya is, despite her previous injury.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: This incident begins to cement the newly forming bond between father and daughter. They realize that Soñador is very fast and decide to race her. Unfortunately, after the race she is claimed, and Cale is angry at her father for entering the horse in a claiming race.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: At a parent-teacher night at school, Ben reads a story that Cale wrote about a king and his horse, and he realizes how much their family needs Soñador. He buys her back with money from his father. Cale decides to race Soñador in the Breeders’ Cup Classic, with Manny, Ben's colleague, as the jockey. They start training together and manage to get a wealthy sponsor.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: On the day of the race, Ben notices Sonya's leg is warm and contemplates not racing her, scared that she may get injured again. This time however, Sonya refuses to go back in the stall. Manny and Sonya enter the race and eventually win.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: The movie is loosely inspired by the story of the mare Mariah's Storm. She was a promising filly who was being pointed towards the Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies in 1993 but then broke her cannon bone (the incident is mentioned in the film by Soñador's veterinarian). She recovered and later won some graded stakes races. She started in the 1995 Breeders' Cup Distaff and finished ninth. She was owned by Thunderhead Farms and trained by the father and son team of Don Von Hemel and Donnie K. Von Hemel. She is now known mostly for being the dam of Giant's Causeway. In the movie, when Cale and Ben go to Ashford Stud to check out the studs, the stallions they are naming, such as Fusaichi Pegasus, Giant's Causeway, Mariah's Storm, Johannesburg and Grand Slam, are real horses who actually stand at Ashford. However, the actual stallions were not used in filming. Stand-ins were placed in their stalls instead. In the scene where Soñador is considered for the Breeder's Cup, Prince Sadir says that his horse "Rapid Cat is sired by Storm Cat, the best sire in the world." Coincidentally, Mariah's Storm (on whom Soñador is based) was bred to Storm Cat.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: While doing research in Kentucky, the director/writer came upon a vet who told him about a racehorse who miraculously made a comeback after a serious injury, and he loosely based the script on this story. Before being picked up by DreamWorks, the script was presented to Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros, but both declined. Director John Gatins was told that if he could get Dakota Fanning in the lead role his movie would get a green-light. He went to see Fanning's agent and finally got the young actress to sign on. The role of Cale Crane was originally written for a boy, and the role was changed specifically so that Dakota Fanning could play it. The first script that was sent to Fanning actually had the word "boy" in the character description.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: To produce the soundtrack, an advance showing of this film was shown to a number of recording artists, who were then asked to submit ideas for theme songs. Bethany Dillon's song "Dreamer" was chosen out of all the submissions. After the movie, Kurt Russell bought Dakota Fanning a real Palomino horse, whom she named Goldie.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2005 and released theatrically on October 21, 2005 by DreamWorks Pictures.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: "Dreamer" opened in second place at the box office behind "Doom", with $9,178,233 earned for a $4,573 average from 2,007 theaters. In its second weekend, it held well with a 33.2% drop to fourth place with $6,132,856 earned for a $2,462 average from being expanded to 2,491 theaters and lifting its two-week total to $17,374,339. It held up even better in its third weekend, only slipping 21.8% to sixth place and $4,794,741 for a $1,832 average from being expanded to 2,617 theaters. In its fourth weekend, it once again held well with a 22.2% slide to $3,728,510 and ninth place, for a $1,363 average from being expanded to its widest release, 2,735 theaters.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: The film closed on January 5, 2006, after 77 days of release and grossing $32,751,093 domestically along with an additional $5,990,639 overseas for a worldwide total of $38,741,732. Produced on a $32 million budget, the film performed average at the box office, as it barely recouped its budget.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 64%, based on 117 reviews, with an average rating of 6.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Though formulaic, this horse story's saving grace is its strong performances." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on reviews 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a rare grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave it 3 out of 4 stars, and called "A well-made use of familiar materials." He praised the central performance of Dakota Fanning, and the understated performances by Russell, Kristofferson and Morse.


title: Dreamer (2005 film)

text: Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter said it "Recycles just about every sentimental ploy and cliche from a raft of horse racing movies."


title: War Plan Red

text: War Plan Red, also known as the Atlantic Strategic War Plan, was one of the color-coded war plans created by the United States Department of War during the interwar period of 1919–1939, covering scenarios related to a hypothetical war with the British Empire (the "Red" forces, likely in reference to the Red Ensign). Many different war plans were prepared by mid-level officers primarily as training exercises in how to calculate the logistical and manpower requirements of fighting a war, and War Plan Red outlined those steps necessary to defend against any attempted invasion of the United States from British forces. It further discussed fighting a two-front war with both Japan and Great Britain simultaneously (as envisioned in War Plan Red-Orange).


title: War Plan Red

text: War Plan Red was developed by the War Department after the 1927 Geneva Naval Conference and approved in May 1930 by Secretary of War Patrick J. Hurley and Secretary of the Navy Charles Francis Adams III and updated in 1934–35. It was a routine hypothetical exercise and did not require presidential or congressional approval. Only the Congress has the power to declare war.


title: War Plan Red

text: In 1939, on the outbreak of World War II, a decision was made that no further planning would be done but that the plan was to be retained. War Plan Red was not declassified until 1974.


title: War Plan Red

text: The war plan outlined actions that would be necessary if, for any reason, the US and Britain went to war with each other. The plan assumed that the British would initially have the upper hand by virtue of the strength of the Royal Navy. The plan further assumed that Britain would probably use its base in Canada as a springboard from which to initiate an invasion of the United States. The assumption was taken that at first, the US would fight a defensive battle against invading British forces, but the US would eventually defeat the British by blockading Canada's ports and cutting off its food supplies. It is debated whether this would have been successful, however, and if the plan would have ultimately resulted in a stalemate.


title: War Plan Red

text: War Plan Red first set out a description of Canada's geography, military resources, and transportation and went on to evaluate a series of possible pre-emptive American campaigns to invade Canada in several areas and occupy key ports and railways before British troops could provide reinforcement to the Canadians—the assumption being that Britain would use Canada as a staging point. The idea was that US attacks on Canada would prevent Britain from using Canadian resources, ports, or airbases.


title: War Plan Red

text: A key move was a joint US Army-Navy attack to capture the port city of Halifax, cutting off the Canadians from their British allies. Their next objective was to "seize Canadian Power Plants near Niagara Falls." This was to be followed by a full-scale invasion on three fronts: from Vermont to take Montreal and Quebec, from North Dakota to take over the railhead at Winnipeg, and from the Midwest to capture the strategic nickel mines of Ontario. In parallel, the US Navy was to seize the Great Lakes and blockade Canada's Atlantic and Pacific ports.


title: War Plan Red

text: Unlike the Rainbow Five plan, War Plan Red did not envision striking outside the Western Hemisphere first. Its authors saw conquering Canada as the best way to attack Britain and believed that doing so would cause London to negotiate for peace. A problem with the plan was that it did not discuss how to attack Britain if Canada declared its neutrality, which the authors believed was likely (the plan advised against accepting such a declaration without permission to occupy Canadian ports and some land until the war ended). The U.S. decided it should focus on the North American and Atlantic theater of operations first while leaving its Pacific outposts of the Philippines, Guam, and American Samoa alone to fend off any British, Australian, and New Zealander attacks during the early stages of the conflict.


title: War Plan Red

text: Based on extensive war games conducted at the Naval War College, the plan rejected attacking British shipping or attempting to destroy the British fleet. The main American fleet would instead stay in the western North Atlantic to block British–Canadian traffic. The Navy would wait for a good opportunity to engage the British fleet and, if successful, would then attack British trade and colonies in the Western Hemisphere.


title: War Plan Red

text: In 1935, War Plan Red was updated and specified which roads to use in the invasion. "The best practicable route to Vancouver is via Route 99."


title: War Plan Red

text: American war planners had no thoughts of returning captured British territory: "The policy will be to prepare the provinces and territories of CRIMSON and RED to become U.S. state and territories of the BLUE union upon the declaration of peace." The planners feared that should they lose the war with Britain, America would be forced to relinquish its territories to the victors, such as losing Alaska (then an organized incorporated territory at the time) to Canada as part of the peace treaty: "It is probable that, in case RED should be successful in the war, CRIMSON will demand that Alaska be awarded to her."


