title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In 2000, science journalist Nicholas Wade interpreted a genetics paper on Ashkenazi Y-chromosome lineages as refuting theories that the Ashkenazi were descendants of converts generally or of the Khazars specifically.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: The following year, in 2001, In 2001 Nebel et al., summarizing studies that reported a low-level European gene flow contributing to Ashkenazi paternal gene pool, suggested this influence might be reflected in the Eu 19 chromosomes common in Eastern Europe, or otherwise, that Ashkenazim with this component might descend from Khazars, an hypothesis the authors found "attractive".


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In 2008, in a book entitled "Jacob's Legacy: A Genetic View of Jewish History ", David Goldstein stated that despite his initial skepticism regarding Koestler's thesis, the certainty underlying his dismissal had been undermined when he considered that a hypothetical Khazar connection struck him as no more far-fetched than what had emerged in genetics concerning the apparent 'spectacular continuity of the Cohen line ' or the discovery of what seemed to be Jewish genetic signatures among the Bantu Lemba. In his view, the idea had a degree of plausibility, if not likely.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In 2013 Martin B. Richards stated that presently available genetic studies shows that 50-80 percent of Ashkenazi Y chromosome DNA could be traced to the Near East, while his own study at the University of Huddersfield found that 80 percent of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA could be traced to Europe, but with virtually no lineages from the North Caucasus. This implied a trend of European women marrying Near Eastern men, but provided no evidence to support the Khazar hypothesis. The claim that Ashkenazis as a whole take their origin from Khazars has been widely criticized as there is no direct evidence to support it. Using four Jewish groups, one being Ashkenazi, Kopelman "et al" found no evidence for the Khazar theory.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: While the consensus in genetic research is that the world's Jewish populations (including the Ashkenazim) share substantial genetic ancestry derived from a common Ancient Middle Eastern founder population, and that Ashkenazi Jews have no genetic ancestry attributable to Khazars, at least one study authored in this period diverges from the majority view in favor of the Khazar theory.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Some evidence suggests a close relationship of Jewish patrilineages (including those of the Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Iraqi and Moroccan Jews) with those of the Samaritans, with some lineages sharing a common ancestry projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: According to a 2010 study by Doron Behar et al., Ashkenazi Jews form a "tight cluster" overlying non-Jewish samples from the Levant with Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African Jewish populations and Samaritans, results being ”consistent with an historical formulation of the Jewish people as descending from ancient Hebrew and Israelite residents of the Levant”. In 2013 Behar et al. published a genetic study that came up with the conclusion that there isn't genetic evidence for the Khazar origin of Ashkenazi Jews, and instead Ashkenazi Jews are genetically closest to other Jewish groups and non-Jewish Middle Eastern and European populations.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: A 2003 study by Behar et al., found that Haplogroup R1a1a (R-M17) is present in over 50% of Ashkenazi Levites (who comprise 4% of the Ashkenazi Jewish population). In 2008 David Goldstein asserted that based on the study a Khazar connection "now seems to me plausible, if not likely". Faerman (2008) states that "External low-level gene flow of possible Eastern European origin has been shown in Ashkenazim but no evidence of a hypothetical Khazars' contribution to the Ashkenazi gene pool has ever been found.".


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: However, Behar and others made two more genetic studies on Ashkenazi Levites ending up with a different conclusion. The results of these studies showed that the R1a haplogroup present in Ashkenazi Levites is R1a-M582/R1a-Y2619 rather than R1a1a and originated in the Near East instead of Eastern Europe and was "likely a minor haplogroup among the Hebrews".


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: A 2013 study by Rootsi, Behar et al. of Ashkenazi Levites found a high frequency of haplogroup R1a-M582 among them (64.9% of Ashkenazi Levites) pointing to a founding event and paternal ancestor common to half of them. Since R1a shows high frequency in Eastern Europe generally, it was thought possible, that the evidence might indicate the founder was a non-Jewish European. Testing the 3 hypotheses of a European, a Near Eastern or a Khazarian origin, their data excluded both the European and Khazarian origin of a Levite founder since they found no evidence of R1a-M582 Y-chromosomes was found in either group, other than singletons, while it occurs with significant frequency in Near Eastern regions Iranian Kerman, Iranian Azeri, the Kurds from Cilician Anatolia and Kazakhstan, and among Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi Jews. R1a-M582 was not detected among data from Iraqi, Bedouins, Druze and Palestinians sampled in Israel.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: A 2017 study by Behar, concentrating on the Ashkenazi Levites (themselves about where the proportion reaches 50%), while signalling that there's a "rich variation of haplogroup R1a outside of Europe which is phylogenetically separate from the typically European R1a branches", precises that the particular R1a-Y2619 sub-clade testifies for a local origin, and that the "Middle Eastern origin of the Ashkenazi Levite lineage based on what was previously a relatively limited number of reported samples, can now be considered firmly validated."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In later publications, Elhaik and his team modified their theory, proposing simply that the Judaised Khazar kingdom was a core transit area for a federation of Jewish merchants of mixed Iranian, Turkish and Slavic origins who, when that empire collapsed, relocated to Europe.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Furthermore, in the 2016 study Das, Elhaik, Wexler et al. argued that the first Ashkenazi populations to speak the Yiddish language came from areas near four villages in Eastern Turkey along the Silk Road whose names derived from the word "Ashkenaz," rather than from Germanic lands as is the general consensus in scholarship. They proposed that Iranians, Greeks, Turks, and Slavs converted to Judaism in Anatolia prior to migrating to Khazaria where a small-scale conversion had already occurred. The historian Bernard Spolsky commenting on Elhaik's earlier study wrote. “Recently, Elhaik (2013) claims to have found evidence supporting the Khazarian origin of Ashkenazim, but the whole issue of genetic evidence remains uncertain.”


