title: Albert Bierstadt

text: In 1859, Bierstadt traveled westward in the company of Frederick W. Lander, a land surveyor for the U.S. government, to see those western American landscapes for his work. He returned to a studio he had taken at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York with sketches for numerous paintings he then finished. In 1860, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Design; he received medals in Austria, Bavaria, Belgium, and Germany.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: In 1863, Bierstadt traveled West again, this time in the company of the author Fitz Hugh Ludlow, whose wife he later married. The pair spent seven weeks in the Yosemite Valley. Throughout the 1860s, Bierstadt used studies from this trip as the source for large-scale paintings for exhibition and he continued to visit the American West throughout his career. The immense canvases he produced after his trips with Lander and Ludlow established him as the preeminent painter of the western American landscape. Bierstadt's technical proficiency, earned through his study of European landscape, was crucial to his success as a painter of the American West and accounted for his popularity in disseminating views of the Rocky Mountains to those who had not seen them.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: During the American Civil War (1861 to 1865), Bierstadt was drafted in 1863 and paid for a substitute to serve in his place. By 1862, he had completed one Civil War painting "Guerrilla Warfare, Civil War" based on his brief experiences with soldiers stationed at Camp Cameron in 1861. That painting was based on a stereoscopic photograph taken by his brother Edward Bierstadt, who operated a photography studio at Langley's Tavern in Virginia. The painting received a positive review when it was exhibited at the Brooklyn Art Association at the Brooklyn Academy of Music in December 1861. Curator Eleanor Jones Harvey observed that the painting, created from photographs, "is quintessentially that of a voyeur, privy to the stories and unblemished by the violence and brutality of first-hand combat experience."


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Financial recognition confirmed his status: "The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak", completed in 1863, was purchased for $25,000 in 1865, the equivalent of almost $400,000 in 2020.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: In 1867, Bierstadt returned to Europe, arriving in London where he exhibited two landscape paintings in a private reception with Queen Victoria. He then travelled through Europe for the next two years, painting new works while also cultivating social and business contacts to sustain the market for his art on the continent. For example, he painted "Among the Sierra Nevada, California" in his Rome studio, displaying it in Berlin and London before having it shipped to the U.S. His exhibition pieces both impressed European audiences and furthered the idea of the American West as a land of promise during a period when European emigration to the U.S. was increasing. Bierstadt's choice of grandiose subjects was matched by his entrepreneurial flair. His exhibitions of individual works were accompanied by promotion, ticket sales, and, in the words of one critic, a "vast machinery of advertisement and puffery."


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Bierstadt's popularity in the U.S. remained strong during his European tour. The publicity generated by his Yosemite Valley paintings in 1868 led a number of explorers to request his presence as part of their westward expeditions. The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad also commissioned him to visit and paint the Grand Canyon and surrounding region.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Despite his popular success, Bierstadt was criticized by some contemporaries for the romanticism evident in his choice of subjects and for his use of light, which they found excessive. Some critics objected to Bierstadt's paintings of Native Americans based on their belief that including Indigenous Americans "marred" the "impression of solitary grandeur."


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: His wife, Rosalie, was diagnosed with tuberculosis in 1876, and Bierstadt spent increasing amounts of time with her in the warmer climate of Nassau in the Bahamas until her death in 1893. He also maintained travel between the western United States, Canada, and his studio in New York.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Though his painting career continued later into his life, Bierstadt's work fell increasingly out of critical favor and was increasingly attacked for its theatrical tone. In 1882, a fire destroyed Bierstadt's studio at Irvington, New York and, with it, many of his paintings.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Bierstadt was a prolific artist, having completed over 500 paintings during his lifetime. Yet by the time of his death on February 18, 1902, the taste for epic landscape painting had long since subsided. Bierstadt was buried at the Rural Cemetery in New Bedford, Massachusetts and remained largely forgotten for nearly 60 years.


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: Interest in Bierstadt's work was renewed in the 1960s with the exhibition of his small oil studies. Modern opinions of Bierstadt have been divided. Some critics have regarded his work as gaudy, oversized, extravagant champions of Manifest Destiny. Others have noted that his landscapes helped create support for the conservation movement and the establishment of Yellowstone National Park. His work has been placed in a favorable context, as stated in 1987:


title: Albert Bierstadt

text: On the other hand, his work has been also been criticized as largely an imaginary depiction of nature, and even "souless" in its execution.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: The 1938 Yellow River flood (, literally "Huayuankou embankment breach incident") was a flood created by the Nationalist Government in central China during the early stage of the Second Sino-Japanese War in an attempt to halt the rapid advance of Japanese forces. It has been called the "largest act of environmental warfare in history" and an example of scorched earth military strategy.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: Following the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the Imperial Japanese Army marched rapidly into the heart of Chinese territory. By June 1938, the Japanese had control of all of North China. On June 6, they captured Kaifeng, the capital of Henan, and threatened to take over Zhengzhou, the junction of the arterial Pinghan and Longhai Railways. Japanese success here would have directly endangered the major city of Wuhan.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: To stop further Japanese advances into western and southern China, Chiang Kai-shek, at the suggestion of Chen Guofu, determined to open up the dikes (levees) on the Yellow River near Zhengzhou. The original plan was to destroy the dike of Zhaokou, but due to difficulties at that location, the dike of Huayuankou, on the Yellow River's south bank, was destroyed on June 5 and June 7 via tunneling, with waters flooding into Henan, Anhui, and Jiangsu. The floods covered and destroyed thousands of square kilometers of farmland, and shifted the course of the Yellow River hundreds of kilometers to the south. Thousands of villages were inundated, and several million villagers were forced from their homes and made refugees. An unknown number of Japanese soldiers were killed by the flood. An official Kuomintang-led postwar commission estimated that the total number of casualties may be as high as 800,000 killed by the flood.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: After the flooding, the Yellow River was diverted from its earlier course at Huayuankou, and flowed into the Jialu River in Zhongmu County. The new course led the Yellow River into the Shaying River at the city of Zhoujiakou (now Zhoukou), eventually joining the Huai River. Water overflowed from these smaller rivers, causing widespread destruction in the basin. According to a postwar report, floods inundated 32 percent of land and 45 percent of villages in 20 affected counties.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: The strategic value of the flood has been questioned. Japanese troops were out of its range, either to the north and east or to the south. Their advance on Zhengzhou was halted, but they took Wuhan in October by attacking from a different direction. The Japanese did not occupy much of Henan until late in the war, and their hold on Anhui and Jiangsu remained tenuous. Most of the flooded towns and transport lines had already been captured by the Japanese; after the flood, the Japanese could not consolidate their control over the area. In fact, large parts of it became guerrilla areas.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: The number of casualties in the flood remains disputed and estimates have been revised by the Chinese government and other researchers in the decades after the event. There is no way of accurately assessing the casualties: much of the population, including officials, had already fled, leaving no government control and no one to count the dead. In the shifting battles between bandits, Nationalists, Communists, and Japanese, counting casualties was not a high priority. The Nationalist government, after initially claiming that the breach was caused by Japanese bombing, used the heavy casualties to demonstrate the scale of sacrifice required of the Chinese people; it claimed that 12 million people had been affected by the flood, and in 1948 it estimated the number of deaths, including hundreds of thousands of Japanese who perished during the flooding, at 800,000. A 1994 PRC (People's Republic of China) official history of the war put the dead in the flood at 900,000 and the number of refugees at nearly 10 million. Scholars exploring the archives now give much lower figures: 400,000–500,000 dead, 3 million refugees, and 5 million people affected (another estimate puts the number of dead at 500,000, and the number of homeless at 500,000).


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: Besides the massive death toll, the flooded areas were affected for years to come. The flooded countryside was more or less abandoned and all the crops destroyed. Upon the recession of the waters, much of the ground was uncultivable as much of the soil was covered in silt. Many of the public structures and housing were also destroyed, leaving any survivors destitute. The irrigation channels were also ruined, further adding to the toll on the farmlands.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: The destruction also had a long-term psychological effect on the Chinese population. Unable to fully decide which group deserved more blame for the catastrophe, the Chinese Government or the invading Japanese, many survivors blamed both sides. Believing that the civilians would help them, the Chinese Communists turned the flooded area into a recruiting ground, directing survivors' anger towards a common enemy to bring them into their ranks. By the 1940s the area had evolved into a major guerrilla base known as the Yuwansu Base Area.


title: 1938 Yellow River flood

text: Attempts to seal the breach and return the river to its former course were made in 1946 by the KMT with assistance from UNRRA. Work began in March and was completed in June, but the dams were again destroyed by large summer flows. Subsequent repairs succeeded and were eventually completed in March 1947.


title: WikiFeet

text: wikiFeet is a photo-sharing foot fetish website dedicated to sharing photos of celebrities' feet. In 2016, it was described by Vice Media's Lauren Oyler as "...the most extensive online message board and photo gallery of women's feet on the Internet". It mostly includes images of the feet of famous actors, actresses and other entertainers, though some politicians' feet are also featured on the site.


title: WikiFeet

text: It was founded in 2008 by Eli Ozer, an Israeli former computer programmer and animator who now runs the site full-time. According to Ozer, the site gets about 3 million views a month (as of July 2017).


title: WikiFeet

text: In January 2019, WikiFeet was involved in debunking a hoax involving US congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez; a picture of a woman's feet in a bathtub, purported to be a nude posted online by Ocasio-Cortez in 2016, was determined to be of someone else by users of the site, with the picture's short toe length being a key piece of evidence. Sydney Leathers, involved in the Anthony Weiner sexting scandals of 2013, was determined to be the owner of the feet, which she confirmed to "Washington Babylon" in January 2019.


