text: The first postulate can be expressed in the equation y'(N) = W/p, where y(N) is the real output when employment is N, and W and p are the wage rate and price rate in money terms (and hence W/p is the wage rate in real terms). A system can be analysed on the assumption that W is fixed (i.e. that wages are fixed in money terms) or that W/p is fixed (i.e. that they are fixed in real terms) or that N is fixed (e.g. if wages adapt to ensure full employment). All three assumptions had at times been made by classical economists, but under the assumption of wages fixed in money terms the 'first postulate' becomes an equation in two variables (N and p), and the consequences of this had not been taken into account by the classical school.


title: The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money

text: Keynes proposed a 'second postulate of classical economics' asserting that the wage is equal to the marginal disutility of labour. This is an instance of wages being fixed in real terms. He attributes the second postulate to the classics subject to the qualification that unemployment may result from wages being fixed by legislation, collective bargaining, or 'mere human obstinacy' (p6), all of which are likely to fix wages in money terms.


text: Keynes's economic theory is based on the interaction between demands for saving, investment, and liquidity (i.e. money). Saving and investment are necessarily equal, but different factors influence decisions concerning them. The desire to save, in Keynes's analysis, is mostly a function of income: the wealthier people are, the more wealth they will seek to put aside. The profitability of investment, on the other hand, is determined by the relation between the return available to capital and the interest rate. The economy needs to find its way to an equilibrium in which no more money is being saved than will be invested, and this can be accomplished by contraction of income and a consequent reduction in the level of employment.


text: In the classical scheme it is the interest rate rather than income which adjusts to maintain equilibrium between saving and investment; but Keynes asserts that the rate of interest already performs another function in the economy, that of equating demand and supply of money, and that it cannot adjust to maintain two separate equilibria. In his view it is the monetary role which wins out. This is why Keynes's theory is a theory of money as much as of employment: the monetary economy of interest and liquidity interacts with the real economy of production, investment and consumption.


text: Keynes sought to allow for the lack of downwards flexibility of wages by constructing an economic model in which the money supply and wage rates were externally determined (the latter in money terms), and in which the main variables were fixed by the equilibrium conditions of various markets in the presence of these facts.


text: Many of the quantities of interest, such as income and consumption, are monetary. Keynes often expresses such quantities in wage units (Chapter 4): to be precise, a value in wage units is equal to its price in money terms divided by W, the wage (in money units) per man-hour of labour. Therefore it is a unit expressed in hours of labour. Keynes generally writes a subscript w on quantities expressed in wage units, but in this account we omit the w. When, occasionally, we use real terms for a value which Keynes expresses in wage units we write it in lower case (e.g. y rather than Y).


text: As a result of Keynes's choice of units, the assumption of sticky wages, though important to the argument, is largely invisible in the reasoning. If we want to know how a change in the wage rate would influence the economy, Keynes tells us on p. 266 that the effect is the same as that of an opposite change in the money supply.


text: The relationship between saving and investment, and the factors influencing their demands, play an important role in Keynes's model. Saving and investment are considered to be necessarily equal for reasons set out in Chapter 6 which looks at economic aggregates from the viewpoint of manufacturers. The discussion is intricate, considering matters such as the depreciation of machinery, but is summarised on p. 63:


text: Provided it is agreed that income is equal to the value of current output, that current investment is equal to the value of that part of current output which is not consumed, and that saving is equal to the excess of income over consumption... the equality of saving and investment necessarily follows.


text: Book III of the "General Theory" is given over to the propensity to consume, which is introduced in Chapter 8 as the desired level of expenditure on consumption (for an individual or aggregated over an economy). The demand for consumer goods depends chiefly on the income Y and may be written functionally as C(Y). Saving is that part of income which is not consumed, so the propensity to save S(Y) is equal to Y–C(Y). Keynes discusses the possible influence of the interest rate r on the relative attractiveness of saving and consumption, but regards it as 'complex and uncertain' and leaves it out as a parameter.


text: His seemingly innocent definitions embody an assumption whose consequences will be considered later. Since Y is measured in wage units, the proportion of income saved is considered to be unaffected by the change in real income resulting from a change in the price level while wages stay fixed. Keynes acknowledges that this is undesirable in Point (1) of Section II.


text: In Chapter 9 he provides a homiletic enumeration of the motives to consume or not to do so, finding them to lie in social and psychological considerations which can be expected to be relatively stable, but which may be influenced by objective factors such as 'changes in expectations of the relation between the present and the future level of income' (p95).


text: The "marginal propensity to consume", C'(Y), is the gradient of the purple curve, and the marginal propensity to save S'(Y) is equal to 1–C'(Y). Keynes states as a 'fundamental psychological law' (p96) that the marginal propensity to consume will be positive and less than unity.


text: Chapter 10 introduces the famous 'multiplier' through an example: if the marginal propensity to consume is 90%, then 'the multiplier k is 10; and the total employment caused by (e.g.) increased public works will be ten times the employment caused by the public works themselves' (pp116f). Formally Keynes writes the multiplier as k=1/S'(Y). It follows from his 'fundamental psychological law' that k will be greater than 1.


text: Keynes's account is not clear until his economic system has been fully set out (see below). In Chapter 10 he describes his multiplier as being related to the one introduced by R. F. Kahn in 1931. The mechanism of Kahn's multiplier lies in an infinite series of transactions, each conceived of as creating employment: if you spend a certain amount of money, then the recipient will spend a proportion of what he or she receives, the second recipient will spend a further proportion again, and so forth. Keynes's account of his own mechanism (in the second para of p. 117) makes no reference to infinite series. By the end of the chapter on the multiplier, he uses his much quoted "digging holes" metaphor, against "laissez-faire". In his provocation Keynes argues that "If the Treasury were to fill old bottles with banknotes, bury them at suitable depths in disused coalmines which are then filled up to the surface with town rubbish, and leave it to private enterprise on well-tried principles of laissez-faire to dig the banknotes up again" (...), there need be no more unemployment and, with the help of the repercussions, the real income of the community, and its capital wealth also, would probably become a good deal greater than it actually is. It would, indeed, be more sensible to build houses and the like; but if there are political and practical difficulties in the way of this, the above would be better than nothing".


text: Book IV discusses the inducement to invest, with the key ideas being presented in Chapter 11. The 'marginal efficiency of capital' is defined as the annual revenue which will be yielded by an extra increment of capital as a proportion of its cost. The 'schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital' is the function which, for any rate of interest r, gives us the level of investment which will take place if all opportunities are accepted whose return is at least r. By construction this depends on r alone and is a decreasing function of its argument; it is illustrated in the diagram, and we shall write it as I (r).


text: This schedule is a characteristic of the current industrial process which Irving Fisher described as representing the 'investment opportunity side of interest theory'; and in fact the condition that it should equal S(Y,r) is the equation which determines the interest rate from income in classical theory. Keynes is seeking to reverse the direction of causality (and omitting r as an argument to S()).


text: He interprets the schedule as expressing the demand for investment at any given value of r, giving it an alternative name: "We shall call this the investment demand-schedule..." (p136). He also refers to it as the 'demand curve for capital' (p178).


text: For fixed industrial conditions, we conclude that 'the amount of investment... depends on the rate of interest' as John Hicks put it in 'Mr. Keynes and the "Classics"'.


text: Keynes proposes two theories of liquidity preference (i.e. the demand for money): the first as a theory of interest in Chapter 13 and the second as a correction in Chapter 15. His arguments offer ample scope for criticism, but his final conclusion is that liquidity preference is a function mainly of income and the interest rate. The influence of income (which really represents a composite of income and wealth) is common ground with the classical tradition and is embodied in the Quantity Theory; the influence of interest had also been noted earlier, in particular by Frederick Lavington (see Hicks's Mr Keynes and the "Classics"). Thus Keynes's final conclusion may be acceptable to readers who question the arguments along the way. However he shows a persistent tendency to think in terms of the Chapter 13 theory while nominally accepting the Chapter 15 correction.


text: It should be obvious that the rate of interest cannot be a return to saving or waiting as such. For if a man hoards his savings in cash, he earns no interest, though he saves just as much as before. On the contrary, the mere definition of the rate of interest tells us in so many words that the rate of interest is the reward for parting with liquidity for a specified period.


text: By analogous reasoning he could deny that wages are the reward for labor, or that profit is the reward for risk-taking, because labor is sometimes done without anticipation or realization of a return, and men who assume financial risks have been known to incur losses as a result instead of profits.


text: Keynes goes on to claim that the demand for money is a function of the interest rate alone on the grounds that:


text: The rate of interest is... the "price" which equilibrates the desire to hold wealth in the form of cash with the available quantity of cash.


text: Frank Knight commented that this seems to assume that demand is simply an inverse function of price. The upshot from these reasonings is that:


text: Liquidity-preference is a potentiality or functional tendency, which fixes the quantity of money which the public will hold when the rate of interest is given; so that if r is the rate of interest, M the quantity of money and L the function of liquidity-preference, we have M = L(r). This is where, and how, the quantity of money enters into the economic scheme.


text: And specifically it determines the rate of interest, which therefore cannot be determined by the traditional factors of 'productivity and thrift'.


text: Chapter 15 looks in more detail at the three motives Keynes ascribes for the holding of money: the 'transactions motive', the 'precautionary motive', and the 'speculative motive'. He considers that demand arising from the first two motives 'mainly depends on the level of income' (p199), while the interest rate is 'likely to be a minor factor' (p196).


text: Keynes treats the speculative demand for money as a function of r alone without justifying its independence of income. He says that...


text: what matters is not the "absolute" level of r but the degree of its divergence from what is considered a fairly "safe" level...


text: but gives reasons to suppose that demand will nonetheless tend to decrease as r increases. He thus writes liquidity preference in the form L(Y)+L(r) where L is the sum of transaction and precautionary demands and L measures speculative demand. The structure of Keynes's expression plays no part in his subsequent theory, so it does no harm to follow Hicks by writing liquidity preference simply as L(Y,r).


text: 'The quantity of money as determined by the action of the central bank' is taken as given (i.e. exogenous - p. 247) and constant (because hoarding is ruled out on page 174 by the fact that the necessary expansion of the money supply cannot be 'determined by the public').


text: Keynes does not put a subscript 'w' on L or M, implying that we should think of them in money terms. This suggestion is reinforced by his wording on page 172 where he says "Unless we measure liquidity-preference in terms of wage-units (which is convenient in some contexts)... ". But seventy pages later there is a fairly clear statement that liquidity preference and the quantity of money are indeed "measured in terms of wage-units" (p246).


text: In Chapter 14 Keynes contrasts the classical theory of interest with his own, and in making the comparison he shows how his system can be applied to explain all the principal economic unknowns from the facts he takes as given. The two topics can be treated together because they are different ways of analysing the same equation.


text: Keynes's presentation is informal. To make it more precise we will identify a set of 4 variables – saving, investment, the rate of interest, and the national income – and a parallel set of 4 equations which jointly determine them. The graph illustrates the reasoning. The red S lines are shown as increasing functions of r in obedience to classical theory; for Keynes they should be horizontal.


text: The first equation asserts that the reigning rate of interest r̂ is determined from the amount of money in circulation M̂ through the liquidity preference function and the assumption that L(r̂)=M̂.


text: The second equation fixes the level of investment Î given the rate of interest through the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital as I(r̂).


text: The third equation tells us that saving is equal to investment: S(Y)=Î. The final equation tells us that the income Ŷ is the value of Y corresponding to the implied level of saving.


text: Three comments can be made concerning the argument. Firstly, no use is made of the 'first postulate of classical economics', which can be called on later to set the price level. Secondly, Hicks (in 'Mr Keynes and the "Classics"') presents his version of Keynes's system with a single variable representing both saving and investment; so his exposition has three equations in three unknowns.


text: And finally, since Keynes's discussion takes place in Chapter 14, it precedes the modification which makes liquidity preference depend on income as well as on the rate of interest. Once this modification has been made the unknowns can no longer be recovered sequentially.


text: The state of the economy, according to Keynes, is determined by four parameters: the money supply, the demand functions for consumption (or equivalently for saving) and for liquidity, and the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital determined by 'the existing quantity of equipment' and 'the state of long-term expectation' (p246).Adjusting the money supply is the domain of monetary policy. The effect of a change in the quantity of money is considered at p. 298. The change is effected in the first place in money units. According to Keynes's account on p. 295, wages will not change if there is any unemployment, with the result that the money supply will change to the same extent in wage units.


text: We can then analyse its effect from the diagram, in which we see that an increase in M̂ shifts r̂ to the left, pushing Î upwards and leading to an increase in total income (and employment) whose size depends on the gradients of all 3 demand functions. If we look at the change in income as a function of the upwards shift of the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital (blue curve), we see that as the level of investment is increased by one unit, the income must adjust so that the level of saving (red curve) is one unit greater, and hence the increase in income must be


text: It does not necessarily follow that individual decisions to invest will have a similar effect, since decisions to invest above the level suggested by the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital are not the same thing as an increase in the schedule.


text: Keynes's initial statement of his economic model (in Chapter 14) is based on his Chapter 13 theory of liquidity preference. His restatement in Chapter 18 doesn't take full account of his Chapter 15 revision, treating it as a source of 'repercussions' rather than as an integral component. It was left to John Hicks to give a satisfactory presentation. Equilibrium between supply and demand of money depends on two variables – interest rate and income – and these are the same two variables as are related by the equation between the propensity to save and the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital. It follows that neither equation can be solved in isolation and that they need to be considered simultaneously.


text: The 'first postulate' of classical economics was also accepted as valid by Keynes, though not used in the first four books of the "General Theory". The Keynesian system can thus be represented by three equations in three variables as shown below, roughly following Hicks. Three analogous equations can be given for classical economics. As presented below they are in forms given by Keynes himself (the practice of writing r as an argument to V derives from his "Treatise on money").


text: Here y is written as a function of N, the number of workers employed; p is the price (in money terms) of a unit of real output; V(r) is the velocity of money; and W is the wage rate in money terms. N, p and r are the 3 variables we need to recover. In the Keynesian system income is measured in wage units and is therefore not a function of the level of employment alone since it will also vary with prices. The first postulate assumes that prices can be represented by a single variable. Strictly it should be modified to take account of the distinction between marginal wage cost and marginal prime cost.


text: The classics took the second equation as determining the rate of interest, the third as determining the price level, and the first as determining employment. Keynes believed that the last two equations could be solved together for Y and r, which is not possible in the classical system. He accordingly concentrated on these two equations, treating income as 'almost the same thing' as employment on p. 247. Here we see the benefit he has gained by simplifying the form of the consumption function. If he had written it (slightly more accurately) as C(Y,p/W), then he would have needed to bring in the first equation to get a solution.


text: If we wish to examine the classical system our task is made easier if we assume that the effect of the interest rate on the velocity of circulation is small enough to be ignored. This allows us to treat V as constant and solve the first and third equations (the 'first postulate' and the quantity theory) together, leaving the second equation to determine the interest rate from the result. We then find that the level of employment is given by the formula


text: The graph shows the numerator and denominator of the left-hand side as blue and green curves; their ratio – the pink curve – will be a decreasing function of N even if we don't assume diminishing marginal returns. The level of employment N̂ is given by the horizontal position at which the pink curve has a value of formula_2, and this is evidently a decreasing function of W.


text: The theoretical system we have described is developed over chapters 4–18, and is anticipated by a chapter which interprets Keynesian unemployment in terms of 'aggregate demand'.


text: The "aggregate supply Z" is the total value of output when N workers are employed, written functionally as φ(N). The aggregate demand D is manufacturers' expected proceeds, written as f(N). In equilibrium Z=D. D can be decomposed as D+D where D is the propensity to consume, which may be written C(Y) or χ(N). D is explained as 'the volume of investment', and the equilibrium condition determining the level of employment is that D+D should equal Z as functions of N. D can be identified with I (r).


text: The meaning of this is that in equilibrium the total demand for goods must equal total income. Total demand for goods is the sum of demand for consumption goods and demand for investment goods. Hence


text: Chapter 5 makes some common-sense observations on the role of expectation in economics. Short-term expectations govern the level of production chosen by an entrepreneur while long-term expectations govern decisions to adjust the level of capitalisation. Keynes describes the process by which the level of employment adapts to a change in long-term expectations and remarks that:


text: The level of employment at any time depends... not merely on the existing state of expectation but on the states of expectation which have existed over a certain past period. Nevertheless past expectations, which have not yet worked themselves out, are embodied in to-day's capital equipment... and only influence [the entrepreneur's] decisions in so far as they are so embodied.


text: The main role of expectation in Keynes's theory lies in the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital which, as we have seen, is defined in Chapter 11 in terms of "expected" returns. Keynes differs here from Fisher whom he largely follows, but who defined the 'rate of return over cost' in terms of an actual revenue stream rather than its expectation. The step Keynes took here has a particular significance in his theory.


text: Keynes differed from his classical predecessors in assigning a role to the schedule of the marginal efficiency of capital in determining the level of employment. Its effect is mentioned in his presentations of his theory in Chapters 14 and 18 (see above).


text: Most, probably, of our decisions to do something positive, the full consequences of which will be drawn out over days to come, can only be taken as a result of animal spirits – of a spontaneous urge to action rather than inaction, and not as the outcome of a weighted average of quantified benefits... Thus if the animal spirits are dimmed and spontaneous optimism falters, leaving us to depend on nothing but a mathematical expectation, enterprise will fade and die.


text: In point of fact, all sorts of considerations enter into the market valuation which are in no way relevant to the prospective yield... The recurrence of a bank-holiday may raise the market valuation of the British railway system by several million pounds.


text: ...not with what an investment is really worth to a man who buys it 'for keeps', but with what the market will value it at, under the influence of mass psychology, three months or a year hence...


text: This battle of wits to anticipate the basis of conventional valuation a few months hence, rather than the prospective yield of an investment over a long term of years, does not even require gulls amongst the public to feed the maws of the professional;– it can be played by professionals amongst themselves. Nor is it necessary that anyone should keep his simple faith in the conventional basis of valuation having any genuine long-term validity. For it is, so to speak, a game of Snap, of Old Maid, of Musical Chairs – a pastime in which he is victor who says Snap neither too soon nor too late, who passed the Old Maid to his neighbour before the game is over, who secures a chair for himself when the music stops. These games can be played with zest and enjoyment, though all the players know that it is the Old Maid which is circulating, or that when the music stops some of the players will find themselves unseated.


text: Or, to change the metaphor slightly, professional investment may be likened to those newspaper competitions in which the competitors have to pick out the six prettiest faces from a hundred photographs, the prize being awarded to the competitor whose choice most nearly corresponds to the average preferences of the competitors as a whole; so that each competitor has to pick, not those faces which he himself finds prettiest, but those which he thinks likeliest to catch the fancy of the other competitors, all of whom are looking at the problem from the same point of view. It is not a case of choosing those which, to the best of one's judgment, are really the prettiest, nor even those which average opinion genuinely thinks the prettiest. We have reached the third degree where we devote our intelligences to anticipating what average opinion expects the average opinion to be. And there are some, I believe, who practise the fourth, fifth and higher degrees.


text: Keynes's theory of the trade cycle is a theory of the slow oscillation of money income which requires it to be possible for income to move upwards or downwards. If he had assumed that wages were constant, then upward motion of income would have been impossible at full employment, and he would have needed some mechanism to frustrate upward pressure if it arose in such circumstances.


text: His task is made easier by a less restrictive (but nonetheless crude) assumption concerning wage behaviour:


text: let us simplify our assumptions still further, and assume... that the factors of production... are content with the same money-wage so long as there is a surplus of them unemployed... ; whilst as soon as full employment is reached, it will thenceforward be the wage-unit and prices which will increase in exact proportion to the increase in effective demand.


text: Keynes's theory of the trade cycle is based on 'a cyclical change in the marginal efficiency of capital' induced by 'the uncontrollable and disobedient psychology of the business world' (pp313, 317).


text: The marginal efficiency of capital depends... on current expectations... But, as we have seen, the basis for such expectations is very precarious. Being based on shifting and unreliable evidence, they are subject to sudden and violent changes.


text: Optimism leads to a rise in the marginal efficiency of capital and increased investment, reflected – through the multiplier – in an even greater increase in income until 'disillusion falls upon an over-optimistic and over-bought market' which consequently falls with 'sudden and even catastrophic force' (p316).


text: There are reasons, given firstly by the length of life of durable assets... and secondly by the carrying-costs of surplus stocks, why the duration of the downward movement should have an order of magnitude... between, let us say, three and five years.


text: Income fluctuates cyclically in Keynes's theory, with the effect being borne by prices if income increases during a period of full employment, and by employment in other circumstances.


text: Keynes's assumption about wage behaviour has been the subject of much criticism. It is likely that wage rates adapt partially to depression conditions, with the consequence that effects on employment are weaker than his model implies, but not that they disappear.


text: Lerner pointed out in the 40s that it was optimistic to hope that the workforce would be content with fixed wages in the presence of rising prices, and proposed a modification to Keynes's model. After this a succession of more elaborate models were constructed, many associated with the Phillips curve.


text: Keynes's optimistic prediction that an increase in money supply would be taken up by an increase in employment led to Jacob Viner's pessimistic prediction that "in a world organized in accordance with Keynes' specifications there would be a constant race between the printing press and the business agents of the trade unions".


text: Models of wage pressure on the economy needed frequent correction and the standing of Keynesian theory suffered. Geoff Tily wrote ruefully:


text: Finally, the most destructive step of all was Samuelson's and <nowiki>[Robert]</nowiki> Solow's incorporation of the Phillips curve into 'Keynesian' theory in a manner which traduced not only Phillips but also Keynes's careful work in the "General Theory", Chapter 21, substituting for its subtlety an immutable relationship between inflation and employment. The 1970s combination of inflation and stagnating economic activity was at odds with this relationship, and therefore 'Keynesianism', and by association Keynes were rejected. Monetarism was merely waiting in the wings for this to happen.


text: Keynes's assumption of wage behaviour was not an integral part of his theory – very little in his book depends on it – and was avowedly a simplification: in fact it was the simplest assumption he could make without imposing an unnatural cap on money income.


text: Keynes drew a lot of help from his students in his progress from the "Treatise on Money"  (1930) to the "General Theory"  (1936). The Cambridge Circus, a discussion group founded immediately after the publication of the earlier work, reported to Keynes through Richard Kahn, and drew his attention to a supposed fallacy in the "Treatise"  where Keynes had written:


text: Thus profits, as a source of capital increment for entrepreneurs, are a widow's cruse which remains undepleted however much of them may be devoted to riotous living.


text: The "Circus"  disbanded in May 1931, but three of its member - Kahn, Austin and Joan Robinson – continued to meet in the Robinsons' house in Trumpington St. (Cambridge), forwarding comments to Keynes. This led to a 'Manifesto' of 1932 whose ideas were taken up by Keynes in his lectures. Kahn and Joan Robinson were well versed in marginalist theory which Keynes did not fully understand at the time (or possibly ever), pushing him towards adopting elements of it in the "General Theory". During 1934 and 1935 Keynes submitted drafts to Kahn, Robinson and Roy Harrod for comment.


text: There has been uncertainty ever since over the extent of the collaboration, Schumpeter describing Kahn's "share in the historic achievement" as not having "fallen very far short of co-authorship" while Kahn denied the attribution.


text: Keynes drafted rapidly in pencil, reclining in an armchair. The pencil draft he sent straight to the printers. They supplied him with a considerable number of galley proofs, which he would then distribute to his advisers and critics for comment and amendment. As he published on his own account, Macmillan & Co., the 'publishers' (in reality they were distributors), could not object to the expense of Keynes' method of operating. They came out of Keynes' profit (Macmillan & Co. merely received a commission). Keynes' object was to simplify the process of circulating drafts; and eventually to secure good sales by fixing the retail price lower than would Macmillan & Co.


text: When he published "The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money" last year at the sensational price of 5 shillings, J. M. Keynes perhaps meant to express a wish for the broadest and earliest possible dissemination of his new ideas.


text: Keynes's work on the "General Theory" began as soon as his "Treatise on Money" had been published in 1930. He was already dissatisfied with what he had written and wanted to extend the scope of his theory to output and employment. By September 1932 he was able to write to his mother: 'I have written nearly a third of my new book on monetary theory'.


text: In autumn 1932 he delivered lectures at Cambridge under the title 'the monetary theory of production' whose content was close to the "Treatise" except in giving prominence to a liquidity preference theory of interest. There was no consumption function and no theory of effective demand. Wage rates were discussed in a criticism of Pigou.


text: In autumn 1933 Keynes's lectures were much closer to the "General Theory", including the consumption function, effective demand, and a statement of 'the inability of workers to bargain for a market-clearing real wage in a monetary economy'. All that was missing was a theory of investment.


text: His lectures in autumn of that year bore the title 'the general theory of employment'. In these lectures Keynes presented the marginal efficiency of capital in much the same form as it took in Chapter 11, his 'basic chapter' as Kahn called it. He gave a talk on the same subject to economists at Oxford in February 1935.


text: This was the final building block of the "General Theory". The book was finished in December 1935 and published in February 1936.


text: Many economists found "General Theory" difficult to read, with Étienne Mantoux calling it obscure, Frank Knight calling it difficult to follow, Michel DeVroey commenting that "many passages of his book were almost indecipherable"., and Paul Samuelson calling the analysis "unpalatable" and incomprehensible.


text: Raúl Rojas dissents, saying that "obscure neo-classical reinterpretations" are "completely pointless since Keynes' book is so readable".


text: Keynes did not set out a detailed policy program in "The General Theory", but he went on in practice to place great emphasis on the reduction of long-term interest rates and the reform of the international monetary system as structural measures needed to encourage both investment and consumption by the private sector. Paul Samuelson said that the General Theory "caught most economists under the age of 35 with the unexpected virulence of a disease first attacking and decimating an isolated tribe of South Sea islanders."


text: Many of the innovations introduced by "The General Theory" continue to be central to modern macroeconomics. For instance, the idea that recessions reflect inadequate aggregate demand and that Say's Law (in Keynes's formulation, that "supply creates its own demand") does not hold in a monetary economy. President Richard Nixon famously said in 1971 (ironically, shortly before Keynesian economics fell out of fashion) that "We are all Keynesians now", a phrase often repeated by Nobel laureate Paul Krugman (but originating with anti-Keynesian economist Milton Friedman, said in a way different from Krugman's interpretation). Nevertheless, starting with Axel Leijonhufvud, this view of Keynesian economics came under increasing challenge and scrutiny and has now divided into two main camps.


text: The majority new consensus view, found in most current text-books and taught in all universities, is New Keynesian economics, which accepts the neoclassical concept of long-run equilibrium but allows a role for aggregate demand in the short run. New Keynesian economists pride themselves on providing microeconomic foundations for the sticky prices and wages assumed by Old Keynesian economics. They do not regard "The General Theory" itself as helpful to further research. The minority view is represented by post-Keynesian economists, all of whom accept Keynes's fundamental critique of the neoclassical concept of long-run equilibrium, and some of whom think "The General Theory" has yet to be properly understood and repays further study.


text: From the outset there has been controversy over what Keynes really meant. Many early reviews were highly critical. The success of what came to be known as "neoclassical synthesis" Keynesian economics owed a great deal to the Harvard economist Alvin Hansen and MIT economist Paul Samuelson as well as to the Oxford economist John Hicks. Hansen and Samuelson offered a lucid explanation of Keynes's theory of aggregate demand with their elegant 45° Keynesian cross diagram while Hicks created the IS-LM diagram. Both of these diagrams can still be found in textbooks. Post-Keynesians argue that the neoclassical Keynesian model is completely distorting and misinterpreting Keynes' original meaning.


text: Just as the reception of "The General Theory" was encouraged by the 1930s experience of mass unemployment, its fall from favour was associated with the 'stagflation' of the 1970s. Although few modern economists would disagree with the need for at least some intervention, policies such as labour market flexibility are underpinned by the neoclassical notion of equilibrium in the long run. Although Keynes explicitly addresses inflation, "The General Theory" does not treat it as an essentially monetary phenomenon or suggest that control of the money supply or interest rates is the key remedy for inflation, unlike neoclassical theory.


text: Lastly, Keynes' economic theory was criticized by Marxian economists, who said that Keynes ideas, while good intentioned, cannot work in the long run due to the contradictions in capitalism. A couple of these contradictions to which Marxians point are the idea of full employment, which is seen as impossible under private capitalism; and the idea that government can encourage capital investment through government spending, when in reality government spending could be a net loss on profits.


text: The earliest attempt to write a student guide was Robinson (1937) and the most successful (by numbers sold) was Hansen (1953). These are both quite accessible but adhere to the Old Keynesian school of the time. An up-to-date post-Keynesian attempt, aimed mainly at graduate and advanced undergraduate students, is Hayes (2006), and an easier version is Sheehan (2009). Paul Krugman has written an introduction to the 2007 Palgrave Macmillan edition of "The General Theory".


title: Transonic

text: Transonic (or transsonic) flow is air flowing around an object at a speed that generates regions of both subsonic and supersonic airflow around that object. The exact range of speeds depends on the object's critical Mach number, but transonic flow is seen at flight speeds close to the speed of sound (343 m/s at sea level), typically between Mach 0.8 and 1.2.


title: Transonic

text: The issue of transonic speed (or transonic region) first appeared during World War II. Pilots found as they approached the sound barrier the airflow caused aircraft to become unsteady. Experts found that shock waves can cause large-scale separation downstream, increasing drag and adding asymmetry and unsteadiness to the flow around the vehicle. Research has been done into weakening shock waves in transonic flight through the use of anti-shock bodies and supercritical airfoils.


title: Transonic

text: Most modern jet powered aircraft are engineered to operate at transonic air speeds. Transonic airspeeds see a rapid increase in drag from about Mach 0.8, and it is the fuel costs of the drag that typically limits the airspeed. Attempts to reduce wave drag can be seen on all high-speed aircraft. Most notable is the use of swept wings, but another common form is a wasp-waist fuselage as a side effect of the Whitcomb area rule.


title: Transonic

text: Transonic speeds can also occur at the tips of rotor blades of helicopters and aircraft. This puts severe, unequal stresses on the rotor blade and may lead to accidents if it occurs. It is one of the limiting factors of the size of rotors and the forward speeds of helicopters (as this speed is added to the forward-sweeping [leading] side of the rotor, possibly causing localized transonics).


title: Transonic

text: Issues with aircraft flight relating to speed first appeared during the supersonic era in 1941. Ralph Virden, a test pilot, crashed in a fatal plane accident. He lost control of the plane when a shock wave caused by supersonic airflow developed over the wing, causing it to stall. Virden flew well below the speed of sound at Mach 0.675, which brought forth the idea of different airflows forming around the plane. In the 40s, Kelley Johnson became one of the first engineers to investigate the effect of compressibility on aircraft. However, contemporary wind tunnels did not have the capability to create wind speeds close to Mach 1 to test the effects of transonic speeds. Not long after, the term "transonic" was defined to mean "across the speed of sound" and was invented by NACA director Hugh Dryden and Theodore von Kármán of the California Institute of Technology.


title: Transonic

text: Initially, NACA designed "dive flaps" to help stabilize the plane when reaching transonic flight. This small flap on the underside of the plane slowed the plane to prevent shock waves, but this design only delayed finding a solution to aircraft flying at supersonic speed. Newer wind tunnels were designed, so researchers could test newer wing designs without risking test pilots' lives. The slotted-wall transonic tunnel was designed by NASA and allowed researchers to test wings and different airfoils in transonic airflow to find the best wingtip shape for sonic speeds.


title: Transonic

text: After World War II, major changes in aircraft design were seen to improve transonic flight. The main way to stabilize an aircraft was to reduce the speed of the airflow around the wings by changing the chord of the plane wings, and one solution to prevent transonic waves was swept wings. Since the airflow would hit the wings at an angle, this would decrease the wing thickness and chord ratio. Airfoils wing shapes were designed flatter at the top to prevent shock waves and reduce the distance of airflow over the wing. Later on, Richard Whitcomb designed the first supercritical airfoil using similar principles.


title: Transonic

text: Prior to the advent of powerful computers, even the simplest forms of the compressible flow equations were difficult to solve due to their nonlinearity. A common assumption used to circumvent this nonlinearity is that disturbances within the flow are relatively small, which allows mathematicians and engineers to linearize the compressible flow equations into a relatively easily solvable set of differential equations for either wholly subsonic or supersonic flows. This assumption is fundamentally untrue for transonic flows because the disturbance caused by an object is much larger than in subsonic or supersonic flows; a flow speed close to or at Mach 1 does not allow the streamtubes (3D flow paths) to contract enough around the object to minimize the disturbance, and thus the disturbance propagates. Aerodynamicists struggled during the earlier studies of transonic flow because the then-current theory implied that these disturbances– and thus drag– approached infinity as local Mach number approached 1, an obviously unrealistic result which could not be remedied using known methods.


title: Transonic

text: One of the first methods used to circumvent the nonlinearity of transonic flow models was the hodograph transformation. This concept was originally explored in 1923 by an Italian mathematician named Francesco Tricomi, who used the transformation to simplify the compressible flow equations and prove that they were solvable. The hodograph transformation itself was also explored by both Ludwig Prandtl and O.G. Tietjen's textbooks in 1929 and by Adolf Busemann in 1937, though neither applied this method specifically to transonic flow.


title: Transonic

text: Gottfried Guderley, a German mathematician and engineer at Braunschweig, discovered Tricomi's work in the process of applying the hodograph method to transonic flow near the end of World War II. He focused on the nonlinear thin-airfoil compressible flow equations, the same as what Tricomi derived, though his goal of using these equations to solve flow over an airfoil presented unique challenges. Guderley and Hideo Yoshihara, along with some input from Busemann, later used a singular solution of Tricomi's equations to analytically solve the behavior of transonic flow over a double wedge airfoil, the first to do so with only the assumptions of thin-airfoil theory.


title: Transonic

text: Although successful, Guderley's work was still focused on the theoretical, and only resulted in a single solution for a double wedge airfoil at Mach 1. Walter Vincenti, an American engineer at Ames Laboratory, aimed to supplement Guderley's Mach 1 work with numerical solutions that would cover the range of transonic speeds between Mach 1 and wholly supersonic flow. Vincenti and his assistants drew upon the work of Howard Emmons as well as Tricomi's original equations to complete a set of four numerical solutions for the drag over a double wedge airfoil in transonic flow above Mach 1. The gap between subsonic and Mach 1 flow was later covered by both Julian Cole and Leon Trilling, completing the transonic behavior of the airfoil by the early 1950's.


title: Transonic

text: At transonic speeds supersonic expansion fans form intense low-pressure, low-temperature areas at various points around an aircraft. If the temperature drops below the dew point a visible cloud will form. These clouds remain with the aircraft as it travels. It is not necessary for the aircraft as a whole to reach supersonic speeds for these clouds to form. Typically, the tail of the aircraft will reach supersonic flight while the bow of the aircraft is still in subsonic flight. A bubble of supersonic expansion fans terminating by a wake shockwave surround the tail. As the aircraft continues to accelerate, the supersonic expansion fans will intensify and the wake shockwave will grow in size until infinity is reached, at which point the bow shockwave forms. This is Mach 1 and the Prandtl–Glauert singularity.


title: Transonic

text: In astrophysics, wherever there is evidence of shocks (standing, propagating or oscillating), the flow close by must be transonic, as only supersonic flows form shocks. All black hole accretions are transonic. Many such flows also have shocks very close to the black holes.


title: Transonic

text: The outflows or jets from young stellar objects or disks around black holes can also be transonic since they start subsonically and at a far distance they are invariably supersonic. Supernovae explosions are accompanied by supersonic flows and shock waves. Bow shocks formed in solar winds are a direct result of transonic winds from a star. It had been long thought that a bow shock was present around the heliosphere of our solar system, but this was found not to be the case according to IBEX data published in 2012.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte! () is an Indian Marathi language drama which airs on Star Pravah. It is based on the Bengali series "Sreemoyee" on Star Jalsha. The show premiered on 23 December 2019 and stars Madhurani Gokhale Prabhulkar in the titular role of Arundhati. It is also digitally available on Disney+ Hotstar. The show is produced by Rajan Shahi's Director's Kut Productions.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: A middle-aged housewife, Arundhati, has dedicated her life to her husband and children. Her husband Anirudh has an affair with his colleague, Sanjana. Arundhati's elder son, Abhishek marries Ankita while Arundhati's younger son, Yash falls in love with Sanjana's niece, Gauri.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Arundhati's friend, Devika tells her that her family is taking her for granted. The family plans a remarriage of Arundhati and Anirudh, to mark their 25th anniversary. Sanjana tries to marry Anirudh on his wedding day with Arundhati, but in vain. In anger, she comes to tell Arundhati the truth about her and Anirudh's affair on their wedding day. However, Anirudh stops her and expresses his love towards her in his bedroom and Arundhati sees. Arundhati breaks down and decides to retaliate against Anirudh for his betrayal.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Arundhati changes herself and learns all the things that she remained to learn. Soon, Anirudh and Sanjana's relationship is exposed to the Deshmukh family, while Anirudh proposes to Sanjana on her birthday. The Deshmukhs blame on Anirudh, who later moves to Sanjana's house. Later, Arundhati's daughter, Isha becomes depressed, which makes Anirudh to return his family.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Anirudh and Arundhati finally get divorced. Sanjana divorces Shekhar and marries Anirudh. Sanjana continuously taunts Arundhati, trying to humiliate her and fails in her attempts to turn the family against her. Arundhati's college friend, Ashutosh, enters and gives Arundhati moral support. Abhishek divorces Ankita and decides to marry his fiancée, Anagha. But before their marriage Anagha's obsessive lover, Girish, arrives and disrupts their lives even attempting Yash, Abhishek and Arundhati's murders but is caught in the act by Ashutosh. The couple gets married. Later Arundhati leaves the Samridhhi Mansion due to repetitive character assassination by Kanchan, Aniruddh, Abhishek and Sanjana while Yash also decides to leave with her. They move to a rented house while Sanjana tricks everyone into signing property papers on her name.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Rajan Shahi, who produces the series, decided to remake it in Hindi as "Anupamaa" for StarPlus stating, "This interesting concept around a mother's journey has been so inspirational that Star wants to bring it in Hindi too."


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: The production and broadcasting of the series was halted in late March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. After more than 3 months, the filming resumed in late June 2020 and the broadcast resumed on 13 July 2020. On 13 April 2021, Chief Minister of Maharashtra, Uddhav Thackeray announced a sudden curfew due to increased Covid cases, while the production halted from 14 April 2021 in Mumbai. Hence, the production location was soon shifted temporarily to Silvassa.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: Madhurani Gokhale-Prabhulkar is cast as the lead role. Milind Gawali, Gauri Kulkarni, Deepali Pansare, Rupali Bhosale, Mayur Khandage, Kishore Mahabole, Archana Patkar, Poonam Chandokar, Apurva Gore, Seema Ghogale, Abhishek Deshmukh, Niranjan Kulkarni, Ashish Kulkarni and Radha Kulkarni were also cast. It was post COVID-19 pandemic lockdown when production resumed in June 2020. Deepali Pansare quit the series because of the pandemic and was replaced by Rupali Bhosale. In November 2021, Omkar Govardhan entered the show as the new main lead Ashutosh Kelkar.


title: Aai Kuthe Kay Karte

text: The lyrics of both versions of the title song are penned by Guru Thakur Music. Shripad Joshi penned the lyrics of the song "Sobatis Halke".


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Thomas Bayes ( ; 1701 7 April 1761) was an English statistician, philosopher and Presbyterian minister who is known for formulating a specific case of the theorem that bears his name: Bayes' theorem. Bayes never published what would become his most famous accomplishment; his notes were edited and published posthumously by Richard Price.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Thomas Bayes was the son of London Presbyterian minister Joshua Bayes, and was possibly born in Hertfordshire. He came from a prominent nonconformist family from Sheffield. In 1719, he enrolled at the University of Edinburgh to study logic and theology. On his return around 1722, he assisted his father at the latter's chapel in London before moving to Tunbridge Wells, Kent, around 1734. There he was minister of the Mount Sion Chapel, until 1752.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Bayes was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1742. His nomination letter was signed by Philip Stanhope, Martin Folkes, James Burrow, Cromwell Mortimer, and John Eames. It is speculated that he was accepted by the society on the strength of the "Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions", as he is not known to have published any other mathematical work during his lifetime.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: In his later years he took a deep interest in probability. Historian Stephen Stigler thinks that Bayes became interested in the subject while reviewing a work written in 1755 by Thomas Simpson, but George Alfred Barnard thinks he learned mathematics and probability from a book by Abraham de Moivre. Others speculate he was motivated to rebut David Hume's argument against believing in miracles on the evidence of testimony in "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding". His work and findings on probability theory were passed in manuscript form to his friend Richard Price after his death.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: By 1755 he was ill and by 1761 had died in Tunbridge Wells. He was buried in Bunhill Fields burial ground in Moorgate, London, where many nonconformists lie.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: In 2018, the University of Edinburgh opened a £45 million research centre connected to its informatics department named after its alumnus, Bayes.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: In April 2021, it was announced that Cass Business School, whose City of London campus is on Bunhill Row, was to be renamed after Bayes.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Bayes's solution to a problem of inverse probability was presented in "An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances", which was read to the Royal Society in 1763 after Bayes's death. Richard Price shepherded the work through this presentation and its publication in the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London" the following year. This was an argument for using a uniform prior distribution for a binomial parameter and not merely a general postulate. This essay gives the following theorem (stated here in present-day terminology).


title: Thomas Bayes

text: In the first decades of the eighteenth century, many problems concerning the probability of certain events, given specified conditions, were solved. For example: given a specified number of white and black balls in an urn, what is the probability of drawing a black ball? Or the converse: given that one or more balls has been drawn, what can be said about the number of white and black balls in the urn? These are sometimes called "inverse probability" problems.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Bayes's "Essay" contains his solution to a similar problem posed by Abraham de Moivre, author of "The Doctrine of Chances" (1718).


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Bayesian probability is the name given to several related interpretations of probability as an amount of epistemic confidence – the strength of beliefs, hypotheses etc. – rather than a frequency. This allows the application of probability to all sorts of propositions rather than just ones that come with a reference class. "Bayesian" has been used in this sense since about 1950. Since its rebirth in the 1950s, advancements in computing technology have allowed scientists from many disciplines to pair traditional Bayesian statistics with random walk techniques. The use of the Bayes theorem has been extended in science and in other fields.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: Bayes himself might not have embraced the broad interpretation now called Bayesian, which was in fact pioneered and popularised by Pierre-Simon Laplace; it is difficult to assess Bayes's philosophical views on probability, since his essay does not go into questions of interpretation. There, Bayes defines "probability" of an event as "the ratio between the value at which an expectation depending on the happening of the event ought to be computed, and the value of the thing expected upon its happening" (Definition 5). In modern utility theory, the same definition would result by rearranging the definition of expected utility (the probability of an event times the payoff received in case of that event – including the special cases of buying risk for small amounts or buying security for big amounts) to solve for the probability. As Stigler points out, this is a subjective definition, and does not require repeated events; however, it does require that the event in question be observable, for otherwise it could never be said to have "happened". Stigler argues that Bayes intended his results in a more limited way than modern Bayesians. Given Bayes's definition of probability, his result concerning the parameter of a binomial distribution makes sense only to the extent that one can bet on its observable consequences.


title: Thomas Bayes

text: The philosophy of Bayesian statistics is at the core of almost every modern estimation approach that includes conditioned probabilities, such as sequential estimation, probabilistic machine learning techniques, risk assessment, simultaneous localization and mapping, regularization or information theory. The rigorous axiomatic framework for probability theory as a whole, however, was developed 200 years later during the early and middle 20th century, starting with insightful results in ergodic theory by Plancherel in 1913.


title: Toyota GD engine

text: The Toyota GD engine series is a diesel engine produced by Toyota which appeared in 2015. It replaced the Toyota KD engine series as a diesel engine series mainly oriented to body-on-frame vehicles. The GD engine featured Economy with Superior Thermal Efficient Combustion (ESTEC) technology. Toyota claims they have a maximum thermal efficiency of 44 percent, "top class" at the time of introduction.


title: Toyota GD engine

text: The GD engine series is produced in three countries: in Japan, in Bangalore, India by Toyota Industries Engine India (TIEI), and in Chonburi, Thailand by Siam Toyota Manufacturing (STM).


title: Toyota GD engine

text: The 1GD-FTV is a straight-4 common rail diesel engine with a variable nozzle turbocharger (VNT), chain drive and Intercooler. It has 16 valves and a DOHC (double overhead camshaft) design. Its compression ratio is 15.6:1. Bore x stroke is . It generates at 3,400 rpm, and of torque at 1,600-2,400 rpm when mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission, depending on target market and emission specifications. With manual transmission, outputs are and . In 2020, the power and torque figures for some models were uprated to at 3,400 rpm and at 1,600–2,800 rpm. Average fuel consumption (in JC08 method) is .


title: Toyota GD engine

text: For the Toyota HiAce (H200), the engine is detuned to at 3600 rpm and of torque at 1000-3400 rpm mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission. The engine for the 2022 South African Hilux GR Sport model were further uprated to produce and of torque.


title: Toyota GD engine

text: The 2GD-FTV is a straight-four common rail diesel engine with a variable nozzle turbocharger (VNT) and intercooler. It has 16 valves and a DOHC (double overhead camshaft) design. Its compression ratio is 15.6:1. Bore x stroke is . It generates with intercooler at 3400 rpm, and of torque at 1600-2000 rpm when mated to 6-speed automatic transmission or manual transmission, depending on target market and emission specifications.


title: Toyota GD engine

text: In Toyota Innova, it generates at 3400 rpm, and of torque at 1200-2600 rpm when mated to a 6-speed automatic transmission, depending on target market and emission specifications. With manual transmission, outputs are and


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Ivory Aquino is a Filipina-American actress. She is known for portraying transgender activist Cecilia Chung in the 2017 miniseries "When We Rise".


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino was born in the Philippines. She knew from a very young age that she was transgender, stating in a 2017 interview, "As soon as I was born, I was always a girl; I was just assigned differently at birth." In her mid-teens, she started hormone therapy. She was often bullied at school, but her parents were supportive of her transition.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: As a teenager, Aquino moved to the United States to study at the Berklee College of Music, which she graduated from "summa cum laude". She enrolled to study singing, thinking that there would be no acting roles for a transgender Filipina. But after having gender confirmation surgery, Aquino decided to pursue her childhood dream of being an actor.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: In 2015, Aquino performed the role of Juliet in a production of "Romeo and Juliet" in New York City with The Drilling Company's Bryant Park Presents. Other stage roles she has played include Desdemona in "Othello", Mark Antony in "Julius Caesar", and Isabella in "Measure for Measure", all with The Drilling Company's Shakespeare in the Parking Lot on the Lower East Side of New York.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino was cast in the role of transgender activist Cecilia Chung for the 2017 docudrama miniseries, "When We Rise". At the time she auditioned, she had played mostly cisgender roles, and was not open about being trans, as "There never was a reason to talk about it." Aquino made sure to let series writer Dustin Black know that she was transgender, which helped her secure the part, as Black was specifically looking for trans actresses. She publicly came out as transgender during a January 2017 press conference for the series.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino met with Chung in person to prepare for her part on "When We Rise". They became friends; Aquino considers Chung to be a mentor and "older sister" figure in her life.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino plays a minor but important character named Cassie in the "" season 1 episode "Silkworm" in 2020.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: In January 2022, Aquino was cast as Alysia Yeoh in the unreleased superhero film "Batgirl", set in the DC Extended Universe.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino has spoken out in support of trans children and transgender rights, criticizing the Donald Trump administration's overturn of federal protection for transgender students.


title: Ivory Aquino

text: Aquino lives in New York City, where she enjoys spending time with her Shih Tzu dog Chewybear. She is the niece of former President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino.


title: I Like to Move It

text: "I Like to Move It" is a song by American solo project Reel 2 Real (Erick Morillo), featuring ragga vocals by Trinidad and Tobago rapper The Mad Stuntman (Mark Quashie). Released in 1993, as the second single from their debut album, "Move It!" (1994), it appeared on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1994, peaking at number 89, and reached number five on the UK Singles Chart the same year. It was a number-one hit in Belgium, France, the Netherlands, and Zimbabwe. On the "Billboard" Dance Club Play chart, it peaked at number eight. On the second International Dance Awards in 1995, it won an award in the category for Best Tune of the Year.


title: I Like to Move It

text: The song was adapted in a Spanish version by Dominican merengue-house duo Sandy & Papo, as "Mueve, mueve", in 1995. In 2021, it was reworked in a remix version by Tunisian DJ-producer duo, Outrage and Spanish DJ and vocalist Alejandro under the title, "Move It".


title: I Like to Move It

text: In 2020, a reviewer from AllMusic stated that Reel 2 Real's "I Like to Move It" "still sounds as hot today as it did when it first came out in 1993. The pulsing synths and sirens of the song made for an instant wall shaker." Larry Flick from "Billboard" noted that here, "reggae beat sensibilities are woven around loose house and rave keyboards. The Mad Stuntman toasts with predictable speed, cutting through the fairly thick groove with a raspy edge. His energy transforms what could have been a laid-back record into a rousing peak-hour anthem."


title: I Like to Move It

text: Music writer and columnist James Masterton wrote, "Straight from nowhere come Reel 2 Real to become the first dance act for several months to charge straight into the Top 10 without a previous hit to their name." Maria Jimenez from "Music & Media" remarked that the "boomin'" and "grinding scorcher is gaining much audience and radio support on this side of the ocean." Andy Beevers from "Music Week" rated the song four out of five, adding, "Originally released by Strictly Rhythm, this inspired combination of NY house rhythms and The Mad Stuntman's ragga rhymes has been generating plenty of interest on import." Another editor, Alan Jones complimented it as a "fierce ragga house anthem". James Hamilton from the "RM" Dance Update declared it as a "madly happy gruff ragga rapped bogle/soca-style leaper".


title: I Like to Move It

text: "I Like to Move It" was very successful on the charts across several continents. It remains the project's biggest and best-known hit to date, peaking at number-one in Belgium, France, Greece and the Netherlands. Additionally, the single made it to the top 10 also in Austria (number two), Finland, Germany (number three), Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Scotland, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, as well as on the Eurochart Hot 100, where it reached number two. In the UK, it peaked at number five in its eight week on the UK Singles Chart, on March 27. But it topped the UK Dance Singles Chart on February 26. Outside Europe, "I Like to Move It" peaked at number-one also on the "RPM" Dance/Urban chart in Canada and in Zimbabwe. It went into the top 10 in Australia and on the "Billboard" Dance Club Play chart in the US. On the "Billboard" Hot 100, the single reached number 89. In New Zealand, it was a top 20 hit, peaking at number 14. It was awarded with a gold record in Australia, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK.


title: I Like to Move It

text: The accompanying music video for "I Like to Move It" was directed by Craig K. McCall. It was shot in New York City, with notable filming locations including Times Square and Flatbush. The video received heavy rotation on MTV Europe and was A-listed on Germany's VIVA.


title: I Like to Move It

text: The song appeared in the films "The Master of Disguise" and "Saving Silverman". The song appeared in the "American Dad!" episode "The Dentist's Wife".


title: I Like to Move It

text: A reworked parody version, titled "I Like to Shake It, Shake It", was used in a April 2018 commercial for the dishwasher brand Fairy. It was posted on their official UK YouTube channel, but it was since deleted.


title: I Like to Move It

text: The song has also been used in numerous other advertisements and was used in the video games "SingStar Dance" and the first "Just Dance". Basshunter sampled "I Like to Move It" on his track "Saturday".


title: I Like to Move It

text: In the second season of Norwegian reality singing competition "Maskorama", based on the South Korean television series "King of Mask Singer", the song was performed in episode three in November 2021. It was performed by the contestant masked as a Nisse, which later was revealed to be Abid Raja.


title: I Like to Move It

text: Many versions of the song have frequently been used throughout the "Madagascar" franchise, with many of them with lyrics changed or altered to match with each film's plot and the film's subject matter (usually replacing "sassy" with "sexy"). The first film used a version recorded by Sacha Baron Cohen, the used a version by will.i.am, and the used a mix-up with the original tune "Afro Circus" in the number "Afro Circus/I Like to Move It". The "I like to move it" part was sung by Baron Cohen in the film while Danny Jacobs, who voices King Julien in the spinoff TV series and games, sang it on the soundtrack, in both versions alongside Chris Rock. The original version appeared in the first and last episode of the "Madagascar" Netflix series "All Hail King Julien" and the "Afro Circus/I Like to Move It" tune was played near the start of the "Madagascar" spin-off film "Penguins of Madagascar". Jacobs, as Julien, also sang a Christmas song called "Santa Claus Is Coming to Madagascar", a modified cover of "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town" which uses the same beat as "I Like to Move It".


title: Brian K. Murphy

text: Brian Kevin Patrick Murphy is an American actor, producer, and writer. He is best known for his various roles in CollegeHumor videos, his role as Murph on truTV comedy original "Adam Ruins Everything", and his role on the Pop original "Hot Date", co-starring with his wife Emily Axford. Axford and Murphy co-wrote "HEY, U UP? (For a Serious Relationship): How to Turn Your Booty Call into Your Emergency Contact", a book of satirical relationship advice that was published in 2018.


title: Brian K. Murphy

text: Murphy was born October 3, 1985 and grew up in New Jersey. He went on to study at Rowan University, where he dual majored in Film and Journalism.


title: Brian K. Murphy

text: From 2010 to 2017, Murphy was an actor and writer for CollegeHumor. In 2015, he hosted "Middle of the Night Show", a late-night television series on MTV. In 2017, Murphy and his wife Emily Axford began working as executive producers and actors on the Pop original "Hot Date". The previous incarnation of the show was a web series for CollegeHumor. The TV program's second season premiered in September 2019.


title: Brian K. Murphy

text: Murphy was also one of the hosts of "8-Bit Book Club" alongside Axford and Caldwell Tanner, a podcast where the hosts read and discuss books and other media relating to video games. He is now the host and Dungeon Master of the HeadGum podcast "Not Another D&D Podcast" with Axford, Tanner, and Jake Hurwitz. He is also a player on "Dimension 20", a "Dungeons & Dragons" actual play show from CollegeHumor's streaming service Dropout.


title: Homesteading

text: Homesteading is a lifestyle of self-sufficiency. It is characterized by subsistence agriculture, home preservation of food, and may also involve the small scale production of textiles, clothing, and craft work for household use or sale. Pursued in different ways around the world—and in different historical eras—homesteading is generally differentiated from rural village or commune living by isolation (either socially or physically) of the homestead. Use of the term in the United States dates back to the Homestead Act (1862) and before. In sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in nations formerly controlled by the British Empire, a homestead is the household compound for a single extended family. In the UK the terms "smallholder" and "croft" are rough synonyms of "homesteader".


title: Homesteading

text: Modern homesteaders often use renewable energy options including solar and wind power. Many also choose to plant and grow heirloom vegetables and to raise heritage livestock. Homesteading is not defined by where someone lives, such as the city or the country, but by the lifestyle choices they make.


title: Homesteading

text: Historically, homesteading has been used by governmental entities (engaged in national expansion) to help settle what were previously unsettled (though not unpeopled) areas, especially in the United States, Canada, and Australia. Guided by legal "homestead principles", many of these "homestead acts" were instituted in the 19th and 20th centuries and targeted specific areas, with most being discontinued after a set time-frame or goal.


title: Homesteading

text: Renewed interest in homesteading was brought about by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's program of Subsistence Homesteading in the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Homesteading

text: The attractiveness of back-to-the-land movements dates from the Roman era, and has been noted in Asian poetry and philosophy tracts as well (Agriculturalism). In the 1700s, the philosophy of physiocracy developed in France and by the 1800s and early 1900s the philosophy of Agrarianism had taken hold in many places around the world. The ideas of modern homesteading proponents, such as Ralph Borsodi, gained in popularity in the 1960s in the United States. Self-sufficiency movements in the 1990s and 2000s began to apply the concept to urban and suburban settings, known as urban homesteading. According to author John Seymour, "urban homesteading" incorporates small-scale sustainable agriculture and homemaking.


title: Homesteading

text: In homesteading, social and government support systems are frequently eschewed in favor of self-reliance and relative deprivation in order to maximize independence and self-determination. The degree of independence occurs along a spectrum, with many homesteaders creating foodstuffs or crafts to appeal to high-end niche markets in order to meet financial needs. Other homesteaders come to the lifestyle following successful careers which provide the funding for land, housing, taxes, and specialized equipment such as solar panels, farm equipment, and electric generators.


title: Homesteading

text: Modern government regulation—in the form of building codes, food safety codes, zoning regulations, minimum wage and social security for occasional labor, and town council restrictions on landscaping and animal keeping—can increase the marginal cost of home production of food in areas affected by these restrictions. Careful choice of homesteading location is essential for economic success.


title: Homesteading

text: Potential benefits of homesteading include a satisfying standard of living and a healthier, more rewarding lifestyle than more conventional patterns of living.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action (or state) that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments (subject, object, etc.). When the subject is the agent or doer of the action, the verb is in the active voice. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. When the subject both performs and receives the action expressed by the verb, the verb is in the middle voice. Voice is sometimes called diathesis.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The following pair of examples illustrates the contrast between active and passive voice in English. In sentence (1), the verb form "ate" is in the active voice, but in sentence (2), the verb form "was eaten" is in the passive voice. Independent of voice, "the cat" is the Agent (the doer) of the action of eating in both sentences.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In a transformation from an active-voice clause to an equivalent passive-voice construction, the subject and the direct object switch grammatical roles. The direct object gets "promoted" to subject, and the subject "demoted" to an (optional) adjunct. In the first example above, "the mouse" serves as the direct object in the active-voice version, but becomes the subject in the passive version. The subject of the active-voice version, "the cat", becomes part of a prepositional phrase in the passive version of the sentence, and can be left out entirely; "The mouse was eaten".


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In the grammar of Ancient Greek, voice was called διάθεσις ("diáthesis") "arrangement" or "condition", with three subcategories:


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The active voice is the most commonly used in many languages and represents the "normal" case, in which the subject of the verb is the agent. In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action or causes the happening denoted by the verb. Sentence (1) is in active voice, as indicated by the verb form "saw".


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The passive voice is employed in a clause whose subject expresses the theme or patient of the verb. That is, it undergoes an action or has its state changed. In the passive voice, the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the doer) of the action denoted by the verb. In English it serves a variety of functions including focusing on the object, demoting the subject and handling situations where the speaker either wants to suppress information about who the doer of the action is, or in reality does not know their identity, or when the doer is either unimportant or likely to be common knowledge. There are syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic motivations for choosing the passive voice instead of the active. Some languages, such as English and Spanish, use a "periphrastic" passive voice; that is, it is not a single word form, but rather a construction making use of other word forms. Specifically, it is made up of a form of the auxiliary verb "to be" and a past participle of the main verb which carries the lexical content of the predicate. In other languages, such as Latin, the passive voice for some tenses is simply marked on the verb by inflection: "librum legit" "He reads the book"; "liber legitur" "The book is read".


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Passives mark this voice in English syntactically as well, which often involves subject–object inversion and the use of ‘by’. Sentence (2) is an example of passive voice, where something ("the castles") has been (notionally) acted upon by someone ("Roger Bigod").


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The antipassive voice deletes or demotes the object of transitive verbs, and promotes the actor to an intransitive subject. This voice is very common among ergative–absolutive languages (which may feature passive voices as well), but also occurs among nominative–accusative languages.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Some languages (such as Albanian, Bengali, Fula, Tamil, Sanskrit, Icelandic, Swedish and Ancient Greek) have a middle voice, which is a set of inflections or constructions which is to some extent different from both the active and passive voices.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The subject of such middle voice is like the subject of active voice as well as the subject of passive voice, in that it performs an action, and is also affected by that action. Another difference between middle voice and the other two grammatical voices is that there are middle marked verbs for which no corresponding active verb form exists. In some cases, the middle voice is any grammatical option where the subject of a material process cannot be categorized as either an actor (someone doing something) or a goal (that at which the actor aims their work). For example, while the passive voice expresses a medium (goal) being affected by an external agent (actor) as in sentence (4), the middle voice expresses a medium undergoing change without any external agent as in sentence (5). In English, though the inflection for middle voice and active voice are the same for these cases, they differ in whether or not they permit the expression of the Agent argument in an oblique by-phrase PP: thus while the by-phrase is possible with passive voice as in sentence (6), it is not possible with middle voice, as shown by the ill-formed sentence (7).


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In Classical Greek, the middle voice is often used for material processes where the subject is both the actor (the one doing the action) and the medium (that which is undergoing change) as in "the man got a shave", opposing both active and passive voices where the medium is the goal as in "The barber shaved the man" and "The man got shaved by the barber". Finally, it can occasionally be used in a causative sense, such as "The father causes his son to be set free", or "The father ransoms his son".


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In English, there is no verb form for the middle voice, though some uses may be classified by traditional grammarians as middle voice, often resolved via a reflexive pronoun, as in "Fred shaved", which may be expanded to "Fred shaved himself" – contrast with active "Fred shaved John" or passive "John was shaved by Fred". This need not be reflexive, as in "My clothes soaked in detergent overnight.". In English it is impossible to tell from the morphology whether the verb in Sentence (8) is an active voice unaccusative verb or a middle voice anticausative verb with active morphology. Since middle voice reflexives and dispositional middles are found in English with active morphology by looking at Sentence (9), we can assume that at least some middle voice anticausatives with active morphology exists as well.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: English used to have a distinct form, called the passival, which was displaced over the early 19th century by the progressive passive and is no longer used in English. In the passival, one might say "The house is building.", which may today be rendered instead as "The house is being built." Likewise "The meal is eating.", which is now "The meal is being eaten." Note that the similar "Fred is shaving" and "The meal is cooking" remain grammatical. It is suggested that the progressive passive was popularized by the Romantic poets, and is connected with Bristol usage.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Many deponent verbs in Latin (i.e., verbs passive in form but active in meaning) are survivals of the Proto-Indo-European middle voice.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Some languages have even more grammatical voices. For example, Classical Mongolian features five voices: active, passive, causative, reciprocal, and cooperative.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: There are also constructions in some languages that appear to change the valence of a verb, but in fact do not. So called hierarchical or inversion languages are of this sort. Their agreement system will be sensitive to an external person or animacy hierarchy (or a combination of both): 1 > 2 > 3 or Anim > Inan and so forth. E.g., in Meskwaki (an Algonquian language), verbs inflect for both subject and object, but agreement markers do not have inherent values for these. Rather, a third marker, the direct or inverse marker, indicates the proper interpretation: "ne-wa:pam-e:-w-a" [1-look.at-DIR-3-3Sg] "I am looking at him", but "ne-wa:pam-ekw-w-a" [1-look.at-INV-3-3Sg] "He is looking at me". Some scholars (notably Rhodes) have analyzed this as a kind of obligatory passivization dependent on animacy, while others have claimed it is not a voice at all, but rather see inversion as another type of alignment, parallel to nominative–accusative, ergative–absolutive, split-S, and fluid-S alignments.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In general, the grammar of standard Chinese (both including Mandarin and Cantonese) shares many features with other varieties of Chinese. However, there are still some differences between the different varieties.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Mandarin active voice sentences has the same verb phrase structure as English active voice sentences.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: “Ba” is a verb, not a preposition. It is a three-place predicate that subcategorizes for a subject, an object, and a VP complement.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: This Ba construction is also a direct opposition of active voice in passive voice in Mandarin (i.e. Ba construction (= active voice) vs. Bei construction (= passive voice)).


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Topic-prominent languages like Mandarin tend not to employ the passive voice as frequently. In general, Mandarin used to be best analyzed using middle voice, but Mandarin-speakers can construct a passive voice by using the coverb ("bèi") and rearranging the usual word order. For example, this sentence using active voice:


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In addition, through the addition of the auxiliary verb "to be" ("shì") the passive voice is frequently used to emphasize the identity of the actor. This example places emphasis on the "dog", presumably as opposed to some other animal:


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Mandarin also has an "object-retaining passive" which contains both the object and the topic (mostly the possessor of the object):


title: Voice (grammar)

text: 被 (bèi) as a passive marker is a relatively new addition to the language, introduced as part of the early 20th century language reforms that also added gender-specific pronouns such as 他>她 and 你>妳 and culminated in attempts to Romanize Chinese entirely. There is a typical passive construction in Mandarin, namely Bei construction. It is commonly used to indicate result, direction, location, frequency, duration, manner, and appearance. Similar to English, Bei construction can also be analysed by A-movement which is locally restricted. The subject of the Bei clause is included in the complement clause where the “passivized” object controls the verb.<ref name="doi|10.1023/A:1008340108602"></ref> Classically, 被 marked an adversative mood, indicating that something bad had happened. Even today, the following sentence is perfectly acceptable in speech:


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Recently, more syntacticians investigated passive voice in Mandarin. They discovered that passive voice in Mandarin is heavily dependent on the context of the sentence rather than the grammatical forms.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Therefore, passive voice can be marked (e.g. by the most broadly used passive marker: Bei 被 [mentioned above]) or unmarked (see the "Notional Passive" section below) in both speech and writing. Those sentences have a passive marker called the long passive, while the ones that do not require a passive marker are called short passive.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: We can see from the examples above, the difference between long passive and short passive depends on whether the agent phrase is presented or not.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Bei construction was not often used in Old Chinese, but it is widely used in Modern Chinese. The appearance of Bei construction marks that Modern Chinese is undergoing a new cycle of change. Old Chinese was considerably synthetic and has been gradually changed to analyticity. Later its development peaked during Tang-Song Dynasties. Nowadays, in Modern Chinese, it is mainly analytic but also shows forward tendency toward synthesis. Here are some recent theories that syntacticians have proposed.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Ting (1998) proposed that Bei is acting as a verb and it is widely accepted so far. Ting stated that Bei construction is not used uniformly in all passive contexts in Mandarin. Rather, three types of Bei-sentences must be introduced. The main distinction is discovered in A-movement and lexical passive compound verb. To some extent, his theory was also supported by Yip et al. (2016), where they also proposed three different forms of passive Mandarin. Ting’s claims were based on his investigation of post-verbal overt pronominal object, locality of selection, occurrence of the particle suo(所) in Bei construction, and the intervention of adverbs within the Bei-V compound (= co-verb). He believed that Bei construction is presented in three types, two of them have different selectional properties, and the other one is lexically derived as Bei-V compound.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Here is an example of showing a sentence having different selectional properties in its subject and object:


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Huang and Liu (2014) argued that Bei construction is not a special construction that involves the passivization of intransitive verbs. They believe that what is passivized isn’t the VP itself (in Bei-VP construction), but actually a null light verb with a causative, putative or activity predicate that takes VP as its complement or adjunct. In their analysis, VP part in Bei-VP construction acquires its categorical feature by an agreement relation with a category-creating light verb, and it serves as the complement or adjunct of that light verb. What makes it different from other constructions is that it doesn’t have grammatical active sources (note: null light verb constructions are abundant in Old Chinese).


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The head of this construction is a null light verb with the semantics of CAUSE and DO, referring to several causative or executive events. Huang and Liu's theory of Bei construction can explain the usage of Bei in both Modern Chinese and Old Chinese.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: According to Yip et al. (2016), there are three forms in passive voice depending on the tone and emphasis. They are notional passive, formal passive, and lexical passive.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: No formal passive marker is needed and carries an expository tone. It is the most common form of passive voice in Mandarin and is extremely colloquial. Passive marker is excluded in notional passive because the sentence relies on the hearer’s common sense or their knowledge of the world. Thus, this passive voice is expressed implicitly. Furthermore, notional passive sentences can be representing either positive or negative meanings.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In other voices in Mandarin, “object + transitive verb” construction is usually used. However, “topic + explanatory comment” is the common structure for notional passive. There is no surface passive marker in the sentence, but the underlying meaning does carry a passive voice.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The negation of notional passive is similar to English negation. Both are achieved by adding the negator “mei(you)没(有)” right before the transitive verb. In fact, in negation, “le” is no longer necessary in the sentence.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Most objects present in notional passive are inanimate objects because ambiguity can arise if we use animate objects in these sentences. To avoid this problem, formal or lexical passive markers will be introduced in the sentence.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: A formal passive marker is introduced as "bei" and it is usually in narrative tone. It is generally used as the narration or description of an event that has already taken place. Additionally, formal passive sentences can only represent negative meanings, otherwise it is ungrammatical. It can be used in both informal and formal contexts.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: There is a striking feature of formal passive which makes it different from other forms of passives. The formal passive is presented as including “bei” as a co-verb in sentence and acting as a formal passive marker. “Bei” indicates the subject of the sentence is the action receiver. The initiator of this action is usually presented after “bei”. But this initiator could be overt (unstated), covert (revealed), or vague.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Although the most common formal passive marker is “bei”, it can also be replaced by rang让, jiao教, gei给, etc. The identity of the initiator is either overt or vague. “Bei” cannot be used in imperatives, but other formal passive markers can be used in colloquialism.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: No formal passive marker is present, but the passive voice is introduced by a verb that indicates the subject as the receiver of the action, then the verb is followed by an object. The literary meaning is quite similar to English inverted sentences. It is usually a formal tone. Common indicators are a set of verbs, like dedao得到, shoudao受到, zaodao遭到 (the three most common verbs used in lexical passive), etc.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The semantic formula: receiver + verb + initiator + nominalised verb. (No additional complement to the nominalised verb is allowed.)


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In nominal and formal passives, the focus is on the outcome of the action, but for lexical passive, the focus has shifted to emphasize the degree of the action that has been carried out. In other words, the focus is on the initiator and nominalised verb.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Chao believes that ergative (= middle voice) verb is a distinct syntactic verb category. In other words, it isn’t purely transitive or intransitive.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: However, Li et al. (1981), when arguing against Chao's analysis of Mandarin, stated that there is a distinct class of middle voice verbs. They recognize that Mandarin (and Cantonese) verbs as a whole behave the same way. Later, Li et al. (1981) introduced middle voice sentences as examples of topic/comment constructions which lacks an overt subject.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: We can see from this example that the characteristic of a topic/comment construction in its implication of a dropped anaphor indicates an agent.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: While Ting (2006) compared between middles and Ba constructions (= active voice) involving intransitive V-de (得) resultatives. He also did comparison between middles and inchoatives. He argues that we can treat notional passives in Mandarin as middle constructions. Its underlying grammatical subject position and lack of a syntactically active logical subject are best explained by a presyntactic approach. But, semantically, Chinese middle voice may be interpreted like stative or verbal passives.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Ting argues that sentence a) is ungrammatical and indistinguishable from ergatives, and that sentence b) is grammatical and he believes that it must have used middle voice due to their function of defocusing an agent subject. Although Bei construction in passive voice can achieve the same purpose, there is a possibility that associating with Bei construction may be inappropriate in many contexts. Thus, using middle voice is better in this case.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In Cantonese, those features are quite similar by using the coverb ("bei"), but the agent phrase is NOT optional, often with a formal agent ("jan"):


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In the actor-emphasizing passive voice of Cantonese, besides the addition of the auxiliary verb "to be" ("hai"), the perfective event is also converted to an adjective-like predicative with the suffix ("ge") or ("gaa"), which is a more emphasized one from the liaison of ("ge") and ("aa"):


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Grammatical Voice in Japanese only contains an active and passive voice and does not have a middle voice.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Active voice in Japanese is the direct opposition of direct passive voice in Japanese. This is similar to English which also has corresponding active and passive sentences.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Word order in Japanese is more flexible so active voice sentences can be both SOV (subject + object + verb) and OSV (object + subject + verb) order; however, SOV is typically used more often.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Although a topic-prominent language, Japanese employs the passive voice quite frequently, and has two types of passive voice, direct voice which corresponds to that in English and an indirect passive which is not found in English. The passive voice in Japanese is constructed with the verb stem followed by the passive morpheme -"(r)are". This synthetic passive morpheme can attach to transitive, ditransitive and some intransitive verbs. The word order in Japanese is more flexible so passive sentences can be both SOV (subject + object + verb) and OSV (object + subject + verb) order; however, SOV is typically used more often. Furthermore, there are two theories about passive voice in Japanese called the uniform and non-uniform theory. These two theories debate whether direct and indirect passives should be treated equally or if they should be treated differently.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Japanese direct passives have corresponding active sentences which is similar to English passives in that the logical object appears as the grammatical subject.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In all 3 examples the auxiliary verb (ra)reru is used as a suffix to the active forms of the verb to show the meaning of the direct passive.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Indirect passives have two varieties, possessive passives and gapless passives. In possessive passives, the grammatical subject stands in a canonical possessive relation with the direct object and in gapless passives they appear to lack an active counterpart and contain an extra argument is realized as the grammatical subject that is unlicensed by the main verb. Indirect passives can also be used when something undesirable happens to the speaker.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The subject in Possessive passives is in a canonical possessive relation such as kinship, ownership, etc. with the direct object.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In this example of a possessive passive there is a kinship relation between the grammatical subject which is ‘Ken’ and the direct object which is the ‘musuko’ (son).


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Gapless passives unlike possessive passives lack an active counterpart and contain an extra argument that is unlicensed by the main verb. The extra argument is also realized as the grammatical subject.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: Ni-yotte passives are another type of Japanese passive that contrasts direct and indirect passives which contain a dative ni-phrase. They are similar to direct passives but the instead of the logical subject being realized as a ni-phrase it is realized as a ni-yotte phrase.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In addition, as seen in example 2) "ni-yotte" can also be used more generally to introduce a cause. This because the "-yotte" in "ni-yotte" is a form of the verb "yor-u" which means 'owe'.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: phrases are not indigenous to Japanese and were created as a way to translate modern Dutch texts because direct translations did not exist.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: The uniform theory was developed by Kuroda (1965, 1979, 1983) and Howard and Niyejawa-Howard (1976). This theory argues that both direct and indirect passives in Japanese should be treated as the same. In this theory both direct and indirect passives are derived from the same complementation structure with optional control. There is the assumption that the "-(r)are" morpheme in direct passives are the same as the ones used in indirect passives meaning that they both have an underlying structure containing the passive morpheme "-(r)are". A problem with this theory is that other similar languages such as Korean and Chinese have possessive and direct passives but do not have indirect passives which indicates that possessive passives appear to behave as a natural class from a typological perspective. However, this theory is preferred over the non-uniform theory because the morpheme "-(r)are" being spelled the same for both direct and indirect passives is an unsustainable coincidence.


title: Voice (grammar)

text: In these examples we can see that the passive morpheme “-(r)are” is outside of the embedded sentence which shows that “-(r)are” is part of the underlying structure for both direct and indirect passives.