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In 2018, Elhaik stated that the Ashkenazi maternal line is European and that only 3% of Ashkenazi DNA shows links with the Eastern Mediterranean/Middle East, a 'minuscule' amount comparable to the proportion of Neanderthal genes in modern European populations. For Elhaik, the vehicle by which unique Asiatic variations on Ashkenazi Y-chromosomes occurred, with Haplogroup Q-L275, was the Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks, who converted to Judaism and established the Khazar empire.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Elhaik's 2012 study proved highly controversial. Several noted geneticists, among them Marcus Feldman, Harry Ostrer, Doron Behar, and Michael Hammer have maintained — and the view has gained widespread support among scientists — that the worldwide Jewish population is related and shares common roots in the Middle East, Feldman stated Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most scientists; Hammer affirmed it was an outlier minority view without scientific support. Elhaik in reply described the group as ‘liars’ and ‘frauds’, noting Ostrer would not share genetic data that might be used ‘to defame the Jewish people’. Elhaik's PhD supervisor Dan Graur, likewise dismissed them as a ‘clique’, and said Elhaik is ‘combative’ which is what science itself is.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Elhaik's 2012 study was specifically criticized for its use of Armenians and Azerbaijani Jews as proxies for Khazars and for using Bedouin and Jordanian Hashemites as a proxy for the Ancient Israelites. The former decision was criticized because Armenians were assumed to have a monolithic Caucasian ancestry, when as an Anatolian people (rather than Turkic) they contain many genetically Middle Eastern elements. Azerbaijani Jews are also assumed for the purposes of the study to have Khazarian ancestry, when Mountain Jews are actually descended from Persian Jews. The decision to cast Bedouin/Hashemites as "proto-Jews" was especially seen as political in nature, considering that both have origins in Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula rather than from the Ancient Israelites, while the descent of the Jews from the Israelites is largely accepted.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Geneticists conducting studies in Jewish genetics have challenged Elhaik's methods in his first paper. Michael Hammer called Elhaik's premise "unrealistic," calling Elhaik and other Khazarian hypothesis proponents "outlier folks… who have a minority view that’s not supported scientifically. I think the arguments they make are pretty weak and stretching what we know." Marcus Feldman, director of Stanford University's Morrison Institute for Population and Resource Studies, echoes Hammer. "If you take all of the careful genetic population analysis that has been done over the last 15 years… there’s no doubt about the common Middle Eastern origin," he said. He added that Elhaik's first paper "is sort of a one-off." Elhaik's statistical analysis would not pass muster with most contemporary scholars, Feldman said: "He appears to be applying the statistics in a way that gives him different results from what everybody else has obtained from essentially similar data."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Das, Elhaik and Wexler's 2016 study was challenged by the historian of Soviet and East European Jewry Shaul Stampfer, who dismissed it as 'basically nonsense', and the demographer Sergio DellaPergola, who claimed it was a "falsification", whose methodology was defective in using a small population size and failing to factor in the genetic profiles of other Jews such as the Sephardic Jews to whom the Ashkenazi Jews are closely related. Elhaik replied that factoring in the DNA of non-Ashkenazic Jews would not alter the genetic profile of Ashkenazi Jews, and that his team remained the largest genomic study of the latter to date, and the first to target Yiddish speakers. The Yiddish scholar Marion Aptroot states "Seen from the standpoint of the humanities, certain aspects of the article by Das et al. fall short of established standards."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Recently, a study by a team of biologists and linguists, led by Pavel Flegontov, a specialist in genomics, published a response to Das, Elhaik and Wexler's 2016 study, criticizing their methodology and conclusions. They argue that GPS works to allow inferences for the origins of modern populations with an unadmixed genome, but not for tracing ancestries back 1,000 years ago. In their view, the paper tried to fit Wexler's 'marginal and unsupported interpretation' of Yiddish into a model that only permits valid deductions for recent unadmixed populations. They also criticized the linguistic aspect of the study on the grounds that "all methods of historical linguistics concur that Yiddish is a Germanic language, with no reliable evidence for Slavic, Iranian, or Turkic substrata." They further describe the purported "Slavo-Iranian confederation" as "a historically meaningless term invented by the authors under review."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Alexander Beider also takes issue with Elhaik's findings on linguistic grounds, similarly arguing that Yiddish onomastics lacks traces of a Turkic component. He concludes that theories of a Khazar connection are either speculative or simply wrong and "cannot be taken seriously."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Maurice Fishberg and Roland B. Dixon's works were later exploited in racist and religious polemical literature, by advocates of British Israelism, in both Britain and the United States. Particularly after the publication of Burton J. Hendrick ‘s "The Jews in America" (1923) it began to enjoy a vogue among advocates of immigration restrictions in the 1920s; racial theorists like Lothrop Stoddard; antisemitic conspiracy theorists like the Ku Klux Klan’s Hiram Wesley Evans; and anti-communist polemicists like John O. Beaty


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: In 1938, Ezra Pound, then strongly identifying with the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, sent a query to fellow poet Louis Zukofsky concerning the Khazars after someone had written to him claiming that the ancient Jews had died out and that modern Jews were of Khazar descent. He returned to the issue in 1955, apparently influenced by a book called "Facts are Facts", which pushed the Jewish-Khazar descent theory, and which for Pound had dug up "a few savoury morsels". The booklet in question, by a Roman Catholic convert from Rabbinic Judaism, Benjamin H. Freedman, was an antisemitic tirade written to David Goldstein after the latter had converted to Catholicism.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: John O. Beaty was an antisemitic, McCarthyite professor of Old English at SMU, author of "The Iron Curtain over America" (Dallas 1952). According to him, "the Khazar Jews were responsible for all of America's – and the world's ills," beginning with World War I. The book had little impact until the former Wall Street broker and oil tycoon J. Russell Maguire promoted it. A similar position was adopted by Wilmot Robertson, whose views influenced David Duke. The British author Douglas Reed has also been influential. In his work the Ashkenazi are false Jews, descendants of the Khazars.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: A number of different variants of the theory came to be exploited by the Christian Identity movement. The Christian Identity movement, which took shape from the 1940s to the 1970s, had its roots in British Israelism which had been planted on American evangelical soil in the late 19th century. By the 1960s the Khazar ancestry theory was an article of faith in the Christian Identity movement. The Christian Identity movement has associated two verses from the New Testament, Revelation 2:9 and 3:9 with the Khazars. Jeffrey Kaplan calls these two passages the corner stone of Identity theology. He also reports that Christian Identity literature makes selective references to the Babylonian Talmud, while the works of Francis Parker Yockey and Arthur Koestler work are raised almost to the status of Holy Writ.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: The idea has also been promoted by contemporary antisemitic groups on social media, according to the Anti-Defamation League and the American Jewish Committee.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: The theory was prominent in Soviet antisemitism, gaining a place in Soviet historiography. The theory influenced Soviet historians including Boris Rybakov, Mikhail Artamonov and Lev Gumilyov and was used to support soviet political theory. Artamonov argued that the Khazars had played an important role in the development of Rus’. Rybakov disputed this view, instead regarding the Khazar state as parasitic. Official Soviet views on the Khazars hardened after December 1951 when Pravda published a critical review of Artamonov's work under the pen name P. Ivanov. Rybakov for his part denied that he was Ivanov. It has been speculated that Ivanov was in fact Stalin. In Ivanov's review the Khazars were regarded as parasites and enemies. Ivanov's views became the certified Soviet position.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Lev Gumilyov's theory of ethnogenesis draws heavily on the Khazars theory. For Gumilyov ethnicity was defined by stereotypical behavior which was linked to adaption to the terrain. Jews, he regarded as a parasitic, international urban class. The Jews had dominated the Khazars creating a chimera, subjecting Rus’ to the "Khazar Yoke."


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Since the 1970s the term Khazars has entered the Russian nationalist lexicon, it is used as a euphemism for Jews. Vadim V. Kozhinov theorized that the Khazar Yoke was more dangerous to Rus´ than the Tatar Yoke. The Khazars were imagined as a persistent danger to Rus’. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union the theory maintained a role in Russian antisemitism. Contemporary Russian antisemites continue to perpetuate the Khazar myth. Gumilyov and his students work remain popular in Russia. "Khazars" and "ethnic chimera" have become preferred terms for antisemitic Russian chauvinists.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: Aum Shinrikyo is a Japanese doomsday cult. The cult was active in Japan and Russia, with an estimated 10,000 and 30,000 followers respectively. The group's "Manual of Fear" used the Protocols of the Elders of Zion in addition to other antisemitic material. The manual claimed that the Jews are really Khazars intent on world domination.


title: Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry

text: The Khazar theory has also become part of the Ascended Masters theology. Hatonn, an extraterrestrial, transmits messages including the complete text of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. He identifies the authors of The Protocols as Khazars and speaks of false Zionist Jews who have usurped and controlled the true Jews.


title: Immunization

text: Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent (known as the immunogen).


title: Immunization

text: When this system is exposed to molecules that are foreign to the body, called "non-self", it will orchestrate an immune response, and it will also develop the ability to quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because of immunological memory. This is a function of the adaptive immune system. Therefore, by exposing a human, or an animal, to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself: this is called active immunization.


title: Immunization

text: The most important elements of the immune system that are improved by immunization are the T cells, B cells, and the antibodies B cells produce. Memory B cells and memory T cells are responsible for a swift response to a second encounter with a foreign molecule. Passive immunization is direct introduction of these elements into the body, instead of production of these elements by the body itself.


title: Immunization

text: Immunization happens in various ways, both in the wild and as done by human efforts in health care. Natural immunity is gained by those organisms whose immune systems succeed in fighting off a previous infection, if the relevant pathogen is one for which immunization is even possible. Natural immunity can have degrees of effectiveness (partial rather than absolute) and may fade over time (within months, years, or decades, depending on the pathogen). In health care, the main technique of artificial induction of immunity is vaccination, which is a major form of prevention of disease, whether by prevention of infection (pathogen fails to mount sufficient reproduction in the host), prevention of severe disease (infection still happens but is not severe), or both. Vaccination against vaccine-preventable diseases is a major relief of disease burden even though it usually cannot eradicate a disease. Vaccines against microorganisms that cause diseases can prepare the body's immune system, thus helping to fight or prevent an infection. The fact that mutations can cause cancer cells to produce proteins or other molecules that are known to the body forms the theoretical basis for therapeutic cancer vaccines. Other molecules can be used for immunization as well, for example in experimental vaccines against nicotine (NicVAX) or the hormone ghrelin in experiments to create an obesity vaccine.


title: Immunization

text: Immunizations are often widely stated as less risky and an easier way to become immune to a particular disease than risking a milder form of the disease itself. They are important for both adults and children in that they can protect us from the many diseases out there. Immunization not only protects children against deadly diseases but also helps in developing children's immune systems. Through the use of immunizations, some infections and diseases have almost completely been eradicated throughout the World. One example is polio. Thanks to dedicated health care professionals and the parents of children who vaccinated on schedule, polio has been eliminated in the U.S. since 1979. Polio is still found in other parts of the world so certain people could still be at risk of getting it. This includes those people who have never had the vaccine, those who didn't receive all doses of the vaccine, or those traveling to areas of the world where polio is still prevalent.


title: Immunization

text: Active immunization/vaccination has been named one of the "Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century".


title: Immunization

text: Before the introduction of vaccines, people could only become immune to an infectious disease by contracting the disease and surviving it. Smallpox (variola) was prevented in this way by inoculation, which produced a milder effect than the natural disease. The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author Wan Quan (1499–1582) in his "Douzhen xinfa" (痘疹心法) published in 1549. In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Dr. Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers. According to Voltaire (1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring Circassia. Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years". It was introduced into England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in 1721 and used by Zabdiel Boylston in Boston the same year. In 1798 Edward Jenner introduced inoculation with cowpox (smallpox vaccine), a much safer procedure. This procedure, referred to as vaccination, gradually replaced smallpox inoculation, now called variolation to distinguish it from vaccination. Until the 1880s vaccine/vaccination referred only to smallpox, but Louis Pasteur developed immunization methods for chicken cholera and anthrax in animals and for human rabies, and suggested that the terms vaccine/vaccination should be extended to cover the new procedures. This can cause confusion if care is not taken to specify which vaccine is used e.g. measles vaccine or influenza vaccine.


title: Immunization

text: Immunization can be achieved in an active or passive manner: vaccination is an active form of immunization.


title: Immunization

text: Active immunization can occur naturally when a person comes in contact with, for example, a microbe. The immune system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses against the microbe. The next time, the immune response against this microbe can be very efficient; this is the case in many of the childhood infections that a person only contracts once, but then is immune.


title: Immunization

text: Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or parts of it, are injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. If whole microbes are used, they are pre-treated.


title: Immunization

text: The importance of immunization is so great that the American Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has named it one of the "Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century".


title: Immunization

text: Live attenuated vaccines have decreased pathogenicity. Their effectiveness depends on the immune systems ability to replicate and elicits a response similar to natural infection. It is usually effective with a single dose. Examples of live, attenuated vaccines include measles, mumps, rubella, MMR, yellow fever, varicella, rotavirus, and influenza (LAIV).


title: Immunization

text: Passive immunization is where pre-synthesized elements of the immune system are transferred to a person so that the body does not need to produce these elements itself. Currently, antibodies can be used for passive immunization. This method of immunization begins to work very quickly, but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more antibodies, they will disappear.


title: Immunization

text: Passive immunization occurs physiologically, when antibodies are transferred from mother to fetus during pregnancy, to protect the fetus before and shortly after birth.


title: Immunization

text: Artificial passive immunization is normally administered by injection and is used if there has been a recent outbreak of a particular disease or as an emergency treatment for toxicity, as in for tetanus. The antibodies can be produced in animals, called "serum therapy," although there is a high chance of anaphylactic shock because of immunity against animal serum itself. Thus, humanized antibodies produced "in vitro" by cell culture are used instead if available.


title: Immunization

text: Immunizations impose what is known as a positive consumer externality on society. In addition to providing the individual with protection against certain antigens it adds greater protection to all other individuals in society through herd immunity. Because this extra protection is not accounted for in the market transactions for immunizations we see an undervaluing of the marginal benefit of each immunization. This market failure is caused by individuals making decisions based on their private marginal benefit instead of the social marginal benefit. Society's undervaluing of immunizations means that through normal market transactions we end up at a quantity that is lower than what is socially optimal.


title: Immunization

text: For example, if individual A values their own immunity to an antigen at $100 but the immunization costs $150, individual A will decide against receiving immunization. However, if the added benefit of herd immunity means person B values person A's immunity at $70 then the total social marginal benefit of their immunization is $170. Individual A's private marginal benefit being lower than the social marginal benefit leads to an under-consumption of immunizations.


title: Immunization

text: Having private marginal benefits lower than social marginal benefits will always lead to an under-consumption of any good. The size of the disparity is determined by the value that society places on each different immunization. Many times, immunizations do not reach a socially optimum quantity high enough to eradicate the antigen. Instead, they reach a social quantity that allows for an optimal amount of sick individuals. Most of the commonly immunized diseases in the United States still see a small presence with occasional larger outbreaks. Measles is a good example of a disease whose social optimum leaves enough room for outbreaks in the United States that often lead to the deaths of a handful of individuals.


title: Immunization

text: There are also examples of illnesses so dangerous that the social optimum ended with the eradication of the virus, such as smallpox. In these cases, the social marginal benefit is so large that society is willing to pay the cost to reach a level of immunization that makes the spread and survival of the disease impossible.


title: Immunization

text: Despite the severity of certain illnesses, the cost of immunization versus the social marginal benefit means that total eradication is not always the end goal of immunization. Though it is hard to tell exactly where the socially optimal outcome is, we know that it is not the eradication of all disease for which an immunization exists.


title: Immunization

text: In order to internalize the positive externality imposed by immunizations payments equal to the marginal benefit must be made. In countries like the United States these payment usually come in the form of subsidies from the government. Before 1962 immunization programs in the United States were run on the local and state level of governments. The inconsistency in subsidies lead to some regions of the United States reaching the socially optimal quantity while other regions were left without subsidies and remained at the private marginal benefit level of immunizations. Since 1962 and the Vaccination Assistance Act, the United States as a whole has been moving towards the socially optimal outcome on a larger scale. Despite government subsidies it is difficult to tell when social optimum has been achieved. In addition to hardships determining the true social marginal benefit of immunizations we see cultural movements shifting private marginal benefit curves. Vaccine controversies have changed the way some private citizens view the marginal benefit of being immunized. If Individual A believes that there is a large health risk, possibly larger than the antigen itself, associated with immunization they will not be willing to pay for or receive immunization. With fewer willing participants and a widening marginal benefit reaching a social optimum becomes more difficult for governments to achieve through subsidies.


title: Immunization

text: Outside of government intervention through subsidies, non profit organizations can also move a society towards the socially optimal outcome by providing free immunizations to developing regions. Without the ability to afford the immunizations to begin with, developing societies will not be able to reach a quantity determined by private marginal benefits. By running immunization programs organizations are able to move privately under-immunized communities towards the social optimum.


title: Immunization

text: In the United States, race and ethnicity are strong determinants of utilization of preventive and therapeutic health services as well as health outcomes. Rates of infant mortality and most of the leading causes of overall mortality have been higher in African Americans than in European Americans. A recent analysis of mortality from influenza and pneumonia revealed that African Americans died of these causes at higher rates than European Americans in 1999–2018. Contributing to these racial disparities are lower rates of immunization against influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia. During the COVID-19 pandemic, death rates have been higher in African Americans than European Americans and vaccination rates have lagged in African Americans during the roll-out. Among Hispanics immunization rates are lower than those in non-Hispanic whites.


title: Europe '72

text: Europe '72 is a live triple album by the Grateful Dead, released in November 1972. It covers the band's tour of Western Europe in April and May that year, and showcases live favourites, extended improvisations and several new songs including "Jack Straw" and "Brown Eyed Women". The album was the first to include pianist Keith Godchaux and his wife, vocalist Donna Jean Godchaux, and the last to feature founding member Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, who died shortly after its release.


title: Europe '72

text: The European tour was expensive and logistically complicated, and the band's record company hoped that a live album would recoup its costs. Consequently, the entire tour was recorded, with highlights making it onto the final release. "Europe '72" is one of the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed albums by the Dead. It was one of the first triple-record rock albums to be certified gold by RIAA; the album has since been certified double platinum. A second volume was released in 2011, in conjunction with the release of the entire 22-date tour as "".


title: Europe '72

text: Prior to the Grateful Dead's 1972 tour of Western Europe, the band had undergone several changes in personnel. Drummer/percussionist Mickey Hart left the group in early 1971, making Bill Kreutzmann the group's sole drummer once again. Keyboardist Keith Godchaux was recruited, in September 1971, initially to augment founding member Ron "Pigpen" McKernan, who had been hospitalized and was experiencing increasingly poor health. Additionally, Godchaux's wife Donna (a former session singer who had worked with Percy Sledge and Elvis Presley) officially joined the band as a backup vocalist in March, shortly before the tour commenced.


title: Europe '72

text: As the band became more popular and they were booked into larger venues, the touring entourage encompassed extra road crew, administrative staff, friends and relatives, growing to 43 people who became known as the "Grateful Dead Family". The tour began with two nights at the Empire Pool, Wembley on April 7–8, 1972. It progressed through Denmark, Germany (including an appearance on the TV Show "Beat Club") and France. The Dead returned to the UK to play the Bickershaw Festival on May 7 (Kreutzmann's birthday), progressing through Continental Europe again (including a show recorded for Radio Luxembourg) and ending with a four-night stand at the Lyceum Theatre, London on May 23–26. The final show was the last that featured McKernan as a lead vocalist; he performed at one more show the following month before retiring from music, dying in March 1973.


title: Europe '72

text: By the time the tour started, lead guitarist Jerry Garcia had switched from using the Gibson SG to a 1959 Fender Stratocaster. He had become increasingly influenced by country and traditional American music. Songs such as "Jack Straw" stemmed from these influences, while "Cumberland Blues" and "Tennessee Jed" had lyrics relating to American historical culture. "Truckin'", which was then the band's biggest hit single, talked about the band's experiences on the road. The Dead began performing "China Cat Sunflower" (from "Aoxomoxoa") as a medley with the traditional "I Know You Rider", linking their psychedelic past with the group's new direction.


title: Europe '72

text: The band hoped that the expensive trip to Europe would be financially offset by the release of a live-album documentation of the tour. Consequently, the Dead’s record label, Warner Bros., paid for the band to travel with a professional 16-track recorder.


title: Europe '72

text: "Europe '72" was the third live album by the Dead in as many years, showcasing how the group's reputation was based on live shows. The album contained mostly new material, in addition to live arrangements of tracks found on previous studio albums. Garcia continued his songwriting collaboration with lyricist Robert Hunter. Rhythm guitarist Bob Weir also collaborated with Hunter, though the pair subsequently fell out, leading Weir to collaborate with John Perry Barlow after "Europe '72". Pigpen made his third singing-songwriting contribution to a Dead album, writing "Mr. Charlie" with Hunter. The new songs were never officially released in studio form except "One More Saturday Night", which came out as a single to promote the tour and then appeared on Bob Weir's solo album, "Ace". Consequently, "Europe '72" was treated as a new-material release as much as a live retrospective, and the new songs on the album were considered definitive versions.


title: Europe '72

text: Although "Europe '72" is billed as a live album, the songs were subject to various studio overdubs, particularly vocals. Several of the songs with Garcia on lead vocals were pitched sharp by as much as a half-step. Weir later said that the overdubbing was a mutual decision by the band and the record company, and both were happy to polish up the album for release.


title: Europe '72

text: "Europe '72", like other Grateful Dead cover art, was designed by Alton Kelley and Stanley Mouse (known as Kelly/Mouse studios). The album was originally published as a triple-LP with an accompanying booklet. In contrast to the band's previous albums, the artwork is set against white, mostly-empty panels of (originally) a triple gatefold sleeve. The front cover shows a large "Truckin'" foot stepping across the Atlantic to Europe. The back cover depicts the corresponding "Truckin' Fool" smashing an ice cream cone against his forehead. Airborne drops of ice cream are drawn as a text ambigram, indistinctly spelling the word "LIVE".


title: Europe '72

text: The inside credits list all 43 members of the touring entourage such as Carolyn "Mountain Girl" Garcia. A color booklet contains photos of European sites and the concerts (including part of the entourage waiting to board a DFDS ferry at Newcastle), references to Revelation and the Feast of Fools, and a long account of how the tour split into two factions, the "Bozos" and the "Bolos". The conclusion is the first appearance of the epithet "There is nothing like a Grateful Dead concert".


title: Europe '72

text: "Europe '72" was released on November 5, 1972, reaching No. 24 in the "Billboard" charts. The album was the first to feature Keith and Donna Jean Godchaux. It was also the last to feature McKernan. Several songs on which he sang lead were retired after the tour's finale at the Lyceum.


title: Europe '72

text: An edited version of the album's "Sugar Magnolia" was released as a 7" single, with "Mr. Charlie" as the B-side.


title: Europe '72

text: "Europe '72" was reissued as a two-disc CD in 1990 and again in 2001, with bonus tracks, as part of "The Golden Road (1965–1973)" box set. This version was subsequently released independently in 2003, which also has the covers reversed, with "The Fool" on the front. A sequel, "Europe '72 Volume 2", was released in 2011. It contains songs that were played on the tour but not included on the original album, including a lengthy jam of "Dark Star" and "The Other One".


title: Europe '72

text: Fans have rated the album highly, and there was demand to hear recordings of the entire tour. In September 2011, all 22 shows were released as "", a 73-CD box set. Due to higher than expected demand, the 7,200 numbered copies of the box set sold out as a pre-order in less than four days. The first three thousand copies ordered had an option for custom personalisation. A music-only version (without the box set's steamer trunk and accoutrements) was also given a limited release.


title: Europe '72

text: A 50th Anniversary Edition of "Europe '72" was released on July 29, 2022. The album was remastered and reissued as a two-disc CD and as a three-disc LP, as well as a digital download. A limited-edition three-disc LP on rainbow-colored vinyl was released on June 3, 2022.


title: Europe '72

text: "Europe 72" was a commercial success, remaining in the US album charts for 24 weeks. It has since become one of the most successful Grateful Dead albums in terms of sales, and has been certified Double Platinum, selling over 1,000,000 copies.


title: Europe '72

text: The album was well received by music critics. Tom Dupree's contemporary review in "Rolling Stone" praised the sound fidelity and musicianship, especially Garcia's lead guitar playing: "He displays more sheer savvy of the guitar fretboard and its incorporation — but not sublimation — into the rock milieu than anyone I can think of". He also said "there are riffs of all kinds liberally scattered throughout". In 2015, the journal listed the album as number 19 in their top 50 live albums of all time. A retrospective AllMusic review praised Pigpen's contributions, ranking them as some of the best in his career, and noted the triple-LP format allowed the group's extended concert jams to be presented faithfully on record. A retrospective in "Modern Drummer" said "Europe '72" was "a snapshot of the Dead at what many believe was its musical peak, before fatal drugs took hold, tight and hungry to explore spiritual spaces within music."


title: Family Dollar

text: Family Dollar Stores, Inc. is an American variety store chain. With over 8,000 locations in all states except Alaska and Hawaii, it was the second largest retailer of its type in the United States until it was acquired by Dollar Tree in 2015 and its headquarters operations were moved from Matthews, a suburb of Charlotte, North Carolina, to Chesapeake, Virginia, located in South Hampton Roads.


title: Family Dollar

text: In June 2014, activist investor and major shareholder Carl Icahn demanded that Family Dollar be immediately put up for sale.


title: Family Dollar

text: On July 28, 2014, Dollar Tree announced that it would buy Family Dollar for $8.5 billion. The sale delivered a windfall to the company's biggest shareholder Carl Icahn, who acquired his 9.4 percent stake in June 2014. On January 22, 2015, Family Dollar shareholders approved the Dollar Tree bid.


title: Family Dollar

text: Family Dollar was founded in 1959 by Leon Levine, a 21-year-old entrepreneur. In November of that year, the company's first store was opened, in Charlotte, North Carolina. In 1961, their first store in South Carolina opened, followed by stores in Georgia and Virginia, which were opened in 1962 and 1965, respectively. During the 1960s, the store company was largely a southern United States operation. By 1969, there were fifty stores in Charlotte alone.


title: Family Dollar

text: The 1970s were growing years for the store chain. In 1970, Family Dollar's stock went public for the first time, at $14.50 per share. In 1971, the chain's 100th store opened, followed by their 200th in 1974 and their 300th in 1978. Also in 1974, a distribution center was opened in Matthews, North Carolina. In 1979, Family Dollar stock began trading at the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Family Dollar

text: In 1981, the chain's 400th store was opened, followed by a 500th store in 1982 and a 700th in 1983. The 1980s saw expansion at a wider scale for the company, and by 1989, 1,500 stores were operating.


title: Family Dollar

text: The 1990s saw the pace of expansion slow down compared to the 1980s, with 1,000 stores opened. The company opened distribution centers in West Memphis, Arkansas; Front Royal, Virginia and Duncan, Oklahoma. Since 2000, the pace of growth increased significantly, with the addition of about 3,500 new stores, and new distribution centers opening in Morehead, Kentucky; Maquoketa, Iowa; Odessa, Texas; Marianna, Florida; and Rome, New York.


title: Family Dollar

text: In 2001, Family Dollar joined the S&P 500 stock market index. In 2002, the company joined the Fortune 500 list of largest publicly held companies.


title: Family Dollar

text: When Leon Levine retired in 2003, his son Howard R. Levine succeeded him as Chairman and CEO, keeping this multibillion-dollar company in the family.


title: Family Dollar

text: In March 2005, Family Dollar restated the company's fiscal 2000 to fiscal 2004 earnings per share downward by 2 cents to 3 cents a year, to correct lease-accounting issues.


title: Family Dollar

text: As of August 2011, there were 7,000 stores in 44 states. According to their website in 2005, Family Dollar opened 500 new stores, 350 more in 2006, and an additional 300 in 2007. According to the Company's 2013 Corporate Profile in 2010, Family Dollar opened 200 new stores, 300 more in 2011, 475 in 2012, and an additional 500 in 2013. On October 3, 2012, Family Dollar said they will open 500 stores in 2013. The next day, Family Dollar partnered with Healthways. Family Dollar operates 11 distribution centers - the latest of which opened in St. George, Utah on October 16, 2013.


title: Family Dollar

text: Family Dollar created a game show based on the store in late 2016. Hosted by celebrity chef Pat Neely, the show "Save to Win" aired on The CW between 2016 and 2017.


title: Family Dollar

text: In May 2020, eight Family Dollar stores were damaged by rioting and looting during the George Floyd protests in Minneapolis–Saint Paul, with two locations being destroyed by arson during the widespread civil unrest.


title: Family Dollar

text: In February 2022 Family Dollar temporarily closed 400 stores in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee and recalled certain products purchased from Jan. 1, 2021, through the present after the FDA found unsanitary conditions, including a rodent infestation, at the company’s distribution center in West Memphis, Arkansas. On May 18, 2022, the company announced that the West Memphis distribution center would be shut down permanently on or before July 17, 2022 with over 300 employees affected.


title: Family Dollar

text: In March 2011, Family Dollar rejected a takeover offer by Nelson Peltz's Trian Fund Management reportedly between $55 and $60 a share.


title: Family Dollar

text: On June 6, 2014, activist investor Carl Icahn disclosed that his firm, Icahn Enterprises, held a 9.4% stake in Family Dollar. On June 19, 2014, Icahn demanded in an open letter that Family Dollar be put up for sale immediately. Goldman Sachs and other analysts had identified a number of potential buyers.


title: Family Dollar

text: On July 28, 2014, Dollar Tree announced that it would acquire Family Dollar for $74.50 per share, a deal valuing Family Dollar at $8.5 billion, and that Dollar Tree would also assume $1 billion in debt currently owed by Family Dollar, for a total of $9.5 billion. Dollar Tree CEO Bob Sasser said that Family Dollar CEO Howard R. Levine will remain with the company following the merger and will be appointed to Dollar Tree's board of directors. Dollar General entered the bidding, shortly thereafter, surpassing Dollar Tree's offer on August 18, 2014, $78.50 a share compared to Dollar Tree's offer of $74.50 a share. The enterprise value of the Dollar General bid was $9.7 billion compared to that of Dollar Tree of $9.2 billion, while the quantum return to shareholders was varying as the stock and cash deal valuation was subjected to fluctuations of price of the competing bidders stock. On August 20, 2014, Family Dollar rejected the Dollar General bid, saying it was not a matter of price, but concerns over antitrust issues that had convinced the company and its advisers that the deal could not be concluded on the terms proposed. Days after, Dollar General CEO Rick Dreiling sent a letter to the Family Dollar board of directors claiming that Levine rejected merger requests to protect his job. Levine, in a statement, said the Family Dollar board had been analyzing potential antitrust issues that could arise from doing a deal with Dollar General since the start of the year, and that was the reason it was not accepting the Dollar General bid.


title: Family Dollar

text: Several stores were required to be sold as a condition of the sale. Sycamore Partners acquired the stores in 2014 under the corporate name Dollar Express. The stores continued to operate under the Family Dollar name. In 2017, Dollar General acquired Dollar Express and converted the stores.


title: Family Dollar

text: As a result of Family Dollar's sale to Dollar Tree, some Family Dollar stores have opened in the same plaza, and at times even next door to Dollar Tree locations. On March 6, 2019, the retailer announced that it will close up to 400 stores nationwide due to heavy pressure from an activist investor. Most store locations were either shut down entirely or replaced with Dollar Tree stores.


title: Family Dollar

text: The company has deployed a newer store format known as "H2" in new and renovated locations, which have a larger focus on groceries and incorporate Dollar Tree merchandise. The company has also deployed co-branded Family Dollar/Dollar Tree stores in smaller markets.


title: The Boogeyman (2023 film)

text: The Boogeyman is an upcoming American horror film directed by Rob Savage and written by Scott Beck and Mark Heyman, based on the 1978 short story of the same name by Stephen King. It stars Madison Hu, Vivien Lyra Blair, David Dastmalchian, and Chris Messina. The film is scheduled to be released on Hulu in 2023.


title: The Boogeyman (2023 film)

text: Still reeling from the tragic death of their mother, a teenage girl and her little sister find themselves plagued by a sadistic presence in their house and struggle to get their grieving father to pay attention before it is too late.


title: The Boogeyman (2023 film)

text: "The Boogeyman" is a horror adaptation of Stephen King's 1978 short story of the same name. On June 26, 2018, it was announced filmmaking partners Scott Beck and Bryan Woods would write the screenplay with Shawn Levy, Dan Levine, and Dan Cohen attached to produce for 21 Laps Entertainment and 20th Century Fox set to distribute. However, in 2019, after Disney's acquisition of Fox, the film was canceled, along with other films in development. In November 2021, the film was revived, and it was reported that Rob Savage would direct from a screenplay written by Mark Heyman, based on original drafts by Beck, Woods, and Akela Cooper with Hulu set to distribute. In early 2022, Sophie Thatcher, Chris Messina, David Dastmalchian, Marin Ireland, Vivien Lyra Blair, and Madison Hu were added to the cast. Filming began in February 2022 in New Orleans.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton College is a private liberal arts college in Clinton, Oneida County, New York. It was founded as Hamilton-Oneida Academy in 1793 and was chartered as Hamilton College in 1812 in honor of inaugural trustee Alexander Hamilton, following a proposal brought forward after his death in 1804. Hamilton has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with its coordinate sister school Kirkland College.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton is an exclusively undergraduate institution, enrolling 1,900 students in the fall of 2021. Students may choose from 57 areas of study, including 44 majors, or design an interdisciplinary concentration. Hamilton's student body is 53% female and 47% male, and comes from 45 U.S. states and 46 countries. Hamilton places among the most selective colleges in the country, with an 11.8% acceptance rate. Athletically, Hamilton teams compete in the New England Small College Athletic Conference.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton began in 1793 as the Hamilton-Oneida Academy, a seminary founded by Rev. Samuel Kirkland, a Presbyterian minister, as part of his missionary work with the Oneida tribe. The seminary admitted both white and Oneida boys. Kirkland named it in honor of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton, who was a member of the first Board of Trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy. It was first located in Whitestown, New York, incorporated by the New York Board of Regents in 1793, and received its charter from them in 1812. A visitor in 1799, who refers to the school as a seminary, reported that there were "fifty-two students of both sexes under the care of two instructors". By 1825 it had moved to Clinton.


title: Hamilton College

text: The academy became Hamilton College in 1812, making it the third oldest college in New York after Columbia and Union, after it expanded to a four-year college curriculum.


title: Hamilton College

text: By the end of the nineteenth century, its colorful ninth President M. Woolsey Stryker distanced Hamilton from the Presbyterian Church (although he was a minister of that denomination and published many hymns), and sought to make it a more secular institution.


title: Hamilton College

text: In 1978, the all-male Hamilton College merged with the women's Kirkland College, founded by Hamilton across the road in the 1960s. The merger provoked controversy, particularly since Hamilton refused to provide assistance with Kirkland's debts. Hamilton publicly justified the merger as prompted by its desire for co-education. The merger took nearly 7 years to complete; women could still receive a Kirkland diploma instead of a Hamilton diploma until 1979.


title: Hamilton College

text: The original Hamilton campus is often called the "light side" or "north side" of campus. The original side of campus was once called "Stryker Campus" after its former president, Melancthon Woolsey Stryker (misspelled "Striker Campus"). On the other side of College Hill Road, the original Kirkland campus is called the "dark side" or the "south side".


title: Hamilton College

text: Since the 1970s, Hamilton has been a member of the New England Small College Athletic Conference (or the NESCAC) (despite technically being outside New England). This conference also includes Amherst, Bates, Bowdoin, Colby, Connecticut College, Middlebury, Trinity, Tufts, Wesleyan, and Williams. Rivalries with many of these schools, Middlebury in particular, predate the conference.


title: Hamilton College

text: In 2002, then-President Eugene Tobin resigned after admitting that he had failed to give proper attribution to quoted material in speeches.


title: Hamilton College

text: Also, in 2002, Professor Robert L. Paquette complained when an independent student group brought Annie Sprinkle, an actress and former porn-star, as a speaker. