title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: As Alexios or Kassandra, the player may choose how to respond to non-player characters by engaging in dialogue trees with them to learn information and progress the story, with some of the choices potentially changing or affecting the fates of the characters they interact with. Throughout the game the Eagle Bearer has access to a loyal horse named Phobos, whose appearance is customizable and can be summoned almost anytime and anywhere. The Eagle Bearer embarks on an extended journey across the Greek world on board their ship the "Adrestia", where they encounter interpretations of various real world historical figures in the "Assassin's Creed" universe such as Perikles, Kleon, Aspasia, Sokrates, Alkibiades, Aristophanes, Hippokrates, Brasidas, and the Two Kings of Sparta.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: For the game's novelization written by Gordon Doherty, Kassandra appears as the Eagle Bearer who opposes the Cult of Kosmos and eventually inherits the Staff of Hermes Trismegistus from Pythagoras. Alexios is shaped to become a weapon to be used by the Cult, henceforth known by the name Deimos. His allegiance to the Cult puts him at odds with his sister, who attempts to dismantle their influence across the Greek world in the midst of the Peloponnesian War and to reunite their family, and later dies fighting Kassandra at Mount Taygethos.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In an interview by Tom Hoggins from "The Telegraph", "Odyssey" senior producer Marc-Alexis Côté said that the Kephallonia section early in the game is "about discovering who these characters are and find out why you should join them on this journey". Côté explained that the notion of choice is determined by the development team as one of their "core pillars" for the game, and that is extended to the player being given their choice of character. Côté noted that player feedback from the option to play as Evie Frye in "Assassin's Creed Syndicate" helped informed the team with insight on how to push this further for "Odyssey", and claimed that the team was able to build a better game as a result as everyone is satisfied with the "good gender split on the game". The implementation of a branching dialogue system, which Côté said is supposed to transform the way player's would approach their gameplay experience through dialogue choices, was the main change in how the developmental team approached building the game. He explained that it involved a lot more preparation compared to previous projects in the series, as the writing team for "Odyssey" expanded from a duo to a team of fifteen staff members during development. Côté said that the game's novelization was an extension of the project, and as its narrative is meant to be linear, a canon storyline for the novel had to be drafted.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In July 2020, a report by Jason Schreier from "Bloomberg" about the mishandling of sexual misconduct allegations by Ubisoft claimed that Kassandra was originally meant to be the sole playable character of "Odyssey", and the inclusion of Alexios as an alternative player character was insinuated to be the result of a compromise with Ubisoft management, a situation described to be "illustrative of the sexism ingrained within the company".


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Actors Michael Antonakos and Melissanthi Mahut, who portray Alexios and Kassandra respectively, are of Greek heritage. With regards to the casting process of characters in "Odyssey", audio director Lydia Andrew noted that Ubisoft tried to look for actors who are from Greece or have Greek ancestry. She indicated that it felt like a good opportunity to have a "deep dive into the culture of Greece and obviously Ancient Greece", and that it is just as important to work with good Greek actors as casting a great actor who is very good at portraying an accent. Mahut recalled that Antonakos was already chosen for the role of Alexios prior to the finalization of her own audition for the role of Kassandra, where she had the opportunity to play off Antonakos.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: At the beginning of the process, the creative directors and writers of "Odyssey" gave both actors a "skeleton" idea of their characters as well as some insight as to their history, possible path and general characteristics. Antonakos and Mahut made it a point to work as a team, often holding discussions with each other about where they saw their respective characters going, and what they thought their main attributes were, and how they would respond in key situations. During motion capture sessions they would constantly give each other notes as to how they would like to approach certain scenes. Voice over sessions involved a lengthier process as they often were not in the same area or room, so they followed their personal choices as well as guidance by their respective directors.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Antonakos did not initially know what Alexios would look like and developed his own take on the character by drawing inspiration from previous series protagonist Ezio Auditore da Firenze, as well as the animated series iterations of Wolverine and Batman from the 1980s and 1990s. Antonakos described Alexios as a "boisterous Bruce Wayne with a Greek accent" who resembles an "explosive Wolverine" when he is angry. Antonakos was also inspired by Pink Floyd's "Wish You Were Here", which he used to ground the character into something deeper after he is given the context of the character's backstory as a "soundtrack to his pain". On the character's display of machismo, Antonakos said Alexios is essentially a demigod with supernatural strength who is also immersed in the Ancient Greek warrior culture and explained that his arrogance is "just a show, a mask for his insecurity of being alone", noting that he is in truth "a big kid acting tough" with "huge guilt issues" and "something to prove".


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: On portraying the identity of Deimos for their respective characters, Mahut wanted Kassandra to remain as a relatable character, even when she commits acts which are cruel or inhumane. She took key elements that made the elder sibling what they are, and "put a filter over them". She tried to imagine how a younger sibling would evolve from a traumatic childhood of being rejected and abandoned, but at the same time possessing a god-like strength. Antonakos decided to play Deimos as a different person entirely, and explained that he is the younger sibling who never experienced a normal childhood living in Spartan society and thus does not possess the same moral compass an elder Alexios would have had because he was never shown any compassion and sympathy by those who raised him. Antonakos projected a darker and lower voice compared to the one he gave Alexios as the Eagle Bearer, giving him no room for a smile unless it had a sense of tormenting behind it. As part of their motion capture performances, which constituted about 10%-15% of the game, the actors had to wear velcro/lycra suits and helmets with attached cameras. Both Antonakos and Mahut did their best to match each other's performances, gestures and movements, as the production team would use the same edits to cut the scenes together.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In "Assassin's Creed Odyssey", the player experiences Kassandra's life as part of a simulation played by another in-game character, Layla Hassan, who is researching Kassandra's memories to locate Atlantis on behalf of the Assassin Brotherhood. Kassandra starts out as a mercenary operating on the island of Kephallonia, where she was raised by a merchant named Markos after being separated from her family as a child, and befriended another girl in Markos's care, Phoibe. A series of flashbacks later reveal Kassandra's backstory: she lived with her parents Nikolaos and Myrrine in Sparta until the age of seven, when her infant brother Alexios was sentenced to death in deference to an oracle's prophecy which said he would doom Sparta. Trying to save Alexios, Kassandra accidentally pushed both him and a Spartan elder off Mount Taygetos. She was branded a traitor for this, and Nikolaos, in adherence to Spartan law, reluctantly threw her off the mountain. Kassandra survived the fall and, after befriending a golden eagle named Ikaros, who would become her companion, made her way to Kephallonia, where Markos found her and took her in.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In 431 BC, at the onset of the Peloponnesian War, Kassandra is hired by a man named Elpenor to assassinate "The Wolf of Sparta" in Megaris, and departs Kephallonia after befriending a naval captain named Barnabas and assuming command of his ship, the "Adrestia". Kassandra soon discovers that "The Wolf" is in fact a sobriquet for Nikolaos; that Nikolaos is not her biological father and has another adopted son, Stentor; and that Myrinne left Nikolaos and Sparta shortly after the incident at Mount Taygetos. While travelling to Delphi to ask the Pythia for Myrrine's whereabouts, Kassandra meets Herodotos, who reveals his extensive knowledge of the Spear of Leonidas, which Kassandra wields, and joins her on her journey. Upon meeting the Pythia, Kassandra is warned about a secretive organization known as the Cult of Kosmos that is targeting her family. After discovering Elpenor is a Cult member, Kassandra kills him and uses his disguise to infiltrate a secret Cult meeting. She learns that the Cult plans to take advantage of the war to seize control of Greece and that their enforcer, known as "Deimos", is Alexios, who had also survived his fall off Mount Taygetos, but was taken in by the Cult and brainwashed to serve their cause.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Kassandra journeys to Athens to warn Perikles of the Cult and request his help in finding Myrrine. She befriends several of his associates, such as Alkibiades, Aristophanes, Sokrates, and Perkiles' wife Aspasia, who provide her with several leads, and also reunites with Phoibe, now working as Aspasia's assistant. Kassandra follows each lead but is unable to locate Myrrine. Returning to Athens in 429 BC, Kassandra finds the city ravaged by a plague and fails to stop the Cult from killing Perikles and Phoibe. She escapes with Aspasia to Naxos, where they find Myrrine, now the oligarch of the island. Myrrine asks Kassandra to accompany her back to Sparta, and directs her to Atlantis to meet her true father, Pythagoras. Pythagoras explains that he and Myrrine conceived Kassandra to preserve Leonidas' bloodline, as his descendants have a connection with Precursor artifacts, such as Leonidas' spear, and tasks Kassandra with recovering other artifacts to permanently seal Atlantis and prevent its knowledge from being misused by the Cult.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In Sparta, Kassandra meets its two kings, Archidamus II and Pausanias, who task her with securing Sparta's victory in the Olympic Games and helping Stentor conquer Boeotia. She succeeds in both tasks, obtaining evidence that Pausanias is a Cult member in the process. Pausanias is ousted after Kassandra exposes his betrayal, and she and Myrrine are granted back their Spartan citizenship and home. In 425 BC, Kassandra encounters and fights Alexios during the Battle of Pylos, but is captured by the Cult and taken to Athens, where Kleon, Perikles' former rival and another Cult member, enjoys popularity as leader of the city-state. Kassandra escapes captivity and, with the help of her allies, foils Kleon's plans, ultimately killing him during the Battle of Amphipolis in 422 BC. Afterwards, she travels with Myrrine to Mount Taygetos to confront Alexios and try to redeem him. However, they are unsuccessful, and Kassandra is forced to kill Alexios when he threatens Myrrine's life.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: After eliminating all Cult members, Kassandra returns to their meeting place under the Temple of Delphi and finds a pyramid-shaped artifact the Cult was using to influence Greek politics. Touching it, she receives visions of future conflicts, before being met by Aspasia, who reveals herself to be the Cult's original leader and that she had been secretly working to undermine it after becoming disillusioned with the other members' ideals. Kassandra spares Aspasia, but destroys the artifact. During her journey, Kassandra also collects all the artifacts Pythagoras requested, whereupon she activates a recording from the Precursor Aletheia, who pleads with Layla through Kassandra as proxy that Precursor technology must be destroyed for humanity to reach its potential. After sealing Atlantis, Pythagoras passes the Staff of Hermes Trismegistus, another Precursor artifact, on to Kassandra, granting her biological immortality.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: In 2018, Kassandra meets Layla as she is analyzing data recovered from the Animus in order to re-activate Atlantis. She tasks Layla with restoring the balance between order and chaos, represented by organizations such as the Templars and the Assassins, respectively, and passes away after relinquishing the staff to Layla.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: The first story expansion for the game, "Legacy of the First Blade", set both during and after the events of the main narrative campaign, focuses on Kassandra's conflict with the Order of the Ancients, the same organization featured in "Assassin's Creed Origins", who are forerunners of the Templar Order, the series' perennial antagonists. Kassandra joins forces with Darius, a Persian renegade and freedom fighter who assassinated Xerxes I of Persia (in what is the first recorded use of the Assassins' signature weapon, the Hidden Blade), to fight the Order, first in Macedonia and later in Achaea and Messenia. The Order is committing atrocities against the local populace to draw out the "Tainted Ones", people descended from the Isu race known to humans as gods, such as Kassandra and her family, which the Order seeks to eliminate, believing they have the potential to doom all of humanity. Over the course of the expansion, Kassandra starts a family with Natakas, Darius's son, giving birth to a boy they name Elpidios, who is later taken by the Order, who also murder Natakas. Kassandra and Darius exact revenge on the Order and kill its leader and Darius' former ally Amorges, who gives them Elpidios' whereabouts but warns them that the Order can not be vanquished and that Elpidios will never be safe as long as he is with Kassandra. After finding Elpidios, Kassandra, concerned for his safety, decides to leave him with Darius, entrusting him to look after his grandson. Darius takes Elpidios to Egypt, when it is revealed that he would become an ancestor to Aya of Alexandria, a major character from "Assassin's Creed Origins" and one of the co-founders of the Hidden Ones, a precursor organization to the Assassin Brotherhood.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: The second story expansion, "The Fate of Atlantis", is set after the events of the base game and follows Kassandra's quest to learn how unlock the full power of the Staff of Hermes and her hidden sixth sense. As part of her training under Aletheia, Kassandra is transported to a simulation based on the Isu realm of Elysium, where she discovers Adonis is leading a human rebellion against Persephone's rule. Kassandra helps both sides in order to get closer to her goal of leaving Elysium, which can only be done if Persephone opens the gateway to the Underworld. Following Persephone's defeat, she banishes Kassandra to the Underworld along with her dog Ros, whom she transforms into Cerberos using an artifact. Kassandra is able to slay Cerberos, but this opens numerous rifts between Tartaros and the Underworld, releasing souls confined to Tartaros back into the Underworld. In an attempt to contain the chaos, Hades tasks Kassandra with finding new guardians for each of the gateways to the Underworld, promising to tell her more about the Staff in return. Kassandra accomplishes this task, but Hades refuses to keep his promise, revealing that he plans to have Kassandra become the guardian of the final gateway. Kassandra defeats Hades before Poseidon appears and escorts her to Atlantis, where he appoints her as "Dikastes", his second-in-command, who is responsible with enforcing Poseidon's laws and maintaining order, as well passing judgment on Atlantis.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: While exploring Atlantis, Kassandra learns that the Isu regularly disobey Poseidon's laws and commit crimes against humanity; the most egregious of which is "Project Olympos"—a genetic engineering program led by Juno and her husband Aita—which experiments on abducted human subjects, combining them with Isu artifacts to create hybrid beasts. After defeating Juno and Aita's latest creation, the Hekatonchires, Kassandra returns to Poseidon and declares Atlantis beyond saving. Using artifacts recovered from Cerberos and the Hekatonchires, along with the fully activated Staff, Poseidon and Kassandra destroy Atlantis. Kassandra then wakes up back in the mortal world and is told by Aletheia that the memories experienced were Aletheia's memories during her time as "Dikastes", and that each represented a trial for her to pass. Having successfully passed all three trials, Kassandra is appointed Keeper of the Staff and tasked with using its powers to protect humanity.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: "Those Who Are Treasured" is a free story expansion that serves as an epilogue to the main narrative of "Odyssey", depicting Kassandra's final adventure in Greece. After taking a six month vacation on the island of Korfu, a reluctant Kassandra is recruited by Barnabas and Herodotos for a treasure hunt they organised, which quickly turns into a hunt for an Isu artifact—an Apple of Eden—after Kassandra accidentally stumbles upon some pirates who are also looking for the relic. Kassandra is eventually able to recover the Apple, but it depowers her spear and corrupts Barnabas, forcing Kassandra to fight her friend over the artifact. After saving Barnabas and destroying the Apple, Kassandra is informed by Aletheia that part of her duty as Keeper is to find and destroy similarly dangerous Isu artifacts around the world. Kassandra bids farewell to Herodotos, to whom she gifts her depowered spear as a memento, and departs Greece with Barnabas to begin her new journey, starting from Egypt.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Kassandra returns in "Assassin's Creed Valhalla" as part of the free "Assassin's Creed Crossover Stories" DLC expansion. She is featured in the questline titled "A Fated Encounter", where she comes face-to-face with Eivor Varinsdottir, the main protagonist of "Valhalla", whilst hunting for an Isu artifact that is causing nightmares amongst the locals on the Isle of Skye, during the late 9th century.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Both Alexios and Kassandra appear as playable characters in "Assassin's Creed: Rebellion", a mobile free-to-play strategy RPG action game. A hooded version of Alexios' outfit is an unlockable cosmetic option in the remastered version of "Assassin's Creed III", released in 2019.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Although Kassandra is designated as the canon Eagle Bearer for the novelization and was featured prominently in gameplay demo footage shown at E3 2018, the vast majority of the marketing campaign and available merchandise for "Odyssey" exclusively featured Alexios, including the game's three pre-order statues, cover art, official trailer, header image on Uplay, and so on.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: As part of a promotional collaboration between Ubisoft and Amazon, Antonakos' voice as Alexios is featured as part of "Assassin’s Creed Odyssey Spartan Skill", a free downloadable Alexa-based content available for all Amazon Echo devices. A limited edition "Assassin’s Creed"-themed Amazon Echo device, designed to resemble a Spartan helmet, was also released.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Prior to the release of "Odyssey" on October 5, 2018, Côté observed that there appeared to be a lot of interest into being able to play a female lead character, with about three quarters of players selecting Kassandra as the player character during a gameplay preview session in September 2018, which exceeded his own expectations. Ubisoft Québec Game Director Scott Phillips revealed that two-thirds of "Odyssey" players chose to play Alexios by December 2018, although he noted that the choices were statistically more evenly split during the game's playtesting stage. Both Alexios and Kassandra were jointly nominated for the 2018 Gamers' Choice Awards' Fan Favorite Character of the Year, while their respective actors received nominations in the Fan Favorite Voice Actor awards. For the 30th GLAAD Media Awards in 2019, "Odyssey" was one of five nominees for the inaugural "Outstanding Video Game" category. GLAAD credited the positive depiction of Kassandra and Alexios as sexually fluid characters to be one of the rationales behind the nomination, though the controversy generated by the "Legacy of the First Blade" DLC pack was also acknowledged. Xalavier Nelson Jr from "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" was of the view that both are "distinct, compelling, and valid protagonists" in their own right, and that the subtle variations between both choices colours the events of their game moreso then the differences between a male and female Commander Shepard for the original "Mass Effect" trilogy. On the other hand, both Ali Jones from "PCGamesN" and Fraser Brown from "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" questioned the Alexios-centric marketing campaign for "Odyssey" and the lack of promotion for his female counterpart. Joe Parlock opined that the executive-mandated decision to have an interchangeable lead made it more difficult for the writers to develop either Kassandra or Alexios as their own characters in response to the "Bloomberg" report by Schreier.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Kassandra has received near-universal critical acclaim for her characterization as an atypical female video game protagonist. With Kassandra, Ubisoft earned nominations for Outstanding Achievement in Character at the 22nd Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, and Best Character at the Italian Video Game Awards. Mahut received award nominations from 15th British Academy Games Awards, and The Game Awards 2018, for her performance as Kassandra. Kassandra has also appeared on several "top character" lists with high placements. "Paste Magazine" named her among the best new videogame characters of 2018, and praised her down-to-earth nature, as well as her confidence and self-assuredness which is considered to be rare for video game characters. Andy Kelly from "PC Gamer" proclaimed her to be the second best protagonist character of the "Assassin's Creed" series behind Ezio Auditore da Firenze, whose mischievous charm is said to be present in Mahut's performance; and "Polygon" ranked Kassandra among the best video game characters of the 2010s as well as one of their "69 biggest crushes of the last decade".