title: WikiFeet

text: In 2021, journalist Laura Bassett discovered that a 58-year-old man named Robert Hamilton had been posting pictures of her feet to wikiFeet, by copying photographs from her Instagram feed. He agreed to be interviewed. He said that he considered himself a foot fetishist and had admired women's feet since his childhood.


title: WikiFeet

text: Since June 2021, the website does not allow visitors from the European Union to browse full-resolution images because of a new EU Copyright Directive.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Dan Lanning (born April 10, 1986) is an American football coach and former player who is currently the head coach at the University of Oregon. He previously served as the defensive coordinator and outside linebackers coach at the University of Georgia from 2019 to 2021.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Lanning played college football at William Jewell College as a linebacker from 2004 to 2007. Prior to his tenure at Oregon, he held various assistant coaching positions at Park Hill South High School in Kansas City, Missouri, the University of Pittsburgh, Arizona State University, Sam Houston State University, the University of Alabama, the University of Memphis, and the University of Georgia.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Lanning played linebacker at William Jewell College in Missouri from 2004 to 2007. While attending William Jewell, he lived in a house on Elizabeth Street and was roommates with Trent Figg, now an offensive analyst under Lanning at Oregon.


title: Dan Lanning

text: After his playing career at William Jewell ended, Lanning spent three seasons working at Park Hill South High School as the special teams coordinator, defensive backs coach, and wide receivers coach. Aspiring to be an NCAA Division I football coach, Lanning drove thirteen hours to Pittsburgh to convince the coaching staff led by Todd Graham, who he had met at coaching clinics attended by the Park Hill South staff at Tulsa. He was subsequently hired as a graduate assistant at Pittsburgh for one season before following Graham to Arizona State as a graduate assistant. He was promoted in 2013 to the on-campus recruiting coordinator. He was hired away to be the defensive backs coach and co-recruiting coordinator at Sam Houston State in March 2014. He spent 2015 as a graduate assistant at Alabama, where the Crimson Tide defeated Clemson 45–40 in the CFP National Championship game.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Lanning was hired to be the inside linebackers coach and recruiting coordinator at Memphis in December 2015, reuniting with Mike Norvell who was the offensive coordinator at Arizona State when Lanning was a graduate assistant and on-campus recruiting coordinator.


title: Dan Lanning

text: After Bulldogs defensive coordinator Mel Tucker left to accept the head coaching position at Colorado after the 2018 season, Lanning was promoted to defensive coordinator in addition to his duties as the outside linebackers coach.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Following Georgia's victory in the Sugar Bowl, Lanning received a raise to $1.25 million. In 2021, Lanning was considered for the Kansas head coach vacancy. However, the position ended up going to Lance Leipold.


title: Dan Lanning

text: In Lanning’s final year, Georgia would finish undefeated in the regular season, going on to win the 2021-2022 College Football Playoff by defeating the Michigan Wolverines (34-11) in the Orange Bowl Semi-Final and the Alabama Crimson Tide (33-18) in the National Championship Game.


title: Dan Lanning

text: On December 11, 2021, Lanning was named the 35th head coach at the University of Oregon, replacing Mario Cristobal after his departure to become the head coach at the University of Miami. Lanning signed a six-year, $29.1 million contract with the Ducks.


title: Dan Lanning

text: Lanning and his wife, Sauphia, have three children. While at Memphis, Sauphia was diagnosed with osteosarcoma and underwent chemotherapy treatments. Sauphia was deemed cancer-free in 2017 after months of treatments.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: Girl is a 2020 thriller film written and directed by Chad Faust. The films stars Bella Thorne as a young woman known only as Girl, who returns to her hometown with the intention of murdering her abusive father, only to discover that somebody else has already murdered him. The film's cast also includes Faust, Elizabeth Saunders, Mickey Rourke, Lanette Ware and Glen Gould. The film was shot in 2019 in Sudbury, Ontario.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: A young woman known only as "Girl" rides a bus back to her small hometown of Golden with the intention of murdering her abusive father named CW James, bringing her father's hatchet as a weapon. Girl calls her mother asking her to read a letter written by her father, her mother says that the letter contains a threat to kill the mother; Girl asks her mother for the return address, but her mother says she doesn't need to know it. The bus stops to let Girl walk away from the highway into the small town of Golden. As she walks, a town sheriff offers her a ride but she refuses and stops at the bar, where she finds the address of her father in the phonebook and has a drink, and a run-in with Betty. Upon arriving at his house, however, she finds her father already murdered by someone else. Attempting to report the murder to the sheriff to no avail, Girl returns to the bar where she calls her mother about his murder, vowing to find out who is responsible but her mother persuades her to go home.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: At the laundromat, she encounters a man who goes by the name “Charmer” and they chat. Girl is apprehensive at first but warms up to Charmer; she begins to casually flirt and even opens up about how her father taught her how to expertly throw hatchets when she was only six years old. However, when Girl sees Charmer wearing a watch with CW’s initials on it, suggesting that Charmer might be the killer, Girl attacks him and tries to kill him with her hatchet but the sheriff arrives and intervenes. Girl tells the sheriff that Charmer killed her father, and the sheriff brings Charmer and Girl to his car. However, it turns out that the sheriff and Charmer are actually responsible for CW's murder, and the two belong to the group called "The Brothers." The two learned about the money and the secret letter, which Girl is unaware of, but they refuse to reveal the information about the letter. The two then drive to CW's house and they tie Girl up at the shack. The sheriff asks Girl the whereabouts of the hidden money by threatening her with an angle grinder, but she claims she does not know where the money is. Eventually, Girl tells them that the money is underneath the bathtub of the house. When they check the bathtub, they find nothing. Girl manages to break free and escapes.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: Girl asks the barkeeper the address of The Brothers. She goes to Charmer's house where she confronts Charmer. Charmer taunts Girl for being a coward, and she stabs him with a knife. Charmer stumbles back into the stove and his robe catches fire resulting in him being burned alive. After the sheriff arrives, Girl escapes in Charmer's car and the sheriff chases her. Girl then hides at Betty's house (who is the sheriff's acquaintance) and reveals that her father abused her mother when she was a child, causing her mother to kick him out of the house, never to see him since. Betty tells him that Girl's father, having a change of heart, began to care for her, and her father began to save money from work, intended for Girl. Betty also reveals that her father was killed because of his love of his daughter and the money; Charmer and the sheriff are actually Girl's mom's brothers.. Before she leaves, Betty gives her a photo of Girl and her father. Girl sees a small log on the photo, realizing that the money might be hidden there.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: Girl arrives at her father's house where the sheriff attacks her and asks her for the whereabouts of the money until Girl kills him with an axe. She finds the bag of money buried under the small log. Shortly after, her mother arrives and Girl demands to know about the letter and her motive, but the mother refuses because she left it at home. Intimidated with an axe by Girl, the mother reveals that her motive for CW's murder was that her husband cheated on her. After understanding each other's predicament, the mother leaves. The next day, Girl gives some of the money to Betty and leaves the town on a bus.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: The film premiered on September 25, 2020, both in the United States at the Fantastic Fest in Austin as part of the online lineup, and with a socially distanced gala screening at the Cinéfest Sudbury International Film Festival before being added to that festival's online platform.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: It was released in select theaters on November 20, 2020, and through video on demand on November 24 in the United States by Screen Media Films.


title: Girl (2020 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: "Impressive work from Bella Thorne in the title role notwithstanding, "Girl" struggles to differentiate itself from other female-fronted revenge thrillers."


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Aashirvad Cinemas is an Indian film production company based in Kochi, Kerala. It was established in 2000 by Antony Perumbavoor, since then, it has produced over 30 Malayalam films, starring Mohanlal. Since 2009, the company co-operates with the distribution company Maxlab Cinemas and Entertainments co-founded by Mohanlal and Antony Perumbavoor for distributing films. It is one among the most active and leading production houses in the Malayalam film industry.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Aashirvad Cinemas has established itself by producing several hits such as "Narasimham" (2000), "Ravanaprabhu" (2001),"Naran" (2005),"Rasathanthram" (2006), "Drishyam" (2013), "Oppam" (2016), and "Lucifer" (2019). It has also produced three of the most expensive Malayalam films — "Odiyan" (2018), "Lucifer" (2019), and "" (2020) with Marakkar not being profitable ventures for the production house.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Aashirvad Cinemas has won several awards, including two National Film Awards, four Kerala State Film Awards and a Filmfare Awards South. In 2019, Aashirvad Cinemas opened office in Hong Kong with the name Feitian Aashirvad Cinemas and signed an agreement with a Chinese film production company to co-produce and distribute films in China. Aashirvad Cinemas is the currently the biggest production company in Mollywood. It has made big budget films like "Odiyan" (₹30 crore), "Lucifer" (₹35 crore) and "" (₹100 crore).


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Aashirvad Cinemas was founded by Mohanlal's former chauffeur Antony Perumbavoor in 2000. Its first production was the 2000 film, "Narasimham", which became the highest-grossing Malayalam film and Industry hit at the time. The company's next was the 2001 action drama film, "Raavanaprabhu", which was a sequel to the 1993 film, "Devasuram", which became the highest-grossing Malayalam film of the year. The film won the Kerala State Film Award for Best Film with Popular Appeal and Aesthetic Value. Over the years, Aashrivad Cinemas have continued to receive great reception and success for their films and continue making new records.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: The action drama "Natturajavu" was the only release in 2004, it was one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of the year. Joshiy-directed action drama "Naran" was the only release in 2005, which was also one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of the year. In the following year, Sathyan Anthikkad-directed family drama "Rasathanthram" became the highest-grossing Malayalam film ever. Two films released in 2009, action film "Sagar Alias Jackie Reloaded" directed by Amal Neerad, a spiritual successor to Mohanlal's 1987 film "Irupatham Noottandu". It was a commercial success, but met with mixed reviews.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: The 2011 comedy film "China Town" made ₹15.2 crore at the box office and was a major commercial success. The 2012 drama "Spirit" won the National Film Award for Best Film on Other Social Issues. In 2013, family-thriller "Drishyam" received widespread critical acclaim and became the highest-grossing Malayalam and Industry hit film and the first to gross over ₹50 crore mark at the box office. The 2016 crime thriller "Oppam" also became one of the highest-grossing Malayalam films of all time by grossing ₹65 crore worldwide.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Mohanlal and Lal Jose collaborated for the first time in "Velipadinte Pusthakam" in 2017, which was a moderate success. In 2019, Prithviraj Sukumaran-directed action drama "Lucifer" grossed ₹200 crore worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing Malayalam film till date, beating Mohanlal's "Pulimurugan". It was also the first Malayalam film to gross over ₹50 crores in overseas markets. It was followed by the comedy-drama "" directed by debutant duo Jibi-Joju. It received mixed reviews but was a commercial success. During the pandemic, Aashirvad Cinemas produced the sequel to Drishyam: Drishyam 2, which was the first film in Mohanlal's career to premiere on an OTT platform Amazon Prime Video instead of the normal theatrical release. The film received widespread positive reviews. Then the company produced Telugu film titled Drushyam 2(co-produced by Suresh Productions and RajKumar Theatres), which was a remake of Drishyam 2 also premiered on OTT platform Amazon Prime Video instead of the theatrical release. The company produced "" (co-produced by Moonshot Entertainments and Confident Group), an action period film directed by Priyadarshan based on the life of Kunjali Marakkar. It is the most expensive Malayalam film ever, with a budget of ₹100 crores. The film released on 2 December 2021.It received mixed reviews and was a Box-office failure. In 2022, The company produced four films. Out of which two films, Bro Daddy directed by Prithviraj Sukumaran and 12th Man directed by Jeethu Joseph had Direct OTT release on Disney+ Hotstar.Both films received generally positive reviews. Then they produced Monster directed by Vysakh and the film was Mohanlal's second collaboration with Vysakh(as director) after Pulimurugan. But the film received mixed to negative reviews and was a Box-office failure. Then the company produced their fourth film of the year Alone directed by Shaji Kailas. The film will release soon on theatres.


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Aashirvad Cinemas' next project is Mohanlal's debut directorial , which completed shooting and ongoing with pre-production works. The project they will be doing afterwards will be the sequel to the 2019 film "Lucifer" called "Empuraan".


title: Aashirvad Cinemas

text: Following are the accolades won by "Aashirvad Cinemas". The awards received by the producer alone is included in this list.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Three Men and a Little Lady is a 1990 American comedy film directed by Emile Ardolino. It is the sequel to the 1987 film "Three Men and a Baby". Tom Selleck, Steve Guttenberg, and Ted Danson reprise the leading roles.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Peter, Michael, and Jack are living happily together with Mary, who is now five, and her mother, Sylvia. Peter and Michael continue as an architect and cartoonist, while Jack has little acting work. Sylvia has become a famous actress and is dating director Edward who wishes to marry her, but Sylvia is unsure how it will affect Mary.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Sylvia and Peter are clearly in love with each other, although he won't admit his true feelings. When visiting, Sylvia's mother warns her that he may never be able to express or admit his feelings. Sylvia, realizing she wants to get married and start a family, accepts Edward's proposal, announcing she and Mary will be moving to the UK after the wedding.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Inviting Edward to the apartment, Peter tells him he believes he won't be a good father for Mary. When he leaves, Sylvia confronts Peter, leading to a falling out when she calls him selfish, and he reminds her she abandoned Mary once (the events of the first film).


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Sylvia and Mary leave the next day for the UK. The men, depressed, try to cheer themselves up with one of their bachelor-style parties, but are still miserable without Mary and Sylvia. They go to the UK to visit Mary, who is unhappy without them. Peter and Michael arrive in time for the rehearsal dinner, happily reuniting with Mary and Sylvia. Miss Elspeth Lomax, headmistress of "Pileforth Academy for Girls", is introduced to Peter by Edward (who tells her Peter is secretly interested in her). Peter and Sylvia apologize to each other for the fight.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: With the wedding imminent, Peter is concerned as Mary says Edward dislikes her. Peter and Michael realize Edward plans to send Mary to "Pileforth" boarding school. Edward denies it and Sylvia refuses to believe Peter, as he has always disliked him. Jack arrives mid-argument and Sylvia and Edward leave. Peter admits he loves Sylvia but stayed silent because of him. Jack insists that Sylvia only loves Peter and must follow his heart.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: The night before the wedding, Peter goes to "Pileforth" to get proof of Edward's scheme. Elspeth believes Peter is admitting his "feelings", throwing herself at him. Very surprised and deflecting her advances, he gets away. His car breaks down, finally he calls Jack and Michael, confirming he has the proof, but he will be late. Michael, Jack and Mary try to stall the wedding. Michael kidnaps the vicar and Jack disguises himself as an elderly replacement. Peter, with help from Elspeth, heads to the wedding. During the ride, she says Edward told her Peter was interested in her, but Peter says Edward lied, apologizing for him.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: After numerous delays they arrive at the church. Peter shows Sylvia the truth, Elspeth confirming that Edward has been lying and he, trying to defend himself, prompts Mary to accuse him of lying again. He shows his true colors, swearing at Mary and Peter, who then punches him out. Sylvia insists she's going home, but Peter stops her, ultimately declaring his love. Then, Edward regains consciousness, stating it is too late as they are already married. Jack then reveals himself – he has both finally proven his acting skills, and the marriage is not valid.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Peter and Sylvia wed with Mary as their bridesmaid, who afterwards throws the bouquet into the air; it is caught by a shocked Jack.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Filmed on location in New York and the United Kingdom, the scenes in the latter location were primarily shot in Banbury in north Oxfordshire. Particular use is made of Broughton Castle. The scenes where the car breaks down and Peter makes a call from a phone box are shot at Burton Dassett Country Park, in south Warwickshire. The school which Mary was to attend (Pileforth Academy) was shot at two locations. The external shot of the school is the Jesuit boarding school Stonyhurst College in the Ribble Valley, Lancashire. The internal scenes of the school were shot at the (former) Benedictine boarding school Douai School near Thatcham, West Berkshire.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: In its opening weekend, the movie was screened at 1,281 theaters, earning $19.1 million and finishing in 2nd place behind "Home Alone". By the end of the second week, it had dropped to 3rd place with a total gross of $29.8 million and by the end of the third week was in 5th place with a total gross of $35.9 million. It eventually grossed $71.6 million.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 40% based on 20 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4/10.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: Critics Rita Kempley and Desson Howe of "The Washington Post" wrote positively of the film, citing the three main characters' comical rap, the race for Peter to stop the wedding, and the relationship between him and Miss Lomax as the film's most enjoyable scenes. However, Howe also criticized it, claiming Ted Danson and Steve Guttenberg were overshadowed for the remainder of the film.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: One of the most widely recognized tracks from the film is "Waiting for a Star to Fall" by Boy Meets Girl, which featured during the final wedding scene and end credits. The film's soundtrack album contains the three leads' singing "Goodnite, Sweetheart, Goodnite" from "Three Men and a Baby", which had no soundtrack album of its own.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: In June 2010, a third film tentatively titled "Three Men and a Bride" was announced to be developed by Disney.


title: Three Men and a Little Lady

text: The project was eventually abandoned in favor of a reboot. As of December 2020, the as-of-yet untitled reboot is in development, with Zac Efron cast in a starring role. The film is intended to be a streaming exclusive film, for Disney+. The film is scheduled for a 2022 release.


title: George Everest

text: Colonel George Everest CB FRS FRAS FRGS (; 4 July 1790 – 1 December 1866) was a British surveyor and geographer who served as Surveyor General of India from 1830 to 1843.


title: George Everest

text: After receiving a military education in Marlow, Everest joined the East India Company and arrived in India at the age of 16. He was eventually made an assistant to William Lambton on the Great Trigonometric Survey, and replaced Lambton as superintendent of the survey in 1823. Everest was largely responsible for surveying the meridian arc from the southernmost point of India north to Nepal, a distance of about , a task that took from 1806 to 1841 to complete. He was made Surveyor General of India in 1830, retiring in 1843 and returning to England.


title: George Everest

text: In 1865, the Royal Geographical Society renamed Peak XV – at the time only recently identified as the world's highest peak – to Mount Everest in his honour. Andrew Scott Waugh, his protégé and successor as surveyor general, had been responsible for putting his name forward in 1856. Everest's name was used as a compromise due to the difficulty of choosing between multiple local names for the mountain. He initially objected to the honour, as he had had nothing to do with its discovery and believed his name was not easily written or pronounced in Hindi.


