title: Vettaikaaran (2009 film)

text: Sify gave the film a 4/5 star rating, and wrote the "major plus for the movie are the five peppy songs tuned by Vijay Antony which are choreographed well ... The action scenes by Kanal Kannan are superbly choreographed. Gopinath’s camera is slick and editing is fast-paced". Behindwoods rated 4/5 and stated "The charismatic screen presence of Vijay, enjoyable musical tracks, sparkling stunts, fiery punch lines, the signature lighter moments and foot tapping numbers, makes the movie entertain the family audience, and stated that director B. Babusivan had made a wholesome family entertainer movie. The Times of India gave 3.5 stars out of 5 criticising Babusivan for failing to properly tell the story in the second half. "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 38 out of 100.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: Shaheed Bhagat Singh International Airport is a civil enclave customs airport serving the city of Chandigarh. The airport is located in the village of Jhiurheri, Mohali, Punjab. The airport caters to six domestic airlines and connects Chandigarh to 17 domestic destinations and 2 international destinations. The airport was awarded as the 'Best Airport by Hygiene Measures' in Asia-Pacific in 2021, by Airports Council International.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: Chandigarh Airport operated all its civil and commercial operations from the civil enclave of the Indian Air Force Station. Indian Airlines started operating flights from Chandigarh to Delhi in the 1970s. A new airport building was constructed in the civil enclave and was opened on 14 April 2011. This air terminal was declared a customs airport on 19 August 2011, making it eligible for a limited number of international flights, but no international flight ever operated from this terminal.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: In 2008, the Government of Punjab acquired 304.04 acres of land on the south side of the existing runway in Jhiurheri village at a cost of to build the new international terminal, which was completed in 2015 at a cost of . The Government of Punjab through GMADA and the Government of Haryana through HUDA each have a 24.5% stake and the Airports Authority of India holds the rest, a 51% stake in CHIAL the operator of the airport.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: On 24 December 2015 the Mohali Industries Association filed a public interest litigation (PIL) in the Punjab and Haryana High Court for non-operation of international flights after spending on the airport. After numerous hearings at Punjab and Haryana High Court and a long wait, IndiGo and Air India Express commenced flights to Dubai and Sharjah respectively in September 2016.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: The new terminal was inaugurated by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 11 September 2015. This new eco-friendly terminal is one of its kind in India and was built by Larsen and Toubro. The interior of the airport has plants, for a feeling of a botanical garden. It is located at the village of Jhiurheri in Punjab and became operational on 19 October 2015.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: Construction of the new terminal included two link taxiways to the terminal and cargo complex. A 900m taxiway was added in April 2022 increasing the capacity to 20 aircraft per hour. The terminal has five aerobridges apron for parking five in contact and eight remote parking stands for aircraft. The departures are on the first floor and arrivals on the ground floor. The first phase of the terminal covering 53,000 sq metres has a capacity of 1,600 passengers at a time and a parking space for 150 vehicles. This is not a greenfield airport but uses the runway of the present Indian air force base.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: There is one ATM located in the parking area, WiFi inside the terminal, and one duty-free shop in the departures area. The airport facilities are operated by CHIAL (Chandigarh International Airport Limited).


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: The airport has single runway 11/29. From 2017 to 2019, the runway went through a major upgrade and repair that was completed on 9 April 2019. The expanded runway with approach lighting is long with effective take-off length of runway . , the airport is available for 24 hour operations. Additional runway approach lighting in the touchdown zone was installed in 2021 to assist in landing during foggy weather. As of 2022, runway is 10,400 ft Code 4E and equipped with 900 AFLS, 02 ILS, CAT I ILS at Rwy 11 and CAT-II at Rwy 29 making IXC capable to handle wide-bodied aircraft.


title: Chandigarh Airport

text: An integrated common use cargo terminal to handle domestic, international including perishable goods is planned. The cargo terminal will include five buildings of each, with one building designated for perishable goods.


title: Young Royals

text: Young Royals is a Swedish teen drama romance streaming television series on Netflix. Set at the fictional elite boarding school Hillerska, the plot primarily follows the fictional Prince Wilhelm of Sweden (Edvin Ryding), his romance with fellow male student Simon Eriksson (Omar Rudberg), and the drama it results in.


title: Young Royals

text: The show was created by Lisa Ambjörn, Lars Beckung, and Camilla Holter, and premiered on 1 July 2021. On 22 September 2021, the series was renewed for a second season, which was released on 1 November 2022. In December 2022, the series was renewed for a third and final season.


title: Young Royals

text: The series was mostly filmed at Kaggeholms gård, a manor-style building located in Stockholm County that is operated as a conference center. The scenes that took place at the royal palace were filmed at Stora Sundby Castle. The six-episode series was created by Lisa Ambjörn, Lars Beckung and Camilla Holter, and premiered on Netflix on 1 July 2021. On 22 September 2021, the series was renewed for a second season, which was released on 1 November 2022.


title: Young Royals

text: In February 2022, Netflix began filming a second season. A promotional video was released on Instagram. Filming for the second season wrapped in May 2022.


title: Young Royals

text: In January 2021, long before the announcement of the series' release date, Edvin Ryding, Pernilla August, Malte Gårdinger, Frida Argento, Nikita Uggla and Omar Rudberg were announced to have been cast in the starring roles while Nathalie Varli, Felicia Truedsson, Mimmi Cyon, Ingela Olsson, Rennie Mirro, Livia Millhagen and David Lenneman were announced to have been cast in the recurring roles. Ryding was cast as Prince Wilhelm and August was cast to play his mother, Queen Kristina of Sweden. It was later announced that Rudberg would play Simon, Prince Wilhelm's love interest.


title: Young Royals

text: The series' official teaser was released on 19 May 2021 with the official trailer released on 17 June 2021.. On 15 December 2022 Ryding and Rudberg made their US tv debut as guests on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, where they promoted Young Royals and its upcoming third and final season.


title: Young Royals

text: The first season made it to the top 10 in 12 countries and was streamed for more than 9.8 million hours worldwide. In the first week after its release, the first season was ranked the 8th most streamed non-English language series on Netflix worldwide.


title: Young Royals

text: The second season made it to the top 10 in 26 countries and was streamed more than 18 million hours in the first week. During this week, the second season was ranked the 3rd most streamed non-English language series on Netflix worldwide.


title: Young Royals

text: In its second week, the second season was streamed more than 6.2 million hours. It was the 10th most-streamed non-English language series on Netflix.


title: Young Royals

text: "Young Royals" received critical acclaim and positive responses from audiences. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 100%, based on five reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. It has been praised for its fidelity to real life in casting teenagers for teenage roles and showing skin textures with blemishes. Some critics and audiences compared the series favourably to similar shows such as "Elite", "Gossip Girl", "The Crown" and "Skam".


title: Young Royals

text: David Opie of "Digital Spy" praised "Young Royals" for "cast[ing] actors who actually look the age they're supposed to be playing" and "portray[ing] teenage life with some much-needed authenticity". He described the series as "an updated version of the classic Cinderella story" and concluded that the series "excels most [...] when it comes to the central romance between Wilhelm and Simon". TV critic Flora Carr of "Radio Times" in a review of the first two episodes described the series as "predictable but heartfelt". She criticised the series' "checklist of teen-romance visuals" and "the plot's reliance on characters like August", but ultimately concluded that "the authentically teenage cast may also prove a breath of fresh air" for younger viewers.


title: Young Royals

text: For the second season, Dieter Osswald of Swiss lifestyle magazine "Display" wrote: "Like stand-up characters, the separated lovers defy their fate and fight for their love. The chemistry between Edvin Ryding as the insecure prince and Omar Rudberg as the sensitive singer works even better than in the first season. Fans of creep August aka Malte Gardinger can look forward to bigger appearances with a strongly expanded role - including a naked phone call with the royal family."


title: Kia Carens

text: The Kia Carens () is a car manufactured by Kia since 1999, spanning over four generations, and was marketed worldwide under various nameplates, prominently as the Kia Rondo. The initial three generations had a compact MPV body style and were marketed worldwide, with presence in its home country South Korea, in Europe, and North America since the second-generation. The fourth-generation model took a different approach in terms of design and targeted markets, as it was developed as a "strategic model" for the Indian market. It also adopts a crossover-inspired exterior design.


title: Kia Carens

text: The name "Carens" derives from the word "car" and "renaissance", while the name "Rondo" derives from the musical term Rondo.


title: Kia Carens

text: Kia debuted the first generation model of Carens, the RS series in May 1999. A facelift was issued in 2002.


title: Kia Carens

text: The model was discontinued in Australia in 2001, with production continuing elsewhere for the updated model which was launched in 2002.


title: Kia Carens

text: The first-generation vehicle was initially sold in Malaysia as the Kia Carens. Since January 2005, Kia Carens was rebadged as Naza Citra by Naza. The Naza Citra was updated in June 2009.


title: Kia Carens

text: The second generation Carens, known as the UN series, was launched in 2006. The Carens/Rondo followed Kia's introduction at the Frankfurt Motor Show of the Multi-S, essentially the Carens/Rondo in concept form — the "S" standing for "Sporty, Spacious and Smart." The Multi-S differed significantly from the production model, only its inclusion of a dual panel sunroof running the length of the roof. In North America and Australia, the car is called the Rondo and Rondo7 respectively.


title: Kia Carens

text: The Rondo made its public debut at the 2006 Los Angeles International Auto Show, with the 2007 model's North American sales debut in December 2006 in Canada and early 2007 in the United States. In Australia, sales commenced April 2008.


title: Kia Carens

text: In the United States, Kia sold more than 20,000 units in each of the first two model years exceeding internal sales goals. Sales rapidly declined in the 2009 model year and never recovered.


title: Kia Carens

text: Available as a five or optional seven passenger vehicle with either a standard 175 hp 2.4L 4-cylinder engine or an optional 192 hp 2.7-liter V6 engine in two trim levels. In Australia, it is only available as a seven passenger vehicle with a 2.0-litre four cylinder engine and a choice of an automatic or manual transmission, depending on trim level. The V6 was Kia's last engine to use a timing belt instead of a timing chain.


title: Kia Carens

text: Standard features depending on market include: sixteen inch alloy wheels, AM/FM/CD player/Sirius Satellite Radio/MP3 Capability, iPod auxiliary jack, air conditioning, power windows and door locks, front/side/full length Side curtain airbags, four wheel disc brakes, ABS, electronic stability control, tire pressure monitoring system, LATCH, child safety door locks, tilt steering column, front and rear twelve volt outlets, front and rear cup holders.


title: Kia Carens

text: Options include: moonroof, leather interior, heated front seats, cruise control, keyless entry, Infinity ten speaker stereo.


title: Kia Carens

text: As of August 2010, Kia discontinued the Rondo in the United States and continued to market the 2011 facelifted Carens/Rondo in Canada, adopting Kia's new grille.


title: Kia Carens

text: Kia debuted the third-generation Carens (codename: "RP") in September 2012 at the 2012 Paris Motor Show. The V6 from the second generation has been dropped, and in its place is the option of a 2.0-litre "Nu" four-cylinder GDI petrol, producing and , or a 1.7-litre "U2" four-cylinder diesel producing and , both can be paired with a six-speed manual or six-speed automatic. A 1.6-litre GDI petrol engine is available in the UK. The Carens is offered in either 5-seat or 7-seat configurations. Sales began in March 2013 in South Korea.


title: Kia Carens

text: In North America, the third generation Kia Rondo was only available in Canada, due to slow sales in the United States. Sales in Canada ended after the 2017 model year.


title: Kia Carens

text: In September 2016, the Carens was given a minor facelift with redesigned fascias, wheels and lights, as well as an enlarged "Tiger Nose" grille. The 1.7-litre diesel has been retuned and now produces and , while its 6-speed automatic transmission has been swapped to a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission.


title: Kia Carens

text: In March 2013, Kia Motors collaborated with DreamWorks Animation to cross promote the Carens with the film "The Croods".


title: Kia Carens

text: The fourth-generation Carens was revealed in India on 16 December 2021. It was developed under the codename "KY". Based on a stretched Seltos/Hyundai Creta platform, it is mainly marketed for India and other emerging markets as opposed to previous generations. Instead of the previous generations' compact MPV configuration, the fourth-generation model is configured as a compact crossover. It is marketed by Kia as a "recreational vehicle" (RV) with 6-seater and 7-seater configurations offered and was developed with an emphasis on space for third-row seat occupants.


title: Kia Carens

text: The model shared the same powertrain and gearbox options as the Indian-made Seltos, consisting of two petrol engines and one diesel engine. The petrol engines are 1.5-litre naturally aspirated engine that makes paired with six-speed manual transmission or CVT, and a 1.4-liter "Smartstream" turbocharged engine that produces paired with six-speed manual transmission or a seven-speed dual-clutch transmission. The diesel engine is a 1.5-litre "U-Line" unit that produces paired with six-speed manual transmission or six-speed torque-converter automatic.


title: Kia Carens

text: In Indonesia, the fourth-generation Carens was first shown at the Gaikindo Jakarta Auto Week on 12 March 2022, and launched at the 29th Gaikindo Indonesia International Auto Show on 11 August 2022. The sole Premiere grade is offered with either a 1.5-litre petrol engine with CVT, or a 1.4-litre turbocharged petrol engine with 7-speed DCT. The latter has a 6-seater configuration with captain seats.


title: Kia Carens

text: The Vietnamese-market Carens was launched on 11 November 2022, it is offered in four grades: Deluxe (6-speed manual and IVT), Luxury (IVT), Premium (7-speed DCT or 6-speed automatic) and Signature (7-speed DCT or 6-speed automatic). Like the ones on the Indian market, the Vietnamese-market Carens are available with three engines: The 1.5-litre naturally aspirated gasoline engine which is available on the Deluxe and Luxury grades, the 1.4-liter "Smartstream" turbocharged gasoline engine and the 1.5-litre "U-Line" diesel engine which is available on both Premium and Signature grades. Like other Kia models, it is assembled locally at THACO Kia manufacturing facility in Chu Lai Province.


title: Kia Carens

text: The fourth-generation Carens for the Indian market is equipped as standard with two frontal airbags, two front-seat side body airbags, two head-protecting curtain airbags covering the first two rows, antilock brakes, Electronic Stability Control, hill-hold and a tyre pressure monitor.


title: Kia Carens

text: Kia sponsored Global NCAP crashworthiness assessment for the Carens in March 2022 with results published in late June. The Carens was the last model to be assessed against the 2017-22 Global NCAP protocols. In the frontal offset test, front occupant head and neck protection was good and airbag contact was stable, an improvement over its partner model the Seltos. Dummy readings of limited chest compression combined with an unstable passenger compartment resulted in protection of the chest being rated as marginal. The footwell ruptured so Kia were not allowed to demonstrate that structures behind the fascia would not increase risk of injury to occupants of different sizes or those sat in different positions. Pedal movement was high, which was the major reason for the low score. Child dynamic were good for the 18 month-old dummy but the 3 year-old child had excessive head excursion.


title: Kia Carens

text: Kia also sponsored a regulatory side impact test according to the ECE Regulation 95 protocols and the Carens passed, but this could not be used in the assessment because the Carens did not reach the minimum points in the frontal impact for a five star result.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kurt Georg Kiesinger (; 6 April 1904 – 9 March 1988) was a German politician who served as the chancellor of West Germany from 1 December 1966 to 21 October 1969. Before he became Chancellor he served as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg from 1958 to 1966 and as President of the Federal Council from 1962 to 1963. He was Chairman of the Christian Democratic Union from 1967 to 1971.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger gained his certificate as a lawyer in March 1933 and worked as a lawyer in Berlin's Kammergericht court from 1935 to 1940. He had joined the Nazi Party in 1933, but remained a largely inactive member. To avoid conscription, he found work at the Foreign Office in 1940, and became deputy head of the Foreign Office's broadcasting department. During his service at the Foreign Office, he was denounced by two colleagues for his anti-Nazi stance. In 1946 he became a member of the Christian Democratic Union. He was elected to the Bundestag in 1949, and was a member of the Bundestag until 1958 and again from 1969 to 1980. He left federal politics for eight years (from 1958 to 1966) to serve as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg, and subsequently became Chancellor by forming a grand coalition with Willy Brandt's Social Democratic Party.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger was considered an outstanding orator and mediator, and was dubbed "King Silver Tongue". He was an author of poetry and various books, and founded the universities of Konstanz and Ulm as Minister President of Baden-Württemberg. Kiesinger is also considered controversial, which is mainly due to his affiliation and work with the Nazis. The student movement in particular, but also other sections of the population, saw Kiesinger as a politician who stood for the inadequacy of Germans' coming to terms with the past.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kurt Georg Kiesinger was born in Ebingen, Kingdom of Württemberg (now Albstadt, Baden-Württemberg). His father was a commercial clerk in companies engaged in the local textile industry. Kiesinger was baptized Catholic because his mother was Catholic, though his father was a protestant. His mother died six months after he was born. His maternal grandmother exerted a strong influence on Kiesinger and encouraged him, while his father was indifferent to his advancement. After a year, his father was remarried to a Karoline Victoria Pfaff. They had seven children, of whom Kiesinger's half-sister Maria died a year after she was born. Pfaff was also a Catholic. Kiesinger was therefore shaped by both denominations and later referred to himself gladly as a "Protestant Catholic". Politically, Kiesinger grew up in a liberal, democratically-minded milieu.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger studied law in Berlin and worked as a then as lawyer in Berlin from 1935 to 1940. As a student, he joined the (non-"couleur" wearing) Roman Catholic corporations "" and Askania-Burgundia Berlin. He became a member of the Nazi Party in February 1933, but remained a largely inactive member. In 1940, he was called to arms but avoided mobilization by finding a job in the Foreign Office's broadcasting department, rising quickly to become deputy head of the department from 1943 to 1945 and the department's liaison with the Propaganda Ministry. He worked under Joachim von Ribbentrop, who would later be condemned to death at Nuremberg. After the war, he was interned by the Americans for his connection to Ribbentrop and spent 18 months in the Ludwigsburg camp before being released as a case of mistaken identity.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Franco-German journalist Beate Klarsfeld demonstrated Kiesinger's close connections to Ribbentrop and Joseph Goebbels, the head of Nazi Germany's Propaganda Ministry. She also asserted that Kiesinger had been chiefly responsible for the contents of German international broadcasts which included anti-Semitic and war propaganda, and had collaborated closely with SS functionaries and Franz Alfred Six. The latter was responsible for mass murders in Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe and was tried as a war criminal in the "Einsatzgruppen Trial" at Nuremberg. Even after becoming aware of the extermination of the Jews, Kiesinger had continued to produce anti-Semitic propaganda. These allegations were based in part on documents that Albert Norden published about the culprits of war and Nazi crimes.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) in 1946. From 1946 he gave private lessons to law students, and in 1948 he resumed his practice as a lawyer. In 1947 he also became unpaid secretary-general of the CDU in Württemberg-Hohenzollern.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: In the federal election in 1949 he was elected to the Bundestag, in which he went on to sit until 1958 and again from 1969 to 1980. In his first legislative term he represented the constituency of Ravensburg, in which he achieved record results of over 70 percent, from 1969 the constituency of Waldshut. For the 1976 federal election, Kiesinger renounced his own constituency and entered parliament via the Baden-Württemberg state list of his party. In the first two legislative periods (1949–1957) he was chairman of the mediation committee of the Bundestag and Bundesrat. On 19 October 1950, Kiesinger received 55 votes against his party friend Hermann Ehlers (201 votes) in the election for President of the Bundestag, although he had not been proposed. In 1951 he became a member of the CDU executive board. From December 17, 1954 to January 29, 1959, he was chairman of the Bundestag Committee on Foreign Affairs, to which he had been a member since 1949.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: During that time, he became known for his rhetorical brilliance, as well as his in-depth knowledge of foreign affairs. However, despite the recognition he enjoyed within the Christian Democrat parliamentary faction, he was passed over during various cabinet reshuffles. Consequently, he decided to switch from federal to state politics.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger became Minister President of the state of Baden-Württemberg on 17 December 1958, an office in which he served until 1 December 1966. At that time Kiesinger was also a member of the Landtag of Baden-Württemberg. As Minister President he was President of the German Bundesrat from 1 November 1962 to 31 October 1963. During his time in office he founded two universities, the University of Konstanz and the University of Ulm.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: In the early days of the Federal Republic of Germany, oversized coalitions were not uncommon at the state level, and so Kiesinger led a coalition of the CDU, SPD, FDP/DVP and BHE until 1960, but then a coalition from 1960 to 1966. On 15 April 1961, the BHE disbanded.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: In 1966 following the collapse of the existing CDU/CSU-FDP coalition, Kiesinger was elected to replace Ludwig Erhard as Chancellor, heading a new CDU/CSU-SPD alliance. The government formed by Kiesinger remained in power for nearly three years with the SPD leader Willy Brandt as Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Kiesinger reduced tensions with the Soviet bloc nations establishing diplomatic relations with Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia but he opposed any major conciliatory moves. A number of progressive reforms were also realised during Kiesinger's time as Chancellor. Pension coverage was extended in 1967 via the abolition of the income-ceiling for compulsory membership. In education, student grants were introduced, together with a university building programme, while a constitutional reform of 1969 empowered the federal government to be involved with the Länder in educational planning through joint planning commission. Vocational training legislation was also introduced, while a reorganisation of unemployment insurance promoted retraining schemes, counselling and advice services and job creation places. In addition, under the “Lohnfortzahlunggesetz” of 1969, employers had to pay all employees’ wages for the first six weeks of sickness. In August 1969, the Landabgaberente (a higher special pension for farmers willing to cede farms that were unprofitable according to certain criteria) was introduced.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: The historian Tony Judt has observed that Kiesinger's chancellorship, like the presidency of Heinrich Lübke, showed the "a glaring contradiction in the Bonn Republic's self-image" in view of their previous Nazi allegiances. One of his low points as Chancellor was in 1968 when Nazi-hunter Beate Klarsfeld, who campaigned with her husband Serge Klarsfeld against Nazi criminals, publicly slapped him in the face during the 1968 Christian Democrat convention, while calling him a Nazi. She did so in French and – whilst being dragged out of the room by two ushers – repeated her words in German saying ""Kiesinger! Nazi! Abtreten!"" ("Kiesinger! Nazi! Step down!") Kiesinger, holding his left cheek, did not respond. Up to his death he refused to comment on the incident and in other opportunities he denied explicitly that he had been opportunistic by joining the NSDAP in 1933 (although he admitted to joining the German Foreign Ministry to dodge his 1940 draft by the Wehrmacht). Other prominent critics included the writers Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass (in 1966, Grass had written an open letter urging Kiesinger not to accept the chancellorship).


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: After the election of 1969, the SPD preferred to form a coalition with the FDP, ending the uninterrupted post-war reign of the CDU chancellors. Kiesinger was succeeded as Chancellor by his former Vice-Chancellor Willy Brandt.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: Kiesinger continued to head the CDU/CSU in opposition and remained a member of the Bundestag until 1980. In July 1971 Kiesinger was succeeded as Leader of the Christian Democratic Union by Rainer Barzel. In 1972 he justified the constructive vote of no confidence by the CDU/CSU parliamentary group against Willy Brandt in the Bundestag. The subsequent vote in Brandt with the aim of electing the then CDU leader Rainer Barzel as chancellor was unsuccessful because of the bribery of Julius Steiner and probably Leo Wagner by GDR's Stasi.


title: Kurt Georg Kiesinger

text: In 1980 Kiesinger ended his career as politician and worked on his memoir. Of his planned memoirs, only the first part ("Dark and Bright Years") was completed, covering the years up to 1958. It was released after his death in 1989. Kiesinger died in Tübingen on 9 March 1988, four weeks before his 84th birthday. After a requiem mass in Stuttgart's St. Eberhard Church, his funeral procession was followed by protesters (mainly students) who wanted his former membership in the Nazi Party remembered.


title: Microkernel

text: In computer science, a microkernel (often abbreviated as μ-kernel) is the near-minimum amount of software that can provide the mechanisms needed to implement an operating system (OS). These mechanisms include low-level address space management, thread management, and inter-process communication (IPC).


title: Microkernel

text: If the hardware provides multiple rings or CPU modes, the microkernel may be the only software executing at the most privileged level, which is generally referred to as supervisor or kernel mode. Traditional operating system functions, such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, are typically removed from the microkernel itself and are instead run in user space.


title: Microkernel

text: In terms of the source code size, microkernels are often smaller than monolithic kernels. The MINIX 3 microkernel, for example, has only approximately 12,000 lines of code.


title: Microkernel

text: Microkernels trace their roots back to Danish computer pioneer Per Brinch Hansen and his tenure in Danish computer company Regnecentralen where he led software development efforts for the RC 4000 computer. In 1967, Regnecentralen was installing a RC 4000 prototype in the Zakłady Azotowe Puławy fertilizer plant in Poland. The computer used a small real-time operating system tailored for the needs of the plant. Brinch Hansen and his team became concerned with the lack of generality and reusability of the RC 4000 system. They feared that each installation would require a different operating system so they started to investigate novel and more general ways of creating software for the RC 4000.


title: Microkernel

text: In 1969, their effort resulted in the completion of the RC 4000 Multiprogramming System. Its nucleus provided inter-process communication based on message-passing for up to 23 unprivileged processes, out of which 8 at a time were protected from one another. It further implemented scheduling of time slices of programs executed in parallel, initiation and control of program execution at the request of other running programs, and initiation of data transfers to or from peripherals. Besides these elementary mechanisms, it had no built-in strategy for program execution and resource allocation. This strategy was to be implemented by a hierarchy of running programs in which parent processes had complete control over child processes and acted as their operating systems.


title: Microkernel

text: Following Brinch Hansen's work, microkernels have been developed since the 1970s. The term microkernel itself first appeared no later than 1981. Microkernels were meant as a response to changes in the computer world, and to several challenges adapting existing "mono-kernels" to these new systems. New device drivers, protocol stacks, file systems and other low-level systems were being developed all the time. This code was normally located in the monolithic kernel, and thus required considerable work and careful code management to work on. Microkernels were developed with the idea that all of these services would be implemented as user-space programs, like any other, allowing them to be worked on monolithically and started and stopped like any other program. This would not only allow these services to be more easily worked on, but also separated the kernel code to allow it to be finely tuned without worrying about unintended side effects. Moreover, it would allow entirely new operating systems to be "built up" on a common core, aiding OS research.


title: Microkernel

text: Microkernels were a very hot topic in the 1980s when the first usable local area networks were being introduced.. The AmigaOS Exec kernel was an early example, introduced in 1986 and used in a PC with relative commercial success. The lack of memory protection, considered in other respects a flaw, allowed this kernel to have very high message-passing performance because it did not need to copy data while exchanging messages between user-space programs.


title: Microkernel

text: The same mechanisms that allowed the kernel to be distributed into user space also allowed the system to be distributed across network links. The first microkernels, notably Mach created by Richard Rashid, proved to have disappointing performance, but the inherent advantages appeared so great that it was a major line of research into the late 1990s. However, during this time the speed of computers grew greatly in relation to networking systems, and the disadvantages in performance came to overwhelm the advantages in development terms.


title: Microkernel

text: Many attempts were made to adapt the existing systems to have better performance, but the overhead was always considerable and most of these efforts required the user-space programs to be moved back into the kernel. By 2000, most large-scale Mach kernel efforts had ended, although Apple's macOS, released in 2001, still uses a hybrid kernel called XNU, which combines a heavily modified (hybrid) OSF/1's Mach kernel (OSFMK 7.3 kernel) with code from BSD UNIX, and this kernel is also used in iOS, tvOS, and watchOS. Windows NT, starting with NT 3.1 and continuing with Windows 11, uses a hybrid kernel design. , the Mach-based GNU Hurd is also functional and included in testing versions of Arch Linux and Debian.


title: Microkernel

text: Although major work on microkernels had largely ended, experimenters continued development. It has since been shown that many of the performance problems of earlier designs were not a fundamental limitation of the concept, but instead due to the designer's desire to use single-purpose systems to implement as many of these services as possible. Using a more pragmatic approach to the problem, including assembly code and relying on the processor to enforce concepts normally supported in software led to a new series of microkernels with dramatically improved performance.


title: Microkernel

text: Microkernels are closely related to exokernels. They also have much in common with hypervisors, but the latter make no claim to minimality and are specialized to supporting virtual machines; the L4 microkernel frequently finds use in a hypervisor capacity.


title: Microkernel

text: Early operating system kernels were rather small, partly because computer memory was limited. As the capability of computers grew, the number of devices the kernel had to control also grew. Throughout the early history of Unix, kernels were generally small, even though they contained various device drivers and file system implementations. When address spaces increased from 16 to 32 bits, kernel design was no longer constrained by the hardware architecture, and kernels began to grow larger.


title: Microkernel

text: The Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD) of Unix began the era of larger kernels. In addition to operating a basic system consisting of the CPU, disks and printers, BSD added a complete TCP/IP networking system and a number of "virtual" devices that allowed the existing programs to work 'invisibly' over the network. This growth continued for many years, resulting in kernels with millions of lines of source code. As a result of this growth, kernels were prone to bugs and became increasingly difficult to maintain.


title: Microkernel

text: The microkernel was intended to address this growth of kernels and the difficulties that resulted. In theory, the microkernel design allows for easier management of code due to its division into user space services. This also allows for increased security and stability resulting from the reduced amount of code running in kernel mode. For example, if a networking service crashed due to buffer overflow, only the networking service's memory would be corrupted, leaving the rest of the system still functional.


title: Microkernel

text: Inter-process communication (IPC) is any mechanism which allows separate processes to communicate with each other, usually by sending messages. Shared memory is, strictly defined, also an inter-process communication mechanism, but the abbreviation IPC usually refers to message passing only, and it is the latter that is particularly relevant to microkernels. IPC allows the operating system to be built from a number of smaller programs called servers, which are used by other programs on the system, invoked via IPC. Most or all support for peripheral hardware is handled in this fashion, with servers for device drivers, network protocol stacks, file systems, graphics, etc.


title: Microkernel

text: IPC can be synchronous or asynchronous. Asynchronous IPC is analogous to network communication: the sender dispatches a message and continues executing. The receiver checks (polls) for the availability of the message, or is alerted to it via some notification mechanism. Asynchronous IPC requires that the kernel maintains buffers and queues for messages, and deals with buffer overflows; it also requires double copying of messages (sender to kernel and kernel to receiver). In synchronous IPC, the first party (sender or receiver) blocks until the other party is ready to perform the IPC. It does not require buffering or multiple copies, but the implicit rendezvous can make programming tricky. Most programmers prefer asynchronous send and synchronous receive.


title: Microkernel

text: First-generation microkernels typically supported synchronous as well as asynchronous IPC, and suffered from poor IPC performance. Jochen Liedtke assumed the design and implementation of the IPC mechanisms to be the underlying reason for this poor performance. In his L4 microkernel he pioneered methods that lowered IPC costs by an order of magnitude. These include an IPC system call that supports a send as well as a receive operation, making all IPC synchronous, and passing as much data as possible in registers. Furthermore, Liedtke introduced the concept of the "direct process switch", where during an IPC execution an (incomplete) context switch is performed from the sender directly to the receiver. If, as in L4, part or all of the message is passed in registers, this transfers the in-register part of the message without any copying at all. Furthermore, the overhead of invoking the scheduler is avoided; this is especially beneficial in the common case where IPC is used in an remote procedure call (RPC) type fashion by a client invoking a server. Another optimization, called "lazy scheduling", avoids traversing scheduling queues during IPC by leaving threads that block during IPC in the ready queue. Once the scheduler is invoked, it moves such threads to the appropriate waiting queue. As in many cases a thread gets unblocked before the next scheduler invocation, this approach saves significant work. Similar approaches have since been adopted by QNX and MINIX 3.


title: Microkernel

text: In a series of experiments, Chen and Bershad compared memory cycles per instruction (MCPI) of monolithic Ultrix with those of microkernel Mach combined with a 4.3BSD Unix server running in user space. Their results explained Mach's poorer performance by higher MCPI and demonstrated that IPC alone is not responsible for much of the system overhead, suggesting that optimizations focused exclusively on IPC will have a limited effect. Liedtke later refined Chen and Bershad's results by making an observation that the bulk of the difference between Ultrix and Mach MCPI was caused by capacity cache-misses and concluding that drastically reducing the cache working set of a microkernel will solve the problem.


title: Microkernel

text: In a client-server system, most communication is essentially synchronous, even if using asynchronous primitives, as the typical operation is a client invoking a server and then waiting for a reply. As it also lends itself to more efficient implementation, most microkernels generally followed L4's lead and only provided a synchronous IPC primitive. Asynchronous IPC could be implemented on top by using helper threads. However, experience has shown that the utility of synchronous IPC is dubious: synchronous IPC forces a multi-threaded design onto otherwise simple systems, with the resulting synchronization complexities. Moreover, an RPC-like server invocation sequentializes client and server, which should be avoided if they are running on separate cores. Versions of L4 deployed in commercial products have therefore found it necessary to add an asynchronous notification mechanism to better support asynchronous communication. This signal-like mechanism does not carry data and therefore does not require buffering by the kernel. By having two forms of IPC, they have nonetheless violated the principle of minimality. Other versions of L4 have switched to asynchronous IPC completely.


title: Microkernel

text: As synchronous IPC blocks the first party until the other is ready, unrestricted use could easily lead to deadlocks. Furthermore, a client could easily mount a denial-of-service attack on a server by sending a request and never attempting to receive the reply. Therefore, synchronous IPC must provide a means to prevent indefinite blocking. Many microkernels provide timeouts on IPC calls, which limit the blocking time. In practice, choosing sensible timeout values is difficult, and systems almost inevitably use infinite timeouts for clients and zero timeouts for servers. As a consequence, the trend is towards not providing arbitrary timeouts, but only a flag which indicates that the IPC should fail immediately if the partner is not ready. This approach effectively provides a choice of the two timeout values of zero and infinity. Recent versions of L4 and MINIX have gone down this path (older versions of L4 used timeouts). QNX avoids the problem by requiring the client to specify the reply buffer as part of the message send call. When the server replies the kernel copies the data to the client's buffer, without having to wait for the client to receive the response explicitly.


title: Microkernel

text: Microkernel servers are essentially daemon programs like any others, except that the kernel grants some of them privileges to interact with parts of physical memory that are otherwise off limits to most programs. This allows some servers, particularly device drivers, to interact directly with hardware.


title: Microkernel

text: A basic set of servers for a general-purpose microkernel includes file system servers, device driver servers, networking servers, display servers, and user interface device servers. This set of servers (drawn from QNX) provides roughly the set of services offered by a Unix monolithic kernel. The necessary servers are started at system startup and provide services, such as file, network, and device access, to ordinary application programs. With such servers running in the environment of a user application, server development is similar to ordinary application development, rather than the build-and-boot process needed for kernel development.


title: Microkernel

text: Additionally, many "crashes" can be corrected by simply stopping and restarting the server. However, part of the system state is lost with the failing server, hence this approach requires applications to cope with failure. A good example is a server responsible for TCP/IP connections: If this server is restarted, applications will experience a "lost" connection, a normal occurrence in a networked system. For other services, failure is less expected and may require changes to application code. For QNX, restart capability is offered as the QNX High Availability Toolkit.


title: Microkernel

text: Device drivers frequently perform direct memory access (DMA), and therefore can write to arbitrary locations of physical memory, including various kernel data structures. Such drivers must therefore be trusted. It is a common misconception that this means that they must be part of the kernel. In fact, a driver is not inherently more or less trustworthy by being part of the kernel.


title: Microkernel

text: While running a device driver in user space does not necessarily reduce the damage a misbehaving driver can cause, in practice it is beneficial for system stability in the presence of buggy (rather than malicious) drivers: memory-access violations by the driver code itself (as opposed to the device) may still be caught by the memory-management hardware. Furthermore, many devices are not DMA-capable, their drivers can be made untrusted by running them in user space. Recently, an increasing number of computers feature IOMMUs, many of which can be used to restrict a device's access to physical memory. This also allows user-mode drivers to become untrusted.


title: Microkernel

text: User-mode drivers actually predate microkernels. The Michigan Terminal System (MTS), in 1967, supported user space drivers (including its file system support), the first operating system to be designed with that capability. Historically, drivers were less of a problem, as the number of devices was small and trusted anyway, so having them in the kernel simplified the design and avoided potential performance problems. This led to the traditional driver-in-the-kernel style of Unix, Linux, and Windows NT. With the proliferation of various kinds of peripherals, the amount of driver code escalated and in modern operating systems dominates the kernel in code size.


title: Microkernel

text: As a microkernel must allow building arbitrary operating system services on top, it must provide some core functionality. At a minimum, this includes:


title: Microkernel

text: This minimal design was pioneered by Brinch Hansen's Nucleus and the hypervisor of IBM's VM. It has since been formalised in Liedtke's "minimality principle":


title: Microkernel

text: A concept is tolerated inside the microkernel only if moving it outside the kernel, i.e., permitting competing implementations, would prevent the implementation of the system's required functionality.


title: Microkernel

text: Everything else can be done in a usermode program, although device drivers implemented as user programs may on some processor architectures require special privileges to access I/O hardware.


title: Microkernel

text: Related to the minimality principle, and equally important for microkernel design, is the separation of mechanism and policy, it is what enables the construction of arbitrary systems on top of a minimal kernel. Any policy built into the kernel cannot be overwritten at user level and therefore limits the generality of the microkernel. Policy implemented in user-level servers can be changed by replacing the servers (or letting the application choose between competing servers offering similar services).


title: Microkernel

text: For efficiency, most microkernels contain schedulers and manage timers, in violation of the minimality principle and the principle of policy-mechanism separation.


title: Microkernel

text: Start up (booting) of a microkernel-based system requires device drivers, which are not part of the kernel. Typically this means that they are packaged with the kernel in the boot image, and the kernel supports a bootstrap protocol that defines how the drivers are located and started; this is the traditional bootstrap procedure of L4 microkernels. Some microkernels simplify this by placing some key drivers inside the kernel (in violation of the minimality principle), LynxOS and the original Minix are examples. Some even include a file system in the kernel to simplify booting. A microkernel-based system may boot via multiboot compatible boot loader. Such systems usually load statically-linked servers to make an initial bootstrap or mount an OS image to continue bootstrapping.


title: Microkernel

text: A key component of a microkernel is a good IPC system and virtual-memory-manager design that allows implementing page-fault handling and swapping in usermode servers in a safe way. Since all services are performed by usermode programs, efficient means of communication between programs are essential, far more so than in monolithic kernels. The design of the IPC system makes or breaks a microkernel. To be effective, the IPC system must not only have low overhead, but also interact well with CPU scheduling.


title: Microkernel

text: On most mainstream processors, obtaining a service is inherently more expensive in a microkernel-based system than a monolithic system. In the monolithic system, the service is obtained by a single system call, which requires two "mode switches" (changes of the processor's ring or CPU mode). In the microkernel-based system, the service is obtained by sending an IPC message to a server, and obtaining the result in another IPC message from the server. This requires a context switch if the drivers are implemented as processes, or a function call if they are implemented as procedures. In addition, passing actual data to the server and back may incur extra copying overhead, while in a monolithic system the kernel can directly access the data in the client's buffers.


title: Microkernel

text: Performance is therefore a potential issue in microkernel systems. The experience of first-generation microkernels such as Mach and ChorusOS showed that systems based on them performed very poorly. However, Jochen Liedtke showed that Mach's performance problems were the result of poor design and implementation, specifically Mach's excessive cache footprint. Liedtke demonstrated with his own L4 microkernel that through careful design and implementation, and especially by following the minimality principle, IPC costs could be reduced by more than an order of magnitude compared to Mach. L4's IPC performance is still unbeaten across a range of architectures.


title: Microkernel

text: While these results demonstrate that the poor performance of systems based on first-generation microkernels is not representative for second-generation kernels such as L4, this constitutes no proof that microkernel-based systems can be built with good performance. It has been shown that a monolithic Linux server ported to L4 exhibits only a few percent overhead over native Linux. However, such a single-server system exhibits few, if any, of the advantages microkernels are supposed to provide by structuring operating system functionality into separate servers.


title: Microkernel

text: A number of commercial multi-server systems exist, in particular the real-time systems QNX and Integrity. No comprehensive comparison of performance relative to monolithic systems has been published for those multiserver systems. Furthermore, performance does not seem to be the overriding concern for those commercial systems, which instead emphasize reliably quick interrupt handling response times (QNX) and simplicity for the sake of robustness. An attempt to build a high-performance multiserver operating system was the IBM Sawmill Linux project. However, this project was never completed.


title: Microkernel

text: It has been shown in the meantime that user-level device drivers can come close to the performance of in-kernel drivers even for such high-throughput, high-interrupt devices as Gigabit Ethernet. This seems to imply that high-performance multi-server systems are possible.


title: Microkernel

text: The security benefits of microkernels have been frequently discussed. In the context of security the minimality principle of microkernels is, some have argued, a direct consequence of the principle of least privilege, according to which all code should have only the privileges needed to provide required functionality. Minimality requires that a system's trusted computing base (TCB) should be kept minimal. As the kernel (the code that executes in the privileged mode of the hardware) has unvetted access to any data and can thus violate its integrity or confidentiality, the kernel is always part of the TCB. Minimizing it is natural in a security-driven design.


title: Microkernel

text: Consequently, microkernel designs have been used for systems designed for high-security applications, including KeyKOS, EROS and military systems. In fact common criteria (CC) at the highest assurance level (Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) 7) has an explicit requirement that the target of evaluation be "simple", an acknowledgment of the practical impossibility of establishing true trustworthiness for a complex system. Again, the term "simple" is misleading and ill-defined. At least the Department of Defense Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria introduced somewhat more precise verbiage at the B3/A1 classes:


title: Microkernel

text: In 2018, a paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Systems Conference claimed that microkernels were demonstrably safer than monolithic kernels by investigating all published critical CVEs for the Linux kernel at the time. The study concluded that 40% of the issues could not occur at all in a formally verified microkernel, and only 4% of the issues would remain entirely unmitigated in such a system.


title: Microkernel

text: More recent work on microkernels has been focusing on formal specifications of the kernel API, and formal proofs of the API's security properties and implementation correctness. The first example of this is a mathematical proof of the confinement mechanisms in EROS, based on a simplified model of the EROS API. More recently (in 2007) a comprehensive set of machine-checked proofs was performed of the properties of the protection model of , a version of L4.


title: Microkernel

text: This has led to what is referred to as "third-generation microkernels", characterised by a security-oriented API with resource access controlled by capabilities, virtualization as a first-class concern, novel approaches to kernel resource management, and a design goal of suitability for formal analysis, besides the usual goal of high performance. Examples are Coyotos, , Nova, Redox and Fiasco.OC.


title: Microkernel

text: In the case of seL4, complete formal verification of the implementation has been achieved, i.e. a mathematical proof that the kernel's implementation is consistent with its formal specification. This provides a guarantee that the properties proved about the API actually hold for the real kernel, a degree of assurance which goes beyond even CC EAL7. It was followed by proofs of security-enforcement properties of the API, and a proof demonstrating that the executable binary code is a correct translation of the C implementation, taking the compiler out of the TCB. Taken together, these proofs establish an end-to-end proof of security properties of the kernel.


title: Microkernel

text: There is also at least one case where the term nanokernel is used to refer not to a small kernel, but one that supports a nanosecond clock resolution.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana () is a financial inclusion program of the Government of India open to Indian citizens (minors of age 10 and older can also open an account with a guardian to manage it), that aims to expand affordable access to financial services such as bank accounts, remittances, credit, insurance and pensions. This financial inclusion campaign was launched by the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi on 28 August 2014. He had announced this scheme on his first Independence Day speech on 15 August 2014.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: Run by Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance, under this scheme 15 million bank accounts were opened on inauguration day. The Guinness Book of World Records recognized this achievement, stating: "The most bank accounts opened in one week as a part of the financial inclusion campaign is 18,096,130 and was achieved by the Government of India from August 23 to 29, 2014". By 27 June 2018, over 318 million bank accounts were opened and over ₹792 billion (US$12 billion) were deposited under the scheme.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: It was launched by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 15 August 2014. The slogan of the scheme is ""Mera Khaata, Bhagya Vidhata"" (meaning ""My account, fortune maker"") The scheme was launched after the failure of previous government schemes, including Swaabhimaan. Swaabhimaan was a 2011 campaign of the Government of India which aimed to bring banking services to rural areas.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: Due to the preparations done in the run-up to the inauguration, 15 million bank accounts were opened on inauguration day. The Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, declared on this occasion, "Let us celebrate today as the day of financial freedom." By September 2014, 30.2 million accounts were opened:


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: On 20 January 2015, the scheme entered the Guinness Book of World Records, setting a new record for 'The most bank accounts opened in one week'.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: The balances in Jan Dhan accounts rose by more than between 9 November 2016 and 23 November 2016. 1.9 million householders have availed of the overdraft facility of by May 2016. Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have 29% of the total deposits under the scheme, whereas Kerala and Goa became the first states in the country to have at least one basic bank account in every household.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: The total number of account holders stood at 294.8 million, including 176.1 million account holders from rural and semi-urban branches. A total of 227 million RuPay cards have been issued by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) till August 2017. The amount of deposits rose to by August 2017.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: According to various studies, "Beyond enabling account ownership and the use of financial services, the PMJDY also facilitated financial inclusion for a variety of demographics. While the program has made significant headway towards genuine financial inclusion, it is clear that improving policy communication, widening and deepening progress in low-income states, and ironing out the kinks in the bank-agent model will be crucial if these hard-fought gains are to prove sustainable." At least 300 million new families have got Jan Dhan accounts in which almost have been deposited, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said on 28 August 2017, on the eve of the third anniversary of the scheme.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: As of January 27, 2021, a total number of 417.5 million accounts have been opened under the Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), out of which 359.6 million accounts are operative.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: The scheme has been criticized by the opposition as an effort to please voters, and that it has created unnecessary work-burden on the public-sector banks. According to critics, offers like zero balance, free insurance and overdraft facility would result in duplication. Many individuals who already had bank accounts may have had accounts created in their names, lured by insurance cover and overdraft facility. As per the scheme, a very few people are eligible to get the life insurance worth with a validity of just five years. The claimed overdraft facility has been completely left upon the banks. As per the government notice, only those people would get the overdraft facility whose transaction record has satisfactory operations in their account for some time. In March 2018, the Government of India stated that around 20% of Jan Dhan accounts were lying dormant.


title: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

text: In addition, while the Indian Government was ostensibly actively attempting to promote financial inclusion through this scheme, the Reserve Bank of India, permitted banks to charge customers for conducting ATM transactions beyond a certain number of times per month. This effectively prevented people from easily accessing their own savings and discouraged them from using formal banking channels.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins. Being passive, facilitated transport does not directly require chemical energy from ATP hydrolysis in the transport step itself; rather, molecules and ions move down their concentration gradient reflecting its diffusive nature.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Polar molecules and large ions dissolved in water cannot diffuse freely across the plasma membrane due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that comprise the lipid bilayer. Only small, non-polar molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can diffuse easily across the membrane. Hence, small polar molecules are transported by proteins in the form of transmembrane channels. These channels are gated, meaning that they open and close, and thus deregulate the flow of ions or small polar molecules across membranes, sometimes against the osmotic gradient. Larger molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins, such as permeases, that change their conformation as the molecules are carried across (e.g. glucose or amino acids).


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Non-polar molecules, such as retinol or lipids, are poorly soluble in water. They are transported through aqueous compartments of cells or through extracellular space by water-soluble carriers (e.g. retinol binding protein). The metabolites are not altered because no energy is required for facilitated diffusion. Only permease changes its shape in order to transport metabolites. The form of transport through a cell membrane in which a metabolite is modified is called group translocation transportation.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Glucose, sodium ions, and chloride ions are just a few examples of molecules and ions that must efficiently cross the plasma membrane but to which the lipid bilayer of the membrane is virtually impermeable. Their transport must therefore be "facilitated" by proteins that span the membrane and provide an alternative route or bypass mechanism. Some examples of proteins that mediate this process are glucose transporters, organic cation transport proteins, urea transporter, monocarboxylate transporter 8 and monocarboxylate transporter 10.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Many physical and biochemical processes are regulated by diffusion. Facilitated diffusion is one form of diffusion and it is important in several metabolic processes. Facilitated diffusion is the main mechanism behind the binding of Transcription Factors (TFs) to designated target sites on the DNA molecule. The in vitro model, which is a very well known method of facilitated diffusion, that takes place outside of a living cell, explains the 3-dimensional pattern of diffusion in the cytosol and the 1-dimensional diffusion along the DNA contour. After carrying out extensive research on processes occurring out of the cell, this mechanism was generally accepted but there was a need to verify that this mechanism could take place in vivo or inside of living cells. Bauer & Metzler (2013) therefore carried out an experiment using a bacterial genome in which they investigated the average time for TF – DNA binding to occur. After analyzing the process for the time it takes for TF's to diffuse across the contour and cytoplasm of the bacteria's DNA, it was concluded that in vitro and in vivo are similar in that the association and dissociation rates of TF's to and from the DNA are similar in both. Also, on the DNA contour, the motion is slower and target sites are easy to localize while in the cytoplasm, the motion is faster but the TF's are not sensitive to their targets and so binding is restricted.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Single-molecule imaging is an imaging technique which provides an ideal resolution necessary for the study of the Transcription factor binding mechanism in living cells. In prokaryotic bacteria cells such as "E. coli", facilitated diffusion is required in order for regulatory proteins to locate and bind to target sites on DNA base pairs. There are 2 main steps involved: the protein binds to a non-specific site on the DNA and then it diffuses along the DNA chain until it locates a target site, a process referred to as sliding. According to Brackley et al. (2013), during the process of protein sliding, the protein searches the entire length of the DNA chain using 3-D and 1-D diffusion patterns. During 3-D diffusion, the high incidence of Crowder proteins creates an osmotic pressure which brings searcher proteins (e.g. Lac Repressor) closer to the DNA to increase their attraction and enable them to bind, as well as steric effect which exclude the Crowder proteins from this region (Lac operator region). Blocker proteins participate in 1-D diffusion only i.e. bind to and diffuse along the DNA contour and not in the cytosol.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: The in vivo model mentioned above clearly explains 3-D and 1-D diffusion along the DNA strand and the binding of proteins to target sites on the chain. Just like prokaryotic cells, in eukaryotes, facilitated diffusion occurs in the nucleoplasm on chromatin filaments, accounted for by the switching dynamics of a protein when it is either bound to a chromatin thread or when freely diffusing in the nucleoplasm. In addition, given that the chromatin molecule is fragmented, its fractal properties need to be considered. After calculating the search time for a target protein, alternating between the 3-D and 1-D diffusion phases on the chromatin fractal structure, it was deduced that facilitated diffusion in eukaryotes precipitates the searching process and minimizes the searching time by increasing the DNA-protein affinity.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: The oxygen affinity with hemoglobin on red blood cell surfaces enhances this bonding ability. In a system of facilitated diffusion of oxygen, there is a tight relationship between the ligand which is oxygen and the carrier which is either hemoglobin or myoglobin. This mechanism of facilitated diffusion of oxygen by hemoglobin or myoglobin was discovered and initiated by Wittenberg and Scholander. They carried out experiments to test for the steady-state of diffusion of oxygen at various pressures. Oxygen-facilitated diffusion occurs in a homogeneous environment where oxygen pressure can be relatively controlled.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Facilitated diffusion of carbon monoxide is similar to that of oxygen. Carbon monoxide also combines with hemoglobin and myoglobin, but carbon monoxide has a dissociation velocity that 100 times less than that of oxygen. Its affinity for myoglobin is 40 times higher and 250 times higher for hemoglobin, compared to oxygen.


title: Facilitated diffusion

text: Since glucose is a large molecule, its diffusion across a membrane is difficult. Hence, it diffuses across membranes through facilitated diffusion, down the concentration gradient. The carrier protein at the membrane binds to the glucose and alters its shape such that it can easily to be transported. Movement of glucose into the cell could be rapid or slow depending on the number of membrane-spanning protein. It is transported against the concentration gradient by a dependent glucose symporter which provides a driving force to other glucose molecules in the cells. Facilitated diffusion helps in the release of accumulated glucose into the extracellular space adjacent to the blood capillary.


title: Verdigris

text: Verdigris is the common name for blue-green, copper-based pigments that form a patina on copper, bronze, and brass. The technical literature is ambiguous as to its chemical composition. Some sources refer to "neutral verdigris" as copper(II) acetate monohydrate () and to "blue verdigris" as . Another source describes it as a basic copper carbonate (()), and, when near the sea, basic copper chloride (Cu(OH)Cl). Still other sources describe verdigris as (Cu(OH)) where n varies from 0 to 3. The alchemical symbol for verdigris is 🜨 (unicode U+1F728).


title: Verdigris

text: The name "verdigris" comes from the Middle English "vertegrez", from the Old French "verte grez", meaning "vert d'aigre", "green [made by action of] vinegar". The modern French writing of this word is "vert-de-gris" ("green of grey"), sounding like the older name "verdet gris" ("grey greenish"), itself a deformation of "verte grez". It was used as a pigment in paintings and other art objects (as green color), mostly imported from Greece, and hence "verte grez" is also given another etymology as "vert-de-Grèce" ("green of Greece").


title: Verdigris

text: A variety of recipes have been described for obtaining this blue-green patina on copper, brass, or bronze. It was originally made by hanging copper plates over hot vinegar in a sealed pot until a green crust formed on the copper. Another method, used in the Middle Ages, was to attach copper strips to a wooden block with acetic acid, then bury the sealed block in dung. A few weeks later, the block was to be dug up, and the verdigris scraped off. In eighteenth-century Montpellier, France, it was manufactured in household cellars, "where copper plates were stacked in clay pots filled with distilled wine." The verdigris was scraped off weekly by the women of the household. Copper(II) acetate is prepared by treatment of copper(II) hydroxide with acetic acid.


title: Verdigris

text: The vivid green color of copper(II) acetate made this form of verdigris a much used pigment. Until the 19th century, verdigris was the most vibrant green pigment available and was frequently used in painting. Verdigris is lightfast in oil paint, as numerous examples of 15th-century paintings show. However, its lightfastness and air resistance are very low in other media. Copper resinate, made from verdigris by boiling it in a resin, is not lightfast, even in oil paint. In the presence of light and air, green copper resinate becomes stable brown copper oxide.


title: Verdigris

text: This degradation is to blame for the brown or bronze color of grass or foliage in many old paintings, although not typically those of the Early Netherlandish painters such as Jan van Eyck, who often used normal verdigris. In addition, verdigris is a fickle pigment requiring special preparation of paint, careful layered application and immediate sealing with varnish to avoid rapid discoloration (but not in the case of oil paint). Verdigris has the curious property in oil painting that it is initially bluish-green, but turns a rich foliage green over the course of about a month. A painting by Botticelli, The Mystical Nativity, from 1500, shows a group of angels whose blue-green costumes have discolored to a dark green.


title: Verdigris

text: Copper compounds are used as fungicides ("The Merck Index ", Ninth Ed., 1976). Verdigris has also been used in medicine and is identified in the "Pharmacologia" of John Ayrton Paris as the healing rust of the Spear of Telephus as mentioned by Homer.


title: Verdigris

text: A compound containing beeswax, kidney fat, and verdigris was used in medieval times in the fletching of arrows.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Amateur radio frequency allocation is done by national telecommunication authorities. Globally, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) oversees how much radio spectrum is set aside for amateur radio transmissions. Individual amateur stations are free to use any frequency within authorized frequency ranges; authorized bands may vary by the class of the station license.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Radio amateurs use a variety of transmission modes, including Morse code, radioteletype, data, and voice. Specific frequency allocations vary from country to country and between ITU regions as specified in the current ITU HF frequency allocations for amateur radio. The list of frequency ranges is called a "band allocation", which may be set by international agreements, and national regulations. The modes and types of allocations within each frequency band is called a bandplan; it may be determined by regulation, but most typically is set by agreements between amateur radio operators.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: National authorities regulate amateur usage of radio bands. Some bands may not be available or may have restrictions on usage in certain countries or regions. International agreements assign amateur radio bands which differ by region.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Frequencies above 30 MHz are referred to as Very High Frequency (VHF) region and those above 300 MHz are called Ultra High Frequency (UHF). The allocated bands for amateurs are many megahertz wide, allowing for high-fidelity audio transmission modes (FM) and very fast data transmission modes that are unfeasible for the kilohertz-wide allocations in the HF bands.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: While "line of sight" propagation is a primary factor for range calculation, much of the interest in the bands above HF comes from use of other propagation modes. A signal transmitted on VHF from a hand-held portable will typically travel about 5–10 km (3–6 miles) depending on terrain. With a low power home station and a simple antenna, range would be around 50 km (30 miles).


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: With a large antenna system like a long yagi, and higher power (typically 100 watts or more) contacts of around 1 000 km (600 miles) using the Morse code (CW) and single-sideband (SSB) modes are common. Ham operators seek to exploit the limits of the frequencies usual characteristics looking to learn, understand, and experiment with the possibilities of these enhanced propagation modes.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Occasionally, several different ionospheric conditions allow signals to travel beyond the ordinary line-of-sight limits. Some amateurs on VHF seek to take advantage of "band openings" where natural occurrences in the atmosphere and ionosphere extend radio transmission distances well over their normal range. Many hams listen for hours hoping to take advantage of these occasional extended propagation "openings".


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The ionospheric conditions are called "sporadic E" and "anomalous enhancement". Less frequently used anomalous modes are "tropospheric scatter" and "Aurora Borealis" (Northern Lights). When overhead, "moon bounce" and "satellite relay" are also possible.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Some openings are caused by islands of intense ionization of the upper atmosphere known as the E Layer ionosphere. These islands of intense ionization are called "sporadic E" and result in erratic but often strong propagation characteristics on the "low[er] band" VHF radio frequencies.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The 6 metre amateur band falls into this category, often called "the magic band", 6 metres will often "open up" from one small area into another small geographic area 1 000–1 700 km (600–1 000 miles) away during the spring and early summer months. This phenomenon occurs during the fall months, although not as often.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Band openings are sometimes caused by a weather phenomenon known as a tropospheric "inversion", where a stagnant high pressure area causes alternating stratified layers of warm and cold air generally trapping the colder air beneath. This may make for smoggy or foggy days, but it also causes VHF and UHF radio transmissions to travel or duct along the boundaries of these warm/cold atmospheric layers. Radio signals have been known to travel hundreds, even thousands of kilometres (miles) due to these unique weather conditions.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: For example: The longest distance reported contact due to tropospheric refraction on 2 metres is 4 754 km (2 954 miles) between Hawaii and a ship south of Mexico. There were reports of the reception of one way signals from Réunion to Western Australia, a distance of more than 6 000 km (4 000 miles).


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: "Tropo-scatter" happens when water droplets and dust particles refract a VHF or UHF signal over the horizon. Using relatively high power and a high gain antenna, this propagation will give marginal enhanced over-the-horizon VHF and UHF communications up to several hundred kilometres (miles). During the 1970s commercial "scatter site" operators using huge parabolic antennas and high power used this mode successfully for telephone communications services into remote Alaska and Canadian northern communities.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Satellite, buried fibre optic, and terrestrial microwave access have relegated commercial use of tropo-scatter to the history books. Because of high cost and complexity this mode is usually out of reach for the average amateur radio operator.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: F2 and TE band openings from other ionospheric reflection/refraction modes, or sky-wave propagation as it is known can also occasionally occur on the low band VHF frequencies of 6 or 4 metres, and very rarely on 2 metres (high band VHF) during extreme peaks in the 11 year sunspot cycle.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The longest terrestrial contact ever reported on 2 metres (146 MHz) was between a station in Italy and a station in South Africa, a distance of 7 784 km (4 837 miles), using trans-equatorial anomalous enhancement (TE) of the ionosphere over the geomagnetic equator. This enhancement is known as TE, or trans-equatorial propagation and (usually) occurs at latitudes 2 500–3 000 km (1500–1900 miles) within either side of the equator.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: An intense solar storm causing aurora borealis (northern lights) will also provide occasional propagation enhancement to HF-low (6-metre) band radio waves. Aurorae only occasionally affect signals on the 2 metre band. Signals are often distorted and on the lower frequencies give a curious "watery sound" to normally propagated HF signals. Peak signals usually come from the north, even if the signal originates from a station to the east or west of the receiver. This effect is most significant in the latitudes north of 45 degrees.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Amateurs do successfully communicate by bouncing their signals off the surface of the moon, called Earth-Moon-Earth (EME) transmission.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The mode requires moderately high power (more than 500 watts) and a fairly large, high-gain antenna because round-trip path loss is on the order of 270 dB for 70 cm signals. Return signals are weak and distorted because of the relative velocities of the transmitting station, moon and the receiving station. The moon's surface is also very rocky and irregular.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Because of the weak, distorted return signals, Moon bounce communications use digital modes. For example, old-fashioned Morse code or modern JT65, designed for working with weak signals.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Satellite relay is not really a propagation mode, but rather an active repeater system. Satellites have been highly successful in providing VHF/UHF/SHF users "propagation" beyond the horizon.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Amateurs have sponsored the launch of dozens of communications satellites since the 1970s. These satellites are usually known as OSCARs (Orbiting Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio). Also, the ISS has amateur radio repeaters and radio location services on board.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Amateur television (ATV) is the hobby of transmitting broadcast-compatible video and audio by amateur radio. It also includes the study and building of such transmitters and receivers and the propagation between these two.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: In NTSC countries, ATV operation requires the ability to use a 6 MHz wide channel. All bands at VHF or lower are less than 6 MHz wide, so ATV operation is confined to UHF and up. Bandwidth requirements will vary from this for PAL and SECAM transmissions.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: ATV operation in the 70 cm band is particularly popular, because the signals can be received on any cable-ready television. Operation in the 33 cm and 23 cm bands is easily augmented by the availability of various varieties of consumer-grade wireless video devices that exist and operate in unlicensed frequencies coincident to these bands.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Historically, amateur stations have rarely been allowed to operate on frequencies lower than the medium-wave broadcast band, but in recent times, as the historic users of these low frequencies have been vacating the spectrum, limited space has opened up to allow for new amateur radio allocations and special experimental operations.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Since parts of the 500 kHz band are no longer used for regular maritime communications, some countries permit amateur radio radiotelegraph operations in that band. Many countries, however, continue to restrict these frequencies which were historically reserved for maritime and aviation distress calls.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The 2200 metre band is available for use in several countries, and the 2007 World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC-07) made it a worldwide amateur allocation. Before the introduction of the 2200 metre band in the UK in 1998, operation on the even lower frequency of 73 kHz had been allowed between 1996 and 2003.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: ITU Region 1 corresponds to Europe, Russia, Africa and the Middle East. For ITU region 1, Radio Society of Great Britain's band plan will be more definitive (click on the buttons at the bottom of the page).


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The following charts show the voluntary bandplans used by amateurs in ITU Region 1. Unlike the US, slots for the various transmission modes are not set by the amateur's license but most users do follow these guidelines.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The primary (first priority) user of the channelled 60 meter band is the U.S. National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). Effective 5 March 2012 the FCC permits CW, USB, and certain digital modes on these frequencies by amateurs on a secondary basis.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The FCC Report and Order permits the use of digital modes that comply with emission designator “60H0J2B”, which includes PSK31 as well as any RTTY signal with a bandwidth of less than 60 Hz. The Report and Order also allows the use of modes that comply with emission designator “2K80J2D”, which includes any digital mode with a bandwidth of 2.8 kHz or less whose technical characteristics have been documented publicly, per Part 97.309(4) of the FCC Rules. Such modes would include PACTOR I, II, or III, 300 baud packet, MFSK, MT63, Contestia, Olivia, DominoEX, and others.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: On 60 meters, hams are restricted to only one signal per channel, and automatic operation is not permitted. In addition, the FCC continues to require that all digital transmissions be centred on the channel-centre frequencies, which the Report and Order defines as being 1.5 kHz above the suppressed carrier frequency of a transceiver operated in the upper side-band (USB) mode. As amateur radio equipment displays the carrier frequency, it is important for operators to understand correct frequency calculations for digital "sound-card" modes to ensure compliance with the channel-center requirement.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: ITU region 3 consists of Australia, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand, the South Pacific, and Asia south of Siberia. The IARU frequency allocations for hams in ITU Region 3 are:


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Bands above 1300 MHz: societies should consult with the amateur satellite community for proposed satellite operating frequencies before deciding local bandplans above 1300 MHz.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Not all Member Unions follow this plan. As an example, the ACMA does not allow Australian Amateurs to use 3.700 MHz to 3.768 MHz and 3.800 MHz to 3.900 MHz, allocating this region to Emergency and Ambulatory services (Allocations can be found conducting a search of the ACMA Radcomms register . )


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: The New Zealand Association of Radio Transmitters (NZART) has charts for Amateur frequencies for New Zealand.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Radio amateurs may engage in satellite and space craft communications; however, the frequencies allowed for such activities are allocated separately from more general use radio amateur bands.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Under the International Telecommunication Union's rules, all amateur radio operations may only occur within of the Earth's surface. As such, the "Amateur Radio Service" is not permitted to engage in satellite operations; however, a sister radio service, called the Amateur Satellite Service, exists which allows satellite operations for the same purposes as the "Amateur Radio Service".


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: In most countries, an amateur radio license conveys operating privileges in both services, and in practice, the legal distinction between the two services is transparent to the average licensee. The primary reason the two services are separate is to limit the frequencies available for satellite operations. Due to the shared nature of the amateur radio allocations internationally, and the nature of satellites to roam worldwide, the ITU does not consider all amateur radio bands appropriate for satellite operations. Being separate from the "Amateur Radio Service", the "Amateur Satellite Service" receives its own frequency allocations. All the allocations are within amateur radio bands, and with one exception, the allocations are the same in all three ITU regions.


title: Amateur radio frequency allocations

text: Some of the allocations are limited by the ITU in what direction transmissions may be sent (EG: "Earth-to-space" or up-links only). All amateur satellite operations occur within the allocations tabled below, except for AO-7, which has an up-link from 432.125 MHz to 432.175 MHz.


title: The In Between

text: The In Between is a 2022 American science fiction romance film directed by Arie Posin, written by Marc Klein, and starring Joey King and Kyle Allen. The film was released on February 11, 2022 on Paramount+ and on April 8, 2022 on Netflix.


title: The In Between

text: The opening scene is a traffic accident. Two teenagers lie on the road, the girl barely moving, the boy, motionless. Teenager Tessa wakes up in the hospital.


title: The In Between

text: In a flashback set 182 days before, Tessa spends the morning taking photos in the coastal town, wandering into the local theater to watch an old French film. Skylar, the other person at the movie, offers to translate. He is a true romantic, he and Tessa have very different views.


title: The In Between

text: In a flashback set 102 days before, Tessa is encouraged to apply to the RISD for her photography skills. Later, while shooting a rowing meet, she finally finds Skylar again. They both obviously had been searching for each other. They spend the day together, and she shows him the world through her eyes. At the Empyrean, an abandoned honeymooners hotel he teaches her to waltz and they kiss. He tells her he’ll be back at the end of the month to stay for the summer.


title: The In Between

text: In the present, Tessa is back at school, and is reminded of the RISD deadline. Later, going home, she throws out her developing materials. Her adoptive dad reminds her that her mother never stuck to anything. Dreaming of Skylar, she wakes up to see her Robert Doisneau print of Le baiser de l'hôtel de ville.


title: The In Between

text: Flashback: July 4. After the fireworks, she shows him her darkroom, portfolio and opens up about her mother flaking out, forcing her into the foster care system. They go out on a boat during the day, he shows her how to row, he declares his love and they make love on the shore.


title: The In Between

text: Tessa tells her friend Shannon about The In Between, the concept of a window of time in which someone recently deceased needs to have a final contact before moving on. Sitting the SAT, weirdly Skylar moves her hand on her answer sheet to draw what seems to be a non-sensical scribble. Then their song, ‘Never tear us apart’ comes up simultaneously on everyone’s silenced mobiles.


title: The In Between

text: Flashback: 11 days before the accident. Skylar angers Tessa when he puts a photo she gifted him in a photo exhibit to show her talent. Her inability to express her feelings comes up. He wants her to realize they could have a future and she continues to hold back. Photographing her adoptive mother, she’s advised to try to admit her feelings out loud.


title: The In Between

text: Shannon helps Tessa try to channel Skylar after reading several books. First they try with a planchette, scrying, and instrumental trans-communication Electronic voice phenomenon which, unbeknownst to them, works on the TV. Getting in her adoptive mother’s car, the built-in GPS shows her the same route she had scribbled on her SAT sheet. So, she blows off returning the car, following the route, arriving to the In Between author Doris she met in the hospital. She suggests Tessa seek him where they had their strongest moments.


title: The In Between

text: Flashback: 5 days before the accident. Tessa discovers Skylar has decided to go to Oregon to support his father for the year, leaving her on the East coast. She takes it as a sign, as she finally has applied to RISD and was about to express her love, and she breaks it off.


title: The In Between

text: After buying special photography equipment, Shannon drives Tessa to the places she and Skylar had most closely connected, hoping to catch his image/connect. Finally they do connect at The Empyrean, but not completely, and he shatters a mirror trying to reach her. The police catch up with her there, traced through her mobile. At home, her adoptive parents are on top of her, she collapses, and in the hospital she’s told her heart needs to be repaired the next day. Shannon sneaks her out, with Skylar’s help (he manipulates some electronics, distracting the nurses), who then guides them to the site of the accident.


title: The In Between

text: In a flashback to the night of the accident, Shannon convinces Tessa to catch Skylar before he leaves. The timelines overlap. As paramedics attend Tessa’s collapsed body, reunited with Skylar briefly, they are in Paris, in black and white, and mimic the Doisneau print Le baiser… They are back at a house on the beach, and she hears from far off her adoptive mom calling her back. Tearfully, she reminds him that ´love never dies’, deciding to go back to live.


title: The In Between

text: In a mid-credits scene, Tessa and Skylar are wandering around the beach drawing stick figures on sand.


title: The In Between

text: On February 24, 2021 it was announced that Arie Posin will direct a film for Paramount+. On the same day, the film was announced together with "" and an upcoming "Pet Sematary" film, with Joey King revealed as part of the cast. In April 2021, April Parker Jones, Celeste O'Connor, Donna Biscoe, Kyle Allen, John Ortiz and Kim Dickens was revealed as part of the cast of the film.


title: The In Between

text: The film was released on February 11, 2022 on Paramount+. Netflix distributed the film outside the United States releasing on April 8, 2022.


title: The In Between

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 64%, with an average score of 5.80/10, based on 11 reviews.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: William Bradford Bishop Jr. (born August 1, 1936) is a former United States Foreign Service officer who has been a fugitive from justice since allegedly killing his wife, mother, and three sons in 1976. On April 10, 2014, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) placed him on the list of its Ten Most Wanted Fugitives. On June 27, 2018, Bishop, who at the time was 81 years old, was removed from the list, making room, the FBI said, for another "dangerous fugitive". However, he is still being actively pursued by the FBI, and an INTERPOL Red Notice is still in effect.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: William Bradford Bishop Jr. was born August 1, 1936, in Pasadena, California, to Lobelia Amaryllis St. Germain and William Bradford Bishop Sr. He attended South Pasadena High School and received a bachelor of science degree in history from Yale University and a master of arts degree in international studies from Middlebury College. Alternatively, Bishop has been reported to have a bachelor's degree in American Studies from Yale and a master's degree in Italian from Middlebury College. He also holds a master's degree in African Studies from UCLA.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: After graduating from Yale in 1959, Bishop married his high school sweetheart Annette Weis, with whom he had three sons. He joined the United States Army and spent four years working in counterintelligence. Bishop spoke five languages fluently: English, Italian, French, Spanish and Serbo-Croatian. After leaving the Army, Bishop joined the U.S. State Department and served in the Foreign Service in many postings overseas. This included postings in the Italian cities of Verona, Milan, and Florence (where he did post-graduate work at the University of Florence) from 1968 to 1972. He also served in Africa, including posts in Addis Ababa in Ethiopia and Gaborone in Botswana, from 1972 to 1974. Bishop's last posting, which began in 1974, was at State Department headquarters in Washington, D.C., as an assistant chief in the Division of Special Activities and Commercial Treaties. He was living in Bethesda, Maryland, with his wife and three sons as well as his mother, Lobelia.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: Ballet dancer Jacques d'Amboise revealed in his 2011 autobiography that, as a teenager, he had lived with the Bishop family for a short time in South Pasadena, California. In February 1976, when d'Amboise was scheduled to perform at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Lobelia invited him and his wife Carrie to spend Sunday night, February 29, at the Bishops' home in Bethesda. D'Amboise cancelled his appearance at the last minute due to a foot injury, but failed to notify the family.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: On March 1, 1976, after learning he would not receive the promotion he had sought, Bishop told his secretary that he was feeling unwell and left his office in Foggy Bottom. Police believe he drove to his bank, where he withdrew several hundred dollars, then to Montgomery Mall, where he bought a sledgehammer and gas can; he filled the gas can and the tank of his 1974 Chevrolet station wagon at an adjacent gas station. From there he drove to a hardware store, where he purchased a shovel and pitchfork.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: Bishop returned to his home in Bethesda between 7:30 and 8:00 p.m. Police believe his wife was likely killed first, then his mother as she returned from walking the family dog. Finally, his three sons (aged 5, 10, and 14) were killed while they slept in an upstairs bedroom. Bishop allegedly drove the bodies in the station wagon to a densely wooded swamp about south of Columbia, North Carolina, where on March 2, he dug a shallow hole where he piled the bodies and set them ablaze with gasoline. Discovered along with the burned bodies was a gas can, a pitchfork, and a shovel that had a label of "OCH HDW", which was determined to be from Poch's Hardware.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: Bishop is known to have purchased tennis shoes at a sporting goods store in Jacksonville, North Carolina, later that same day. According to witnesses, he had the family dog with him and was possibly accompanied by a woman described as "dark skinned".


title: Bradford Bishop

text: On March 10, a neighbor of Bishop's contacted police after having not seen the family for some time. A detective found blood on the front porch of the Bishop residence, on the floor and on the walls of the front hall and bedrooms. Dental records were used to confirm that the bodies found in North Carolina were of Bishop's family.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: On March 18, Bishop's station wagon was found abandoned at an isolated campground in Elkmont, Tennessee, at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, a few miles from the Appalachian Trail and about from the site where Bishop's family was buried. The car contained dog biscuits, a bloody blanket, a shotgun, an ax and a shaving kit with Bishop's medication; the trunk's spare-tire well was full of blood. A witness believed the car had been there since anywhere between March 5 to the 7th. Police theorized that Bishop joined the flow of hikers on the Appalachian Trail; they attempted to follow his scent with bloodhounds but without success. The following day, a grand jury indicted Bishop on five counts of first degree murder and other charges.


title: Bradford Bishop

text: Bishop's motives have never been fully explained. A 1977 article in "The Washington Post" reported that there was "no evidence of infidelity, or financial or job problems." Although Bishop had been passed over for a promotion, there was no history of work-related issues; his being passed over has been described as "the first glitch in the storybook tale".