title: War Plan Red

text: The British military never prepared a formal plan for war with the United States during the first half of the 20th century. For instance, the government of David Lloyd George in 1919 restricted the Royal Navy from building more ships to compete with American naval growth and thereby preventing the plan's development. Like their American counterparts, most British military officers viewed cooperation with the United States as the best way to maintain world peace due to the shared culture, language, and goals, although they feared that attempts to regulate trade during a war with another nation might force a war with America.


title: War Plan Red

text: The British military generally believed that if war did occur, they could transport troops to Canada if asked, but nonetheless saw it as impossible to defend Canada against the much larger United States, so did not plan to render aid, as Canada's loss would not be fatal to Britain. A full invasion of the United States was unrealistic and a naval blockade would be too slow. The Royal Navy could not use a defensive strategy of waiting for the American fleet to cross the Atlantic because Imperial trade would be left too vulnerable. Royal Navy officers believed that Britain was vulnerable to a supply blockade and that if a larger American fleet appeared near the British Isles, the Isles might quickly surrender. The officers planned to, instead, attack the American fleet from a Western Hemisphere base, likely Bermuda, while other ships based in Canada and the West Indies would attack American shipping and protect Imperial trade. The British would also bombard coastal bases and make small amphibious assaults. India and Australia would help capture Manila to prevent American attacks on British trade in Asia and perhaps a conquest of Hong Kong. The officers hoped that such acts would result in a stalemate making continued war unpopular in the United States, followed by a negotiated peace.


title: War Plan Red

text: Canadian military officer Lieutenant Colonel James "Buster" Sutherland Brown developed an earlier counterpart to War Plan Red, Defence Scheme No. 1, on April 12, 1921. Maintaining that the best defense was a good offense, "Buster" Brown planned for rapid deployment of flying columns to occupy Seattle, Great Falls, Minneapolis, and Albany. With little hope of holding the objectives, the actual idea was to divert American troops to the flanks and away from Canada, hopefully long enough for British and Commonwealth allies to arrive with reinforcements. Defence Scheme No. 1 was terminated by Chief of the General Staff Andrew McNaughton in 1928, two years before the approval of War Plan Red.


title: Trade-off

text: A trade-off (or tradeoff) is a situational decision that involves diminishing or losing one quality, quantity, or property of a set or design in return for gains in other aspects. In simple terms, a tradeoff is where one thing increases, and another must decrease. Tradeoffs stem from limitations of many origins, including simple physics – for instance, only a certain volume of objects can fit into a given space, so a full container must remove some items in order to accept any more, and vessels can carry a few large items or multiple small items. Tradeoffs also commonly refer to different configurations of a single item, such as the tuning of strings on a guitar to enable different notes to be played, as well as an allocation of time and attention towards different tasks.


title: Trade-off

text: The concept of a tradeoff suggests a tactical or strategic choice made with full comprehension of the advantages and disadvantages of each setup. An economic example is the decision to invest in stocks, which are risky but carry great potential return, versus bonds, which are generally safer but with lower potential returns.


title: Trade-off

text: In economics a trade-off is expressed in terms of the opportunity cost of a particular choice, which is the loss of the most preferred alternative given up. A tradeoff, then, involves a sacrifice that must be made to obtain a certain product, service, or experience, rather than others that could be made or obtained using the same required resources. For example, for a person going to a basketball game, their opportunity cost is the loss of the alternative of watching a particular television program at home. If the basketball game occurs during her or his working hours, then the opportunity cost would be several hours of lost work, as they would need to take time off work.


title: Trade-off

text: Many factors affect the tradeoff environment within a particular country, including the availability of raw materials, a skilled labor force, machinery for producing a product, technology and capital, market rate to produce that product on a reasonable time scale, and so forth.


title: Trade-off

text: A trade-off in economics is often illustrated graphically by a Pareto frontier (named after the economist Vilfredo Pareto), which shows the greatest (or least) amount of one thing that can be attained for each of various given amounts of the other. As an example, in production theory, the trade-off between the output of one good and the output of another is illustrated graphically by the production possibilities frontier. The Pareto frontier is also used in multi-objective optimization. In finance, the capital asset pricing model includes an efficient frontier that shows the highest level of expected return that any portfolio could have given any particular level of risk, as measured by the variance of portfolio return.


title: Trade-off

text: An opportunity cost example of trade-offs for an individual would be the decision by a full-time worker to take time off work with a salary of $50,000 to attend medical school with an annual tuition of $30,000 and earning $150,000 as a doctor after 7 years of study. If we assume for the sake of simplicity that the medical school only allows full-time study, then the individual considering stopping work would face a trade-off between not going to medical school and earning $50,000 at work, or going to medical school and losing $50,000 in salary and having to pay $30,000 in tuition but earning $150,000 or more per year after 7 years of study.


title: Trade-off

text: Trash cans that are used inside and then taken out to the street and emptied into a dumpster can be small or large. A large trash can does not need to be taken out to the dumpster so often, but it may become very heavy and difficult to move when full. The choice of big versus small trash can is a trade-off between the frequency of needing to take out the trash and ease of use.


title: Trade-off

text: In the case of food waste, a second trade-off presents itself. Large trash cans are more likely to sit for a long time in the kitchen, leading to the food decomposing and a nasty odor. A small trash can will likely need to be taken out to the dumpster more often, thus greatly reducing or eliminating the odor. Of course, a user of a large trash can could simply carry the can outside frequently, but the larger can would be more cumbersome to take out often, and the user would have to think more about when to take the can out.


title: Trade-off

text: In cold climates, mittens in which all the fingers are in the same compartment work well to keep the hands warm, but this arrangement also confines finger movement and prevents the full range of hand function. Gloves, with their separate fingers, do not have this drawback, but they do not keep the fingers as warm as mittens do. As such, with mittens and gloves, the trade-off is warmth versus dexterity. Similarly, warm coats are often bulky and impede the wearer's freedom of movement. Thin coats give the wearer more freedom of movement, but they are not as warm as a thicker coat would be.


title: Trade-off

text: When copying music from compact discs to a computer, lossy compression formats, such as MP3, are used routinely to save hard disk space, but some information is lost resulting in lower sound quality. Lossless compression schemes, such as FLAC or ALAC take much more disk space, but do not affect sound quality.


title: Trade-off

text: Large cars can carry many people, and since they have larger crumple zones, they may be safer in an accident. However, they also tend to be heavy (and often not very aerodynamic) and thus usually have relatively poor fuel economy. Small cars like the Smart Car can only carry two people, and being lightweight, they are more fuel-efficient. At the same time, the smaller size and weight of small cars mean that they have smaller crumple zones, which means occupants are less protected in case of an accident. In addition, if a small car has an accident with a larger, heavier car, the occupants of the smaller car will fare more poorly. Thus car size (large versus small) involves multiple tradeoffs regarding passenger capacity, accident safety, and fuel economy.


title: Trade-off

text: In athletics, sprint running demands different physical attributes from running a marathon. Accordingly, the two contests have distinct events in such competitions as the Olympics, and each pursuit features distinct teams of athletes. Whether a professional runner is better suited to marathon running versus sprinting is a trade-off based on the runner's morphology and physiology (e.g., variation in muscle fiber type), as well as the runner's individual interest, preference, and other motivational factors. Sports recruiters are mindful of these tradeoffs as they decide what role a prospective athlete would best suit on a team.


title: Trade-off

text: In biology, several types of tradeoffs have been recognized. Most simply, a tradeoff occurs when a beneficial change in one trait is linked to a detrimental change in another trait. In environmental resource management, trade-offs occur among different targets. For example, these occur among biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration and distributive equity in the distribution of funds of the program for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), as maximizing one of these targets implies reducing the outcomes in the other two targets.


title: Trade-off

text: The term is also used widely in an evolutionary context, in which case the processes of natural selection and sexual selection are in reference as the ultimate decisive factors. In biology, the concepts of tradeoffs and constraints are often closely related.


title: Trade-off

text: In demography, tradeoff examples may include maturity, fecundity, parental care, parity, senescence, and mate choice. For example, the higher the fecundity (number of offspring), the lower the parental care that each offspring will receive. Parental care as a function of fecundity would show a negative sloped linear graph. A related phenomenon, known as demographic compensation, arises when the different components of species life cycles (survival, growth, fecundity, etc.) show negative correlations across the distribution ranges. For example, survival may be higher towards the northern edge of the distribution, while fecundity or growth increases towards the south, leading to a compensation that allows the species to persist along an environmental gradient. Contrasting trends in life cycle components may arise through tradeoffs in resource allocation, but also through independent but opposite responses to environmental conditions.


title: Trade-off

text: Tradeoffs are important in engineering. For example, in electrical engineering, negative feedback is used in amplifiers to trade gain for other desirable properties, such as improved bandwidth, stability of the gain and/or bias point, noise immunity, and reduction of nonlinear distortion. Similarly, tradeoffs are used to maximize power efficiency in medical devices whilst guaranteeing the required measurement quality.


title: Trade-off

text: In computer science, tradeoffs are viewed as a tool of the trade. A program can often run faster if it uses more memory (a space–time tradeoff). Consider the following examples:


title: Trade-off

text: The Software Engineering Institute has a specific method for analyzing tradeoffs, called the Architecture Tradeoff Analysis Method (ATAM).


title: Trade-off

text: Strategy board games often involve tradeoffs: for example, in chess you might trade a pawn for an improved position. In a worst-case scenario, a chess player might even tradeoff the loss of a valuable piece (even the Queen) to protect the King. In Go, you might trade "thickness" for "influence".


title: Trade-off

text: Ethics often involves competing for interests that must be traded off against each other, such as the interests of different people, or different principles (e.g. is it ethical to use information resulting from inhumane or illegal experiments to treat disease today?)


title: Trade-off

text: In medicine, patients and physicians are often faced with difficult decisions involving tradeoffs. One example is localized prostate cancer where patients need to weigh the possibility of a prolonged life expectancy against possible stressful or unpleasant treatment side-effects (patient trade-off).


title: Trade-off

text: Governmental tradeoffs are among the most controversial political and social difficulties of any time. All of politics can be viewed as a series of tradeoffs based upon which core values are most core to most people or politicians. Political campaigns also involve tradeoffs, as when attack ads may energize the political base but alienate undecided voters.


title: Trade-off

text: With work schedules, employees will often use a tradeoff of "9/80" where an 80-hour work period is compressed into a narrow group of 9 nearly-9 hour working days over the traditional 10 8-hour working days, allowing the employee to take every second Friday off.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Amy Johnson (born 1 July 1903 – disappeared 5 January 1941) was a pioneering English pilot who was the first woman to fly solo from London to Australia.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Flying solo or with her husband, Jim Mollison, she set many long-distance records during the 1930s. She flew in the Second World War as a part of the Air Transport Auxiliary and disappeared during a ferry flight. The cause of her death has been a subject of discussion over many years.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Born in 1903 in Kingston upon Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire, Amy Johnson was the daughter of Amy Hodge, granddaughter of William Hodge, a Mayor of Hull, and John William Johnson whose family were fish merchants in the firm of Andrew Johnson, Knudtzon and Company. She was the eldest of three sisters, the next in age being Irene who was a year younger.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson was educated at Boulevard Municipal Secondary School (later Kingston High School) and the University of Sheffield, where she graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. She then worked in London as secretary to a solicitor, William Charles Crocker. She was introduced to flying as a hobby, gaining an aviator's certificate, No. 8662, on 28 January 1929, and a pilot's "A" Licence, No. 1979, on 6 July 1929, both at the London Aeroplane Club under the tutelage of Captain Valentine Baker. In that same year, she became the first British woman to obtain a ground engineer's "C" licence.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson was a friend and collaborator of Fred Slingsby whose Yorkshire based company, Slingsby Aviation of Kirbymoorside, North Yorkshire became the UK's most famous glider manufacturer. Slingsby helped found Yorkshire Gliding Club at Sutton Bank and during the 1930s she was an early member and trainee.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson obtained the funds for her first aircraft from her father, who was always one of her strongest supporters, and Lord Wakefield. She purchased a secondhand de Havilland DH.60 Gipsy Moth G-AAAH and named it "Jason" after her father's business trade mark.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson achieved worldwide recognition when, in 1930, she became the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia. Flying G-AAAH "Jason", she left Croydon Airport, Surrey, on 5 May and landed at Darwin, Northern Territory on 24 May . Six days later she damaged her aircraft while landing downwind at Brisbane airport and flew to Sydney with Captain Frank Follett while her plane was repaired. "Jason" was later flown to Mascot, Sydney, by Captain Lester Brain. G-AAAH "Jason" is now on permanent display in the Flight Gallery of the Science Museum in London.


title: Amy Johnson

text: She received the Harmon Trophy as well as a CBE in George V's 1930 Birthday Honours in recognition of this achievement, and was also honoured with the No. 1 civil pilot's licence under Australia's 1921 Air Navigation Regulations.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson next obtained a de Havilland DH.80 Puss Moth G-AAZV which she named "Jason II". In July 1931, she and co-pilot Jack Humphreys became the first people to fly from London to Moscow in one day, completing the journey in approximately 21 hours. From there, they continued across Siberia and on to Tokyo, setting a record time for Britain to Japan.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 1932, Johnson married Scottish pilot Jim Mollison, who had proposed to her during a flight together some eight hours after they had first met. In July 1932, Johnson set a solo record for the flight from London to Cape Town, South Africa in Puss Moth G-ACAB, named "Desert Cloud", breaking her new husband's record. De Havilland Co and Castrol Oil featured this flight in advertising campaigns.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In July 1933, Johnson together with Mollison flew the "G-ACCV", named ""Seafarer"," a de Havilland DH.84 Dragon I nonstop from Pendine Sands, South Wales, heading to Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, New York. The aim was to take “Seafarer” to the starting point for the Mollison's attempt at achieving a world record distance flying non-stop from New York to Baghdad.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Running low on fuel and now flying in the dark of night, the pair made the decision to land short of New York. Spotting the lights of Bridgeport Municipal Airport (now Sikorsky Memorial Airport) in Stratford, Connecticut they circled it five times before crash landing some distance outside the field in a drainage ditch. Both were thrown from the aircraft but suffered only cuts and gashes. After recuperating, the pair were feted by New York society and received a ticker tape parade down Wall Street.


title: Amy Johnson

text: The Mollisons also flew, in record time, from Britain to India in 1934 in "G-ACSP", named ""Black Magic"", a de Havilland DH.88 Comet as part of the Britain to Australia MacRobertson Air Race, but were forced to retire from the race at Allahabad because of engine trouble.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In September 1934, Johnson (under her married name of Mollison) became the youngest President of the Women's Engineering Society, having been vice-president since 1934. Johnson succeeded Elizabeth M. Kennedy in the role and was in turn succeeded as President by Edith Mary Douglas. She was active in the society until her death.


title: Amy Johnson

text: On 4 May 1936, Johnson made her last record-breaking flight, starting from Gravesend Airport and regaining her Britain to South Africa record in "G-ADZO", a Percival Gull Six. The same year she was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Aero Club.


title: Amy Johnson

text: She further honed her gliding skills with the Midland Gliding Club, based in Shropshire, which she joined in October 1937 and remained an active flying member until gliding was suspended following the outbreak of the Second World War. In 1938, Johnson overturned her glider when landing after a display at Walsall Aerodrome in England, but was not seriously hurt. Following the accident, she nonetheless told reporters, "I still declare that gliding is the safest form of flying." The same year, she divorced Mollison. Soon afterwards, she reverted to her maiden name.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson began to explore other ways to make a living through business ventures, journalism and fashion. She modelled clothes for the designer Elsa Schiaparelli and created her a travelling bag sold under her own name.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 1939 Johnson found work flying with the Portsmouth, Southsea and Isle of Wight Aviation Company, piloting short flights across the Solent and flying as a target for searchlight batteries and anti-aircraft gunners to practice on.


title: Amy Johnson

text: During the Second World War her employing company’s aircraft were taken over by the Air Ministry in March 1940 and Johnson was served notice of redundancy alongside all other pilots in the company as all the aircraft were requisitioned for the war effort. She received a week's pay and a further four weeks pay of £40 as a redundancy package.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Two months later in 1940, Johnson joined the newly formed Air Transport Auxiliary (ATA), which transported Royal Air Force aircraft around the country. She rose to First Officer under the command of her friend and fellow pilot Pauline Gower. Her former husband also flew for the ATA throughout the war. Johnson described a typical day in her life in the ATA in a humorous article (published posthumously in 1941) for "The Woman Engineer" journal.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Writing a last letter to her friend Caroline Haslett, on New Years Day 1941, "I hope the gods will watch over you this year, and I wish you the best of luck (the only useful thing not yet taxed!)." On 5 January 1941, while flying an Airspeed Oxford for the ATA from Prestwick via RAF Squires Gate to RAF Kidlington near Oxford, Johnson went off course in adverse weather conditions. Reportedly out of fuel, she bailed out as her aircraft crashed into the Thames Estuary near Herne Bay.


title: Amy Johnson

text: A convoy of wartime vessels in the Thames Estuary spotted Johnson's parachute coming down and saw her alive in the water, calling for help. Conditions were poor – there was a heavy sea and a strong tide, snow was falling and it was intensely cold. Lt Cmdr Walter Fletcher, the Captain of HMS "Haslemere", navigated his ship to attempt a rescue. The crew of the vessel threw ropes out to Johnson but she was unable to reach them and was lost under the ship. A number of witnesses believed there was a second body in the water. Fletcher dived in and swam out to this, rested on it for a few minutes then let go. When the lifeboat reached him he was unconscious and as a result of the intense cold he died in hospital days later. Johnson's watertight flying bag, her log book and cheque book later washed up and were recovered near the crash site.


title: Amy Johnson

text: A memorial service was held for Johnson in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields on 14 January 1941. Walter Fletcher was posthumously awarded the Albert Medal in May 1941.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 1999, it was reported that Johnson's death may have been caused by friendly fire. Tom Mitchell, from Crowborough, Sussex, claimed to have shot Johnson's aircraft down when she twice failed to give the correct identification code during the flight. Mitchell explained how the aircraft was sighted and contacted by radio. A request was made for the signal. She gave the wrong one twice. "Sixteen rounds of shells were fired and the plane dived into the Thames Estuary. We all thought it was an enemy plane until the next day when we read the papers and discovered it was Amy. The officers told us never to tell anyone what happened."


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 2016, Alec Gill, a historian, claimed that the son of a ship's crew member stated that Johnson had died because she was sucked into the blades of the ship's propellers; the crewman did not observe this to occur, but believes it is true.


title: Amy Johnson

text: As a member of the ATA with no known grave – her body was never recovered – Johnson is commemorated (under the name Amy V. Johnson) by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission on the Air Forces Memorial at Runnymede.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In June 1930, Johnson's flight to Australia was the subject of a contemporary popular song, "Amy, Wonderful Amy", composed by Horatio Nicholls and recorded by Harry Bidgood, Jack Hylton, Arthur Lally, Arthur Rosebery and Debroy Somers. She was also the guest of honour at the opening of the first Butlins holiday camp, in Skegness in 1936. From 1935 to 1937, Johnson was the President of the Women's Engineering Society.


title: Amy Johnson

text: A collection of Amy Johnson souvenirs and mementos was donated by her father to Sewerby Hall in 1958. The hall now houses a room dedicated to Amy Johnson in its museum. In 1974, Harry Ibbetson's statue of Amy Johnson was unveiled in Prospect Street, Hull where a girls' school was named after her (the school closed in 2004). In 2016 new statues of Johnson were unveiled to commemorate the 75th anniversary of her death. The first, on 17 September, was at Herne Bay, close to the site she was last seen alive, and the second, on 30 September, was unveiled by Maureen Lipman near Hawthorne Avenue, Hull, close to Johnson's childhood home.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 2017 "The Guardian" listed the Amy Johnson bronze as one of the "best female statues in Britain". A blue plaque commemorates Johnson at Vernon Court, Hendon Way, in Childs Hill, London NW2. She is commemorated with a green plaque on The Avenues, Kingston upon Hull. She is commemorated with another blue plaque in Princes Risborough where she lived for a year.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Other tributes to Johnson include a KLM McDonnell-Douglas MD-11, and after that aircraft was retired, a Norwegian Air UK Boeing 787-9, named in her honour, and "Amy's Restaurant and Bar" at the Hilton hotels at both London Gatwick and Stansted airports are named after her.


title: Amy Johnson

text: "Amy Johnson Avenue" is a main road running northwards from Tiger Brennan Drive, Winnellie, to McMillans Rd, Karama, In Darwin, Australia.


title: Amy Johnson

text: "Amy Johnson Way" is a road linking commercial premises in Blackpool, Lancashire, UK, adjacent to Blackpool Airport. It is also the name of a road in Clifton Moor, York.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 2011 the Royal Aeronautical Society established the annual Amy Johnson Named Lecture to celebrate a century of women in flight and to honour Britain's most famous woman aviator. Carolyn McCall, Chief Executive of EasyJet, delivered the Inaugural Lecture on 6 July 2011 at the Society's headquarters in London. The Lecture is held on or close to 6 July every year to mark the date in 1929 when Amy Johnson was awarded her pilot's licence.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Over a six-month period, inmates of Hull Prison built a full-size model of the Gipsy Moth aircraft used by Johnson to fly solo from Britain to Australia. In February 2017 this went on public display at Hull Paragon Interchange.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In 2017, Google commemorated Johnson's 114th birthday with a Google Doodle. In 2017 the airline Norwegian painted the tail fin of two of its aircraft with a portrait of Johnson. She is one of the company's "British tail fin heroes", joining Queen singer Freddie Mercury, children's author Roald Dahl, England's World Cup winning captain Bobby Moore and aviation entrepreneur Sir Freddie Laker.


title: Amy Johnson

text: A mural reading QUEEN OF THE AIR (which was a nickname the British press gave Johnson) was painted in Cricklewood railway station to commemorate the hundred-year anniversary of women obtaining the right to vote in the United Kingdom.


title: Amy Johnson

text: St Mary's Church in Beverley, East Yorkshire announced their intention of installing a stone carving of Amy Johnson as part of a programme of celebrating women in the restoration of the stonework of the medieval church in 2021. The other eight figures will include fellow engineer and WES member Hilda Lyon, Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Seacole, Marie Curie, Rosalind Franklin, Helen Sharman and Ada Lovelace.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson's life has been the subject of a number of treatments in film and television, some more accurately biographical than others. In 1942, a film of Johnson's life, "They Flew Alone", was made by director-producer Herbert Wilcox, starring Anna Neagle as Johnson, and Robert Newton as Mollison. The movie is known in the United States as "Wings and the Woman". "Amy!" (1980) was an avant-garde documentary written and directed by feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey and semiologist Peter Wollen. A 1984 BBC television film "Amy" starred Harriet Walter in the title role. In the 1991 Australian television miniseries "The Great Air Race", aka "Half a World Away", based on the 1934 MacRobertson Air Race, Johnson was portrayed by Caroline Goodall.


title: Amy Johnson

text: Johnson earned a passing mention in other works such as the 2007 British film adaption of Noel Streatfeild's 1936 novel "Ballet Shoes", wherein the character Petrova is inspired by Johnson in her dreams of becoming an aviator.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In radio, the 2002 BBC Radio broadcast "The Typist who Flew to Australia", a play by Helen Cross, presented the theme that Johnson's aviation career was prompted by years of boredom in an unsatisfying job as a typist and sexual adventures including a seven-year affair with a Swiss businessman who married someone else.


title: Amy Johnson

text: In music, Johnson inspired a number of works, including the song "Flying Sorcery" from Scottish singer-songwriter Al Stewart's album, "Year of the Cat" (1976). "A Lone Girl Flier" and "Just Plain Johnnie" (Jack O'Hagan) sung by Bob Molyneux, and "Johnnie, Our Aeroplane Girl" sung by Jack Lumsdaine. "Queen of the Air" (2008) by Peter Aveyard is a musical tribute to Johnson. Indie pop band The Lucksmiths used a clip of her Australia welcome speech as an intro to their song "The Golden Age of Aviation".


title: Amy Johnson

text: More fictionalised portrayals include a "Doctor Who Magazine" comic story in 2013 entitled "A Wing and a Prayer", in which the time-travelling Doctor encounters Johnson in 1930. He tells Clara Oswald her death is a fixed point in time. Clara realises what's important is that it appears Amy died. They save her from drowning then took her to the planet Cornucopia. The character Worrals in the series of books by Captain W. E. Johns was modelled on Amy Johnson.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Thomas William Davis (born August 18, 1972) is an American financial executive. From 2005 to 2011, Davis was head of external affairs and the chief spokesperson of the Church of Scientology International and Senior Vice President at the Church of Scientology Celebrity Centre International from the early 1990s. Between 2011 and 2013, Davis did not make any public appearances in the media. In June 2013, it was revealed that Davis and his wife had relocated from Gold Base in Riverside County, California to Austin, Texas. He currently resides in Los Angeles.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: In 2016, he became the General Manager of Consolidated Press Holdings North America LLC, a private investment vehicle owned by Australian billionaire James Packer, but his employment was terminated in July 2017.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis previously worked for the Sea Org as a non-uniformed member. According to a Church of Scientology press release, in 2001 Davis was the Celebrity Centre's Vice President. He was the chief spokesperson of the Church of Scientology from 2005 to 2011, a position previously held by Mike Rinder.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: On June 13, 2003, Davis went with actor and Scientologist Tom Cruise and Kurt Weiland, director of external affairs for Scientology's Office of Special Affairs and Scientology vice president of communications, to meet with then-United States Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage. In the half-hour-long private meeting, they raised concerns with Armitage about the treatment of Scientologists in Germany and other countries.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis was a senior-level Scientologist, spokesman for the Church of Scientology, and a member of the Church of Scientology's Sea Organization or "Sea Org". He is a member of the International Association of Scientologists, and as of 2006 was listed as a Patron in their publication "Impact Magazine".


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis accompanied "Rolling Stone" writer Janet Reitman along with former head of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs Mike Rinder on a tour of the Gold Base in Hemet, California in 2005. In 2007, Davis gained international attention from events surrounding the making of a documentary about Scientology entitled "Scientology and Me", screened as an installment of the BBC public affairs series "Panorama". The "Panorama" reporter, John Sweeney, reported that he met with Davis early on and could not reach agreement with him on whether individuals attacking Scientology should be interviewed for the film, and whether the program should refer to Scientology as a "cult". As the BBC documentary was filmed, Scientologists made a parallel documentary, a camera crew shadowing Sweeney and chronicling his work. Davis made allegations against "Panorama" and the BBC that they were "spying" on the church of Scientology and harassed Sweeney by stalking him to various meetings with critics. Nonetheless, he never filed a report against Sweeney.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: While Sweeney was visiting the Scientology exhibition "", Davis accused him of being biased and of having been too easy on one of his interviewees. Sweeney lost his temper. The Church of Scientology released the resulting footage, showing Sweeney becoming angry, on YouTube, and the counter-documentary attacking Sweeney's methods was posted to UK politicians and media organizations. "Panorama" responded by posting its own YouTube clip, showing Davis losing his temper and abruptly ending an interview when Sweeney used the words "sinister cult". The BBC subsequently stated it was happy that on the whole, Sweeney had performed his work in a fair and proper manner.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: In the same BBC documentary, Davis interrupted when celebrity members are asked about Xenu, saying: "None of us know what you're talking about. It's loony. It's weird." In a May 8, 2008 appearance on CNN, Davis was asked by CNN's John Roberts if "... the basic tenet of the Church of Scientology is to rid the body of space-alien parasites, to clear oneself"; Davis responded: "Well, John, does that sound silly to you? I mean it’s unrecognizable to me." In response, Tony Ortega of "The Village Voice" stated "It’s also a grand tradition, among Scientology spokespeople, to act bewildered when they’re facing a camera and they’re asked about Xenu and space-alien thetans. Tommy Davis is just doing what other mouthpieces have said in the past." In March 2009 Davis was interviewed by investigative journalist Nathan Baca for KESQ-TV and was again asked about the OT III materials containing the Xenu myth. When read an excerpt from Hubbard's writing, Davis told Baca "I'm familiar with the material," and said that the issue at hand was "the confidential scriptures of the Church," and thus refused to elaborate on the issue.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: After the death of Jett Travolta, son of celebrity Scientologist John Travolta, the Church of Scientology came under fire from critical groups accusing it of being irresponsible; Jett had died of a seizure soon after being taken off his medication. Davis responded by denying that Scientology keeps people from taking medications, and also denying that it claims to cure disease. He stated in one interview, "The bottom line is that Scientologists seek conventional medical treatment for medical conditions."


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis was interviewed by journalist Martin Bashir for the ABC News program "Nightline", in a piece called "Inside Scientology", which aired in October 2009. Davis ripped off his microphone and stormed off the set of the interview after he was questioned about whether he believed that 75 million years ago a galactic ruler called Xenu brought individuals to Earth and killed them in volcanoes. An hour before the segment aired he appeared at ABC headquarters and demanded that a security guard let him in. Security called "Nightline" representatives, and they met with Davis who demanded the segment not be aired and he be allowed to speak with Bashir. Davis was told that Bashir could not meet with him and that the interview was already edited and would air.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: The following week Hollywood film director Paul Haggis accused Davis of lying on CNN, when Davis said disconnection did not happen, but Haggis and his wife were "ordered" by Scientology to disconnect from family. Haggis, in the same letter, announced he was leaving the organization. Davis responded that Haggis's claims were based on misunderstandings.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: In 2009, Larry Anderson, an actor, spoke with Davis about getting his money and leaving Scientology, which was reported in the "St. Petersburg Times".


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: In July 2010 the Church of Scientology International publicized a "Scientology Newsroom" website tailored for members of the media; Davis was one of four international representatives for Scientology listed as spokespersons. John Sweeney and Mike Rinder, a former Scientology relations officer stated in a BBC documentary, "The Secrets of Scientology", that Davis authorized the following of Sweeney in order to provoke a reaction by mental engagement. Davis was quoted as saying "I can drive him 'psychotic'."


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis is the son of real estate investor William Davis and film actress and Scientologist Anne Archer. He has a half-brother, Jeffrey Tucker Jastrow. His stepfather is an Emmy-award winning actor and producer, Terry Jastrow.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis was raised as a Christian Scientist, but his mother joined Scientology when he was 3 years old. Davis claims that after taking two courses at the Celebrity Centre, he became a Scientologist at the age of 17. He attended Harvard School For Boys in Los Angeles, a private Episcopal church-affiliated college preparatory school (now called Harvard-Westlake School). In 1990, he was accepted at Columbia University. He attended college for a semester, but dropped out to join the Sea Org.


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis worked closely with actor and Scientologist Tom Cruise, frequently accompanying him on lobbying and diplomatic meetings for the church. He is a former friend of actor Jason Beghe, who left the church in 2007. He is independently wealthy as his family obtained success in the real estate business, and told "Rolling Stone": "I have enough money to never work a day in my life."


title: Tommy Davis (Scientology)

text: Davis was married to Jessica Feshbach, who was a fellow spokesperson for the Church of Scientology but left that position in mid-2011. The pair divorced in 2018. They have two children.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Daniel Day (born August 8, 1944), known as Dapper Dan, is an African American fashion designer and haberdasher from Harlem, New York. His influential store, Dapper Dan's Boutique, operated from 1982 to 1992 and is most associated with introducing high fashion to the hip hop world, with his clients over the years including Eric B. & Rakim, Salt-N-Pepa, LL Cool J, and Jay-Z. In 2017, he launched a fashion line with Gucci, with which he opened a second store and atelier, Dapper Dan's of Harlem, in 2018.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dan was born in Harlem, New York, in 1944, and he was born at home with his grandmother as a midwife. He grew up on 129th and Lexington Avenue with three brothers and three sisters. His father, Robert, was a civil servant and his mother, Lily, a homemaker. All nine of them lived in a three bedroom apartment. He recalls horses and buggies still on the streets in his early childhood, in the post-World War II days of Manhattan. By age 13, he was a skilled gambler; his success as a gambler helped him finance his first store.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dapper Dan became tired of the street life after listening to a Malcom X speech. Malcom X said, "If you want to understand the flower, study the seed." This prompted Dan to indulge in studying at the Countee Cullen Library. He soon went back to school and entered into an academic program sponsored by the Urban League and Columbia University.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In the 1960s, Dan worked for a Harlem newspaper called "Forty Acres and a Mule," as he initially wanted to become a writer. During this time he went through a life-style change and became a vegetarian. In 1968–74, he toured Africa as part of the Columbia University and the Urban League academic program.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: When Dan returned to New York in 1974, he decided to be a clothier, and first sold shoplifted items out of his car. Dapper Dan's Boutique, located on 125th Street between Madison and Fifth Avenues, opened in 1982, and at times was open 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Dan approached his designs through personal experience, specifically from his previous jobs. Being a professional gambler taught him that what you wear will influence how people interact with you, so he used this unspoken language in his designs. Dan's previous disciplines are also what prepared him to simultaneously be a creative director and businessman. Additionally, he was an observer and approached his designs from a psychological point of view. When working with a new client, he would ask himself "Who are they?" and "What do they want?"


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dan originally planned to be a clothing wholesaler but soon faced prejudice as he ventured out. He struggled to buy the textiles and furs he needed, as most companies refused to do business with him because of his race or location. Instead of purchasing outfits to sell, he began teaching himself as much as he could about the industry so he could create his own designs from scratch. He would go to the public library in Midtown to study fashion and symbols, thus where he became inspired by the power of timeless logos. Selling his own furs was a way for Dan to get away from his old lifestyle, and he began designing furs specifically because they were a Harlem fashion staple. Irving Chaiken, Dapper Dan's friend, taught Dan different manufacturing techniques for furs, ranging from chinchilla to fox. Fred the Furrier became Dan's fur wholesale supplier, and Fred's brother was the one that persuaded Dan to expand into leather goods. He noticed designers like Louis Vuitton and Gucci were only designing bags, wallets and luggage out of leather, but he wanted to make garments out of leather. This is what essentially inspired him to make his infamous jacket for Diane Dixon. Despite his connections, Dapper Dan struggled finding pattern makers and seamstresses that could properly execute his designs. Dan himself couldn't sew and did not consider himself a tailor, despite how the media depicted him, but eventually he found a team he worked well with. Dapper Dan referred to his designer inspired designs as knock-ups, as he felt they were too extravagant to be called knock-offs. Dan states that he would never design anything that the luxury fashion houses would think of because his designs were too cutting edge. He used fabrics he designed himself after teaching himself textile printing. Notably, he invented a new process for screen printing onto leather, and would later also design jewelry and car interiors for luxury automobiles.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: The opening of his store in the early 1980s coincided with the crack cocaine epidemic and the rise of hip-hop music, both of which boosted his clientele. Dan's trademark was his bold usage of logos from high-end luxury brands like Gucci, Louis Vuitton and Fendi. His first boutique was about the size of a grocery store, where clients would come in late after clubbing/partying. Dan even had security that would stand outside of a gate, while they monitored the entrance. Dan would regularly sleep in his makeshift apartment in the back of the boutique. He would do this not only because the boutique was sometimes opened 24/7, but also because some clients would request a 24-hour turnaround on their garments. One of Dan's clients further sparked his interest in logos, when she came in with a new Louis Vuitton clutch. He had never seen one in person before and this is what changed the game for him. Dapper Dan's original boutique is now a chain school called Harlem Children's Zone Academy.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Though his clothing was often referred to as streetwear, Day's early clients in the 1980s were inspired significantly by the fashion flamboyance of Rat Pack icons like Frank Sinatra and Sammy Davis Jr. His main clientele were "hustlers and street people" — including drug kingpin Alpo Martinez — some of whom even requested bullet-proof parkas and hats.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Day ventured into hip hop fashion in 1985, when he first styled LL Cool J, and Day has since been associated with hip-hop royalty. Eric B. & Rakim who wore Dapper Dan's designs on the cover of their iconic albums "Paid in Full" (1987) and "Follow The Leader" (1988). He also created looks for The Fat Boys, Salt-N-Pepa, KRS-One, Bobby Brown, Jam Master Jay and Big Daddy Kane, as well as sports stars such as boxers Mike Tyson and Floyd Mayweather, and athlete Diane Dixon.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Day's illegal use of logos in his custom-made designs led to counterfeiting raids and litigation, and ultimately the demise of his first store. In 1988, Tyson got into a brawl with Mitch Green outside his store, which put Dapper Dan's in the media spotlight for the first time. After Tyson was photographed wearing a "knock off" Fendi jacket from Dapper Dan — which was referred to as "an all-night clothing store that caters to performers" in "The New York Times" — interest in the store eventually brought his usage of European luxury fashion logos to the attention of the European luxury companies. In 1992, after legal action by Fendi and then-U.S. Attorney Sonia Sotomayor, Dapper Dan's was shut down for good. He was shunned by the mainstream fashion world for decades, though he continued to work "underground" as a designer. He began outfitting undefeated boxer Floyd Mayweather in 1999.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In September 2006 to February 2007 the Museum of the City of New York Fashion, showcased Dapper Dan's samples in an exhibition called "Black Styles Now".


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Day's career has been revitalized in the 2010s, and he has found mainstream success since 2017. In mid-2017, in a homage to Dapper Dan, Gucci's creative director Alessandro Michele designed a jacket based on a well-known Dapper Dan design for Diane Dixon in 1989. The original was a fur-lined jacket with balloon sleeves covered in the Louis Vuitton logo, which Michele replaced with the double-G Gucci logo. Social media reacted when Dixon shared a photo of the Gucci jacket next to her in the original one, with Dixon requesting that Dapper Dan get credit for his original; many believed that Gucci had stolen the Dapper Dan design, especially due to Gucci not stating it to be a homage until after they drew criticism. Furthermore, this would lead to Diane Dixon proposing a Gucci and Dapper Dan collaboration. Michelle and Dapper Dan used a subcultural when seeking out inspiration for their collection, to ensure a unique aesthetic.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In 2017, with the support of Michele and Gucci CEO Marco Bizzarri, Day and the Italian brand partnered for a line of men's wear.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In 2018, Day opened a new atelier on Lenox Avenue in partnership with Gucci, Dapper Dan of Harlem, the first luxury house fashion store in Harlem.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dapper Dan is now a board member for reviewing applications for the Gucci Changemakers North America Scholarship program.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dapper Dan has worked with musicians like Bobby Brown, Eric B. & Rakim, LL Cool J, Big Daddy Kane and Salt-N-Pepa, essentially bridging the gap between hip-hop culture and luxury fashion.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In 2001, Dapper Dan was referenced in a Jay-Z lyric in his song "U Don't Know" from his album "The Blueprint". In 2002, he was referenced multiple times in the Alpo Martinez crime film "Paid in Full". Additionally in 2019, he was referenced in the poem "Dapper Dan Meets Petey Shooting Cee-lo" by Willie Perdomo.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In September 2016, prior to the premiere of the Netflix original series "Luke Cage", Dapper Dan was featured in part of the "Street Level Hero" digital social video series to discuss "Luke Cage", which is set in Harlem. He subsequently appeared in two episodes of the series, one in the first season and one in the second, playing himself.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: In November 2017, he appeared in a segment on "Conan" for Conan O'Brien's stay at the Apollo Theater in which he styled the talk show host.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Day's memoir was published by Random House in 2019. Sony Pictures has already bought the rights to a film adaptation, with comedian Jerrod Carmichael attached as screenwriter and producer. Day will serve as executive producer of the film.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Spanish singer, Rosalía, referenced Mr. Dan in the track, 'Combi Versace', from her third studio album, MOTOMAMI.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dapper Dan's first racial experience was hearing his parents talk about how the structure of white society was affecting them.


title: Dapper Dan (designer)

text: Dan has had eight children with seven women: William Long, Daniel Day Jr., Danique Day, Aisha Day, Danielle Day, Malik Day, Tiffany White and Jelani Day, who is the brand manager for his father.


title: Head Hunters

text: Head Hunters is the twelfth studio album by American pianist and composer Herbie Hancock, released October 26, 1973, on Columbia Records. Recording sessions for the album took place in the evening at Wally Heider Studios and Different Fur Trading Co. in San Francisco, California. The album was a commercial and artistic breakthrough for Hancock, crossing over to funk and rock audiences and bringing jazz-funk fusion to mainstream attention, peaking at number 13 on the "Billboard" 200. Hancock is featured with his ‘Mwandishi’ saxophonist Bennie Maupin and new collaborators – bassist Paul Jackson, percussionist Bill Summers and drummer Harvey Mason. All of the musicians (with the exception of Mason) play multiple instruments.


title: Head Hunters

text: "Head Hunters" followed a series of experimental albums by Hancock's sextet: "Mwandishi", "Crossings", and "Sextant", released between 1971 and 1973, a time when Hancock was looking for a new direction in which to take his music:


title: Head Hunters

text: For the new album, Hancock assembled a new band, the Headhunters, of whom only Bennie Maupin had been a sextet member. Hancock handled all synthesizer parts himself (having previously shared these duties with Patrick Gleeson) and he decided against the use of guitar altogether, favoring instead the clavinet, one of the defining sounds on the album. The new band featured a tight rhythm and blues-oriented rhythm section composed of Paul Jackson (bass) and Harvey Mason (drums), and the album has a relaxed, funky groove that gave the album an appeal to a far wider audience. Perhaps the defining moment of the jazz-fusion movement (or perhaps even the spearhead of the Jazz-funk style of the fusion genre), the album made jazz listeners out of rhythm and blues fans, and vice versa. The album mixes funk rhythms, like the busy high hats in 16th notes on the opening track "Chameleon", with the jazz AABA form and extended soloing.


title: Head Hunters

text: Of the four tracks on the album "Watermelon Man" was the only one not written for the album. A hit from Hancock's hard bop days, originally appearing on his first album "Takin' Off" (1962), it was reworked by Hancock and Mason and has an instantly recognizable intro featuring Bill Summers blowing into a beer bottle, an imitation of the hindewho, an instrument of the Mbuti Pygmies of Northeastern Zaire (this is also reprised in the outro). The track features heavy use of African percussion. "Sly" was dedicated to the pioneering funk musician Sly Stone, leader of Sly and the Family Stone. "Chameleon" (the opening track) is another track with an instantly recognizable intro, the introductory line played on an ARP Odyssey synth. "Vein Melter" is a slow-burner, predominantly featuring Hancock and Maupin, with Hancock mostly playing Fender Rhodes electric piano, but occasionally bringing in some heavily effected synth parts.


title: Head Hunters

text: The album was also re-mixed for 4-channel quadraphonic sound in 1974. Columbia released it on LP record in the SQ matrix format and on 8-track tape. The quad mixes feature elements not heard in the stereo version, including an additional 2-second keyboard melody at the beginning of "Sly". Surround sound versions of the album have been released a number of times on the Super Audio CD format. All of these SACD editions use a digital transfer of the original four-channel quad mix re-purposed into 5.1 surround.


title: Head Hunters

text: The Headhunters band (with Mike Clark replacing Harvey Mason) worked with Hancock on a number of other albums, including "Thrust" (1974), "Man-Child" (1975), and "Flood" (1975), the latter of which was recorded live in Japan. The subsequent albums ""Secrets"" (1976) and "Sunlight" (1977), had widely diverging personnel. The Headhunters, with Hancock featured as a guest soloist, produced a series of funk albums, "Survival of the Fittest" (1975) and "Straight from the Gate" (1978), the first of which was produced by Hancock and included the big hit "God Make Me Funky".


title: Head Hunters

text: The image on the album cover, designed by Victor Moscoso, is based on the African "kple kple" mask of the Baoulé tribe from Ivory Coast. The image is also based on tape head demagnetizers used on reel-to-reel audio tape recording equipment at the time of this recording. Hancock is represented by the man wearing said image while playing the keyboard, and positioned clockwise around him from lower left are Mason, Jackson, Maupin and Summers.


title: Head Hunters

text: In 2005, the album was ranked number 498 in the book version of "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. While it was not included in "Rolling Stone"'s original 2003 online version of the list, nor the 2012 revision, it was ranked number 254 in their 2020 reboot of the list. "Head Hunters" was a key release in Hancock's career and a defining moment in the genre of jazz, and has been an inspiration not only for jazz musicians, but also to funk, soul music, jazz funk and hip hop artists. The Library of Congress added it to the National Recording Registry, which collects "culturally, historically or aesthetically important" sound recordings from the 20th century.


title: Head Hunters

text: The single edit of "Chameleon" was released on the 2008 compilation "Playlist: The Very Best of Herbie Hancock".


title: Lyliana Wray

text: Lyliana Wray (born December 30, 2004 in Los Angeles, California) is an American actress who began her career with Marvista's 2015 film "Girl Missing" and has since gone on to appear in Paramount's 2016 film "Maximum Ride," ABC's "Black-ish," CBS All Access' "Strange Angel," NBC's "The Night Shift," Nickelodeon's 2019 revival of "Are You Afraid of the Dark?" and Paramount's 2022 release of "."


title: Lyliana Wray

text: She appeared in Joel Soisson's "Girl Missing." In 2016, Wray appeared in Paramount's release of James Patterson's "Maximum Ride". That same year, "Albedo Absolute," a short-film directed by Vlad Marsavin, was released. In 2017, Wray appeared in Gabe Sachs and Jeff Judah's "The Night Shift." The following year, Lyliana was cast in the "Black-ish" season four episode "North Star," appeared as young Susan in three episodes of the television series "Strange Angel" and was cast in the lead role of Rachel Carpenter in Nickelodeon's revival of "Are You Afraid of the Dark?". Wray appears in Joe Kosinski's "" in the role of Amelia Benjamin.


title: Daim bar

text: A Daim bar ( ) is a Swedish-Norwegian chocolate bar made from crunchy almond caramel covered in milk chocolate.


title: Daim bar

text: Daim was created by Marabou in Sweden in the 1950s. Marabou originally wanted to produce a version of the American Heath Co.'s bar; its vice president Lars Anderfelt inquired about licensing Heath's exact recipe. The Heath Co. refused but gave Anderfeldt a list of their ingredients. From this, Marabou created their own recipe, testing it in Stockholm in 1952 with great success. It was launched under the name Dajm throughout Sweden and Norway the next year, Finland in 1963, and Denmark in 1971. It was renamed "Daim" in most countries in 1990, although it continued to be marketed in the United Kingdom and Ireland as Dime. The brand was purchased by the American company Kraft Foods in 1993 and is now held by Mondelez International, which Kraft spun off in 2012.


title: Daim bar

text: A famous 1995 television commercial (directed by John Lloyd) for the chocolate bar in the United Kingdom featured the comedian Harry Enfield, in which a salesman describes the Dime bar as "smooth on the outside, crunchy on the inside", while a customer says he prefers armadillos, which are "smooth on the inside, crunchy on the outside." Another successful commercial campaign was launched in 1996, and featured a spoof of Raiders of the Lost Ark. An unnamed adventurer uses a Daim bar to avoid triggering a death trap in an ancient temple, only to then return for the chocolate bar and take his chances with the crumbling structure. In 2005, the spelling in the UK and Ireland was changed to "Daim", in line with the rest of the world.


title: Daim bar

text: In 2007, a 'Limited Edition Cappucino' Daim bar was released. A limited edition forest fruit bar has also been released, as well as Coke Daim, white chocolate Daim, dark chocolate Daim, blueberry Daim, lemon-orange Daim and mint Daim. and orange chocolate Daim was sold in UK and Ireland this winter. Daim bars imported from Sweden (manufactured in Upplands Väsby) have been sold in many countries.


title: Autoignition temperature

text: The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a substance is the lowest temperature in which it spontaneously ignites in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed for combustion. The temperature at which a chemical ignites decreases as the pressure is increased.


title: Autoignition temperature

text: Autoignition temperatures of liquid chemicals are typically measured using a flask placed in a temperature-controlled oven in accordance with the procedure described in ASTM E659.


title: Autoignition temperature

text: When measured for plastics, autoignition temperature can be also measured under elevated pressure and at 100% oxygen concentration. The resulting value is used as a predictor of viability for high-oxygen service. The main testing standard for this is ASTM G72.


title: Autoignition temperature

text: The time formula_1 it takes for a material to reach its autoignition temperature formula_2 when exposed to a heat flux formula_3 is given by the following equation:


title: Autoignition temperature

text: where "k" = thermal conductivity, "ρ" = density, and "c" = specific heat capacity of the material of interest, formula_5 is the initial temperature of the material (or the temperature of the bulk material).


title: Autoignition temperature

text: Temperatures vary widely in the literature and should only be used as estimates. Factors that may cause variation include partial pressure of oxygen, altitude, humidity, and amount of time required for ignition. Generally the autoignition temperature for hydrocarbon/air mixtures decreases with increasing molecular mass and increasing chain length. The autoignition temperature is also higher for branched-chain hydrocarbons than for straight-chain hydrocarbons.


title: Hash (food)

text: Hash is a culinary dish consisting of chopped meat, potatoes, and fried onions. The name is derived from , meaning "to chop". It originated as a way to use up leftovers. In the U.S. by the 1860s, a cheap restaurant was called a "hash house" or "hashery."


title: Hash (food)

text: Canned corned beef hash became especially popular in countries such as Britain, France, and the United States, during and after the Second World War as rationing limited the availability of fresh meat.


title: Hash (food)

text: Hash may be served for breakfast, lunch, or supper. When served for breakfast in the United States hash may come with eggs, toast, hollandaise sauce, or baked beans.


title: Hash (food)

text: High-end restaurants offer sophisticated hash dishes on their menus. Modern preparations can be made with unconventional ingredients such as lamb, fish, venison, turkey, chicken, shrimp, or steak.


title: Hash (food)

text: "Hash" of many forms was part of the American diet since at least the 18th century, as is attested by the availability of numerous recipes and the existence of many "hash houses" named after the dish. In the United States, September 27 is "National Corned Beef Hash Day."


title: Hash (food)

text: Classic American corned beef hash originated in the New England region of the United States as a way to use up the leftovers from a traditional boiled dinner of beef, cabbage, potatoes, and onions. A red flannel hash is made with beets instead of potatoes. Fish hash, including salt cod hash, has been observed in historical New England cuisine.


title: Hash (food)

text: Corned beef and cabbage dinners are an Irish-American tradition from the 1800s that are now commonly held across the United States on St. Patrick's Day. Corned beef hash is also commonly served on St. Patrick's Day, as well as around American Thanksgiving and Christmas.


title: Hash (food)

text: Some areas in the South also use the term "hash" to refer to meat, such as wild game, that is served as barbecue or pulled meat that is boiled first.


title: Hash (food)

text: As early as the 14th century, English people were making hache or hachy. According to cookbook author Steven Raichlen, "The English diarist Samuel Pepys waxed grandiloquent about a rabbit hash he savored in 1662".


title: Hash (food)

text: An 18th century recipe for "excellent hash" was made by preparing a seasoned roux with herbs and onion, cayenne, mace and nutmeg, then adding to it broth or gravy and stirring in mushroom catsup. In this sauce the cold beef would be simmered over gentle heat. Simpler recipes would omit some of the fancier ingredients like mushroom catsup and add filling root vegetables like carrots and boiled potatoes.


title: Hash (food)

text: Hash in Denmark, known in Danish as "biksemad" (roughly translated, "tossed together food"), is a traditional leftover dish usually made with pork, potato, and onion, and served with a fried egg, Worcestershire sauce, pickled red beet slices, and ketchup or Bearnaise sauce. The coarsely-diced ingredients, rather than being mashed into a paste, are readily discernible in their cooked form. A beef variant is known as "Royal hash", and a Southern Jutland regional dish including cream and served over pommes frites as "King Frederik's favorite".


title: Hash (food)

text: In Sweden, there is a version of hash called pyttipanna (put-in-pan) and in Finland, pyttipannu and Norway, pyttipanne. It is similar to the Danish version. The Swedish variety Pytt Bellman calls specifically for beef instead of other meats and adding cream to the hash. It is named after Sweden's 18th century national poet Carl Michael Bellman.


title: Hash (food)

text: In Austria and perhaps more specifically Tyrol, there exists a similar dish called "Gröstl", usually consisting of chopped leftover meats (often being pork sausage), potato and onions fried with herbs (typically marjoram and parsley) and then served topped with a fried egg.


title: Hash (food)

text: In Slovenia it is called <nowiki>"haše"</nowiki> and very often used as a spaghetti sauce. It is made out of minced pork and veal meat, potato sauce, onion, garlic, flour and spices.


title: Hash (food)

text: In Spanish, Portuguese and Latin American cuisines, there is a similar dish called picadillo (Spanish) or "carne moída" (Portuguese). It is made with ground meat (usually beef), tomatoes (tomato sauce may be used as a substitute), vegetables and spices that vary by region (the Portuguese and Brazilian version is generally "carne moída refogada", very heavy on garlic, in the form of an aioli sofrito called refogado, and often also heavy on onion and bell peppers). It is often served with rice (it can be fried in aioli sofrito if those who will eat have a strong fondness for garlic), as well as okra, in the form of "quiabo refogado"—okra fried in an aioli sofrito, just as the hash itself and the collard greens used in feijoada—, in Brazil, there constituting a staple) or used as a filling in dishes such as tacos, tostadas, or as a regular breakfast hash with eggs and tortillas (not in Brazil and Portugal). In Brazil and Portugal, it is used as bolognese sauce for pasta, and also used as a filling for pancake rolls, pastel (Brazilian pastry empanada), "empadão" and others (not with okra as it is far too perishable to be used in a fill for fast food and its consumption together with wheat flour-based foods often does not fit cultural tastes). The name comes from the West Iberian (Spanish, Leonese and Portuguese) infinitive verb "picar", which means "to mince" or "to chop".


title: Hash (food)

text: In the Philippines, hash is similar to that of Spanish and American versions. Commonly called as "carne norte con patatas" and it is known as a breakfast fare for it includes corned beef, garlic, and potatoes. Another variant, called "Pork Giniling" (Giniling meaning Ground) or "Giniling na Baboy" is similar to that of Picadillo that includes carrots, potatoes, and hard boiled egg in tomato sauce.


title: Hash (food)

text: In Germany, "Labskaus" is made with beef or corned beef minced with onions and boiled potatoes and fried in lard. Beetroot and herring may be added, or served as a side dish.


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: The Stanford Cardinal football program represents Stanford University in college football at the NCAA Division I FBS level and is a member of the Pac-12 Conference's North Division. The team is known as the Cardinal, adopted prior to the 1982 season. Stanford was known as the "Cardinal" for its first two decades of athletic competition, then more commonly as the "Cardinals" until 1930. The name was changed to the "Indians" from 1930 to January 1972, and back to the "Cardinals" from 1972 through 1981. A student vote in December 1975 to change the nickname to "Robber Barons" was not approved by administrators.


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: Stanford has fielded football teams every year since 1892 with a few exceptions. Like a number of other teams from the era concerned with violence in the sport, the school dropped football in favor of rugby from 1906 to 1917. The school also did not field a team in 1918 (due to World War I) or in 1943, 1944, and 1945 (due to World War II).


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: The school participated in the first-ever Rose Bowl against Michigan in 1902, in which they were routed 49-0. Its annual Big Game against California is the oldest and most storied rivalry in the Pac-12 and western United States. The Cardinal also compete for the Legends Trophy against independent rival Notre Dame.


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: The program has an all-time record of 664–478–49 for a winning percentage of and has winning series records against all of its Pac-12 North rivals, except for the Washington Huskies, against whom they are tied 43–43–4. Stanford claimed national championships in 1926 and 1940. In 1926, led by legendary coach Glenn "Pop" Warner, the team was undefeated in the regular season and tied Alabama in the 1927 Rose Bowl. The 1940 team went unbeaten and untied after defeating Nebraska 21–13 in the 1941 Rose Bowl, but the team ranked No. 2 in the final AP poll released before the game was played.


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: Pop Warner's era predated the AP poll, but Stanford has finished at least one season in the Top 10 in six different decades under seven different coaches: Claude E. Thornhill in 1934, Clark Shaughnessy in 1940, Chuck Taylor in 1951, John Ralston in 1970 and 1971, Bill Walsh in 1992, Jim Harbaugh in 2010, and David Shaw in 2011, 2012, and 2015. Coach Shaw, as of the 2017 season, has the most wins of any Stanford coach in history. Stanford's most recent season finish in the top 5 was in 2015 after the No. 5 Cardinal dismantled Big Ten West Division Champion No. 6 Iowa Hawkeyes 45–16 in the 2016 Rose Bowl to finish with a record of 12–2 (Stanford's third 12-win season ever, after 2010 and 2012) and a final ranking of No. 3 in the final AP Poll and the final Coaches Poll (Stanford's highest AP Poll ranking since 1940 and its highest Coaches Poll ranking ever).


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: The Cardinal have played in 30 bowl games in their history, including 17 appearances in bowls now comprising the College Football Playoff, specifically 15 Rose Bowls (the third-most appearances of any team, behind only USC's 33 appearances and Michigan's 22), the 2011 Orange Bowl, and the 2012 Fiesta Bowl.


title: Stanford Cardinal football

text: Quarterback Jim Plunkett is the only Stanford player to win the Heisman Trophy, doing so in 1970. Stanford players have finished second in Heisman voting six times: quarterback John Elway was second to Herschel Walker in 1982; running back Toby Gerhart was second to Mark Ingram II in 2009; quarterback Andrew Luck finished second to Cam Newton in 2010 and to Robert Griffin III in 2011; running back Christian McCaffrey finished second to Derrick Henry in 2015; and running back Bryce Love finished second to Baker Mayfield in 2017.