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Hoggins said Kassandra was for him the obvious choice as the player character. He described her as "brilliant company" who takes absolutely no nonsense from anyone, as "her tongue is much sharper than the rusty sword she begins the game with". Samuel Axon from "Ars Technica" said Kassandra stole the show for him, and that choosing her for his first playthrough felt like a fresh experience; he liked the notion of a female character with agency roaming ancient Greece "liberally partaking in all the violent and sensual pleasures on offer with Conan-like revelry and impunity", framing an entirely different tone and context not unlike that of "". Writing for "PC Gamer", Fraser Brown formed the view that Kassandra is "immediately likeable" due to her "easy-going, roguish charm", and compared her "longstanding popularity" to that of Geralt of Rivia from "The Witcher" media franchise which end up overshadowing the "Assassin's Creed" series' other protagonists. Harry Shepard, also from "PC Gamer", noted that her "commanding presence oozes cool, and she has a more subtle charm" compared to her male counterpart. Colin Campbell from "Polygon" praised Kassandra as "one of the most complete human characters" he has ever played as in a game, noting that she comes across as "smarter and funnier" then her male counterpart, and that "her facial animations are a joy to watch, while her vocal reactions generally match her movements". Campbell's credited Mahut's performance for giving the role a greater range than Alexios’ actor. Noelle Adams from "Critical Hit" praised Kassandra as a physically strong and tough survivor who combines likeable traits from many other female protagonists in fiction and yet has a malleable personality, in addition to being better animated then her male counterpart. Her portrayal as an example of a liberated Spartan female archetype, as well as a potential bisexual or queer protagonist has also been praised.


title: Alexios and Kassandra

text: Alexios has also received a generally positive reception, though he often draws an unfavorable comparison to his female counterpart. Kelly considered Alexios to be well acted, but felt that Antonakos played him "far too straight", which in his opinion failed to differentiate the character from "a dozen other gruff videogame heroes". Shepard said he chose to play as Alexios as he preferred his character design as well as Antonakos' delivery of the profane word "malaka", and felt he could better relate to Alexios due to their perceived visual similarities, though he accepted that his personality "is a bit flat" when compared to Kassandra's. Campbell said Alexios has a depth of character who is "as good as the gruffly vengeful Bayek", but commented that Antonakos' interpretation of the character comes across to him as a "cut-out Mediterranean macho hero, almost to the point of parody", with the "aura of a comedically self-important cartoon character". Axon said playing as Alexios felt like the same framing he has experienced in video games hundreds of times before, including every mainline "Assassin's Creed" game except "Syndicate". Andy Kim from "US Gamer" reacted negatively to Phillips' sharing of player data which is skewed towards Alexios, and joked that two-thirds of the game's player base made the incorrect choice.


The 2019 Indian general election in Maharashtra held in April 2019. These were held for 48 seats in 4 phases; 11 April (7 seats), 18 April (10 seats), 23 April (14 seats) and 29 April 2019 (17 seats).


title: 2019 Indian general election in Maharashtra

text: The major contenders in the state are the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) and National Democratic Alliance (NDA). UPA consisted of the Indian National Congress and the Nationalist Congress Party whereas the NDA consisted of the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Shiv Sena.


text: In February 2019, BJP and Shiv Sena again announced alliance with 25 seats for BJP and 23 for Shiv Sena.


text: In March 2019, Congress and NCP also announced their alliance with each contesting 26 and 22 seats respectively. Of the 26 seats of INC, 1 seat each would be given to Bahujan Vikas Aaghadi (BVA) and Swabhimani Shetkari Saghtana (SSS). Similarly, NCP would also forgo of two seats; one each to SSS and one to Yuva Swabhiman Party.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Early study of triangles can be traced to the 2nd millennium BC, in Egyptian mathematics (Rhind Mathematical Papyrus) and Babylonian mathematics. Trigonometry was also prevalent in Kushite mathematics.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Systematic study of trigonometric functions began in Hellenistic mathematics, reaching India as part of Hellenistic astronomy. In Indian astronomy, the study of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta period, especially due to Aryabhata (sixth century CE), who discovered the sine function. During the Middle Ages, the study of trigonometry continued in Islamic mathematics, by mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi and Abu al-Wafa. It became an independent discipline in the Islamic world, where all six trigonometric functions were known. Translations of Arabic and Greek texts led to trigonometry being adopted as a subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The development of modern trigonometry shifted during the western Age of Enlightenment, beginning with 17th-century mathematics (Isaac Newton and James Stirling) and reaching its modern form with Leonhard Euler (1748).


title: History of trigonometry

text: The term "trigonometry" was derived from Greek τρίγωνον "trigōnon", "triangle" and μέτρον "metron", "measure".


title: History of trigonometry

text: The modern words "sine" and "cosine" are derived from the Latin word via mistranslation from Arabic (see Sine and cosine#Etymology). Particularly Fibonacci's "sinus rectus arcus" proved influential in establishing the term.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The word "tangent" comes from Latin meaning "touching", since the line "touches" the circle of unit radius, whereas "secant" stems from Latin "cutting" since the line "cuts" the circle.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The prefix "co-" (in "cosine", "cotangent", "cosecant") is found in Edmund Gunter's "Canon triangulorum" (1620), which defines the "cosinus" as an abbreviation for the "sinus complementi" (sine of the complementary angle) and proceeds to define the "cotangens" similarly.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The words "minute" and "second" are derived from the Latin phrases "partes minutae primae" and "partes minutae secundae". These roughly translate to "first small parts" and "second small parts".


title: History of trigonometry

text: The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians had known of theorems on the ratios of the sides of similar triangles for many centuries. However, as pre-Hellenic societies lacked the concept of an angle measure, they were limited to studying the sides of triangles instead.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The Babylonian astronomers kept detailed records on the rising and setting of stars, the motion of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which required familiarity with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere. Based on one interpretation of the Plimpton 322 cuneiform tablet (c. 1900 BC), some have even asserted that the ancient Babylonians had a table of secants but does not work in this context as without using circles and angles in the situation modern trigonometric notations won't apply. There is, however, much debate as to whether it is a table of Pythagorean triples, a solution of quadratic equations, or a trigonometric table.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The Egyptians, on the other hand, used a primitive form of trigonometry for building pyramids in the 2nd millennium BC. The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, written by the Egyptian scribe Ahmes (c. 1680–1620 BC), contains the following problem related to trigonometry:


title: History of trigonometry

text: Ahmes' solution to the problem is the ratio of half the side of the base of the pyramid to its height, or the run-to-rise ratio of its face. In other words, the quantity he found for the "seked" is the cotangent of the angle to the base of the pyramid and its face.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Ancient Greek and Hellenistic mathematicians made use of the chord. Given a circle and an arc on the circle, the chord is the line that subtends the arc. A chord's perpendicular bisector passes through the center of the circle and bisects the angle. One half of the bisected chord is the sine of one half the bisected angle, that is,


title: History of trigonometry

text: and consequently the sine function is also known as the "half-chord". Due to this relationship, a number of trigonometric identities and theorems that are known today were also known to Hellenistic mathematicians, but in their equivalent chord form.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Although there is no trigonometry in the works of Euclid and Archimedes, in the strict sense of the word, there are theorems presented in a geometric way (rather than a trigonometric way) that are equivalent to specific trigonometric laws or formulas. For instance, propositions twelve and thirteen of book two of the "Elements" are the laws of cosines for obtuse and acute angles, respectively. Theorems on the lengths of chords are applications of the law of sines. And Archimedes' theorem on broken chords is equivalent to formulas for sines of sums and differences of angles. To compensate for the lack of a table of chords, mathematicians of Aristarchus' time would sometimes use the statement that, in modern notation, sin "α"/sin "β" < "α"/"β" < tan "α"/tan "β" whenever 0° < β < α < 90°, now known as Aristarchus's inequality.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus of Nicaea (180 – 125 BCE), who is now consequently known as "the father of trigonometry." Hipparchus was the first to tabulate the corresponding values of arc and chord for a series of angles.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Although it is not known when the systematic use of the 360° circle came into mathematics, it is known that the systematic introduction of the 360° circle came a little after Aristarchus of Samos composed "On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon" (ca. 260 BC), since he measured an angle in terms of a fraction of a quadrant. It seems that the systematic use of the 360° circle is largely due to Hipparchus and his table of chords. Hipparchus may have taken the idea of this division from Hypsicles who had earlier divided the day into 360 parts, a division of the day that may have been suggested by Babylonian astronomy. In ancient astronomy, the zodiac had been divided into twelve "signs" or thirty-six "decans". A seasonal cycle of roughly 360 days could have corresponded to the signs and decans of the zodiac by dividing each sign into thirty parts and each decan into ten parts. It is due to the Babylonian sexagesimal numeral system that each degree is divided into sixty minutes and each minute is divided into sixty seconds.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Menelaus of Alexandria (ca. 100 AD) wrote in three books his "Sphaerica". In Book I, he established a basis for spherical triangles analogous to the Euclidean basis for plane triangles. He established a theorem that is without Euclidean analogue, that two spherical triangles are congruent if corresponding angles are equal, but he did not distinguish between congruent and symmetric spherical triangles. Another theorem that he establishes is that the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is greater than 180°. Book II of "Sphaerica" applies spherical geometry to astronomy. And Book III contains the "theorem of Menelaus". He further gave his famous "rule of six quantities".


title: History of trigonometry

text: Later, Claudius Ptolemy (ca. 90 – ca. 168 AD) expanded upon Hipparchus' "Chords in a Circle" in his "Almagest", or the "Mathematical Syntaxis". The Almagest is primarily a work on astronomy, and astronomy relies on trigonometry. Ptolemy's table of chords gives the lengths of chords of a circle of diameter 120 as a function of the number of degrees "n" in the corresponding arc of the circle, for "n" ranging from 1/2 to 180 by increments of 1/2. The thirteen books of the "Almagest" are the most influential and significant trigonometric work of all antiquity. A theorem that was central to Ptolemy's calculation of chords was what is still known today as Ptolemy's theorem, that the sum of the products of the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the product of the diagonals. A special case of Ptolemy's theorem appeared as proposition 93 in Euclid's "Data". Ptolemy's theorem leads to the equivalent of the four sum-and-difference formulas for sine and cosine that are today known as Ptolemy's formulas, although Ptolemy himself used chords instead of sine and cosine. Ptolemy further derived the equivalent of the half-angle formula


title: History of trigonometry

text: Ptolemy used these results to create his trigonometric tables, but whether these tables were derived from Hipparchus' work cannot be determined.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Neither the tables of Hipparchus nor those of Ptolemy have survived to the present day, although descriptions by other ancient authors leave little doubt that they once existed.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Pythagoras discovered many of the properties of what would become trigonometric functions. The Pythagorean Theorem, p + b = h is a representation of the fundamental trigonometric identity sin(x) + cos(x) = 1. The length 1 is the hypotenuse of any right triangle, and has legs length sin(x) and cos(x) with x being one of the two non-right angles. With this in mind, the identity upon which trigonometry is based turns out to be the Pythagorean Theorem.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Some of the early and very significant developments of trigonometry were in India. Influential works from the 4th–5th century AD, known as the Siddhantas (of which there were five, the most important of which is the Surya Siddhanta) first defined the sine as the modern relationship between half an angle and half a chord, while also defining the cosine, versine, and inverse sine. Soon afterwards, another Indian mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata (476–550 AD), collected and expanded upon the developments of the Siddhantas in an important work called the "Aryabhatiya". The "Siddhantas" and the "Aryabhatiya" contain the earliest surviving tables of sine values and versine (1 − cosine) values, in 3.75° intervals from 0° to 90°, to an accuracy of 4 decimal places. They used the words "jya" for sine, "kojya" for cosine, "utkrama-jya" for versine, and "otkram jya" for inverse sine. The words "jya" and "kojya" eventually became "sine" and "cosine" respectively after a mistranslation described above.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In the 7th century, Bhaskara I produced a formula for calculating the sine of an acute angle without the use of a table. He also gave the following approximation formula for sin("x"), which had a relative error of less than 1.9%:


title: History of trigonometry

text: (also derived earlier, as mentioned above) and the Brahmagupta interpolation formula for computing sine values.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Another later Indian author on trigonometry was Bhaskara II in the 12th century. Bhaskara II developed spherical trigonometry, and discovered many trigonometric results.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Madhava (c. 1400) made early strides in the analysis of trigonometric functions and their infinite series expansions. He developed the concepts of the power series and Taylor series, and produced the power series expansions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. Using the Taylor series approximations of sine and cosine, he produced a sine table to 12 decimal places of accuracy and a cosine table to 9 decimal places of accuracy. He also gave the power series of π and the angle, radius, diameter, and circumference of a circle in terms of trigonometric functions. His works were expanded by his followers at the Kerala School up to the 16th century.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The Indian text the Yuktibhāṣā contains proof for the expansion of the sine and cosine functions and the derivation and proof of the power series for inverse tangent, discovered by Madhava. The Yuktibhāṣā also contains rules for finding the sines and the cosines of the sum and difference of two angles.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In China, Aryabhata's table of sines were translated into the Chinese mathematical book of the "Kaiyuan Zhanjing", compiled in 718 AD during the Tang Dynasty. Although the Chinese excelled in other fields of mathematics such as solid geometry, binomial theorem, and complex algebraic formulas, early forms of trigonometry were not as widely appreciated as in the earlier Greek, Hellenistic, Indian and Islamic worlds. Instead, the early Chinese used an empirical substitute known as "chong cha", while practical use of plane trigonometry in using the sine, the tangent, and the secant were known. However, this embryonic state of trigonometry in China slowly began to change and advance during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), where Chinese mathematicians began to express greater emphasis for the need of spherical trigonometry in calendrical science and astronomical calculations. The polymath Chinese scientist, mathematician and official Shen Kuo (1031–1095) used trigonometric functions to solve mathematical problems of chords and arcs. Victor J. Katz writes that in Shen's formula "technique of intersecting circles", he created an approximation of the arc "s" of a circle given the diameter "d", sagitta "v", and length "c" of the chord subtending the arc, the length of which he approximated as


title: History of trigonometry

text: Sal Restivo writes that Shen's work in the lengths of arcs of circles provided the basis for spherical trigonometry developed in the 13th century by the mathematician and astronomer Guo Shoujing (1231–1316). As the historians L. Gauchet and Joseph Needham state, Guo Shoujing used spherical trigonometry in his calculations to improve the calendar system and Chinese astronomy. Along with a later 17th-century Chinese illustration of Guo's mathematical proofs, Needham states that:


title: History of trigonometry

text: Guo used a quadrangular spherical pyramid, the basal quadrilateral of which consisted of one equatorial and one ecliptic arc, together with two meridian arcs, one of which passed through the summer solstice point...By such methods he was able to obtain the du lü (degrees of equator corresponding to degrees of ecliptic), the ji cha (values of chords for given ecliptic arcs), and the cha lü (difference between chords of arcs differing by 1 degree).


title: History of trigonometry

text: Despite the achievements of Shen and Guo's work in trigonometry, another substantial work in Chinese trigonometry would not be published again until 1607, with the dual publication of "Euclid's Elements" by Chinese official and astronomer Xu Guangqi (1562–1633) and the Italian Jesuit Matteo Ricci (1552–1610).


title: History of trigonometry

text: Previous works were later translated and expanded in the medieval Islamic world by Muslim mathematicians of mostly Persian and Arab descent, who enunciated a large number of theorems which freed the subject of trigonometry from dependence upon the complete quadrilateral, as was the case in Hellenistic mathematics due to the application of Menelaus' theorem. According to E. S. Kennedy, it was after this development in Islamic mathematics that "the first real trigonometry emerged, in the sense that only then did the object of study become the spherical or plane triangle, its sides and angles."


title: History of trigonometry

text: Methods dealing with spherical triangles were also known, particularly the method of Menelaus of Alexandria, who developed "Menelaus' theorem" to deal with spherical problems. However, E. S. Kennedy points out that while it was possible in pre-Islamic mathematics to compute the magnitudes of a spherical figure, in principle, by use of the table of chords and Menelaus' theorem, the application of the theorem to spherical problems was very difficult in practice. In order to observe holy days on the Islamic calendar in which timings were determined by phases of the moon, astronomers initially used Menelaus' method to calculate the place of the moon and stars, though this method proved to be clumsy and difficult. It involved setting up two intersecting right triangles; by applying Menelaus' theorem it was possible to solve one of the six sides, but only if the other five sides were known. To tell the time from the sun's altitude, for instance, repeated applications of Menelaus' theorem were required. For medieval Islamic astronomers, there was an obvious challenge to find a simpler trigonometric method.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In the early 9th century AD, Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī produced accurate sine and cosine tables, and the first table of tangents. He was also a pioneer in spherical trigonometry. In 830 AD, Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi produced the first table of cotangents. Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius) (853-929 AD) discovered the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and produced the first table of cosecants for each degree from 1° to 90°.


title: History of trigonometry

text: By the 10th century AD, in the work of Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī, all six trigonometric functions were used. Abu al-Wafa had sine tables in 0.25° increments, to 8 decimal places of accuracy, and accurate tables of tangent values. He also developed the following trigonometric formula:


title: History of trigonometry

text: In his original text, Abū al-Wafā' states: "If we want that, we multiply the given sine by the cosine minutes, and the result is half the sine of the double". Abū al-Wafā also established the angle addition and difference identities presented with complete proofs:


title: History of trigonometry

text: For the second one, the text states: "We multiply the sine of each of the two arcs by the cosine of the other "minutes". If we want the sine of the sum, we add the products, if we want the sine of the difference, we take their difference".


title: History of trigonometry

text: Also in the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD, the Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunus performed many careful trigonometric calculations and demonstrated the following trigonometric identity:


title: History of trigonometry

text: Al-Jayyani (989–1079) of al-Andalus wrote "The book of unknown arcs of a sphere", which is considered "the first treatise on spherical trigonometry". It "contains formulae for right-handed triangles, the general law of sines, and the solution of a spherical triangle by means of the polar triangle." This treatise later had a "strong influence on European mathematics", and his "definition of ratios as numbers" and "method of solving a spherical triangle when all sides are unknown" are likely to have influenced Regiomontanus.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The method of triangulation was first developed by Muslim mathematicians, who applied it to practical uses such as surveying and Islamic geography, as described by Abu Rayhan Biruni in the early 11th century. Biruni himself introduced triangulation techniques to measure the size of the Earth and the distances between various places. In the late 11th century, Omar Khayyám (1048–1131) solved cubic equations using approximate numerical solutions found by interpolation in trigonometric tables. In the 13th century, Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī was the first to treat trigonometry as a mathematical discipline independent from astronomy, and he developed spherical trigonometry into its present form. He listed the six distinct cases of a right-angled triangle in spherical trigonometry, and in his "On the Sector Figure", he stated the law of sines for plane and spherical triangles, discovered the law of tangents for spherical triangles, and provided proofs for both these laws. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi has been described as the creator of trigonometry as a mathematical discipline in its own right.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In the 15th century, Jamshīd al-Kāshī provided the first explicit statement of the law of cosines in a form suitable for triangulation. In France, the law of cosines is still referred to as the "". He also gave trigonometric tables of values of the sine function to four sexagesimal digits (equivalent to 8 decimal places) for each 1° of argument with differences to be added for each 1/60 of 1°. Ulugh Beg also gives accurate tables of sines and tangents correct to 8 decimal places around the same time.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In 1342, Levi ben Gershon, known as Gersonides, wrote "On Sines, Chords and Arcs", in particular proving the sine law for plane triangles and giving five-figure sine tables.


title: History of trigonometry

text: A simplified trigonometric table, the ""toleta de marteloio"", was used by sailors in the Mediterranean Sea during the 14th-15th Centuries to calculate navigation courses. It is described by Ramon Llull of Majorca in 1295, and laid out in the 1436 atlas of Venetian captain Andrea Bianco.


title: History of trigonometry

text: Regiomontanus was perhaps the first mathematician in Europe to treat trigonometry as a distinct mathematical discipline, in his "De triangulis omnimodis" written in 1464, as well as his later "Tabulae directionum" which included the tangent function, unnamed.


title: History of trigonometry

text: The "Opus palatinum de triangulis" of Georg Joachim Rheticus, a student of Copernicus, was probably the first in Europe to define trigonometric functions directly in terms of right triangles instead of circles, with tables for all six trigonometric functions; this work was finished by Rheticus' student Valentin Otho in 1596.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In the 17th century, Isaac Newton and James Stirling developed the general Newton–Stirling interpolation formula for trigonometric functions.


title: History of trigonometry

text: In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler's "Introduction in analysin infinitorum" (1748) was mostly responsible for establishing the analytic treatment of trigonometric functions in Europe, deriving their infinite series and presenting "Euler's formula" "e" = cos "x" + "i" sin "x". Euler used the near-modern abbreviations "sin.", "cos.", "tang.", "cot.", "sec.", and "cosec." Prior to this, Roger Cotes had computed the derivative of sine in his "Harmonia Mensurarum" (1722).


title: History of trigonometry

text: Also in the 18th century, Brook Taylor defined the general Taylor series and gave the series expansions and approximations for all six trigonometric functions. The works of James Gregory in the 17th century and Colin Maclaurin in the 18th century were also very influential in the development of trigonometric series.


title: Nathaniel Arcand

text: Nathaniel Arcand (born November 13, 1971) is a Canadian actor. He is known for his first major role in the Canadian drama series "North of 60", in which for three seasons he played William MacNeil, smart-mouthed and cocky, a troubled, misunderstood teen. In 1997, he was nominated for a Gemini Award in the category "Best Performance by an Actor in a Featured Supporting Role in a Dramatic Series" for the "North of 60" episode "Traces and Tracks."


title: Nathaniel Arcand

text: He was raised in Edmonton, Alberta. He is Nēhilawē (Plains Cree), from the Alexander First Nation Reserve. Essential supports throughout his life are Nathaniel's mother and his great grandparents. Nathaniel has one daughter, Trisha O'Chiese, and two sons, Jaden Plaizier and Griffin Powell-Arcand. Griffin is also an actor.


title: Nathaniel Arcand

text: Arcand's most recent role is Clinton Skye in "", an American TV Series on CBS. One of Arcand's longest running roles is that of Scott Cardinal on the CBC series "Heartland". Also in television, Nathaniel portrays Victor Merasty on "Blackstone", "an unmuted exploration of First Nations’ power and politics" set in a small Plains Cree community. In one of his latest film roles, Arcand portrays Nathan in the comedic drama "Two Indians Talking", which won the 2010 Vancouver International Film Festival Most Popular Canadian Film Award.


title: Nathaniel Arcand

text: Nathaniel Arcand is a lead character in both the film "Two Indians Talking" by director Sara McIntyre and in the television series "Blackstone". In both the film and the television series, he shares the screen with two of the same actors: Carmen Moore and Justin Rain.


title: Cross-platform software

text: In computing, cross-platform software (also called multi-platform software, platform-agnostic software, or platform-independent software) is computer software that is designed to work in several computing platforms. Some cross-platform software requires a separate build for each platform, but some can be directly run on any platform without special preparation, being written in an interpreted language or compiled to portable bytecode for which the interpreters or run-time packages are common or standard components of all supported platforms.


title: Cross-platform software

text: For example, a cross-platform application may run on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. Cross-platform software may run on many platforms, or as few as two. Some frameworks for cross-platform development are Codename One, Kivy, Qt, Flutter, NativeScript, Xamarin, Phonegap, Ionic, and React Native.


title: Cross-platform software

text: "Platform" can refer to the type of processor (CPU) or other hardware on which an operating system (OS) or application runs, the type of OS, or a combination of the two. An example of a common platform is the Microsoft Windows OS running on the x86 architecture. Other well-known desktop platforms are Linux/Unix and macOS - both of which are themselves cross-platform. There are, however, many devices such as smartphones that are also platforms. Applications can be written to depend on the features of a particular platform—either the hardware, OS, or virtual machine (VM) it runs on. For example, the Java platform is a common VM platform which runs on many OSs and hardware types.


title: Cross-platform software

text: A hardware platform can refer to an instruction set architecture. For example: x86 architecture and its variants such as IA-32 and x86-64. These machines often run one version of Microsoft Windows, though they can run other OSs including Linux, OpenBSD, NetBSD, macOS and FreeBSD.


title: Cross-platform software

text: The 32-bit ARM architectures (and newer 64-bit version) is common on smartphones and tablet computers, which run Android, iOS and other mobile operating systems.


title: Cross-platform software

text: A software platform can be either an OS or programming environment, though more commonly it is a combination of both. An exception is Java, which uses an OS-independent VM to execute Java bytecode. Examples of software platforms are:


title: Cross-platform software

text: The Java language is typically compiled to run on a VM that is part of the Java platform. The Java VM (JVM) is a CPU implemented in software, which runs all Java code. This enables the same code to run on all systems that implement a JVM. Java software can be executed by a hardware-based Java processor. This is used mostly in embedded systems.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Java code running in the JVM has access to OS-related services, like disk I/O and network access, if the appropriate privileges are granted. The JVM makes the system calls on behalf of the Java application. This lets users to decide the appropriate protection level, depending on an ACL. For example, disk and network access is usually enabled for desktop applications, but not for browser-based applets. The Java Native Interface (JNI) can also be used to access OS-specific functions, with a loss of portability.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Currently, Java Standard Edition software can run on Microsoft Windows, macOS, several Unix-like OSs, and several real-time operating systems for embedded devices. For mobile applications, browser plugins are used for Windows and Mac based devices, and Android has built-in support for Java. There are also subsets of Java, such as Java Card or Java Platform, Micro Edition, designed for resource-constrained devices.


title: Cross-platform software

text: For software to be considered cross-platform, it must function on more than one computer architecture or OS. Developing such software can be a time-consuming task because different OSs have different application programming interfaces (API). For example, Linux uses a different API from Windows.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Software written for one OS may not automatically work on all architectures that OS supports. One example is OpenOffice.org, which in 2006 did not natively run on AMD64 or Intel 64 processors implementing the x86-64 standards; by 2012 it was "mostly" ported to these systems. Just because software is written in a popular programming language such as C or C++, it does not mean it will run on all OSs that support that language—or even on different versions of the same OS.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Web applications are typically described as cross-platform because, ideally, they are accessible from any web browser: the browser is the platform. Web applications generally employ a client–server model, but vary widely in complexity and functionality. It can be hard to reconcile the desire for features with the need for compatibility.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Basic web applications perform all or most processing from a stateless server, and pass the result to the client web browser. All user interaction with the application consists of simple exchanges of data requests and server responses. This type of application was the norm in the early phases of World Wide Web application development. Such applications follow a simple transaction model, identical to that of serving static web pages. Today, they are still relatively common, especially where cross-platform compatibility and simplicity are deemed more critical than advanced functionality.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Prominent examples of advanced web applications include the Web interface to Gmail, A9.com, Google Maps website, and the Live Search service (now Bing) from Microsoft. Such applications routinely depend on additional features found only in the more recent versions of popular web browsers. These features include Ajax, JavaScript, Dynamic HTML, SVG, and other components of rich web applications. Older versions often lack these.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Because of the competing interests of compatibility and functionality, numerous design strategies have emerged.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Many software systems use a layered architecture where platform-dependent code is restricted to the upper- and lowermost layers.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Graceful degradation attempts to provide the same or similar functionality to all users and platforms, while diminishing that functionality to a least common denominator for more limited client browsers. For example, a user attempting to use a limited-feature browser to access Gmail may notice that Gmail switches to basic mode, with reduced functionality but still of use.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Some software is maintained in distinct codebases for different (hardware and OS) platforms, with equivalent functionality. This requires more effort to maintain the code, but can be worthwhile where the amount of platform-specific code is high.


title: Cross-platform software

text: This strategy relies on having one codebase that may be compiled to multiple platform-specific formats. One technique is conditional compilation. With this technique, code that is common to all platforms is not repeated. Blocks of code that are only relevant to certain platforms are made conditional, so that they are only interpreted or compiled when needed. Another technique is separation of functionality, which disables functionality not supported by browsers or OSs, while still delivering a complete application to the user. (See also: Separation of concerns.) This technique is used in web development where interpreted code (as in scripting languages) can query the platform it is running on to execute different blocks conditionally.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Third-party libraries attempt to simplify cross-platform capability by hiding the complexities of client differentiation behind a single, unified API, at the expense of vendor lock-in.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Responsive web design (RWD) is a Web design approach aimed at crafting the visual layout of sites to provide an optimal viewing experience—easy reading and navigation with a minimum of resizing, panning, and scrolling—across a wide range of devices, from mobile phones to desktop computer monitors. Little or no platform-specific code is used with this technique.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Cross-platform applications need much more integration testing. Some web browsers prohibit installation of different versions on the same machine. There are several approaches used to target multiple platforms, but all of them result in software that requires substantial manual effort for testing and maintenance. Techniques such as full virtualization are sometimes used as a workaround for this problem.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Tools such as the Page Object Model allow cross-platform tests to be scripted so that one test case covers multiple versions of an app. If different versions have similar user interfaces, all can be tested with one test case.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Web applications are becoming increasingly popular but many computer users still use traditional application software which does not rely on a client/web-server architecture. The distinction between traditional and web applications is not always clear. Features, installation methods and architectures for web and traditional applications overlap and blur the distinction. Nevertheless, this simplifying distinction is a common and useful generalization.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Traditional application software has been distributed as binary files, especially executable files. Executables only support platform they were built for—which means that a single cross-platform executable could be very bloated with code that never executes on a particular platform. Instead, generally there is a selection of executables, each built for one platform.


title: Cross-platform software

text: For software that is distributed as a binary executable, such as that written in C or C++, there must be a software build for each platform, using a toolset that translates—transcompiles—a single codebase into multiple binary executables. For example, Firefox, an open-source web browser, is available on Windows, macOS (both PowerPC and x86 through what Apple Inc. calls a Universal binary), Linux, and BSD on multiple computer architectures. The four platforms (in this case, Windows, macOS, Linux, and BSD) are separate executable distributions, although they come largely from the same source code. In rare cases, executable code built for several platforms is combined into a single executable file called a fat binary.


title: Cross-platform software

text: The use of different toolsets may not be enough to build a working executables for different platforms. In this case, programmers must "port" the source code to the new platform. For example, an application such as Firefox, which already runs on Windows on the x86 family, can be modified and re-built to run on Linux on the x86 (and potentially other architectures) as well. The multiple versions of the code may be stored as separate codebases, or merged into one codebase.


title: Cross-platform software

text: An alternative to porting is "cross-platform virtualization", where applications compiled for one platform can run on another without modification of the source code or binaries. As an example, Apple's Rosetta, which is built into Intel-based Macintosh computers, runs applications compiled for the previous generation of Macs that used PowerPC CPUs. Another example is IBM PowerVM Lx86, which allows Linux/x86 applications to run unmodified on the Linux/Power OS.


title: Cross-platform software

text: A script can be considered to be cross-platform if its interpreter is available on multiple platforms and the script only uses the facilities built into the language. For example, a script written in Python for a Unix-like system will likely run with little or no modification on Windows, because Python also runs on Windows; indeed there are many implementations (e.g. IronPython for .NET Framework). The same goes for many of the open-source scripting languages.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Unlike binary executable files, the same script can be used on all computers that have software to interpret the script. This is because the script is generally stored in plain text in a text file. There may be some trivial issues, such as the representation of a new line character.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Cross-platform or multi-platform is a term that can also apply to video games released on a range of video game consoles. Examples of cross-platform games include: "Miner 2049er", "", "FIFA series", "NHL series" and "Minecraft".


title: Cross-platform software

text: Each has been released across a variety of gaming platforms, such as the Wii, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, personal computers, and mobile devices.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Some platforms are harder to write for than others. To offset this, a video game may be released on a few platforms first, then later on others. Typically, this happens when a new gaming system is released, because video game developers need to acquaint themselves with its hardware and software.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Some games may not be cross-platform because of licensing agreements between developers and video game console manufacturers that limit development to one particular console. As an example, Disney could create a game with the intention of release on the latest Nintendo and Sony game consoles. Should Disney license the game with Sony first, it may be required to release the game solely on Sony's console for a short time or indefinitely.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Several developers have implemented ways to play games online while using different platforms. Psyonix, Epic Games, Microsoft, and Valve all possess technology that allows Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 gamers to play with PC gamers, leaving the decision of which platform to use to consumers. The first game to allow this level of interactivity between PC and console games was "Quake 3".


title: Cross-platform software

text: Games that feature cross-platform online play include "Rocket League", "", "Street Fighter V", "Killer Instinct", "Paragon" and "Fable Fortune," and "Minecraft" with its Better Together update on Windows 10, VR editions, Pocket Edition and Xbox One.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Cross-platform programming is the practice of deliberately writing software to work on more than one platform.


title: Cross-platform software

text: There are different ways to write a cross-platform application. One approach is to create multiple versions of the same software in different "source trees"—in other words, the Microsoft Windows version of an application might have one set of source code files and the Macintosh version another, while a FOSS *nix system might have a third. While this is straightforward, compared to developing for only one platform it can cost much more to pay a larger team or release products more slowly. It can also result in more bugs to be tracked and fixed.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Another approach is to use software that hides the differences between the platforms. This abstraction layer insulates the application from the platform. Such applications are "platform agnostic". Applications that run on the JVM are built this way.


title: Cross-platform software

text: Some applications mix various methods of cross-platform programming to create the final application. An example is the Firefox web browser, which uses abstraction to build some of the lower-level components, with separate source subtrees for implementing platform-specific features (like the GUI), and the implementation of more than one scripting language to ease software portability. Firefox implements XUL, CSS and JavaScript for extending the browser, in addition to classic Netscape-style browser plugins. Much of the browser itself is written in XUL, CSS, and JavaScript.


title: Personal finance

text: Personal finance is the financial management which an individual or a family unit performs to budget, save, and spend monetary resources over time, taking into account various financial risks and future life events.


title: Personal finance

text: When planning personal finances, the individual would consider the suitability to his or her needs of a range of banking products (checking, savings accounts, credit cards and consumer loans) or investment in private equity, (companies' shares, bonds, mutual funds) and insurance (life insurance, health insurance, disability insurance) products or participation and monitoring of and- or employer-sponsored retirement plans, social security benefits, and income tax management.


title: Personal finance

text: Before a specialty in personal finance was developed, various disciplines which are closely related to it, such as family economics, and consumer economics were taught in various colleges as part of home economics for over 100 years.


title: Personal finance

text: The earliest known research in personal finance was done in 1920 by Hazel Kyrk. Her dissertation at University of Chicago laid the foundation of consumer economics and family economics. Margaret Reid, a professor of Home Economics at the same university, is recognized as one of the pioneers in the study of consumer behavior and Household behavior.


title: Personal finance

text: In 1947, Herbert A. Simon, a Nobel laureate, suggested that a decision-maker did not always make the best financial decision because of limited educational resources and personal inclinations. In 2009, Dan Ariely suggested the 2008 financial crisis showed that human beings do not always make rational financial decisions, and the market is not necessarily self-regulating and corrective of any imbalances in the economy.


title: Personal finance

text: Therefore, personal finance education is needed to help an individual or a family make rational financial decisions throughout their life. Before 1990, mainstream economists and business faculty paid little attention to personal finance. However, several American universities such as Brigham Young University, Iowa State University, and San Francisco State University have started to offer financial educational programs in both undergraduate and graduate programs in the last 30 years. These institutions have published several works in journals such as "The Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning" and the "Journal of Personal Finance". Research into personal finance is based on several theories such as social exchange theory and andragogy (adult learning theory). Professional bodies such as American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences and the American Council on Consumer Interests started to play an important role in the development of this field from the 1950s to 1970s. The establishment of the Association for Financial Counseling and Planning Education (AFCPE) in 1984 at Iowa State University and the Academy of Financial Services (AFS) in 1985 marked an important milestone in personal finance history. Attendances of the two societies mainly come from faculty and graduates from business and home economics colleges. AFCPE has since offered several certifications for professionals in this field such as Accredited Financial Counselor (AFC) and Certified Housing Counselors (CHC). Meanwhile, AFS cooperates with Certified Financial Planner (CFP Board).


title: Personal finance

text: As the concerns about consumers' financial capability have increased in recent years, a variety of education programs have emerged, catering to a broad audience or to a specific group of people such as youth and women. The educational programs are frequently known as "financial literacy". However, there was no standardized curriculum for personal finance education until after the 2008 financial crisis. The United States President's Advisory Council on Financial Capability was set up in 2008 in order to encourage financial literacy among the American people. It also stressed the importance of developing a standard in the field of financial education.


title: Personal finance

text: Personal circumstances differ considerably, with respect to patterns of income, wealth, and consumption needs. Tax and finance laws also differ from country to country, and market conditions vary geographically and over time. This means that advice appropriate for one person might not be appropriate for another. A financial advisor can offer personalized advice in complicated situations and for high-wealth individuals, but University of Chicago professor Harold Pollack and personal finance writer Helaine Olen argue that in the United States good personal finance advice boils down to a few simple points:


title: Personal finance

text: The limits stated by laws may be different in each country; in any case personal finance should not disregard correct behavioral principles: people should not develop attachment to the idea of money, morally reprehensible, and, when investing, should maintain the medium-long-term horizon avoiding hazards in the expected return of investment.


title: Personal finance

text: The key component of personal finance is financial planning, which is a dynamic process that requires regular monitoring and re-evaluation. In general, it involves five steps:


title: Personal finance

text: Typical goals that most adults and young adults have are paying off credit card/student loan/housing/car loan debt, investing for retirement, investing for college costs for children, paying medical expenses.


title: Personal finance

text: There is a great need for people to understand and take control of their personal finances. These are some of the overarching reasons for it;


title: Personal finance

text: 1. No formal education for personal finance: Most countries have a formal education across most disciplines or areas of study.


title: Personal finance

text: This illustrates the need to learn personal finance from an early stage, in order to differentiate between needs vs. wants and plan accordingly.


title: Personal finance

text: 2. Shortened employable age: Over the years, with the advent of automation and changing needs; it has been witnessed across the globe that several jobs that require manual intervention, or that are mechanical in nature are increasingly becoming redundant.


title: Personal finance

text: These are some of the reasons why individuals should start planning for their retirement and systematically build on their retirement corpus, hence the need for personal finance.


title: Personal finance

text: 3. Increased life expectancy: With the developments in healthcare, people today are living till a much older age than their forefathers. The average life expectancy have changed over the years and people even in developing economies are living much longer. The average life expectancy has gradually shifted from 60 to 81 and upwards. Increased life expectancy coupled with a shorter employable age reinforces the need of having a large enough retirement corpus and the importance of personal finance.


title: Personal finance

text: 4. Rising medical expenses: Medical expenses including cost of drugs, hospital admission care and charges, nursing care, specialized care, geriatric care have all seen an exponential rise over the years. Many of these medical expenses are not covered through the insurance policies that might either be private/individual insurance coverage or through federal or national insurance coverage.


title: Personal finance

text: These reasons illustrate the need of having medical, accidental, critical illness, life coverage insurance for oneself and ones family as well as the need for emergency corpus; translating the immense need for personal finance.


title: Personal finance

text: Key areas of personal financial planning, as suggested by the Financial Planning Standards Board, are:


title: Personal finance

text: According to a survey done by Harris Interactive, 99% of the adults agreed that personal finance should be taught in schools. Financial authorities and the American federal government had offered free educational materials online to the public. However, according to a Bank of America poll, 42% of adults were discouraged while 28% of adults thought that personal finance is a difficult subject because of vast amount of information available online. As of 2015, 17 out of 50 states in the United States requires high school students to study personal finance before graduation. The effectiveness of financial education on general audience is controversial. For example, a study done by Bell, Gorin and Hogarth (2009) stated that those who undergo financial education were more likely to use a formal spending plan. Financially educated high school students are more likely to have a savings account with regular savings, fewer overdrafts and more likely to pay off their credit card balances. However, another study was done by Cole and Shastry (Harvard Business School, 2009) found that there were no differences in saving behaviours of people in American states with financial literacy mandate enforced and the states without a literacy mandate.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: Everything's Gonna Be Okay is an American comedy television series created by Australian comedian Josh Thomas. Thomas previously created, wrote, directed and starred in the semi-autobiographical award-winning series "Please Like Me". "Everything's Gonna Be Okay" premiered on Freeform on January 16, 2020. In May 2020, the series was renewed for a second season which premiered on April 8, 2021. In August 2021, the series was canceled after two seasons.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: Nicholas, an Australian in his twenties, visits his American father and two teenage half-sisters in Los Angeles. During his visit, he learns that their father is terminally ill and wants Nicholas to become the guardian to Genevieve and Matilda, because their mother is already dead.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: On May 10, 2018, it was announced that Freeform had given a pilot order to "Everything’s Gonna Be Okay", written by Australian comedian Josh Thomas. On December 12, 2018, it was announced that the pilot was picked up to series by Freeform with a 10-episode series order. It was also announced that Thomas would be serving as showrunner with David Martin, Jon Thoday, and Richard Allen-Turner executive producing on behalf of Avalon Television. Stephanie Swedlove and Kevin Whyte would serve as executive producers. On May 19, 2020, Freeform renewed the series for a second season which premiered on April 8, 2021, and ran for 10 episodes until June 3, 2021. On August 17, 2021, Freeform canceled the series after two seasons.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: After Thomas' announcement to be starring in the series as Nicholas, autistic actress Kayla Cromer was revealed to be portraying Matilda in November 2019. Cromer herself is autistic, which she felt helped her land the part despite self-submitting without an agent. That same month, Maeve Press was cast as Genevieve, Nicholas' 15-year-old half-sister. In January 2020, days before the series premiered, Adam Faison was cast as Alex, Nicholas' boyfriend.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: New episodes are available the day after they air on Hulu and Freeform On Demand. The series will be distributed internationally by Avalon Distribution. In Australia it is set to be released on streaming service Stan, the same day as the U.S.


title: Everything's Gonna Be Okay

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the series has an approval rating of 94% based on 17 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Sweetly poignant and warmly witty "Everything's Gonna Be Okay" is as big-hearted and nuanced as the well-written characters at its center." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Steve Greene of IndieWire, reviewing season one, praised the show's narrative empathy and "grace notes" between the show's more typical chapters. Luke Buckmaster of "The Guardian" was more guarded, stating the show "misses its marks" and only hits its stride after the season's first episode. Upon the premiere of episodes "Gray Bird Grasshopper" and "Jungle Centipede", critic Alex Reif of laughingplace.com provided positive feedback, noting "...the strength of the series is that it tackles serious issues in a [..] comical way", and that the show is "a breath of fresh air".


title: Electronic business

text: Electronic business (or "Online Business" or "e-business") is any kind of business or commercial transaction that includes sharing information across the internet. Commerce constitutes the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups, and individuals and can be seen as one of the essential activities of any business.


title: Electronic business

text: Electronic commerce focuses on the use of information and communication technology to enable the external activities and relationships of the business with individuals, groups, and other businesses, while e-business refers to business with help of the internet. Electronic business differs from electronic commerce as it does not only deal with online transactions of selling and buying of a product and/or service but also enables to conduct of business processes (inbound/outbound logistics, manufacturing & operations, marketing and sales, customer service) within the value chain through internal or external networks. The term "e-business" was coined by IBM's marketing and Internet team in 1996.


title: Electronic business

text: Electronic business can take place between a very large number of market participants; it can be between business and consumer, private individuals, public administrations, or any other organizations such as NGOs.


title: Electronic business

text: All of them can be either buyers or service providers within the market. There are nine possible combinations for electronic business relationships. B2C and B2B belong to E-commerce, while A2B and A2A belong to the E-government sector that is also a part of the electronic business.


title: Electronic business

text: With the development of the e-commerce industry, business activities are becoming more and more complex to coordinate, so efficiency in the business is crucial for the success of e-commerce. Hence, well-developed supply chain management is the key component of e-commerce, because the e-commerce industry is not focusing only on building appropriate web site but it also focuses on suitable infrastructure, well-developed supply chain strategy, etc. By definition, supply chain management refers to the management of the flow of goods and services, and all activities connected with transforming the raw materials into final products. The goal of the business is to maximize customer value and gain a competitive advantage over others. The supply chain management in the e-commerce industry mainly focuses on manufacturing, supplying the raw materials, managing the supply and demand, distribution, etc. Effective supply chain management in e-commerce often gives an advantage for the companies to positively leverage new opportunities for maximizing their profit by satisfying and meeting the customer's expectations. With the well-developed supply chain management, the company has a chance for better success by forming the right partnership and supply network, automating the business, etc.


title: Electronic business

text: The enabling role of e-business technologies in supply chain organizations on the development of intra and inter organizational collaboration, and its impact on performance is discussed in depth in an article by Nada Sanders.


title: Electronic business

text: To sum up, effective supply chain management in the e-commerce industry is needed for three main reasons:


title: Electronic business

text: One of the founding pillars of electronic business was the development of the Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) electronic data interchange. This system replaced traditional mailing and faxing of documents with a digital transfer of data from one computer to another, without any human intervention.


title: Electronic business

text: Michael Aldrich is considered the developer of the predecessor to online shopping. In 1979, the entrepreneur connected a television set to a transaction processing computer with a telephone line and called it "teleshopping", meaning shopping at distance.


title: Electronic business

text: From the mid-nineties, major advancements were made in the commercial use of the Internet. Amazon, which launched in 1995, started as an online bookstore and grew to become nowadays the largest online retailer worldwide, selling food, toys, electronics, apparel and more. Other successful stories of online marketplaces include eBay or Etsy.


title: Electronic business

text: In 1994, IBM, with its agency Ogilvy & Mather, began to use its foundation in IT solutions and expertise to market itself as a leader of conducting business on the Internet through the term "e-business." Then CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. was prepared to invest $1 billion to market this new brand.


title: Electronic business

text: After conducting worldwide market research in October 1997, IBM began with an eight-page piece in "The Wall Street Journal" that would introduce the concept of "e-business" and advertise IBM's expertise in the new field. IBM decided "not" to trademark the term "e-business" in the hopes that other companies would use the term and create an entirely new industry. However, this proved to be too successful and by 2000, to differentiate itself, IBM launched a $300 million campaign about its "e-business infrastructure" capabilities. Since that time, the terms, "e-business" and "e-commerce" have been loosely interchangeable and have become a part of the common vernacular.


title: Electronic business

text: According to the U.S. Department Of Commerce, the estimated retail e-commerce sales in Q1 2020 were representing almost 12% of total U.S. retail sales, against 4% for Q1 2010.


title: Electronic business

text: The transformation toward e-business is complex and in order for it to succeed, there is a need to balance between strategy, an adapted business model (e-intermediary, marketplaces), right processes (sales, marketing) and technology (Supply Chain Management, Customer Relationship Management).


title: Electronic business

text: When organizations go online, they have to decide which e-business models best suit their goals. A business model is defined as the organization of product, service and information flows, and the source of revenues and benefits for suppliers and customers. The concept of the e-business model is the same but used in the online presence.


title: Electronic business

text: A key component of the business model is the revenue model or profit model, which is a framework for generating revenues. It identifies which revenue source to pursue, what value to offer, how to price the value, and who pays for the value. It is a key component of a company's business model. It primarily identifies what product or service will be created in order to generate revenues and the ways in which the product or service will be sold.


title: Electronic business

text: Without a well-defined revenue model, that is, a clear plan of how to generate revenues, new businesses will more likely struggle due to costs which they will not be able to sustain. By having a revenue model, a business can focus on a target audience, fund development plans for a product or service, establish marketing plans, begin a line of credit and raise capital.


title: Electronic business

text: E-commerce (short for "electronic commerce") is trading in products or services using computer networks, such as the Internet. Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply in chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the transaction's life cycle, although it may also use other technologies such as e-mail.


title: Electronic business

text: Customer Relationship Management (CRM) is the strategy that is used to build relationships and interactions with customers and potential/future customers. CRM provides better customer service, allowing companies to analyze their past, current and future customers on a variety of levels. It is one of the elements which is essential for any business, including e-commerce because it allows companies to grow and succeed. It cannot be done without technology. It is the formation of bonds between customers and the company. CRM impacts e-commerce sites by becoming an essential part of business successes. Interactively collecting and considering customer data helps to build a company's e-CRM capability, which then leads to the company's corporate success. The goal of CRM is to establish a profitable, long term 1-1 relationship with customers, by understanding their needs and expectations. This strategy is using 2 different approaches: software applications and software as a service.


title: Electronic business

text: E-commerce CRM (e-CRM) primarily focuses on customer experiences and sales that are conducted online. Most e- CRM software has the ability to analyze customer information, sales patterns, record and store data, and website's metrics, for example:


title: Electronic business

text: While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide. Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality. Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses, since these businesses employ much fewer people per dollar of sales than traditional retailers.


title: Electronic business

text: E-business systems naturally have greater security risks than traditional business systems, therefore it is important for e-business systems to be fully protected against these risks. A far greater number of people have access to e-businesses through the internet than would have access to a traditional business. Customers, suppliers, employees, and numerous other people use any particular e-business system daily and expect their confidential information to stay secure. Hackers are one of the great threats to the security of e-businesses. Some common security concerns for e-Businesses include keeping business and customer information private and confidential, the authenticity of data, and data integrity. Some of the methods of protecting e-business security and keeping information secure include physical security measures as well as data storage, data transmission, anti-virus software, firewalls, and encryption to list a few.


title: Electronic business

text: Confidentiality is the extent to which businesses makes personal information available to other businesses and individuals. With any business, confidential information must remain secure and only be accessible to the intended recipient. However, this becomes even more difficult when dealing with e-businesses specifically. To keep such information secure means protecting any electronic records and files from unauthorized access, as well as ensuring safe transmission and data storage of such information. Tools such as encryption and firewalls manage this specific concern within e-business.


title: Electronic business

text: E-business transactions pose greater challenges for establishing authenticity due to the ease with which electronic information may be altered and copied. Both parties in an e-business transaction want to have the assurance that the other party is who they claim to be, especially when a customer places an order and then submits a payment electronically. One common way to ensure this is to limit access to a network or trusted parties by using a virtual private network (VPN) technology. The establishment of authenticity is even greater when a combination of techniques are used, and such techniques involve checking "something you know" (i.e. password or PIN), "something you need" (i.e. credit card), or "something you are" (i.e. digital signatures or voice recognition methods). Many times in e-business, however, "something you are" is pretty strongly verified by checking the purchaser's "something you have" (i.e. credit card) and "something you know" (i.e. card number).


title: Electronic business

text: Data integrity answers the question "Can the information be changed or corrupted in any way?" This leads to the assurance that the message received is identical to the message sent. A business needs to be confident that data is not changed in transit, whether deliberately or by accident. To help with data integrity, firewalls protect stored data against unauthorized access, while simply backing up data allows recovery should the data or equipment be damaged.


title: Electronic business

text: This concern deals with the existence of proof in a transaction. A business must have the assurance that the receiving party or purchaser cannot deny that a transaction has occurred, and this means having sufficient evidence to prove the transaction. One way to address non-repudiation is using digital signatures. A digital signature not only ensures that a message or document has been electronically signed by the person, but since a digital signature can only be created by one person, it also ensures that this person cannot later deny that they provided their signature.


title: Electronic business

text: When certain electronic resources and information is limited to only a few authorized individuals, a business and its customers must have the assurance that no one else can access the systems or information. There are a variety of techniques to address this concern including firewalls, access privileges, user identification and authentication techniques (such as passwords and digital certificates), Virtual Private Networks (VPN), and much more.


title: Electronic business

text: This concern is specifically pertinent to a business's customers as certain information must be available when customers need it. Messages must be delivered in a reliable and timely fashion, and information must be stored and retrieved as required. Because the availability of service is important for all e-business websites, steps must be taken to prevent disruption of service by events such as power outages and damage to physical infrastructure. Examples to address this include data backup, fire-suppression systems, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) systems, virus protection, as well as making sure that there is sufficient capacity to handle the demands posed by heavy network traffic.


title: Electronic business

text: The business internet which supports e-business has a cost to maintain of about $2 trillion in outsourced IT dollars just in the United States alone. With each website custom crafted and maintained in code, the maintenance burden is enormous. In the twenty-first century, look for new businesses that will help standardize the look and feel of the internet presence of a business to be more uniform in nature to help reduce the cost of maintenance.


title: Electronic business

text: The cost structure for e-businesses varies a lot from the industry they operate in. There are two major categories that have commune characteristics. The first group is fully digital businesses that do not provide any product or services outside of the digital world. This includes for example software companies, social networks, etc. For those, the most significant operational cost is the maintenance of the platform. Those costs are almost unrelated to every additional customer the business acquires, making the marginal cost almost equal to zero. This is one of the major advantages of that kind of business. The second group are businesses that provide services or products outside of the digital world, like online shops, for those costs are much harder to determine. Some common advantages over traditional businesses are lower marketing cost, lower inventory cost, lower payroll, lower rent, etc.


title: Electronic business

text: When it comes to security solutions, sustainable electronic business requires support for data integrity, strong authentication, and privacy. Numerous things can be done in order to protect our E-Business. Starting off with basic things like switch to HTTPS from old outdated HTTP protocol which is more vulnerable to attacks. Furthermore, the other things that require full attention are securing servers and admin panels, payment gateway security, antivirus and anti-malware software, using firewalls is also a must, regular updates, and back up our data.


title: Electronic business

text: There are several different ways to prevent access to the data that is kept online. One way is to use anti-virus software. This is something that most people use to protect their networks regardless of the data they have. E-businesses should use this because they can then be sure that the information sent and received to their system is clean.


title: Electronic business

text: A second way to protect the data is to use firewalls and network protection. A firewall is used to restrict access to private networks, as well as public networks that a company may use. The firewall also has the ability to log attempts into the network and provide warnings as it is happening. They are very beneficial to keep third parties out of the network. Businesses that use Wi-Fi need to consider different forms of protection because these networks are easier for someone to access. They should look into protected access, virtual private networks, or internet protocol security.


title: Electronic business

text: Another option they have is an intrusion detection system. This system alerts when there are possible intrusions. Some companies set up traps or "hot spots" to attract people and are then able to know when someone is trying to hack into that area.