title: George Everest

text: Everest was born on 4 July 1790, but his birthplace is uncertain. He was baptised at St Alfege Church, Greenwich, London, on 27 January 1791. He was born either at Greenwich or at Gwernvale Manor, his family's estate near Crickhowell, Brecknockshire (now part of Powys), Wales. Everest was the eldest son and third of six children born to Lucetta Mary (née Smith) and William Tristram Everest. His father was a solicitor and justice of the peace, part of a "Greenwich family of long standing", and was successful enough to acquire a large estate in south Wales. His grandfather John Everest, the son of a butcher, was the first in the family to enter the legal profession. The Everest family in Greenwich can be traced at least as far back as the late 1600s, when Tristram Everest – John's great-grandfather – was a butcher in Church Street.


title: George Everest

text: Everest was educated at the Royal Military College (Cadet Branch) in Marlow, Buckinghamshire, before joining the East India Company as a cadet in 1806. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Bengal Artillery, and sailed for India the same year.


title: George Everest

text: Everest was a Freemason, initiated (date unknown) in Neptune Lodge, Penang, under the authority of the United Grand Lodge of England. Later, having returned to England, he joined Prince of Wales's Lodge, London, on 20 February 1829.


title: George Everest

text: Little is known about Everest's earliest years in India, but he apparently had a talent for mathematics and astronomy. He was seconded to Java in 1814, where Lieutenant-Governor Stamford Raffles appointed him to survey the island. He returned to Bengal in 1816, where he improved British knowledge of the Ganges and the Hooghly. He later surveyed a semaphore line from Calcutta to Benares, covering approximately . Everest's work came to the attention of Colonel William Lambton, the leader of the Great Trigonometrical Survey (GTS), who appointed him as his chief assistant. He joined Lambton at Hyderabad in 1818, where he was in the process of surveying a meridian arc northward from Cape Commorin. He was responsible for much of the fieldwork, and in 1820 contracted malaria, necessitating a period of recovery spent at the Cape of Good Hope.


title: George Everest

text: Everest returned to India in 1821. He succeeded as superintendent of the GTS upon Lambton's death in 1823, and over the following years extended his predecessor's efforts on the arc up to Sironj, in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Everest suffered from poor health, however, and the effects of fever and rheumatism left him half paralysed. He left for England in 1825, where he spent the following five years recuperating. Everest was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in March 1827. Most of his free time was spent lobbying the East India Company for better equipment and studying the methods used by the Ordnance Survey; he frequently corresponded with Thomas Frederick Colby.


title: George Everest

text: In June 1830, Everest returned to India to continue his work on the GTS, and was simultaneously appointed Surveyor General of India. The arc from Cape Commorin to the northern border of British India was finally completed in 1841, under the supervision of Andrew Scott Waugh. To his dismay, much of his time was spent on administrative concerns, as well as combating criticism from home. The East India Company had provisionally appointed Thomas Jervis as Everest's successor, and Jervis subsequently delivered a series of lectures to the Royal Society on the perceived deficiencies of Everest's methods. In response, Everest penned a series of open letters to Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, the society's president, in which he lambasted the society "for meddling in matters of which they know little". Jervis withdrew from consideration, and Everest successfully secured the appointment of his protégé Waugh as his successor. He resigned in November 1842 and his commission was formally revoked in December 1843, at which point he returned to England.


title: George Everest

text: In 1845 Everest was a passenger on the first voyage of the SS "Great Britain", which was the first crossing of any ocean on the world by a screw propelled steamship. In 1847, Everest published "An Account of the Measurement of Two Sections of the Meridional Arc of India", for which he was awarded a medal by the Royal Astronomical Society. He was later elected to fellowship of the Royal Asiatic Society and the Royal Geographical Society. Everest was promoted to colonel in 1854, made a Commander of the Order of the Bath in February 1861, and created a Knight Bachelor in March 1861. He died at his home in Hyde Park Gardens on 1 December 1866, and was buried in St Andrew's Church, Hove, near Brighton.


title: George Everest

text: George Everest had no direct connection with the mountain that bears his name, which he never saw. He was, however, responsible for hiring Andrew Scott Waugh, who made the first formal observations of the mountain, and Radhanath Sikdar, who calculated its height. Before its significance was realised, Mount Everest was originally known as Peak "B" and later as Peak XV. In March 1856, Waugh wrote to the Royal Geographical Society to announce that the mountain was believed to be the highest in the world, and proposed that it be named "after my illustrious predecessor", as it was "without any local name that we can discover" – the "native appellation, if it has any, will not very likely be ascertained before we are allowed to penetrate into Nepal". There were in fact several native names among the Nepalese and Tibetans, but those areas were closed off to the British at the time and people living further to the south of the Himalayas did not have a specific name for the peak. In the decade after 1856, Waugh's proposal was widely debated by the Royal Geographical Society and similar bodies. Other scholars of India put forward native names that they believed to be correct, such as Brian Houghton Hodgson's "Deva-dhunga" and Hermann Schlagintweit's "Gaurisankar". Everest himself objected to his name being used, as "the native of India" could not pronounce it and it could not be easily written in Hindi. Nonetheless, in 1865 the society officially settled on "Mount Everest" as the name.


title: George Everest

text: Everest had several siblings, including two younger brothers. George's first younger brother was Robert Everest, chaplain to the East India Company and author of "A Journey Through the United States and Part of Canada". His second (his youngest brother) was the Thomas Roupell Everest, the father of Mary Everest and a lay homoeopath.


title: George Everest

text: Everest's third child, Ethel Everest, was an associate of Emma Cons and friend of Lilian Baylis. She provided financial support for the founding of Morley College in south London.


title: George Everest

text: One of Everest's sons, Lancelot Feilding Everest, was educated at Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the Bar by Lincoln's Inn. He practised as a barrister in chambers in London and was also the principal author of "The Law of Estoppel". Lancelot's eldest son, Cyril Feilding Everest, enlisted in the Canadian Infantry on 17 November 1914 and was killed in action on 9 October 1916 at the Battle of the Somme.


title: George Everest

text: Everest's niece, Mary Everest, married mathematician George Boole in Gloucestershire on 11 September 1855. In spite of the absence of formal training, Mary was a fine mathematician in her own right, as was one of her daughters, Alicia Boole Stott. Alicia's son, Leonard Boole Stott, studied medicine and became a pioneer in the treatment and control of tuberculosis, work for which he was later appointed an OBE Mary Boole's daughter Margaret was the mother of Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor OM, a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, a renowned mathematician and physicist, and a major figure in fluid dynamics and wave theory.


title: George Everest

text: Everest owned a house in Mussoorie, Uttarakhand, India, for about 11 years. He purchased it, sight unseen, from General Whish. Although now virtually derelict, it still has its roof, and there have been various plans to make it into a museum.


title: George Everest

text: Built in 1832, the house is known today as Sir George Everest's House and Laboratory, or Park House. The house is situated in Park Estate about west of Gandhi Chowk / Library Bazaar (the west end of Mall Road in Mussoorie). Its location has panoramic views of the Doon Valley on one side and the Aglar River valley and the Himalayan Range to the north.


title: George Everest

text: The house is under the jurisdiction of the Tourism Department. There are underground water cisterns (or perhaps pits for storing ice, since water is scarce in the area) that are quite deep and lie uncovered in the front yard outside the house, filled with litter and posing danger of slipping.


title: George Everest

text: The interior has been stripped but the fireplaces, roof, and the door and window frames still remain. The house is secured by steel grills and cannot be entered. Now that this property is better known and the access road has been improved, the walls are covered with graffiti and then periodically whitewashed clean.


title: George Everest

text: Recent new fencing, tree planting and the construction of a ticket booth (as of late 2015) indicate that at some point it will cost to enter the property. The inside has signs of renovation several years ago, such as ceramic floor tiles in the kitchen and electrical switch boxes. Conservation architects at the Indian National Trust are vying for this project.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The New Madrid Seismic Zone (), sometimes called the New Madrid Fault Line, is a major seismic zone and a prolific source of intraplate earthquakes (earthquakes within a tectonic plate) in the Southern and Midwestern United States, stretching to the southwest from New Madrid, Missouri.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The New Madrid fault system was responsible for the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes, and has the potential to produce large earthquakes in the future. Since 1812, frequent smaller earthquakes have been recorded in the area.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Earthquakes that occur in the New Madrid Seismic Zone potentially threaten parts of seven American states: Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The -long seismic zone, which extends into five states, stretches southward from Cairo, Illinois; through Hayti, Caruthersville, and New Madrid in Missouri; through Blytheville into Marked Tree in Arkansas. It also covers a part of West Tennessee, near Reelfoot Lake, extending southeast into Dyersburg. It is southwest of the Wabash Valley Seismic Zone.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The faults responsible for the NMSZ are embedded in a subsurface geological feature known as the Reelfoot Rift, which likely formed during the Cambrian Period. The Reelfoot Rift was first described by Ervin and McGinnis (1975) and believed to be of late Precambrian age. The rift failed to split the North American continent, but it has remained as an aulacogen (a scar or zone of weakness) deep underground.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: This relative weakness is important, because it would allow the relatively small east–west compressive forces associated with the continuing westward continental drift of the North American Plate to reactivate old faults around New Madrid, making the area unusually prone to earthquakes in spite of it being far from the nearest tectonic plate boundary.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Since other ancient rifts are known to occur in North America, but not all are associated with modern earthquakes, other processes could be at work to locally increase mechanical stress on the New Madrid faults. Also, some form of heating in the lithosphere below the area has been suggested to be making deep rocks more plastic, which would concentrate compressive stress in the shallower subsurface area where the faulting occurs.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The zone had four of the largest earthquakes in recorded North American history, with moment magnitudes estimated to be as large as 7.0 or greater, all occurring within a 3-month period between December 1811 and February 1812. Many of the published accounts describe the cumulative effects of all the earthquakes (known as the New Madrid Sequence), so finding the individual effects of each quake can be difficult. Magnitude estimates and epicenters are based on interpretations of historical accounts and may vary.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Because uplift rates associated with large New Madrid earthquakes could not have occurred continuously over geological timescales without dramatically altering the local topography, studies have concluded that the seismic activity there cannot have gone on for longer than 64,000 years, making the New Madrid Seismic Zone (NMSZ) a young feature, or that earthquakes and the associated uplift migrate around the area over time, or that the NMSZ has short periods of activity interspersed with long periods of dormancy. Archaeological studies have found from studies of sand blows and soil horizons that previous series of very large earthquakes have occurred in the NMSZ in recent prehistory. Based on artifacts found buried by sand blow deposits and from carbon-14 studies, previous large earthquakes like those of 1811–1812 appear to have happened around AD 1450 and 900, as well as around AD 300. Evidence has also been found for an apparent series of large earthquakes around 2350 BC. About 80 km southwest of the presently defined NMSZ, but close enough to be associated with the Reelfoot Rift, near Marianna, Arkansas, two sets of liquefaction features indicative of large earthquakes have been tentatively identified and dated to 3500 and 4800 BC. These features were interpreted to have been caused by groups of large earthquakes timed closely together.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Dendrochronology (tree ring) studies conducted on the oldest bald cypress trees growing in Reelfoot Lake found evidence of the 1811–1812 series in the form of fractures followed by rapid growth after their inundation, whereas cores taken from old bald cypress trees in the St. Francis sunklands showed slowed growth in the half century that followed 1812. These were interpreted as clear signals of the 1811–1812 earthquake series in tree rings. Because the tree ring record in Reelfoot Lake and the St. Francis sunk lands extend back to 1682 and 1321, respectively, Van Arsdale et al. interpreted the lack of similar signals elsewhere in the chronology as evidence against large New Madrid earthquakes between those years and 1811.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The first known written record of an earthquake felt in the NMSZ was from a French missionary traveling up the Mississippi with a party of explorers. At 1 pm on Christmas Day 1699, at a site near the present-day location of Memphis, the party was startled by a short period of ground shaking.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Hundreds of aftershocks of the 1811–1812 series followed over a period of several years. Aftershocks strong enough to be felt occurred until 1817. The largest earthquakes to have occurred since then were on January 4, 1843, and October 31, 1895, with magnitude estimates of 6.0 and 6.6, respectively. The 1895 event had its epicenter near Charleston, Missouri. The quake damaged virtually all the buildings in Charleston, created sand volcanoes by the city, cracked a pier on the Cairo Rail Bridge, and toppled chimneys in St. Louis, Missouri; Memphis, Tennessee; Gadsden, Alabama; and Evansville, Indiana.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The largest NMSZ earthquake of the 20th century was a 5.4-magnitude quake (although it was reported as a 5.5 at the time) on November 9, 1968, near Dale, Illinois. The quake damaged the civic building at Henderson, Kentucky, and was felt in 23 states. People in Boston said their buildings swayed. At the time of the quake, it was the biggest recorded quake with an epicenter in Illinois in that state's recorded history. In 2008 in the nearby Wabash Valley Seismic Zone, a similar magnitude 5.4 earthquake occurred with its epicenter in Illinois near West Salem and Mount Carmel.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Instruments were installed in and around the area in 1974 to closely monitor seismic activity. Since then, more than 4,000 earthquakes have been recorded, most of which were too small to be felt. On average, one earthquake per year is large enough to be felt in the area.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: In a report filed in November 2008, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency warned that a serious earthquake in the NMSZ could result in "the highest economic losses due to a natural disaster in the United States," further predicting "widespread and catastrophic" damage across Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and particularly Tennessee, where a 7.7 magnitude quake would cause damage to tens of thousands of structures affecting water distribution, transportation systems, and other vital infrastructure. The earthquake is expected to also result in many thousands of fatalities, with more than 4,000 of the fatalities expected in Memphis alone.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The potential for the recurrence of large earthquakes and their effects today on densely populated cities in and around the seismic zone has generated much research devoted to understanding in the NMSZ. By studying evidence of past quakes and closely monitoring ground motion and current earthquake activity, scientists attempt to understand their causes and recurrence intervals.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: In October 2009, a team composed of University of Illinois and Virginia Tech researchers headed by Amr S. Elnashai, funded by the Federal Emergency Management Agency, considered a scenario where all three segments of the New Madrid fault ruptured simultaneously with a total earthquake magnitude of 7.7. The report found that there would be significant damage in the eight states studied – Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee – with the probability of additional damage in states farther from the NMSZ. Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri would be most severely impacted, and the cities of Memphis, Tennessee, and St. Louis, Missouri, would be severely damaged. The report estimated 86,000 casualties, including 3,500 fatalities, 715,000 damaged buildings, and 7.2 million people displaced, with two million of those seeking shelter, primarily due to the lack of utility services. Direct economic losses, according to the report, would be at least $300 billion.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: Beginning in February 1989, self-proclaimed climatologist Iben Browning, who claimed to have predicted the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake – predicted a 50% probability of a magnitude 6.5 to 7.5 earthquake in the New Madrid area sometime between December 1 and December 5, 1990. Browning appears to have based this prediction on particularly strong tidal forces being expected during that time, and his opinion that a New Madrid earthquake was "overdue;" however, seismologists generally agree that no correlation exists between tides and earthquakes. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) requested an evaluation of the prediction by an advisory board of earth scientists, who concluded, "the prediction does not have scientific validity." Despite the lack of scientific support, Browning's prediction was widely reported in international media, causing public alarm. The period passed with no major earthquake activity in New Madrid or along the fault line.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: The lack of apparent land movement along the New Madrid fault system has long puzzled scientists. In 2009, two studies based on eight years of GPS measurements indicated that the faults were moving at no more than 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) a year. This contrasts to the rate of slip on the San Andreas Fault, which averages up to a year across California.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: On March 13, 2009, a research group based out of Northwestern University and Purdue University, funded by the USGS, reported in "Science" and other journals that the New Madrid system may be "shutting down" and that tectonic stress may now be accumulating elsewhere. Seth Stein, the leader of the research group, published these views in a book, "Disaster Deferred", in 2008. Although some of these ideas have gained some acceptance among researchers, they have not been accepted by the National Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council, which advises the USGS.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: In the November 5, 2009, issue of "Nature", researchers from Northwestern University and the University of Missouri said that due to the lack of fault movement, the quakes along the faults may only be aftershocks of the 1811–1812 earthquakes.


title: New Madrid Seismic Zone

text: According to the USGS, a broad consensus exists that the possibility of major earthquakes in the NMSZ remains a concern, and that the GPS data do not provide a compelling case for lessening perceived earthquake hazards in the region. One concern is that the small earthquakes that still happen are not diminishing over time, as would be if they were aftershocks of the 1811–1812 events; another is that the 4,500-year archaeological record of large earthquakes in the region is more significant than 10 years of direct strain measurement. The USGS issued a fact sheet in 2009 stating the estimate of a 7–10% chance of a New Madrid earthquake of magnitude comparable to one of the 1811–1812 quakes within the next 50 years, and a 25–40% chance of a magnitude 6.0 earthquake in the same time frame.


title: Drift velocity

text: In physics, a drift velocity is the average velocity attained by charged particles, such as electrons, in a material due to an electric field. In general, an electron in a conductor will propagate randomly at the Fermi velocity, resulting in an average velocity of zero. Applying an electric field adds to this random motion a small net flow in one direction; this is the drift.


title: Drift velocity

text: Drift velocity is proportional to current. In a resistive material, it is also proportional to the magnitude of an external electric field. Thus Ohm's law can be explained in terms of drift velocity. The law's most elementary expression is:


title: Drift velocity

text: where is drift velocity, is the material's electron mobility, and is the electric field. In the MKS system, these quantities' units are m/s, m/(V·s), and V/m, respectively.


title: Drift velocity

text: When a potential difference is applied across a conductor, free electrons gain velocity in the direction, opposite to the electric field between successive collisions (and lose velocity when traveling in the direction of the field), thus acquiring a velocity component in that direction in addition to its random thermal velocity. As a result, there is a definite small drift velocity of electrons, which is superimposed on the random motion of free electrons. Due to this drift velocity, there is a net flow of electrons opposite to the direction of the field.


title: Drift velocity

text: The formula for evaluating the drift velocity of charge carriers in a material of constant cross-sectional area is given by:


title: Drift velocity

text: where is the drift velocity of electrons, is the current density flowing through the material, is the charge-carrier number density, and is the charge on the charge-carrier.


title: Drift velocity

text: But the current density and drift velocity, j and u, are in fact vectors, so this relationship is often written as:


title: Drift velocity

text: In terms of the basic properties of the right-cylindrical current-carrying metallic ohmic conductor, where the charge-carriers are electrons, this expression can be rewritten as:


title: Drift velocity

text: Electricity is most commonly conducted through copper wires. Copper has a density of and an atomic weight of , so there are . In one mole of any element, there are atoms (the Avogadro number). Therefore, in of copper, there are about atoms (). Copper has one free electron per atom, so is equal to electrons per cubic metre.


title: Drift velocity

text: Assume a current , and a wire of diameter (radius = ). This wire has a cross sectional area of π × () = = . The charge of one electron is . The drift velocity therefore can be calculated:


title: Drift velocity

text: Therefore, in this wire, the electrons are flowing at the rate of . At 60Hz alternating current, this means that, within half a cycle, on average the electrons drift less than 0.2 μm. In context, at one ampere around electrons will flow across the contact point twice per cycle. But out of around movable electrons per meter of wire, this is an insignificant fraction.


title: Drift velocity

text: By comparison, the Fermi flow velocity of these electrons (which, at room temperature, can be thought of as their approximate velocity in the absence of electric current) is around .


title: Cemre Baysel

text: Her maternal family is from Urfa. Her paternal family immigrated from Balkan, Ottoman Empire. She graduated from painting department of Buca Işılay Saygın Fine Arts High School. She is studying in art teacher department of Ege University.


title: Cemre Baysel

text: She made her television debut in 2014 with a supporting role in "Yeşil Deniz". She subsequently appeared in "İsimsizler" in 2017 before being cast in the historical drama series "" as Firuze. She rose to prominence through her supporting role in "Elimi Bırakma" between 2018 and 2019. She then had a role in the crime drama series "Ramo". In 2020, she was cast in her first leading role in the series "Sol Yanım", which ended the following year. In 2021, she was cast as the lead female in the romantic comedy series "Baht Oyunu" opposite Aytaç Şaşmaz. Baysel and Şaşmaz started dating while shooting the series.


title: Cemre Baysel

text: She was awarded as the Shining Star at the Golden Butterfly Awards in 2021. In 2022, she became the face of Seçil Store, Citroen Turkey, and La Roche Posay. In the same year, she starred in the series "Senden Daha Güzel", in which she plays the female lead character.


title: Æthelheard of Wessex

text: Æthelheard (meaning roughly "Noble Stern"), also spelled Ethelheard, Edelard or Æþelheard, was King of Wessex from 726 to 740. There is an unreliable record of Æthelheard having been the brother-in-law of his predecessor, Ine, but his ancestry is unknown, perhaps making him the first King of Wessex not to be descended from Cynric by blood.


title: Æthelheard of Wessex

text: Some sources identify him as the brother of Queen Æthelburg of Wessex, the wife of his predecessor, King Ine. His own successor Cuthred is identified in The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as 'his relative'.


title: Æthelheard of Wessex

text: When Ine abdicated and went to Rome in 726, he left behind no obvious heir, and according to Bede simply left his kingdom "to younger men". In the wake of his departure, the West Saxon throne was disputed between Æthelheard and a rival claimant, Oswald. Oswald may have had the better claim, as the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" calls him a descendant of the early king Ceawlin, but it was Æthelheard who prevailed. It is possible that his success was due to the support of Æthelbald of Mercia, since he seems to have been subject to Æthelbald afterward. However, Æthelheard's lack of independence does not seem to have prevented Æthelbald from taking considerable territory from Wessex in 733, including the royal manor of Somerton.


title: Æthelheard of Wessex

text: Æthelheard married Frithugyth in 729 or before and she is recorded in the "Chronicle" as making a pilgrimage to Rome in 737.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The equilibrium constant of a chemical reaction is the value of its reaction quotient at chemical equilibrium, a state approached by a dynamic chemical system after sufficient time has elapsed at which its composition has no measurable tendency towards further change. For a given set of reaction conditions, the equilibrium constant is independent of the initial analytical concentrations of the reactant and product species in the mixture. Thus, given the initial composition of a system, known equilibrium constant values can be used to determine the composition of the system at equilibrium. However, reaction parameters like temperature, solvent, and ionic strength may all influence the value of the equilibrium constant.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: A knowledge of equilibrium constants is essential for the understanding of many chemical systems, as well as biochemical processes such as oxygen transport by hemoglobin in blood and acid–base homeostasis in the human body.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Stability constants, formation constants, binding constants, association constants and dissociation constants are all types of equilibrium constants.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: a thermodynamic equilibrium constant, denoted by formula_2, is defined to be the value of the reaction quotient "Q" when forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate. At chemical equilibrium, the chemical composition of the mixture does not change with time and the Gibbs free energy change formula_3 for the reaction is zero. If the composition of a mixture at equilibrium is changed by addition of some reagent, a new equilibrium position will be reached, given enough time. An equilibrium constant is related to the composition of the mixture at equilibrium by


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where {X} denotes the thermodynamic activity of reagent X at equilibrium, [X] the numerical value of the corresponding concentration in moles per liter, and γ the corresponding activity coefficient. If X is a gas, instead of [X] the numerical value of the partial pressure formula_6 in bar is used. If it can be assumed that the quotient of activity coefficients, formula_7, is constant over a range of experimental conditions, such as pH, then an equilibrium constant can be derived as a quotient of concentrations.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where "R" is the universal gas constant, "T" is the absolute temperature (in kelvins), and is the natural logarithm. This expression implies that formula_2 must be a pure number and cannot have a dimension, since logarithms can only be taken of pure numbers. formula_12 must also be a pure number. On the other hand, the reaction quotient at equilibrium


title: Equilibrium constant

text: does have the dimension of concentration raised to some power (see , below). Such reaction quotients are often referred to, in the biochemical literature, as equilibrium constants.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: For an equilibrium mixture of gases, an equilibrium constant can be defined in terms of partial pressure or fugacity.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: An equilibrium constant is related to the forward and backward rate constants, "k" and "k" of the reactions involved in reaching equilibrium:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: A cumulative or overall constant, given the symbol "β", is the constant for the formation of a complex from reagents. For example, the cumulative constant for the formation of ML is given by


title: Equilibrium constant

text: A cumulative constant can always be expressed as the product of stepwise constants. There is no agreed notation for stepwise constants, though a symbol such as "K" is sometimes found in the literature. It is best always to define each stability constant by reference to an equilibrium expression.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: A particular use of a stepwise constant is in the determination of stability constant values outside the normal range for a given method. For example, EDTA complexes of many metals are outside the range for the potentiometric method. The stability constants for those complexes were determined by competition with a weaker ligand.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: In organic chemistry and biochemistry it is customary to use p"K" values for acid dissociation equilibria.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where "log" denotes a logarithm to base 10 or common logarithm, and "K" is a stepwise acid dissociation constant. For bases, the base association constant, p"K" is used. For any given acid or base the two constants are related by , so p"K" can always be used in calculations.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: On the other hand, stability constants for metal complexes, and binding constants for host–guest complexes are generally expressed as association constants. When considering equilibria such as


title: Equilibrium constant

text: it is customary to use association constants for both ML and HL. Also, in generalized computer programs dealing with equilibrium constants it is general practice to use cumulative constants rather than stepwise constants and to omit ionic charges from equilibrium expressions. For example, if NTA, nitrilotriacetic acid, N(CHCOH) is designated as HL and forms complexes ML and MHL with a metal ion M, the following expressions would apply for the dissociation constants.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Thermodynamic equilibrium is characterized by the free energy for the whole (closed) system being a minimum. For systems at constant temperature and pressure the Gibbs free energy is minimum. The slope of the reaction free energy with respect to the extent of reaction, "ξ", is zero when the free energy is at its minimum value.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The free energy change, d"G", can be expressed as a weighted sum of change in amount times the chemical potential, the partial molar free energy of the species. The chemical potential, "μ", of the "i"th species in a chemical reaction is the partial derivative of the free energy with respect to the number of moles of that species, "N"


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where "n" are the stoichiometric coefficients of the reactants in the equilibrium equation, and "m" are the coefficients of the products. At equilibrium


title: Equilibrium constant

text: "μ" is the standard chemical potential of the species, "R" is the gas constant and "T" is the temperature. Setting the sum for the reactants "j" to be equal to the sum for the products, "k", so that "δG"(Eq) = 0


title: Equilibrium constant

text: This relates the standard Gibbs free energy change, Δ"G" to an equilibrium constant, "K", the reaction quotient of activity values at equilibrium.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: At equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the backward reaction rate. A simple reaction, such as ester hydrolysis


title: Equilibrium constant

text: According to Guldberg and Waage, equilibrium is attained when the forward and backward reaction rates are equal to each other. In these circumstances, an equilibrium constant is defined to be equal to the ratio of the forward and backward reaction rate constants


title: Equilibrium constant

text: This particular concentration quotient, formula_33, has the dimension of concentration, but the thermodynamic equilibrium constant, , is always dimensionless.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: It is very rare for activity coefficient values to have been determined experimentally for a system at equilibrium. There are three options for dealing with the situation where activity coefficient values are not known from experimental measurements.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: An equilibrium constant is related to the standard Gibbs free energy change, formula_34, for the reaction by the expression


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Therefore, "K", must be a number from which a logarithm can be derived. In the case of a simple equilibrium


title: Equilibrium constant

text: the thermodynamic equilibrium constant is defined in terms of the activities, {AB}, {A} and {B}, of the species in equilibrium with each other.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Now, each activity term can be expressed as a product of a concentration formula_37 and a corresponding activity coefficient, formula_38. Therefore,


title: Equilibrium constant

text: "K" then appears to have the dimension of 1/concentration. This is what usually happens in practice when an equilibrium constant is calculated as a quotient of concentration values. This can be avoided by dividing each concentration by its standard-state value (usually mol/L or bar), which is standard practice in chemistry.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The assumption underlying this practice is that the quotient of activities is constant under the conditions in which the equilibrium constant value is determined. These conditions are usually achieved by keeping the reaction temperature constant and by using a medium of relatively high ionic strength as the solvent. It is not unusual, particularly in texts relating to biochemical equilibria, to see an equilibrium constant value quoted with a dimension. The justification for this practice is that the concentration scale used may be either mol dm or mmol dm, so that the concentration unit has to be stated in order to avoid there being any ambiguity.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: "Note". When the concentration values are measured on the mole fraction scale all concentrations and activity coefficients are dimensionless quantities.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The apparent dimension of this "K" value is concentration; this may be written as M or mM, where the symbol M signifies a molar concentration (). The apparent dimension of a dissociation constant is the reciprocal of the apparent dimension of the corresponding association constant, and "vice versa".


title: Equilibrium constant

text: When discussing the thermodynamics of chemical equilibria it is necessary to take dimensionality into account. There are two possible approaches.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: In both approaches the numerical value of the stability constant is unchanged. The first is more useful for practical purposes; in fact, the unit of the concentration quotient is often attached to a published stability constant value in the biochemical literature. The second approach is consistent with the standard exposition of Debye–Hückel theory, where formula_48, "etc". are taken to be pure numbers.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: the concentration of water may be taken as being constant and the formation of the hydronium ion is implicit.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Water concentration is omitted from expressions defining equilibrium constants, except when solutions are very concentrated.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: If both the equilibrium constant, formula_50 and the standard enthalpy change, formula_51, for a reaction have been determined experimentally, the standard entropy change for the reaction is easily derived. Since formula_52 and formula_53


title: Equilibrium constant

text: To a first approximation the standard enthalpy change is independent of temperature. Using this approximation, definite integration of the van 't Hoff equation


title: Equilibrium constant

text: This equation can be used to calculate the value of log K at a temperature, T, knowing the value at temperature T.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The van 't Hoff equation also shows that, for an exothermic reaction (formula_57), when temperature increases "K" decreases and when temperature decreases "K" increases, in accordance with Le Chatelier's principle. The reverse applies when the reaction is endothermic.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: When "K" has been determined at more than two temperatures, a straight line fitting procedure may be applied to a plot of formula_58 against formula_59 to obtain a value for formula_60. Error propagation theory can be used to show that, with this procedure, the error on the calculated formula_60 value is much greater than the error on individual log K values. Consequently, K needs to be determined to high precision when using this method. For example, with a silver ion-selective electrode each log K value was determined with a precision of ca. 0.001 and the method was applied successfully.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Standard thermodynamic arguments can be used to show that, more generally, enthalpy will change with temperature.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The calculation of "K" at a particular temperature from a known "K" at another given temperature can be approached as follows if standard thermodynamic properties are available. The effect of temperature on equilibrium constant is equivalent to the effect of temperature on Gibbs energy because:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where Δ"G" is the reaction standard Gibbs energy, which is the sum of the standard Gibbs energies of the reaction products minus the sum of standard Gibbs energies of reactants.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Here, the term "standard" denotes the ideal behaviour (i.e., an infinite dilution) and a hypothetical standard concentration (typically 1 mol/kg). It does not imply any particular temperature or pressure because, although contrary to IUPAC recommendation, it is more convenient when describing aqueous systems over wide temperature and pressure ranges.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The standard Gibbs energy (for each species or for the entire reaction) can be represented (from the basic definitions) as:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: In the above equation, the effect of temperature on Gibbs energy (and thus on the equilibrium constant) is ascribed entirely to heat capacity. To evaluate the integrals in this equation, the form of the dependence of heat capacity on temperature needs to be known.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: If the standard molar heat capacity "C" can be approximated by some analytic function of temperature (e.g. the Shomate equation), then the integrals involved in calculating other parameters may be solved to yield analytic expressions for them. For example, using approximations of the following forms:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The constants "A", "B", "C", "a", "b" and the absolute entropy, "S̆", required for evaluation of "C"("T"), as well as the values of "G" and "S" for many species are tabulated in the literature.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The pressure dependence of the equilibrium constant is usually weak in the range of pressures normally encountered in industry, and therefore, it is usually neglected in practice. This is true for condensed reactant/products (i.e., when reactants and products are solids or liquid) as well as gaseous ones.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: For a gaseous-reaction example, one may consider the well-studied reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen to produce ammonia:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: If the pressure is increased by the addition of an inert gas, then neither the composition at equilibrium nor the equilibrium constant are appreciably affected (because the partial pressures remain constant, assuming an ideal-gas behaviour of all gases involved). However, the composition at equilibrium will depend appreciably on pressure when:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: In the example reaction above, the number of moles changes from 4 to 2, and an increase of pressure by system compression will result in appreciably more ammonia in the equilibrium mixture. In the general case of a gaseous reaction:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: where "p" denote the partial pressures and "X" the mole fractions of the components, "P" is the total system pressure, "K" is the equilibrium constant expressed in terms of partial pressures and "K" is the equilibrium constant expressed in terms of mole fractions.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The above change in composition is in accordance with Le Chatelier's principle and does not involve any change of the equilibrium constant with the total system pressure. Indeed, for ideal-gas reactions "K" is independent of pressure.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: In a condensed phase, the pressure dependence of the equilibrium constant is associated with the reaction volume. For reaction:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: For the above reaction, one can expect the change of the reaction equilibrium constant (based either on mole-fraction or molal-concentration scale) with pressure at constant temperature to be:


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Isotopic substitution can lead to changes in the values of equilibrium constants, especially if hydrogen is replaced by deuterium (or tritium). This "equilibrium isotope effect" is analogous to the kinetic isotope effect on rate constants, and is primarily due to the change in zero-point vibrational energy of H–X bonds due to the change in mass upon isotopic substitution. The zero-point energy is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass of the vibrating hydrogen atom, and will therefore be smaller for a D–X bond that for an H–X bond.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: An example is a hydrogen atom abstraction reaction R' + H–R R'–H + R with equilibrium constant K, where R' and R are organic radicals such that R' forms a stronger bond to hydrogen than does R. The decrease in zero-point energy due to deuterium substitution will then be more important for R'–H than for R–H, and R'–D will be stabilized more than R–D, so that the equilibrium constant K for R' + D–R R'–D + R is greater than K. This is summarized in the rule "the heavier atom favors the stronger bond".


title: Equilibrium constant

text: Similar effects occur in solution for acid dissociation constants (K) which describe the transfer of H or D from a weak aqueous acid to a solvent molecule: HA + HO = HO + A or DA + DO DO + A. The deuterated acid is studied in heavy water, since if it were dissolved in ordinary water the deuterium would rapidly exchange with hydrogen in the solvent.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: The product species HO (or DO) is a stronger acid than the solute acid, so that it dissociates more easily, and its H–O (or D–O) bond is weaker than the H–A (or D–A) bond of the solute acid. The decrease in zero-point energy due to isotopic substitution is therefore less important in DO than in DA so that K < K, and the deuterated acid in DO is weaker than the non-deuterated acid in HO. In many cases the difference of logarithmic constants pK – pK is about 0.6, so that the pD corresponding to 50% dissociation of the deuterated acid is about 0.6 units higher than the pH for 50% dissociation of the non-deuterated acid.


title: Equilibrium constant

text: For similar reasons the self-ionization of heavy water is less than that of ordinary water at the same temperature.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Manila massacre ( or "Masaker sa Maynila"), also called the Rape of Manila (), involved atrocities committed against Filipino civilians in the City of Manila, the capital of the Philippines, by Japanese troops during the Battle of Manila (3 February 1945 – 3 March 1945) which occurred during World War II. The total number of civilians who were killed was at least 100,000.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Manila massacre was one of several major war crimes committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, as judged by the postwar military tribunal. The Japanese commanding general, Tomoyuki Yamashita, and his chief of staff Akira Mutō, were held responsible for the massacre and other war crimes in a trial which started in October 1945. Yamashita was executed on 23 February 1946 and Mutō on 23 December 1948.


title: Manila massacre

text: Before the battle, deciding that he would be unable to defend Manila with the forces available to him, and to preserve as large a force as possible in the rural mountain Luzon region of the Philippines, General Tomoyuki Yamashita had insisted on a complete withdrawal of Japanese troops from Manila in January 1945. However, Yamashita's order was ignored by about 10,000 Japanese marines under Rear Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi who chose to remain in Manila. About 4,000 Japanese army personnel were unable to leave the city due to the advance of the American and Filipino forces.


title: Manila massacre

text: In the Battle of Manila from February to March 1945, the United States Army advanced into the city of Manila in order to drive the Japanese out. During lulls in the battle for control of the city, Japanese troops took their anger and frustration out on the civilians in the city. Violent mutilations, rapes, and massacres occurred in schools, hospitals and convents, including San Juan de Dios Hospital, Santa Rosa College, Santo Domingo Church, Manila Cathedral, Paco Church, St. Paul's Convent, and St. Vincent de Paul Church.


title: Manila massacre

text: Dr Antonio Gisbert told of the murder of his father and brother at the Palacio del Gobernador, saying, "I am one of those few survivors, not more than 50 in all out of more than 3000 men herded into Fort Santiago and, two days later, massacred.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Japanese forced Filipino women and children to be used as human shields into the front lines to protect Japanese positions. Those who survived were then murdered by the Japanese.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Japanese conducted mop-up operations to clear north Manila of guerrillas, executing more than 54,000 Filipinos, including children, as they passed through towns.


title: Manila massacre

text: Pregnant Filipino women were killed by having their bellies ripped open while Filipino civilians trying to flee were executed.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Bayview Hotel was used as a designated "rape center". According to testimony at the Yamashita war crimes trial, 400 women and girls were rounded up from Manila's wealthy Ermita district, and submitted to a selection board that picked out the 25 women who were considered most beautiful. These women and girls, many of them 12 to 14 years old, were then taken to the hotel, where Japanese enlisted men and officers took turns raping them.


title: Manila massacre

text: Despite many allied Germans holding refuge in a German club, Japanese soldiers entered in and bayoneted infants and children of mothers pleading for mercy and raped women seeking refuge. At least 20 Japanese soldiers raped a young girl before slicing her breasts off after which a Japanese soldier placed her mutilated breasts on his chest to mimic a woman while the other Japanese soldiers laughed. The Japanese then doused the young girl and two other women who were raped to death in gasoline and set them all on fire.


title: Manila massacre

text: The Japanese went on setting the entire club on fire killing many of its inhabitants. Women who were escaping out the building from the fire were caught and raped by the Japanese. 28-year-old Julia Lopez had her breasts sliced off, was raped by Japanese soldiers and had her hair set on fire. Another woman was partially decapitated after attempting to defend herself and raped by a Japanese soldier.


title: Manila massacre

text: The combined death toll of civilians for the Battle of Manila was about 100,000, most of which was attributed to massacres by Japanese forces. Some historians, citing a higher civilian casualty rate for the entire battle, suggest that 100,000 to 500,000 died as a result of the Manila massacre on its own, exclusive of other causes.


title: Manila massacre

text: Extensive as were the Japanese atrocities during the battle, American artillery and firepower were most responsible for the destruction of Manila's architectural and cultural heritage and, according to one estimate, caused 40 percent of the total Filipino deaths during the battle.


title: Manila massacre

text: Although Admiral Iwabuchi's marines had committed the atrocities and General Yamashita had earlier ordered him to evacuate Manila as he had, Yamashita was convicted as a war criminal for the Manila massacre. Iwabuchi himself committed suicide in the face of imminent defeat near the end of the Battle of Manila. Former war-crimes prosecutor and author Allan Ryan argues that there was no evidence that Yamashita committed crimes there, ordered others to do so, was in a position to prevent them, or even suspected they were about to happen.


title: Manila massacre

text: General MacArthur, five other generals, and the Supreme Court of the United States ultimately held Yamashita responsible for war crimes since he was in command of all Japanese troops in the Philippines at the time. Yamashita was convicted on the grounds that he made no attempt to discover or stop atrocities from being committed. This would become known as the Yamashita standard. A group of American military lawyers attempted to defend General Yamashita by appealing to the U.S. Supreme Court, but the appeal failed, 5 votes to 2. As a result, Yamashita was sentenced to death by hanging. He was hanged on 23 February 1946 in a camp south of Manila. The two dissenting Supreme Court Justices called the entire trial a miscarriage of justice, an exercise in vengeance, and a denial of human rights.


title: Sweetness

text: Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, and sugar alcohols. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as non-caloric sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and aspartame. Other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself.


title: Sweetness

text: The perceived intensity of sugars and high-potency sweeteners, such as Aspartame and Neohesperidin Dihydrochalcone, are heritable, with gene effect accounting for approximately 30% of the variation.


title: Sweetness

text: The chemosensory basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between both individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the multipoint attachment theory, which involves multiple binding sites between a sweetness receptor and a sweet substance.


title: Sweetness

text: Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, being manifest as chemotaxis even in motile bacteria such as "E. coli". Newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, the sugar found in breast milk. Sweetness appears to have the highest taste recognition threshold, being detectable at around 1 part in 200 of sucrose in solution. By comparison, bitterness appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. In the natural settings that human primate ancestors evolved in, sweetness intensity should indicate energy density, while bitterness tends to indicate toxicity. The high sweetness detection threshold and low bitterness detection threshold would have predisposed our primate ancestors to seek out sweet-tasting (and energy-dense) foods and avoid bitter-tasting foods. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, which tend to be higher in protein and lower in fibre and poisons than mature leaves. The 'sweet tooth' thus has an ancient heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged.


title: Sweetness

text: A great diversity of chemical compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones, are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the simple carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree. Sucrose (table sugar) is the prototypical example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, and other substances are rated relative to this. For example, another sugar, fructose, is somewhat sweeter, being rated at 1.7 times the sweetness of sucrose. Some of the amino acids are mildly sweet: alanine, glycine, and serine are the sweetest. Some other amino acids are perceived as both sweet and bitter.


title: Sweetness

text: The sweetness of 20% solution of glycine in water compares to a solution of 10% glucose or 5% fructose.


title: Sweetness

text: A number of plant species produce glycosides that are sweet at concentrations much lower than common sugars. The most well-known example is glycyrrhizin, the sweet component of licorice root, which is about 30 times sweeter than sucrose. Another commercially important example is stevioside, from the South American shrub "Stevia rebaudiana". It is roughly 250 times sweeter than sucrose. Another class of potent natural sweeteners are the sweet proteins such as thaumatin, found in the West African katemfe fruit. Hen egg lysozyme, an antibiotic protein found in chicken eggs, is also sweet.


title: Sweetness

text: Some variation in values is not uncommon between various studies. Such variations may arise from a range of methodological variables, from sampling to analysis and interpretation. Indeed, the taste index of 1, assigned to reference substances such as sucrose (for sweetness), hydrochloric acid (for sourness), quinine (for bitterness), and sodium chloride (for saltiness), is itself arbitrary for practical purposes. Some values, such as those for maltose and glucose, vary little. Others, such as aspartame and sodium saccharin, have much larger variation.


title: Sweetness

text: Even some inorganic compounds are sweet, including beryllium chloride and lead(II) acetate. The latter may have contributed to lead poisoning among the ancient Roman aristocracy: the Roman delicacy "sapa" was prepared by boiling soured wine (containing acetic acid) in lead pots.


title: Sweetness

text: Hundreds of synthetic organic compounds are known to be sweet, but only a few of these are legally permitted as food additives. For example, chloroform, nitrobenzene, and ethylene glycol are sweet, but also toxic. Saccharin, cyclamate, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, sucralose, alitame, and neotame are commonly used.


title: Sweetness

text: A few substances alter the way sweet taste is perceived. One class of these inhibits the perception of sweet tastes, whether from sugars or from highly potent sweeteners. Commercially, the most important of these is lactisole, a compound produced by Domino Sugar. It is used in some jellies and other fruit preserves to bring out their fruit flavors by suppressing their otherwise strong sweetness.


title: Sweetness

text: Two natural products have been documented to have similar sweetness-inhibiting properties: gymnemic acid, extracted from the leaves of the Indian vine "Gymnema sylvestre" and ziziphin, from the leaves of the Chinese jujube ("Ziziphus jujuba"). Gymnemic acid has been widely promoted within herbal medicine as a treatment for sugar cravings and diabetes mellitus.


title: Sweetness

text: On the other hand, two plant proteins, miraculin and curculin, cause sour foods to taste sweet. Once the tongue has been exposed to either of these proteins, sourness is perceived as sweetness for up to an hour afterwards. While curculin has some innate sweet taste of its own, miraculin is by itself quite tasteless.


title: Sweetness

text: Despite the wide variety of chemical substances known to be sweet, and knowledge that the ability to perceive sweet taste must reside in taste buds on the tongue, the biomolecular mechanism of sweet taste was sufficiently elusive that as recently as the 1990s, there was some doubt whether any single "sweetness receptor" actually exists.


title: Sweetness

text: The breakthrough for the present understanding of sweetness occurred in 2001, when experiments with laboratory mice showed that mice possessing different versions of the gene T1R3 prefer sweet foods to different extents. Subsequent research has shown that the T1R3 protein forms a complex with a related protein, called T1R2, to form a G-protein coupled receptor that is the sweetness receptor in mammals.


title: Sweetness

text: Human studies have shown that sweet taste receptors are not only found in the tongue, but also in the lining of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the nasal epithelium, pancreatic islet cells, sperm and testes. It is proposed that the presence of sweet taste receptors in the GI tract controls the feeling of hunger and satiety.


title: Sweetness

text: Another research has shown that the threshold of sweet taste perception is in direct correlation with the time of day. This is believed to be the consequence of oscillating leptin levels in blood that may impact the overall sweetness of food. Scientists hypothesize that this is an evolutionary relict of diurnal animals like humans.


title: Sweetness

text: Sweetness perception may differ between species significantly. For example, even amongst the primates sweetness is quite variable. New World monkeys do not find aspartame sweet, while Old World monkeys and apes (including most humans) all do. Felids like domestic cats cannot perceive sweetness at all.


title: Sweetness

text: The ability to taste sweetness often atrophies genetically in species of carnivores who do not eat sweet foods like fruits, including bottlenose dolphins, sea lions, spotted hyenas and fossas.


title: Sweetness

text: To depolarize the cell, and ultimately generate a response, the body uses different cells in the taste bud that each express a receptor for the perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter or umami. Downstream of the taste receptor, the taste cells for sweet, bitter and umami share the same intracellular signalling pathway. Incoming sweet molecules bind to their receptors, which causes a conformational change in the molecule. This change activates the G-protein, gustducin, which in turn activates phospholipase C to generate inositol trisphosphate (IP), this subsequently opens the IP-receptor and induces calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. This increase in intracellular calcium activates the TRPM5 channel and induces cellular depolarization. The ATP release channel CALHM1 gets activated by the depolarization and releases ATP neurotransmitter which activates the afferent neurons innervating the taste bud.


title: Sweetness

text: The color of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2–10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations. Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled.