title: Angra (band)

text: In 1996 Angra opened for AC/DC in Brazil and was invited to the inaugural Brazilian Monsters of Rock Festival. Following the festival, the band embarked on a Brazilian tour, with further dates in Europe in 1995. "Holy Land" - an ambitious project involving orchestration, choirs, and Brazilian rhythms - was released in 1996. The production was handled by Sascha Paeth and Charlie Bauerfiend. "Holy Land" proved successful and the Japanese Victor release, which included the bonus track "Queen of the Night", went gold. The band toured Japan for the first time following the album's success, while in France the single "Make Believe" was released. That same year the EP "Freedom Call" was released, containing cover versions of Judas Priest´s "Painkiller". After the tour in support of the album, the band released a six-track live album "Holy Live", recorded in Paris in 1996. "The Holy Box" was released in 1998 by Lucretia Records (Italy), which included seven acoustic tracks.


title: Angra (band)

text: In 1998 the band released the single "Lisbon," followed by the album "Fireworks," produced by Chris Tsangarides. "Fireworks" was a departure from Angra's earlier experimental sound, focusing more on a neo-classical metal sound and lacking the Brazilian rhythms that were included in "Holy Land". The album was the first for the Steamhammer label and appeared in North America through Century Media. A lengthy world tour was set up in support for the album. The band appeared at the Buenos Aires edition of Monsters of Rock, while they co-headlined shows in Europe with Time Machine and Stratovarius in 1999. Bruce Dickinson made a guest appearance during the Paris show, while the band also performed at the Wacken Open Air festival.


title: Angra (band)

text: During mid-2000 Angra split, parting ways with vocalist Andre Matos who took bassist Luis Mariutti and drummer Ricardo Confessori with him. In March 2001, the two remaining members, Kiko Loureiro and Rafael Bittencourt, announced the new line-up that included Symbols' vocalist Edu Falaschi, drummer Aquiles Priester and bassist Felipe Andreoli.


title: Angra (band)

text: This line-up began recording instantly and the album "Rebirth" was released in 2001, produced by Dennis Ward. The album was both a critical and commercial success in Brazil and internationally, selling over 100,000 copies worldwide in less than two months. The album went gold in Brazil that same year. The EP "Hunters and Prey" was released in 2002 which included acoustic takes of Rebirth songs, as well as other new material, a cover of "Mama" by Genesis, and their first song with lyrics in Portuguese, "Caça e Caçador" ("Hunter and Prey").


title: Angra (band)

text: Angra would play live in Japan, appearing in Rock Machine in Spain, Wacken Open Air in Germany and ProgPower in Atlanta, Georgia, which was their first visit to the United States. Following the tour, the band submitted their version of Kashmir to the compilation "The Music Remains The Same (A Metal Tribute to Led Zeppelin)".


title: Angra (band)

text: "Temple of Shadows" recording sessions started in January 2004 at Mosh Studios in São Paulo, once again produced by Dennis Ward. The album featured guest vocalists Kai Hansen (Gamma Ray), Sabine Edelsbacher (Edenbridge), Hansi Kürsch (Blind Guardian) and Brazilian folk and fusion legend Milton Nascimento. Temple of Shadows was a concept album based around a character known as "The Shadow Hunter" and his saga which is described as "the saga of a crusader knight that ends up disputing the expansionist ideals of the Catholic Church in the eleventh century".


title: Angra (band)

text: The band toured Brazil and Europe, headlining shows in Southern Europe throughout Spain, Italy, and France in February 2005. For the first time since its creation, the band played at a UK show at The Mean Fiddler in London, supported by DragonForce, and later joined Finnish band Nightwish for the Japanese dates in March. The band then went to Taiwan and after, for the first time, they played in Oceania, headlining shows in Australia. Angra resumed the Brazilian tour and then returned to Europe for the Lorca Roch Festival, Live in Italy and Bull Rock Festival, sharing stages with big heavy metal names like Iron Maiden.


title: Angra (band)

text: Later in 2006, Angra worked once again with producer Dennis Ward on their new album, entitled "Aurora Consurgens", focusing on a non-concept album as "Rebirth" was. Instead, they pursued a close relative of the idea, a theme album. Also in 2006, Fábio Laguna composed a solo progressive instrumental album called "Freakeys" along with drummer Aquiles Priester and bassist Felipe Andreoli. In mid-2007, the band took a break due to an unresolved situation with its manager, who was also the owner of the Angra brand. As result, other non-resolved situations between the members arose, culminating in an indefinite hiatus until a solution was reached.


title: Angra (band)

text: In 2008, singer Edu Falaschi was originally reported as saying that Angra "has been terminated," but this was later revealed to be both a misunderstanding and a misreporting of his words. Edu later clarified what was meant by his earlier comments: "Angra is not done; we're taking a break, a pause. The band is going through some difficult management issues, and all of us are doing our best to get back on the road." In 2009, the band's official site was taken down. Instead, the home page announced that the site was under construction and news would be released soon. In March 2009, the band's official site announced the return of drummer Ricardo Confessori after a 9-year hiatus to Angra, replacing Aquiles Priester, who left the band to dedicate full force to his band Hangar. The band went out on tour along with fellow Brazilian band Sepultura during 2009.


title: Angra (band)

text: In the beginning of 2010, Angra started writing songs for their upcoming yet unnamed album due out in mid-2010. The album was composed partly at the members' houses and partly at Confessori's ranch, where they rehearsed and improved the arrangements of the new songs. In February, they came into Norcal Studios in São Paulo, to start recordings. The band members made home videos from the writing/recording process and released them to the fans almost weekly.


title: Angra (band)

text: On July 5 the band unveiled the cover and track list of the new album, named "Aqua". On July 10, the first single "Arising Thunder" was released. On July, 15 a new song, called "Lease of Life", was played for the first time on Brazilian radio station "Kiss FM". The radio program featured an interview with Loureiro and Falaschi, followed by a high quality play of the song.


title: Angra (band)

text: On August 11, "Aqua" was officially released in Japan and the Aqua Tour began with a series of pocket shows, being followed by a Brazilian tour through several venues around the country.


title: Angra (band)

text: On May 23, 2012, Edu Falaschi issued an open letter in which he announced his departure from Angra. Despite not explaining why, he said he would focus on his future projects, including Almah. Management of the band approached Matos for a possible return, but he declined. Fabio Lione (ex-Labyrinth, Rhapsody of Fire) became the third vocalist for the band.


title: Angra (band)

text: In 2014, drummer Ricardo Confessori announced he would end his second tenure with the band. He was later replaced by 23-year-old Bruno Valverde.


title: Angra (band)

text: In November 2014, the band announced their eighth studio album, "Secret Garden", that was released on December 17 in Japan and on January 16, 2015 in Brazil and Europe. In September 19, 2015, Angra performed at Rock in Rio with special guests Doro Pesch and Dee Snider. A third, surprise guest was also announced mid-show: lead guitarist Marcelo Barbosa, who was revealed as Loureiro's touring replacement after the latter had joined Megadeth earlier in the year.


title: Angra (band)

text: In 2021, the band released a graphic novel based on the history of the album "Temple of Shadows", called "O Templo das Sombras".


title: Jess Bush

text: Bush competed on the seventh season of the reality TV series "Australia's Next Top Model"; she told the programme that she entered modeling for the challenge, competitiveness, travel, and variety. In Australia, she has also performed on "Home and Away" and "Playing for Keeps".


title: Jess Bush

text: Leaving Australian TV for the first time with 2022's "", Bush co-stars as Christine Chapel (the second actor in the role after Majel Barrett in ). Heavy described Bush's interpretation of the character as "very different [...] fun, irreverent, and a bit of a live wire." Bush eschews her native Australian accent for the performance, a dichotomy that helps her get into character physically and mentally.


title: Jess Bush

text: A visual artist since childhood, Bush began selling her pieces professionally at age 19. She is also a jewellery designer, and some of her pieces appear on "Strange New Worlds".


title: Jess Bush

text: Since 2019, Bush has been developing and exhibiting her ongoing "Bee Totem" series. She collects dead honey bees from beekeepers, and preserves them in spheres of crystal resin and attaching fine jewellery chains. Her exhibitions collaborate with projection artists and sound designers to hang the many preserved bees at different heights to create shapes and experiences in three-dimensional space.


title: Jess Bush

text: For herself, "Bee Totem" is about recognizing and emphasizing the importance of the bees that, not only make the human world livable, but then "live by the thousands and die quietly by the thousands." The individual preserved bee in the sphere is amplified and magnified, showing its intelligence and beauty; it causes the observer to "pause and think about the moment that it died, because its frozen in that moment after its death, so its kind of like a memorial." The installation then amplifies "that impact of thousands dead at the same time.


title: Jess Bush

text: Having received several rounds of funding from the Australian Government by 2022, In 2022, Bush described it as "the most significant work that [she's] ever made" with a goal of doing so "probably forever". She would like to build a cathedral for thousands of preserved bees, to allow people to quietly sit and reflect in the immensity of sacrifice.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: Andrew Jay Hertzfeld (born April 6, 1953) is an American software engineer and innovator who was a member of the original Apple Macintosh development team during the 1980s. After buying an Apple II in January 1978, he went to work for Apple Computer from August 1979 until March 1984, where he was a designer for the Macintosh system software. Since leaving Apple, he has co-founded three companies: Radius in 1986, General Magic in 1990, and Eazel in 1999. In 2002, he helped Mitch Kapor promote open source software with the Open Source Applications Foundation. Hertzfeld worked at Google from 2005 to 2013, where in 2011, he was the key designer of the Circles user interface in Google+.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: After graduating from Brown University with a computer science degree in 1975, Hertzfeld attended graduate school at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1978, he bought an Apple II computer and soon began developing software for it. He went on to write for "Call-A.P.P.L.E." and "Dr. Dobb's Journal" and soon came to the attention of Apple Computer.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: He was hired by Apple Computer as a systems programmer in 1979 and developed the Apple Silentype printer firmware and wrote the firmware for the Sup'R'Terminal, the first 80-column card for the Apple II. In the early 1980s, he invited his high school friend, artist Susan Kare, to join Apple in order to help design what would become standard Macintosh icons.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: With the first Macintosh, Hertzfeld wrote an icon editor and font editor so that Susan Kare could design the symbols used in the operating system.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: Hertzfeld was a member of the Apple Macintosh design team. After a shakeup in the Apple II team and Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak's brief departure from the company due to a plane crash, co-founder Steve Jobs took control of the nearly two-year-old Macintosh team in February 1981 and added Hertzfeld to it at his request. Working for Bud Tribble alongside Bill Atkinson and Burrell Smith, Hertzfeld became a primary software architect of the Macintosh Operating System, which was considered revolutionary in its use of the graphical user interface (GUI) where Jef Raskin also made contributions.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: Hertzfeld's business card at Apple listed his title as "Software Wizard". He wrote large portions of the Macintosh's original system software, including much of the ROM code, the User Interface Toolbox, and a number of innovative components now standard in many graphic user interfaces, like the Control Panel and Scrapbook.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: After leaving Apple in 1984, Hertzfeld co-founded three new companies – Radius (1986), General Magic (1990), and Eazel (1999). At Eazel, he helped to create the Nautilus file manager for Linux's GNOME desktop. He volunteered for the Open Source Applications Foundation in 2002 and 2003, writing early prototypes of Chandler, their information manager. In 1996, Hertzfeld was interviewed by Robert Cringely on the television documentary "Triumph of the Nerds", and was again interviewed by Cringely on NerdTV in 2005.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: In early 2004, he started folklore.org, a Web site devoted to collective storytelling that contains dozens of anecdotes about the development of the original Macintosh. The stories have been collected in an O'Reilly book, "Revolution in the Valley", published in December 2004.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: In August 2005, Hertzfeld joined Google. On June 28, 2011, Google announced Google+, its latest attempt at social networking. Hertzfeld was the key designer of the Google+ Circles interface. He also worked on Picasa, and Gmail's profile image selector. He retired from Google in July 2013.


title: Andy Hertzfeld

text: Hertzfeld was portrayed by Elden Henson in the 2013 film "Jobs". He was later played by actor Michael Stuhlbarg in the 2015 film "Steve Jobs". Hertzfeld stated "almost nothing in it is how it really happened" about the "Steve Jobs" film, and that the film ultimately was not aiming for realism.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I; ) was the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran. The dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardashir I as co-regent until the death of the latter in 242. During his co-regency, he helped his father with the conquest and destruction of the Arab city of Hatra, whose fall was facilitated, according to Islamic tradition, by the actions of his future wife al-Nadirah. Shapur also consolidated and expanded the empire of Ardashir I, waged war against the Roman Empire , and seized its cities of Nisibis and Carrhae while he was advancing as far as Roman Syria. Although he was defeated at the Battle of Resaena in 243 by Roman emperor Gordian III (), he was the following year able to win the Battle of Misiche and force the new Roman Emperor Philip the Arab () to sign a favorable peace treaty that was regarded by the Romans as "a most shameful treaty".


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur later took advantage of the political turmoil within the Roman Empire by undertaking a second expedition against it in 252/3–256, sacking the cities of Antioch and Dura-Europos. In 260, during his third campaign, he defeated and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian. He did not seem interested in permanently occupying the Roman provinces, choosing instead to resort to plundering and pillaging, gaining vast amounts of riches. The captives of Antioch, for example, were allocated to the newly reconstructed city of Gundeshapur, later famous as a center of scholarship. In the 260s, Shapur suffered setbacks against Odaenathus, the king of Palmyra. According to Shapur's inscription at Hajiabad, he still remained active at the court in his later years, participating in archery. He died of illness in Bishapur, most likely in May 270.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur was the first Iranian monarch to use the title of "King of Kings of Iranians and non-Iranians"; beforehand the royal titulary had been "King of Kings of Iranians". He had adopted the title due to the influx of Roman citizens whom he had deported during his campaigns. However, it was first under his son and successor Hormizd I, that the title became regularised. Shapur had new Zoroastrian fire temples constructed, incorporated new elements into the faith from Greek and Indian sources, and conducted an extensive program of rebuilding and refounding of cities.


title: Shapur I

text: "Shapur" was a popular name in Sasanian Iran, being used by three Sasanian monarchs and other notables of the Sasanian era and its later periods. Derived from Old Iranian "*xšayaθiya.puθra" ("son of a king"), it must initially have been a title, which became—at least in the late 2nd century AD—a personal name. It appears in the list of Arsacid kings in some Arabic-Persian sources, however, this is anachronistic. Shapur is transliterated in other languages as; Greek "Sapur", "Sabour" and "Sapuris"; Latin "Sapores" and "Sapor"; Arabic "Sābur" and "Šābur"; New Persian "Šāpur", "Šāhpur", "Šahfur".


title: Shapur I

text: According to the semi-legendary "Kar-Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan", a Middle Persian biography of Ardashir I, the daughter of the Parthian king Artabanus IV, Zijanak, attempted to poison her husband Ardashir. Discovering her intentions, Ardashir ordered her to be executed. Finding out about her pregnancy, the "mobads" (priests) were against it. Nevertheless, Ardashir still demanded her execution, which led the "mobads" to conceal her and her son Shapur for seven years, until the latter was identified by Ardashir, who chooses to adopt him based on his virtuous traits. This type of narrative is repeated in Iranian historiography. According to 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus, the Persian king Cambyses I wanted to have his son Cyrus killed because he believed that he would one day overthrow him. A similar narrative is also found in the story of the mythological Iranian king Kay Khosrow. According to the modern historian Bonner, the story of Shapur's birth and uprising "may conceal a marriage between Ardashir and an Arsacid princess or perhaps merely a noble lady connected with the Parthian aristocracy." On his inscriptions, Shapur identifies his mother as a certain Murrod.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I was a son of Ardashir I and his wife Murrod or Denag. The background of the family is obscure; although based in Pars (also known as Persis), they were not native to the area, and were seemingly originally from the east. The historian Marek Jan Olbrycht has suggested that the family was descended from the Indo-Parthians of Sakastan. Iranologist Khodadad Rezakhani also noted similarities between the early Sasanians and the Indo-Parthians, such as their coinage. Yet, he stated that "evidence might still be too inconclusive."


title: Shapur I

text: Pars, a region in the southwestern Iranian plateau, was the homeland of the southwestern branch of the Iranian peoples, the Persians. It was also the birthplace of the first Iranian Empire, the Achaemenids. The region served as the centre of the empire until its conquest by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great (). Since the end of the 3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BC, Pars was ruled by local dynasts subject to the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire. These dynasts held the ancient Persian title of "frataraka" ("leader, governor, forerunner"), which is also attested in the Achaemenid-era. Later under the "frataraka" Wadfradad II (fl. 138 BC) was made a vassal of the Iranian Parthian (Arsacid) Empire. The "frataraka" were shortly afterwards replaced by the Kings of Persis, most likely at the accession of the Arsacid monarch Phraates II (). Unlike the "fratarakas", the Kings of Persis used the title of shah ("king"), and laid foundations to a new dynasty, which may be labelled the Darayanids.


title: Shapur I

text: Under Vologases V (), the Parthian Empire was in decline, due to wars with the Romans, civil wars and regional revolts. The Roman emperor Septimius Severus () had invaded the Parthian domains in 196, and two years later did the same, this time sacking the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. At the same time, revolts occurred in Media and Persis. The Iranologist Touraj Daryaee argues that the reign of Vologases V was "the turning point in Parthian history, in that the dynasty lost much of its prestige." The kings of Persis were now unable to depend on their weakened Parthian overlords. Indeed, in 205/6, Pabag rebelled and overthrew the Bazrangid ruler of Persis, Gochihr, taking Istakhr for himself. Around 208 Vologases VI succeeded his father Vologases V as king of the Arsacid Empire. He ruled as the uncontested king from 208 to 213, but afterwards fell into a dynastic struggle with his brother Artabanus IV, who by 216 was in control of most of the empire, even being acknowledged as the supreme ruler by the Roman Empire. Artabanus IV soon clashed with the Roman emperor Caracalla, whose forces he managed to contain at Nisibis in 217.


title: Shapur I

text: Peace was made between the two empires the following year, with the Arsacids keeping most of Mesopotamia. However, Artabanus IV still had to deal with his brother Vologases VI, who continued to mint coins and challenge him. The Sasanian family had meanwhile quickly risen to prominence in Pars, and had now under Ardashir begun to conquer the neighbouring regions and more far territories, such as Kirman. At first, Ardashir I's activities did not alarm Artabanus IV, until later, when the Arsacid king finally chose to confront him.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur, as portrayed in the Sasanian rock reliefs, took part in his father's war with the Arsacids, including the Battle of Hormozdgan. The battle was fought on 28 April 224, with Artabanus IV being defeated and killed, marking the end of the Arsacid era and the start of 427-years of Sasanian rule. The chief secretary of the deceased Arsacid king, Dad-windad, was afterwards executed by Ardashir I. Ardashir celebrated his victory by having two rock reliefs sculptured at the Sasanian royal city of Ardashir-Khwarrah (present-day Firuzabad) in Pars. The first relief portrays three scenes of personal fighting; starting from the left, a Persian aristocrat seizing a Parthian soldier; Shapur impaling the Parthian minister Dad-windad with his lance; and Ardashir I ousting Artabanus IV. The second relief, conceivably intended to portray the aftermath of the battle, displays the triumphant Ardashir I being given the badge of kingship over a fire shrine from the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda, while Shapur and two other princes are watching from behind. Ardashir considered Shapur "the gentlest, wisest, bravest and ablest of all his children", and nominated him as his successor in a council amongst the magnates.


title: Shapur I

text: The Eastern provinces of the fledgling Sasanian Empire bordered on the land of the Kushans and the land of the Sakas (roughly today's Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan). The military operations of Shapur's father Ardashir I had led to the local Kushan and Saka kings offering tribute, and satisfied by this show of submission, Ardashir seems to have refrained from occupying their territories. Al-Tabari alleges he rebuilt the ancient city of Zrang in Sakastan (the land of the Sakas, Sistan), but the only early Sasanian period founding of a new settlement in the East which is certain is the building by Shapur I of Nishapur - "Beautiful (city built) by Shapur" - in Dihistan (former Parthia, apparently lost by the Parthians to the Kushans).


title: Shapur I

text: Soon after the death of his father in 241 CE, Shapur felt the need to cut short the campaign they had started in Roman Syria, and reassert Sasanian authority in the East, perhaps because the Kushan and Saka kings were lax in abiding to their tributary status. However, he first had to fight "The Medes of the Mountains" - as we will see possibly in the mountain range of Gilan on the Caspian coast - and after subjugating them, he appointed his son Bahram (the later Bahram I) as their king. He then marched to the East and annexed most of the land of the Kushans, and appointing his son Narseh as Sakanshah - king of the Sakas - in Sistan. In 242 CE, Shapur conquered khwarezm. hapur could now proudly proclaim that his empire stretched all the way to Peshawar, and his relief in Rag-i-Bibi in present-day Afghanistan confirms this claim. Shapur I claims in his Naqsh-e Rostam inscription possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:


title: Shapur I

text: He seems to have garrisoned the Eastern territories with POW's from his previous campaign against the Medes of the Mountains. Agathias claims Bahram II (274-293 CE) later campaigned in the land of the Sakas and appointed his brother Hormizd as its king. When Hormizd revolted, the Panegyrici Latini list his forces as the Sacci (Sakas), the Rufii (Cusii/Kushans) and the Geli (Gelans / Gilaks, the inhabitants of Gilan). Since the Gilaks are obviously out of place among these easterners, and as we know that Shapur I had to fight the Medes of the Mountains first before marching to the land of the Kushans, it is conceivable those Gilaks were the descendants of warriors captured during Shapur I's North-western campaign, forcibly drafted into the Sasanian army, and settled as a hereditary garrison in Merv, Nishapur, or Zrang after the conclusion of Shapur's north-eastern campaign, the usual Sasanian practise with prisoners of war.


title: Shapur I

text: Ardashir I had, towards the end of his reign, renewed the war against the Roman Empire, and Shapur I had conquered the Mesopotamian fortresses Nisibis and Carrhae and had advanced into Syria. In 242, the Romans under the father-in-law of their child-emperor Gordian III set out against the Sasanians with "a huge army and great quantity of gold," (according to a Sasanian rock relief) and wintered in Antioch, while Shapur was occupied with subduing Gilan, Khorasan, and Sistan. There the Roman general Timesitheus fought against the Sasanians and won repeated battles, and recaptured Carrhae and Nisibis, and at last routed a Sasanian army at Resaena, forcing the Persians to restore all occupied cities unharmed to their citizens. "We have penetrated as far as Nisibis, and shall even get to Ctesiphon," the young emperor Gordian III, who had joined his father-in-law Timesitheus, exultantly wrote to the Senate.


title: Shapur I

text: The Romans later invaded eastern Mesopotamia but faced tough resistance from Shapur I who returned from the East. Timesitheus died under uncertain circumstances and was succeeded by Philip the Arab. The young emperor Gordian III went to the Battle of Misiche and was either killed in the battle or murdered by the Romans after the defeat. The Romans then chose Philip the Arab as Emperor. Philip was not willing to repeat the mistakes of previous claimants, and was aware that he had to return to Rome to secure his position with the Senate. Philip concluded a peace with Shapur I in 244; he had agreed that Armenia lay within Persia's sphere of influence. He also had to pay an enormous indemnity to the Persians of 500,000 gold denarii. Philip immediately issued coins proclaiming that he had made peace with the Persians (). However, Philip later broke the treaty and seized lost territory.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I invaded Mesopotamia in 250 but again, serious trouble arose in Khorasan and Shapur I had to march over there and settle its affair.


title: Shapur I

text: Having settled the affair in Khorasan he resumed the invasion of Roman territories, and later annihilated a Roman force of 60,000 at the Battle of Barbalissos. He then burned and ravaged the Roman province of Syria and all its dependencies.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I then reconquered Armenia, and incited Anak the Parthian to murder the king of Armenia, Khosrov II. Anak did as Shapur asked, and had Khosrov murdered in 258; yet Anak himself was shortly thereafter murdered by Armenian nobles. Shapur then appointed his son Hormizd I as the "Great King of Armenia". With Armenia subjugated, Georgia submitted to the Sasanian Empire and fell under the supervision of a Sasanian official. With Georgia and Armenia under control, the Sasanians' borders on the north were thus secured.


title: Shapur I

text: During Shapur's invasion of Syria he captured important Roman cities like Antioch. The Emperor Valerian (253–260) marched against him and by 257 Valerian had recovered Antioch and returned the province of Syria to Roman control. The speedy retreat of Shapur's troops caused Valerian to pursue the Persians to Edessa, but they were defeated, and Valerian, along with the Roman army that was left, was captured by Shapur Shapur then advanced into Asia Minor and managed to capture Caesarea, deporting 400,000 of its citizens to the southern Sasanian provinces.


title: Shapur I

text: The victory over Valerian is presented in a mural at Naqsh-e Rustam, where Shapur is represented on horseback wearing royal armour and a crown. Before him kneels a man in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene is repeated in other rock-face inscriptions.


title: Shapur I

text: Christian tradition has Shapur I humiliating Valerian, infamous for his persecution of Christians, by the King of Kings using the Emperor as a footstool to mount his horse, and they claim he later died a miserable death in captivity at the hands of the enemy. However, just as with the above-mentioned Gilaks deported to the East by Shapur, the Persian treatment of prisoners of war was unpleasant but honourable, drafting the captured Romans and their Emperor into their army and deporting them to a remote place, Bishapur in Khuzistan, were they were settled as a garrison and built a weir with bridge for Shapur.


title: Shapur I

text: However, the Persian forces were later defeated by the Roman officer Balista and the lord of Palmyra Septimius Odaenathus, who captured the royal harem. Shapur plundered the eastern borders of Syria and returned to Ctesiphon, probably in late 260. In 264 Septimius Odaenathus reached Ctesiphon, but failed to take the city.


title: Shapur I

text: The Colossal Statue of Shapur I, which stands in the Shapur Cave, is one of the most impressive sculptures of the Sasanian Empire.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur is mentioned many times in the Talmud, in which he is referred to in Jewish Aramaic as "Shabur Malka" (שבור מלכא), meaning "King Shapur". He had good relations with the Jewish community and was a friend of Shmuel, one of the most famous of the Babylonian "Amoraim", the Talmudic sages from among the important Jewish communities of Mesopotamia.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur's campaigns deprived the Roman Empire of resources while restoring and substantially enriching his own treasury, by deporting many Romans from conquered cities to Sasanian provinces like Khuzestan, Asuristan, and Pars. This influx of deported artisans and skilled workers revitalised Iran's domestic commerce.


title: Shapur I

text: In Bishapur, Shapur died of an illness. His death came in May 270 and he was succeeded by his son, Hormizd I. Two of his other sons, Bahram I and Narseh, would also become kings of the Sasanian Empire, while another son, Shapur Meshanshah, who died before Shapur, sired children who would hold exalted positions within the empire.


title: Shapur I

text: Under Shapur, the Sasanian court, including its territories, were much larger than that of his father. Several governors and vassal-kings are mentioned in his inscriptions; Ardashir, governor of Qom; Varzin, governor of Spahan; Tiyanik, governor of Hamadan; Ardashir, governor of Neriz; Narseh, governor of Rind; Friyek, governor of Gundishapur; Rastak, governor of Veh-Ardashir; Amazasp III, king of Iberia. Under Shapur several of his relatives and sons served as governor of Sasanian provinces; Bahram, governor of Gilan; Narseh, governor of Sindh, Sakastan and Turan; Ardashir, governor of Kirman; Hormizd-Ardashir, governor of Armenia; Shapur Meshanshah, governor of Meshan; Ardashir, governor of Adiabene.


title: Shapur I

text: Several names of Shapur's officials are carved on his inscription at Naqsh-e Rustam. Many of these were the offspring of the officials who served Shapur's father. During the reign of Shapur, a certain Papak served as the commander of the royal guard ("hazarbed"), while Peroz served as the chief of the cavalry ("aspbed"); Vahunam and Shapur served as the director of the clergy; Kirdisro served as viceroy of the empire ("bidaxsh"); Vardbad served as the "chief of services"; Hormizd served as the chief scribe; Naduk served as "the chief of the prison"; Papak served as the "gate keeper"; Mihrkhwast served as the treasurer; Shapur served as the commander of the army; Arshtat Mihran served as the secretary; Zik served as the "master of ceremonies".


title: Shapur I

text: Under Shapur, the Iranian military experienced a resurgence after a rather long decline in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, which gave the Romans the opportunity to undertake expeditions into the Near East and Mesopotamia during the end of the Parthian Empire. Yet, the military was essentially the same as that of the Parthians; the same Parthians nobles who served the Arsacid royal family, now served the Sasanians, forming the majority of the Sasanian army. However, the Sasanians seem to have employed more cataphracts who were equipped with lighter chain-mail armour resembling that of the Romans.


title: Shapur I

text: Although Iranian society was greatly militarised and its elite designated themselves as a "warrior nobility" ("arteshtaran"), it still had a significantly smaller population, was more impoverished, and was a less centralised state compared to the Roman Empire. As a result, the Sasanian shahs had access to fewer full-time fighters, and depended on recruits from the nobility instead. Some exceptions were the royal cavalry bodyguard, garrison soldiers, and units recruited from places outside Iran. The bulk of the nobility included the powerful Parthian noble families (known as the "wuzurgan") that were centred on the Iranian plateau. They served as the backbone of the Sasanian feudal army and were largely autonomous. The Parthian nobility worked for the Sasanian shah for personal benefit, personal oath, and, conceivably, a common awareness of the "Aryan" (Iranian) kinship they shared with their Persian overlords.


title: Shapur I

text: Use of war elephants is also attested under Shapur, who made use of them to demolish the city of Hatra. He may also have used them against Valerian, as attested in the "Shahnameh" ("The Book of Kings").


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I left other reliefs and rock inscriptions. A relief at Naqsh-e Rajab near Estakhr is accompanied by a Greek translation. Here Shapur I calls himself "the Mazdayasnan (worshipper of Ahuramazda), the divine Shapur, King of Kings of the Iranians, and non-Iranians, of divine descent, son of the Mazdayasnan, the divine Ardashir, King of Kings of the Aryans, grandson of the divine king Papak". Another long inscription at Estakhr mentions the King's exploits in archery in the presence of his nobles.


title: Shapur I

text: From his titles we learn that Shapur I claimed sovereignty over the whole earth, although in reality his domain extended little farther than that of Ardashir I.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur I built the great town Gundishapur near the old Achaemenid capital Susa, and increased the fertility of the district with a dam and irrigation system–built by Roman prisoners–that redirected part of the Karun River. The barrier is still called "Band-e Kaisar", "the mole of the Caesar". He is also responsible for building the city of Bishapur, with the labours of Roman soldiers captured after the defeat of Valerian in 260. Shapur also built a town named Pushang in Khorasan.


title: Shapur I

text: In all records Shapur calls himself "mzdysn" ("Mazda-worshipping"). His inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht recounts his wars and religious establishments to the same extent. He believed that he had a responsibility; "For the reason, therefore, that the gods have so made us their instrument (dstkrt), and that by the help of the gods we have sought out for ourselves, and hold, all these nations (štry) for that reason we have also founded, province by province, many Varahrān fires (ʾtwry wlhlʾn), and we have dealt piously with many Magi (mowmard), and we have made great worship of the gods." According to the Zoroastrian priest Kartir, Shapur treated the Zoroastrians generously, and permitted members of their clergy to follow him on his expeditions against the Romans. According to the historian Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Shapur was a "lukewarm Zoroastrian".


title: Shapur I

text: During the reign of Shapur, Manichaeism, a new religion founded by the Iranian prophet Mani, flourished. Mani was treated well by Shapur, and in 242, the prophet joined the Sasanian court, where he tried to convert Shapur by dedicating his only work written in Middle Persian, known as the "Shabuhragan". Shapur, however, did not convert to Manichaeism and remained a Zoroastrian.


title: Shapur I

text: While the titulage of Ardashir was "King of Kings of Iran(ians)", Shapur slightly changed it, adding the phrase "and non-Iran(ians)". The extended title demonstrates the incorporation of new territory into the empire, however what was precisely seen as "non-Iran(ian)" ("aneran") is not certain. Although this new title was used on his inscriptions, it was almost never used on his coinage. The title first became regularised under Hormizd I.


title: Shapur I

text: Shapur appears in Harry Sidebottom's historical fiction novel series as one of the enemies of the series protagonist Marcus Clodius Ballista, career soldier in a third-century Roman army.


title: Ali Hazelwood

text: Ali Hazelwood is the pseudonym for an Italian neuroscience professor and writer of romance novels. Her stories center around women in STEM fields and academia. Her debut novel, "The Love Hypothesis," was a "New York Times" best seller.


title: Ali Hazelwood

text: In 2022 she published three novellas: "Under One Roof," "Stuck with You", and "Below Zero". These stories were compiled into a book called "Loathe to Love You" (2023).


title: Ali Hazelwood

text: Her second novel "Love on the Brain" was published on August 23, 2022. She has a third book forthcoming in 2023 called "Love, Theoretically".


title: Ali Hazelwood

text: Hazelwood wrote "The Love Hypothesis" after a literary agent contacted her about her online fanfiction.


title: Ali Hazelwood

text: Hazelwood was born and raised in Italy and lived in Japan and Germany before moving to the United States to pursue her Ph.D. in neuroscience. During her graduate study, Hazelwood researched brain simulation and cognitive neuroscience.


title: Otto Farrant

text: Otto Farrant (born 13 November 1996) is an English actor. He is best known for his portrayal of the titular character in Amazon Prime's spy thriller series "Alex Rider" (2020–present), which received critical acclaim. He previously had supporting television roles in "The White Queen" (2013), "War & Peace" (2016) and "Mrs. Wilson" (2018). As a theatre actor, he has performed at venues such as the Royal National Theatre and the Young Vic.


title: Otto Farrant

text: Farrant was born in Hammersmith, West London and raised in Tooting, South London. He attended Graveney School. He first became interested in acting after watching a performance of Gavroche in "Les Misérables". When he was young, he participated in theatre at Stagecoach Theatre School in Battersea.


title: Otto Farrant

text: At 11 years of age, Farrant began performing on stage in productions at the likes of the National Theatre and Shakespeare's Globe theatre. In 2010, he made his big screen debut as Young Perseus in "Clash of the Titans". In 2013, Farrant starred as Thomas Grey for 5 episodes of BBC historical drama "The White Queen". In 2016, he played Petya Rostov in the BBC historical Russian based drama serial "War & Peace", then played Nigel Wilson in the 2018 BBC miniseries "Mrs. Wilson".


title: Otto Farrant

text: In 2019, Farrant was cast in the leading role in Amazon Prime Video's "Alex Rider", a television adaptation of Anthony Horowitz's novel series, where a teenage schoolboy is recruited by MI6. Farrant stars alongside Vicky McClure and Stephen Dillane. The show premiered in the UK and Ireland on 4 June 2020, following six months of filming in 2019. The show's second season was produced during the first half of 2021 and released in December 2021. The third season began production in October 2022.


title: Lorentz factor

text: The Lorentz factor or Lorentz term is a quantity expressing how much the measurements of time, length, and other physical properties change for an object while that object is moving. The expression appears in several equations in special relativity, and it arises in derivations of the Lorentz transformations. The name originates from its earlier appearance in Lorentzian electrodynamics – named after the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz.


title: Lorentz factor

text: It is generally denoted (the Greek lowercase letter gamma). Sometimes (especially in discussion of superluminal motion) the factor is written as (Greek uppercase-gamma) rather than .


title: Lorentz factor

text: This is the most frequently used form in practice, though not the only one (see below for alternative forms).


title: Lorentz factor

text: In the table below, the left-hand column shows speeds as different fractions of the speed of light (i.e. in units of "c"). The middle column shows the corresponding Lorentz factor, the final is the reciprocal. Values in bold are exact.


title: Lorentz factor

text: There are other ways to write the factor. Above, velocity "v" was used, but related variables such as momentum and rapidity may also be convenient.


title: Lorentz factor

text: Using the property of Lorentz transformation, it can be shown that rapidity is additive, a useful property that velocity does not have. Thus the rapidity parameter forms a one-parameter group, a foundation for physical models.


title: Lorentz factor

text: The approximation ≈ 1 + may be used to calculate relativistic effects at low speeds. It holds to within 1% error for , and to within 0.1% error for .


title: Lorentz factor

text: The truncated versions of this series also allow physicists to prove that special relativity reduces to Newtonian mechanics at low speeds. For example, in special relativity, the following two equations hold:


title: Lorentz factor

text: The first two terms are occasionally used to quickly calculate velocities from large values. The approximation holds to within 1% tolerance for , and to within 0.1% tolerance for .


title: Lorentz factor

text: The standard model of long-duration gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) holds that these explosions are ultra-relativistic (initial formula_6 greater than approximately 100), which is invoked to explain the so-called "compactness" problem: absent this ultra-relativistic expansion, the ejecta would be optically thick to pair production at typical peak spectral energies of a few 100 keV, whereas the prompt emission is observed to be non-thermal.


title: Lorentz factor

text: Subatomic particles called muons travel at a speed such that they have a relatively high Lorentz factor and therefore experience extreme time dilation. As an example, muons generally have a mean lifetime of about which means muons generated from cosmic ray collisions at about 10 km up in the atmosphere should be non-detectable on the ground due to their decay rate. However, it has been found that ~10% of muons are still detected on the surface, thereby proving that to be detectable they have had their decay rates slow down relative to our inertial frame of reference.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Fashion in the period 1795–1820 in European and European-influenced countries saw the final triumph of undress or informal styles over the brocades, lace, periwigs and powder of the earlier 18th century. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, no one wanted to appear to be a member of the French aristocracy, and people began using clothing more as a form of individual expression of the true self than as a pure indication of social status. As a result, the shifts that occurred in fashion at the turn of the 19th century granted the opportunity to present new public identities that also provided insights into their private selves. Katherine Aaslestad indicates how "fashion, embodying new social values, emerged as a key site of confrontation between tradition and change."


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: For women's dress, the day-to-day outfit of the skirt and jacket style were practical and tactful, recalling the working-class woman. Women's fashions followed classical ideals, and stiffly boned stays were abandoned in favor of softer, less boned corsets. This natural figure was emphasized by being able to see the body beneath the clothing. Visible breasts were part of this classical look, and some characterized the breasts in fashion as solely aesthetic and sexual.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: This era of British history is known as the Regency period, marked by the regency between the reigns of George III and George IV. But the broadest definition of the period, characterized by trends in fashion, architecture, culture, and politics, begins with the French Revolution of 1789 and ends with Queen Victoria's 1837 accession. The names of popular people who lived in this time are still famous: Napoleon and Josephine, Juliette Récamier, Jane Austen, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, Beau Brummell, Lady Emma Hamilton, Queen Louise of Prussia and her husband and many more. Beau Brummell introduced trousers, perfect tailoring, and unadorned, immaculate linen as the ideals of men's fashion.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: In Germany, republican city-states relinquished their traditional, modest, and practical garments and started to embrace the French and English fashion trends of short-sleeved chemise dresses and Spencer jackets. American fashion trends emulated French dress, but in a toned-down manner, with shawls and tunics to cope with the sheerness of the chemise. Spanish majos, however, rebelled against foppish French Enlightenment ideals by reclaiming and elaborating upon traditional Spanish dress.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: By the end of the eighteenth century, a major shift in fashion was taking place that extended beyond changes in mere style to changes in philosophical and social ideals. Prior to this time, the style and traditions of the Ancien Régime prevented the conceptualization of "the self". Instead, one's identity was considered malleable; subject to change depending on what clothes one was wearing. However, by the 1780s, the new, "natural" style allowed one's inner self to transcend their clothes.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: During the 1790s, there was a new concept of the internal and external self. Before this time, there had only been one self, which was expressed through clothing. When going to a masquerade ball, people wore specific clothing, so they could not show their individuality through their clothing. Incorporated in this new "natural" style was the importance of ease and comfort of one's dress. Not only was there a new emphasis on hygiene, but also clothing became much lighter and more able to be changed and washed frequently. Even upper-class women began wearing cropped dresses as opposed to dresses with long trains or hoops that restricted them from leaving their homes. The subsequent near stasis of the silhouette inspired volumes of new trims and details on heavily trimmed skirts back into fashion. In the Regency years, complicated historic and orientalist elements provided lavish stylistic displays as such details were a vigorous vehicle for conspicuous consumption given their labor-intensive fabrications, and therefore a potent signifier of hierarchy for the upper classes who wore the styles. This kind of statement was particularly noticeable in profuse trimmings, especially on skirts where unrestrained details were common, along with cut edge details and edge trims.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Women's fashion was also influenced by male fashion, such as tailored waistcoats and jackets to emphasize women's mobility. This new movement toward practicality of dress showed that dress became less of a way to solely categorize between classes or genders; dress was meant to suit one's personal daily routine. It was also during this time period that the fashion magazine and journal industry began to take off. They were most often monthly (often competing) periodicals that allowed men and women to keep up with the ever-changing styles.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: In the late 18th century, clothes were mostly sold by individual shopkeepers who were often the artisans who made the goods. Customers usually lived in the same neighborhood as the shops and the shops would gain popularity by their customers' word-of–mouth recommendation, with the exception of warehouses (i.e., any retail on wholesale), where goods being sold were not necessarily made in the shop. However, things started to change during the transition to the 19th century. People sought efficiency and variety; under the influence of the Industrial Revolution, improved transportation and introduction of machines in manufacturing allowed fashion to develop at an even faster pace.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The first sewing machine emerged in 1790, and later, Josef Madersperger began developing his first sewing machine in 1807, presenting his first working machine in 1814. The introduction of the sewing machine sped up garment production. However, it had no widespread social impact until the 1840s, and clothing was entirely made by hand in the period to 1820. Meanwhile, advanced spinning, weaving and cotton-printing techniques developed in the 18th century had already brought cheaper, widely available washable fabrics. These durable and affordable fabrics became popular among the larger population. These techniques were further developed by the introduction of machines. Before, accessories like embroidery and lace were manufactured on a small and limited scale by skilled craftsmen and sold in their own shops; in 1804, a machine for embroidering was constructed by John Duncan, and people started producing these essential accessories in factories and dispatching the products to shops throughout the country. These technical developments in clothing production allowed a greater variety of styles; rapid changes in fashion also became possible.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The Industrial Revolution bridged Europe and America with regards to travel. When Louis Simond first arrived in America, he was struck by the mobility of the population and frequency of people made trips to the capital, writing "you meet nowhere with those persons who never were out of their native place, and whose habits are wholly local — nobody above poverty


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: who has not visited London once in his life; and most of those who can, visit once a year.' New canals and railways not only transported people, but created national and even broader markets by transporting goods manufactured in factories at great distances. The rise of industry throughout the Western world increased garment production and people were encouraged to travel more widely and purchase more goods than ever before.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Communication was also improved in this era. New ideas about fashion were conveyed by little dolls dressed in the latest style, newspapers, and illustrated magazines; for example, "La Belle Assemblée", founded by John Bell, was a British women's magazine published from 1806 to 1837. It was known for its fashion plates of contemporary fashions, demonstrating ways for women to dress and create ensembles.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: In this period, fashionable women's clothing styles were based on a high, under the bust waistline, only called the Empire silhouette in the 20th century — dresses were closely fitted to the torso just under the bust, falling loosely below. In different contexts, such styles are now commonly called "Directoire style" (referring to the Directory government of France during the second half of the 1790s), "Empire style" (referring to Napoleon's 1804–1814/1815 empire, and often also to his 1800–1804 "consulate"), or "Regency" (loosely used to refer to various periods between the 18th century and the Victorian). Empire silhouette and Directoire style were not used at the time these styles were worn.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: These 1795–1820 fashions were quite different from the styles prevalent during most of the 18th century and the rest of the 19th century when women's clothes were generally tight against the torso from the natural waist upwards, and heavily full-skirted below (often inflated by means of hoop skirts, crinolines, panniers, bustles, etc.). Women's fashion around this time started to follow classical ideals, inspired by the ancient Greek and Roman style with its gracious, loosely falling dresses that were gathered or just accentuated over the natural waist under the bust. For women, heavily boned stays gave way to a celebration of the natural form. Bodices were short with waistlines falling just below the bust. Fashion fabrics such as cotton muslin were light to the point of being sheer, however, printed heavier cottons, wools and other textiles were also popular.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Inspired by neoclassical tastes, 'undress' was the style of the day, casual and informal. It was the type of gown a woman wore from morning until noon or later depending on her social engagements of the day. The short-waisted dresses sported soft, loose skirts and were often made of white, almost transparent muslin, which was easily washed and draped loosely like the garments on Greek and Roman statues. Since the fabric clung to the body, revealing what was underneath, it made nudity "à la grecque" a centerpiece of public spectacle. Satin was sometimes worn for evening wear. 'Half Dress' is thought of as how one would dress when going out during the day or meeting with guests.' Full Dress' was what a lady wore to formal events, day or night. 'Evening Dress' was only appropriate at evening affairs. Thus during the 1795–1820 period, it was often possible for middle- and upper-class women to wear clothes that were not very confining or cumbersome, and still be considered decently and fashionably dressed.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Among middle- and upper-class women there was a basic distinction between morning dress (worn at home in the afternoons as well as mornings) and evening attire — generally, both men and women changed clothes in preparation for the evening meal and possible entertainments to follow. There were also further gradations such as afternoon dress, walking dress, riding habits, traveling dress, dinner dress, etc.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: In the "Mirror of Graces; or the English Lady's Costume", published in London in 1811, the author ("a Lady of Distinction") advised:


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: A Lady of Distinction also advised young ladies to wear softer shades of color, such as pinks, periwinkle blue, or lilacs. The mature matron could wear fuller colors, such as purple, black, crimson, deep blue, or yellow.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Many women of this era remarked upon how being fully dressed meant the bosom and shoulders were bare, and yet being under-dressed would mean one's neckline went right up to one's chin.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Due to the importance of showing social status, the fashion industry was very much influenced by society during the Regency era. One's position was determined by the person's wealth, etiquette, family status, intelligence, and beauty. Women financially and socially relied on their husbands. The only socially-acceptable activities in which women could participate centered around social gatherings and fashion, the most important component of which was attending evening parties. These parties helped to build relationships and connection with others. As etiquette dictated different standards of attire for different events, afternoon dress, evening dress, evening full dress, ball dress, and different types of dresses were popular.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Women's fashion in the Regency era started to change drastically. It popularized the empire silhouette, which featured a fitted bodice and high waist. This "new natural style" emphasized the beauty of the body's natural lines. Clothing became lighter and easier to care for than in the past. Women often wore several layers of clothing, typically undergarments, gowns, and outerwear. The chemise, the standard undergarment of the era, prevented the thin, gauzy dresses from being fully transparent. Outerwear, such as the spencer and the pelisse, were popular.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The empire silhouette was created in the late 18th century to about the early 19th century and referred to the period of the First French Empire. This adoption had been linked with France's neoclassical taste for Greek principles. In fact, however, its genealogy is much more complex. It was first worn by the French queen, whose reference was Caribbean, not Greek. The style was often worn in white to denote as high social status. Josephine Bonaparte was one of the figureheads for the Empire waistline, with her elaborated and decorated Empire line dresses. Regency women followed the Empire style along with the same trend of raised waistlines as French styles, even when their countries were at war. Starting from the 1780s and early 1790s, women's silhouette became slimmer and the waistlines crept up. After 1795, waistlines rose dramatically and the skirt circumference was further reduced. A few years later, England and France started to show the focus of the high waist style and this led to the creation of Empire style.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The style began as part of Neoclassical fashion, reviving styles from Greco-Roman art which showed women wearing loose-fitting rectangular tunics known as peplos which were belted under the bust, providing support for women and a cool, comfortable outfit especially in a warm climate. The empire silhouette was defined by the waistline, which was positioned directly under the bust. The Empire silhouette was the key style in women's clothing during the Regency era. The dresses were usually light, long, and fit loosely, they were usually in white and often sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice which strongly emphasized thin hem and tied around the body. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather and was apparently lain around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favored. The dresses had a fitted bodice and it gave a high-waist appearance.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The style had waxed and waned in fashion for hundreds of years. The shape of the dresses also helped to lengthen the body's appearance. The clothing can also be draped to maximize the bust. Lightweight fabrics were typically used to create a flowing effect. Also, ribbon, sash, and other decorative features were used to highlight the waistline. The empire gowns were often with a low neckline and short sleeves and women usually wore them as evening dresses. On the other hand, day gowns had a higher neckline and long sleeves. The chemisette was a staple for fashionable ladies. Although there were differences between day dresses and evening dresses, the high waistline was not changed.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: During this period, the classical influence extended to hairstyles. Often masses of curls were worn over the forehead and ears, with the longer back hair drawn up into loose buns or "Psyche knots" influenced by Greek and Roman styles. By the later 1810s, front hair was parted in the center and worn in tight ringlets over the ears. Adventurous women like Lady Caroline Lamb wore short cropped hairstyles "à la Titus", the "Journal de Paris" reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig "à la Titus"", a layered cut usually with some tresses hanging down.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Conservative married women continued to wear linen mob caps, which now had wider brims at the sides to cover the ears. Fashionable women wore similar caps for morning (at home undress) wear.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: For the first time in centuries, respectable but daringly fashionable women would leave the house without a hat or bonnet, previously something often associated with prostitutes. However, most women continued to wear something on their head outdoors, though they were beginning to cease to do so indoors during the day (as well as for evening wear). The antique head-dress, or Queen Mary "coif", Chinese hat, Oriental-inspired turban, and Highland helmet were popular. As for bonnets, their crowns and brims were adorned with increasingly elaborate ornamentations, such as feathers and ribbons. In fact, ladies of the day embellished their hats frequently, replacing old decorations with new trims or feathers.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Fashionable women of the Regency era wore several layers of undergarments. The first was the chemise, or shift, a thin garment with tight, short sleeves (and a low neckline if worn under evening wear), made of white cotton and finished with a plain hem that was shorter than the dress. These shifts were meant to protect the outer-clothes from perspiration and were washed more frequently than outer clothes. In fact, washerwomen of the time used coarse soap when scrubbing these garments, then plunged them in boiling water, hence the absence of color, lace, or other embellishments, which would have faded or damaged the fabric under such rough treatment. Chemises and shifts also prevented the transparent muslin or silk dresses from being too revealing.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The next layer was a pair of stays or corset (more lightly boned). While high-waisted classical fashions required no corset for the slight of figure, most ordinary women still wore some kind of bust support, although the aim was to look as if they were not. The disappearance of the corset or stays has been much exaggerated by writers on the Regency period. There were some experiments to produce garments which would serve the same functions as a modern brassiere. (In the "Mirror of Graces", a "divorce" was described as an undergarment that served to separate a woman's breasts. Made of steel or iron that was covered by a type of padding, and shaped like a triangle, this device was placed in the center of the chest.) "Short stays" (corsets extending only a short distance below the breasts) were often worn over the shift or chemise (not directly next to the skin), and "long stays" (corsets extending down towards the natural waist) were worn by women trying to appear slimmer than they were or who needed more support. The English wore these more than the French, but even such long stays were not primarily intended to constrict the waist, in the manner of Victorian corsets.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The final layer was the petticoat, which was the name for any skirt worn under the gown and could be a skirt with a bodice, a skirt attached over the torso by tapes, or a separate skirt. These petticoats were often worn between the underwear and the outer dress and were considered part of the outer clothing, not underwear. The lower edge of the petticoat was intended to be seen since women would often lift their outer dresses to spare the relatively delicate material of the outer dress from mud or damp (so exposing only the coarser and cheaper fabric of the petticoat to risk). Often exposed to view, petticoats were decorated at the hem with rows of tucks or lace, or ruffles.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: "Drawers" (large, flowy 'shorts' with buttons at the crotch) were only occasionally worn at this time. Women had no underwear under their dresses.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Stockings (hosiery), made of silk or knitted cotton, were held up by garters below the knee until suspenders were introduced in the late 19th century and were often of a white or pale flesh color.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: During this time period, women's clothing was much thinner than in the eighteenth century so warmer outerwear became important in fashion, especially in colder climates. Coat-like garments such as pelisses and redingotes were popular, as were shawls, mantles, mantelets, capes, and cloaks. The mantelet was a short cape that was eventually lengthened and made into a shawl. The redingote, another popular example, was a full-length garment resembling a man's riding coat (hence the name) in style, that could be made of different fabrics and patterns. Throughout the period, the Indian shawl was the favored wrap, as houses and the typical English country house were generally draughty, and the sheer muslin and light silk dresses popular during this time provided less protection. Shawls were made of soft cashmere or silk or even muslin for summer. Paisley patterns were extremely popular at the time.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Short (high-waisted) jackets called "spencers" were worn outdoors, along with long-hooded cloaks, Turkish wraps, mantles, capes, Roman tunics, chemisettes, and overcoats called "pelisses" (which were often sleeveless and reached down as far as the ankles). These outer garments were often made of double sarsnet, fine Merino cloth, or velvets, and trimmed with furs, such as swan's down, fox, chinchilla, or sable. On May 6, 1801, Jane Austen wrote her sister Cassandra, "Black gauze cloaks are worn as much as anything."


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Thin, flat fabric (silk or velvet), or leather slippers were generally worn (as opposed to the high-heeled shoes of much of the 18th century).


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Metal pattens were strapped on shoes to protect them from rain or mud, raising the feet an inch or so off the ground.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Gloves were always worn by women outside the house. When worn inside, as when making a social call, or on formal occasions, such as a ball, they were removed when dining. About the length of the glove, A Lady of Distinction writes:


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Longer gloves were worn rather loosely during this period, crumpling below the elbow. As described in the passage above, "garters" could fasten longer gloves.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Reticules held personal items, such as vinaigrettes. The form-fitting dresses or frocks of the day had no pockets, thus these small drawstring handbags were essential. These handbags were often called buskins or balantines. They were rectangular in shape and was worn suspended by a woven band from a belt placed around the figure above the waist.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Parasols (as shown in the illustration) protected a lady's skin from the sun and were considered an important fashion accessory. Slender and light in weight, they came in a variety of shapes, colors, and sizes.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Fashionable ladies (and gentlemen) used fans to cool themselves and to enhance gestures and body language. Made of paper or silk on sticks of ivory and wood, and printed with oriental motifs or popular scenes of the era, these ubiquitous accessories featured a variety of shapes and styles, such as pleated or rigid. An information sheet from the Cheltenham Museum describes fans and their use in body language and communication (click and scroll to page 4).


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: By the mid-1790s, neoclassical clothing had come into fashion in France. Several influences had combined to bring about this simplification in women's clothing: aspects of Englishwomen's practical country outdoor-wear leaked up into French high fashion, and there was a reaction in revolutionary France against the stiffly boned corsets and brightly colored satins and other heavy fabrics that were in style in the Ancien Régime (see 1750–1795 in fashion). But ultimately, Neo-classicism was adopted for its association with classical republican ideas [with reference to Greece, rather than republican Rome, which was now considered politically dangerous]. This renewed fascination of the classical past was encouraged by the recent discoveries of Pompeii and Herculaneum, and would likely have not been possible outside such a specific geographic and historical setting that allowed the idea of the past made present to become paramount.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Along with the influences of the Pompeii and Herculaneum excavations, several other factors came together to popularize neoclassical dress. Starting in the early 1790s, Emma Hamilton began her performances of attitudes, something that was considered by contemporaries as entirely new. These attitudes were based loosely on the ancient practice of pantomime, though Emma's performances lacked masks and musical accompaniment. Her performances created a fusion between art and nature; art came alive and her body became a type of art. As an aid to her performances of tragic mythological and historical figures, Emma wore the clothing á la grecque that would become popular in mainstream France in the coming years. A simple light-colored chemise made from thin, flowing material was worn and gathered with a narrow ribbon under the breasts. Simple cashmere shawls were used as headdresses or to give more fullness to the drapery of the chemise. They also helped to prevent broken lines in the performance so that the outstretched arms were always connected with the body, escalating the effect of fluid movement, and oftentimes, a cape or a cloak was worn to emphasize the lines of the body in certain poses. This highlighted the continuity of surface of line and form in the body of the performer to emphasize the unity, simplicity, and continuously flowing movement from one part of the body to the next. The hair was worn in a natural, loose, and flowing fashion. All of these properties blended together to allow an extensive play of light and shadow to reveal and accent certain parts of the body during the performance while covering others. Emma was highly capable in her attitudes, and the influence of her dress spread from Naples to Paris as wealthy Parisians took the Grand Tour.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: There is also some evidence that the white muslin shift dress became popular after Thermidor through the influence of prison dress. Revolutionary women such as Madame Tallien portrayed themselves in this way because it was the only clothing they possessed during their time in prison. The chemise á la grecque also represented the struggle for representation of the self and the stripping down of past cultural values. Also, a simplification of the attire worn by preteen girls in the 1780s (who were no longer required to wear ) probably paved the way for the simplification of the attire worn by teenage girls and adult women in the 1790s. Waistlines became somewhat high by 1795, but skirts were still rather full, and neoclassical influences were not yet dominant.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: It was during the second half of the 1790s that fashionable women in France began to adopt a thoroughgoing Classical style, based on an idealized version of ancient Greek and Roman dress (or what was thought at the time to be ancient Greek and Roman dress), with narrow clinging skirts. Some of the extreme Parisian versions of the neoclassical style (such as narrow straps which bared the shoulders, and diaphanous dresses without sufficient stays, petticoats, or shifts worn beneath) were not widely adopted elsewhere, but many features of the late-1790s neoclassical style were broadly influential, surviving in successively modified forms in European fashions over the next two decades.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: With this Classical style came the willingness to expose the breast. With the new iconography of the Revolution as well as a change in emphasis on maternal breast-feeding, the chemise dress became a sign of the new egalitarian society. The style was simple and appropriate for the comfort of a pregnant or nursing woman as the breasts were emphasized and their availability was heightened. Maternity became fashionable and it was not uncommon for women to walk around with their breasts exposed. Some women took the "fashionable maternity" a step further and wore a "six-month pad" under their dress to appear pregnant.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: White was considered the most suitable color for neoclassical clothing (accessories were often in contrasting colors). Short trains trailing behind were common in dresses of the late 1790s.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: During the first two decades of the 19th century, fashions continued to follow the basic high-waisted empire silhouette, but in other respects, neoclassical influences became progressively diluted. Dresses remained narrow in the front, but fullness at the raised back waist allowed room to walk. Colors other than white came into style, the fad for diaphanous outer fabrics faded (except in certain formal contexts), and some elements of obviously visible ornamentation came back into use in the design of the dress (as opposed to the elegant simplicity or subtle white-on-white embroidery of the dress of ca. 1800).


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: This era signaled the loss of any lingering neoclassical, pseudo-Grecian styles in women's dress. This decline was especially evident in France due to the Emperor Napoleon's suppression of trade in the fabrics used in neoclassical dress. While waistlines were still high, they were beginning to drop slightly. Larger and more abundant decoration, especially near the hem and neckline foreshadowed greater extravagance in the coming years. More petticoats were being worn, and a stiffer, more cone-shaped skirt became popular. Stiffness could be supplemented by layers of ruffles and tucks on a hem, as well as corded or flounced petticoats. Sleeves began to be pulled, tied, and pinched in ways that were more influenced by romantic and gothic styles than neoclassical. Hats and hairstyles became more elaborate and trimmed, climbing higher to balance widening skirts.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: This period saw the final abandonment of lace, embroidery, and other embellishments from serious men's clothing outside of formalized court dress—it would not reappear except as an affectation of Aesthetic dress in the 1880s and its successor, the "Young Edwardian" look of the 1960s. Instead, cut and tailoring became much more important as an indicator of quality. This transformation can be attributed in part to an increased interest in antiquity stemming from the discovery of classical engravings, including the Elgin Marbles. The figures depicted in classical art were viewed as an exemplar of the ideal natural form, and an embodiment of Neoclassical ideas. The style in London for men became more and more refined and this was due to the influence of two things: the dandy and the romantic movement. The dandy (a man who placed high importance on personal aesthetics and hobbies but wanted to seem totally nonchalant about it) arguably emerged as early as the 1790s. Dark colors were all but mandatory. (Dark doesn't necessarily mean dreary though; many items, particularly vests and coats were cut from rich, vivid fabrics.) Blue tailcoats with gold buttons were everywhere. White muslin shirts (sometimes with ruffles on the neck/sleeves) were extremely popular. Breeches were officially on their way out, with pants/trousers taking their place. Fabrics in general were becoming more practical silk and more wool, cotton, and buckskin. Therefore, in the 18th century, the dress was simplified and greater emphasis was put on tailoring to enhance the natural form of the body.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: This was also the period of the rise of hair wax for styling men's hair, as well as mutton chops as a style of facial hair.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Breeches became longer—tightly fitted leather riding breeches reached almost to the boot tops—and were replaced by pantaloons or trousers for fashionable streetwear. The French Revolution is largely responsible for altering the standard male dress. During the revolution, clothing symbolized the division between the upper classes and the working-class revolutionaries. French rebels earned the nickname sans-culottes, or "the people without breeches," because of the loose floppy trousers they popularized.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Coats were cutaway in front with long skirts or tails behind, and had tall standing collars. Lapels were not as large as they had been in years before and often featured an M-shaped notch unique to the period.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Shirts were made of linen, had attached collars, and were worn with stocks or wrapped in a cravat tied in various fashions. Pleated frills at the cuffs and the front opening went out of fashion by the end of the period.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Waistcoats were high-waisted, and squared off at the bottom, but came in a broad variety of styles. They were often double-breasted, with wide lapels and stand collars. Around 1805 large lapels that overlapped those of the jacket began to fall out of fashion, as did the 18th-century tradition of wearing the coat unbuttoned, and gradually waistcoats became less visible. Shortly before this time waistcoats were commonly vertically striped but by 1810 plain white waistcoats were increasingly fashionable, as did horizontally striped waistcoats. High-collared waistcoats were fashionable until 1815, then collars were gradually lowered as the shawl collar came into use toward the end of this period.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Overcoats or "greatcoats" were fashionable, often with contrasting collars of fur or velvet. The "garrick", sometimes called a coachman's coat, was a particularly popular style, and had between three and five short caplets attached to the collar.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Boots, typically Hessian boots with heart-shaped tops and tassels were a mainstay in men's footwear. After the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Wellington boots, as they were known, became the rage; tops were knee-high in front and cut lower in back. The jockey boot, with a turned-down cuff of lighter colored leather, had previously been popular but continued to be worn for riding. Court shoes with elevated heels became popular with the introduction of trousers.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The clothes-obsessed dandy first appeared in the 1790s, both in London and Paris. In the slang of the time, a dandy was differentiated from a fop in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober. The dandy prided himself in "natural excellence" and tailoring allowed for exaggeration of the natural figure beneath fashionable outerwear.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Beau Brummell set the fashion for dandyism in British society from the mid-1790s, which was characterized by immaculate personal cleanliness, immaculate linen shirts with high collars, perfectly tied cravats, and exquisitely tailored plain dark coats (contrasting in many respects with the "maccaroni" of the earlier 18th century).


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Brummell abandoned his wig and cut his hair short in a Roman fashion dubbed "à la Brutus", echoing the fashion for all things classical seen in women's wear of this period. He also led the move from breeches to snugly tailored pantaloons or trousers, often light-colored for day and dark for the evening, based on working-class clothing adopted by all classes in France in the wake of the Revolution. In fact, Brummel's reputation for taste and refinement was such that, fifty years after his death, Max Beerbohm, wrote:


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Not every male aspiring to attain Brummel's sense of elegance and style succeeded, however, and these dandies were subject to caricature and ridicule. Venetia Murray quotes an excerpt from "Diary of an Exquisite", from "The Hermit in London", 1819:


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: The French Revolution (1789-1799) in France and the Pitt's hair powder tax in 1795 in Britain effectively ended the fashion for both wigs and powder in these countries and younger men of fashion in both countries began to wear their own unpowdered hair without a queue in short curls, often with long sideburns. The new styles like the Brutus ("à la Titus") and the Bedford Crop became fashionable and subsequently spread also in other European and European-influenced countries including the United States. Many notable men during this period, especially younger ones, followed this new fashion trend of short unpowdered hairstyles, e.g. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821), initially wearing long hair tied in a queue, changed his hairstyle and cut his hair short while in Egypt in 1798. Likewise the future U.S. President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848) who had worn a powdered wig and long hair tied in a queue in his youth, abandoned this fashion during this period while serving as the U.S. Minister to Russia (1809-1814) and later became the first president to adopt a short haircut instead of long hair tied in a queue. Older men, military officers, and those in conservative professions such as lawyers, judges, physicians, and servants retained their wigs and powder. Formal court dress of European monarchies also still required a powdered wig or long powdered hair tied in a queue until the accession of Napoleon to the throne as emperor (1804-1814).


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Tricorne and bicorne hats were still worn, but the most fashionable hat was tall and slightly conical; this would soon, however, be displaced by the top hat and reign as the only hat for formal occasions for the next century.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Both boys and girls wore dresses until they were about four or five years old, when boys were "breeched", or put into trousers.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: During the first half of the Victorian era, there was a more or less negative view of women's styles of the 1795–1820 period. Some people would have felt slightly uncomfortable to be reminded that their mothers or grandmothers had once promenaded about in such styles (which could be considered indecent according to Victorian norms), and many would have found it somewhat difficult to really empathize with (or take seriously) the struggles of a heroine of art or literature if they were being constantly reminded that she was wearing such clothes. For such reasons, some Victorian history paintings of the Napoleonic wars intentionally avoided depicting accurate women's styles (see example below), Thackeray's illustrations to his book "Vanity Fair" depicted the women of the 1810s wearing 1840s fashions, and in Charlotte Brontë's 1849 novel "Shirley" (set in 1811–1812) neo-Grecian fashions are anachronistically relocated to an earlier generation.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: Later in the Victorian period, the Regency seemed to retreat to an unthreateningly remote historical distance, and Kate Greenaway and the Artistic Dress movement selectively revived elements of early 19th century fashions. During the late Victorian and Edwardian periods, many genre paintings, sentimental valentines, etc. contained loose depictions of 1795–1820 styles (then considered to be quaint relics of a bygone era). In the late 1960s / early 1970s, there was a limited fashion revival of the Empire silhouette.


title: 1795–1820 in Western fashion

text: In recent years, 1795–1820 fashions are most strongly associated with Jane Austen's writings, due to the various movie adaptations of her novels. There are also some Regency fashion urban myths, such as that women dampened their gowns to make them appear even more diaphanous (something which was certainly not practiced by the vast majority of women of the period).


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov (; or "Böhmisch Krumau") is a town in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 12,000 inhabitants. It is known as a tourist centre, which is among the most visited places in the country. The historic centre with the Český Krumlov Castle complex is protected by law as an urban monument reservation, and since 1992, it has been a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site because of its well-preserved Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov is made up of town parts of Domoradice, Horní Brána, Latrán, Nádražní Předměstí, Plešivec and Vnitřní Město, and villages of Nové Dobrkovice, Nové Spolí, Slupenec and Vyšný.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Krumlov has its origin in Middle High German "Krumme Aue", which can be translated as "crooked meadow", after a bend of the Vltava river. The adjective "Český" ("Bohemian") was added in the 15th century to differentiate it from Moravský Krumlov in south Moravia.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov is located about southwest of České Budějovice and south of Prague. It is situated on both banks of the Vltava river. It lies in the Bohemian Forest Foothills. The highest point of the municipal territory is the hill Vyšný vrch at above sea level. The northern part of the territory belongs to the Blanský les Protected Landscape Area.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Thanks to the convenient location by the river, the area has been permanently inhabited. The area's oldest settlement goes back to the Older Stone Age (70,000–50,000 BC), the mass settlement is proven in the Bronze Age (1,500 BC). Celtic settlements were here in the Younger Iron Age (c. 400 BC), and the first Slavic settlement from the 6th century AD. In the Early Middle Ages, trade routes led through this territory along the Vltava.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The Český Krumlov Castle was founded shortly before 1250 by a local branch of the noble Vítkovci family, descendants of Witiko of Prčice. The first written mention of Český Krumlov was in a 1253 deed as "Chrumbenowe". The town was established in two stages. The first part called Latrán was built spontaneously below the castle, settled mostly by people who had some administrative connection with the castle. The second part was subsequently founded as a brand new settlement and called Old Town. Since the foundation of the town, both Czech and German nationalities were represented. A Jewish community is documented since 1334.


title: Český Krumlov

text: In 1302 the Vítkovci line became extinct and King Wenceslaus II, who acquired the estate and castle by escheat, ceded it to the Rosenberg family, who later made it the main residence of their family. Peter I of Rosenberg, the Lord Chamberlain of King John of Bohemia, had the present upper castle erected in the early 14th century. Under his rule the Rosenberg estates flourished. Český Krumlov achieved the highest prosperity in the 15th century during the rule of Oldřich II of Rosenberg, when the estate territory was considerably enlarged.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The Rosenbergs strongly promoted trade and crafts within the town walls. In the late 15th century, when gold was found next to the town, German miners came to settle, which shifted the ethnic balance even more. In one of the churches, the sermons were preached in Czech until the 1780s, when Church of Saint Judoc was closed. In 1555, William of Rosenberg joined the town parts of Latrán and Old Town, which had been up to then separate, and unificated the town. In the late 16th century, he had the castle rebuilt in the Renaissance style.


title: Český Krumlov

text: In 1602, William's brother Peter Vok of Rosenberg sold Krumlov to Emperor Rudolf II, who gave it to his illegitimate son Julius d'Austria. After the Bohemian Revolt and the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, Emperor Ferdinand II gave Krumlov to the noble House of Eggenberg and the town became seat of the Duchy of Krumlov. From 1719 to 1947, the castle belonged to the House of Schwarzenberg.


title: Český Krumlov

text: In the 19th century, the industrialization and development of transport occurred, and most of the town fortifications was demolished.


title: Český Krumlov

text: There were 8,662 inhabitants in Krumlov in 1910, of which 7,367 (85%) were Germans and 1,295 (15%) were Czechs. After World War I, Český Krumlov was a part of the Bohemian Forest Region in a newly-created Czechoslovakia, but German-Austrian deputies declared the region be part of German-Austria. In 1919, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye recognized the area as part of Czechoslovakia. In 1938, it was annexed by Nazi Germany, as part of the Reichsgau Oberdonau unit of Sudetenland, under the Munich Agreement. After World War II, the town's longtime German population was expelled and the town was returned to Czechoslovakia.


title: Český Krumlov

text: During the Communist era of Czechoslovakia, the historic Český Krumlov fell into disrepair. However, since the Velvet Revolution of 1989 much of the town's sights has been restored, and it is now a popular tourist destination.


title: Český Krumlov

text: There are several middle-sized industrial companies. The largest of them are Linde Pohony (producer of propulsion and control systems for forklifts, part of Linde Material Handlings group) and two divisions of Schwan-Stabilo corporate group, Schwan Cosmetics (producer of cosmetic pencils) and Schwan-Stabilo (producer of writing instruments). The largest non-industrial employer is the Český Krumlov Hospital.


title: Český Krumlov

text: From 1560, Český Krumlov was also home to the Pivovar Eggenberg brewery. In 2014, the brewery was closed and since 2016, a new small historical brewery has been operating in the premises of the former brewery.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov has a railway station served by GW Train Regio and České dráhy situated on the České Budějovice–Nové Údolí (Stožec municipality) line. There has been a direct train to Prague since 2016. Several bus companies operate direct bus services to Prague. There are also direct shuttle minibus services to several cities including Prague, Munich and Vienna.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov hosts a number of festivals and other events each year including the Five-Petalled Rose Festival (a reference to the rose of the Rosenberg crest), which is held on the summer solstice weekend. The downtown area is turned into a medieval town with craftsmen, artists, musicians, and local people in medieval costume. Activities include jousting, fencing, historical dance performances, and folk theatre, in the castle precincts and along the river. It concludes with a fireworks display.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The International Music Festival Český Krumlov begins in July and ends in August, and features international music of various genres. Other such events are held throughout the year. The summer music festivals include the blues, rock, and soul festival Open Air Krumlov, held in late June at Eggenberg Brewery Garden.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The historic town centre with the castle complex has been a designated UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1992, one of the first in the country. The town preserves the street layout from the Middle Ages. Most of the architecture of the old town and castle dates from the 14th through 17th centuries; the town's structures are mostly in Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles. The historical core, today Vnitřní město ("Inner Town") town part, is within a horseshoe meander of the river, with the old Latrán town part and castle complex on the other side of the Vltava.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The centre of Old Town is formed by Svornosti Square. Its main landmark is the town hall from 1597. It was created by merger of three Gothic houses with arcades, whose façade was merged with a Renaissance attic.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The town has preserved only few fragments of the town fortifications, formed by one town gate from 1598–1602, a bastion from 1505, and remains of zwinger walls.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The complex of Český Krumlov Castle is one of the largest in central Europe with an area of . It is formed by forty buildings and palaces, situated around five castle courts and a castle park.


title: Český Krumlov

text: It is relatively unique in that it is surrounded by a moat filled not with water, but with bears. This was an attempt by the erstwhile rulers of the castle to associate themselves with the powerful Orsini family – whose name is a pun on the Italian word for bear; "orso".


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov Castle preserves its Baroque theatre, built in 1680–82 under Prince Johann Christian I von Eggenberg and renovated with up-to-date stage equipment under Joseph I Adam of Schwarzenberg from 1765 to 1766. It is one of few such court theatres to retain its original stage machinery, scenery and props. Due to its age, the theatre is only used three times a year (only twice open to the public), when a Baroque opera is performed in simulated candlelight. Since 1959, the revolving auditorium is located in the gardens.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The most valuable church and a national cultural heritage is the Church of Saint Vitus. It is a late Gothic structure from 1407–1439 with later modifications, built on the foundations of an older church from 1309. It is accessible to the public and still serves to religious and cultural purposes.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The former Church of Saint Judoc in Latrán was abolished in 1787 or 1788. Today it is used for housing and shopping purposes. The tower is accessible and serves as a lookout tower.


title: Český Krumlov

text: The Church of the Corpus Cristi and the Virgin Mary is located in complex of three monasteries in Latrán. The complex was opened in 2015 after extensive reconstruction. It includes former monasteries of Friars Minor, Poor Clares, and


title: Český Krumlov

text: The Český Krumlov Synagogue is an Art Nouveau building with Neo-Romanesque features. It was built in 1908 and abolished in 1938. Today it serves to cultural purposes.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov has a museum and gallery dedicated to the painter Egon Schiele, who lived in the town, the Egon Schiele Art Centrum. In the town centre there is a museum dedicated to the semi-precious gemstone moldavite.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Other museums include Castle Museum with the Castle Tower, Regional Museum in Český Krumlov, Museum of Marionettes, Wax Figures Museum, Museums of Torture Law, Český Krumlov Monasteries Museum, Museum Fotoateliér Seidel (a museum of photography), or Museum of Historical Motorcycles.


title: Český Krumlov

text: Český Krumlov has been used for locations in movies and TV series such as "The Adventures of Pinocchio" (1996), "The Scarlet Pimpernel" (1999), "Hostel" (2005), and "The Illusionist" (2006).


title: A Different Kind of Truth

text: A Different Kind of Truth is the twelfth and final studio album by American rock band Van Halen. Released on February 7, 2012, by Interscope Records, this is Van Halen's only studio album on Interscope and its first full-length album of studio material with lead singer David Lee Roth since "1984". Likewise, "A Different Kind of Truth" was Van Halen's first studio album since 1998's "Van Halen III", as well as their only studio album recorded without bassist Michael Anthony, who had played bass on all of the band's previous albums; Eddie Van Halen's son Wolfgang replaced Anthony for the album, making this his only studio album with the band. It would also be Van Halen's final studio album before Eddie's death and the group's subsequent disbandment in 2020.


title: A Different Kind of Truth

text: "A Different Kind of Truth" was recorded at Henson Recording Studios and Eddie Van Halen's own 5150 Studios and produced by John Shanks. Seven of the album's 13 songs are musically re-worked and lyrically re-written songs that had been demoed in the late-1970s/early 1980s, but never officially released. The album received positive reviews upon release, with several writers referring to it as a return to form, and multiple publications ranked it as one of the best albums of 2012. It was also a commercial success, debuting in the top ten on numerous record charts. It debuted at No. 2 on the "Billboard" 200 and, by the end of 2012, had sold in excess of 411,000 copies in the United States alone. The album was promoted with an arena tour.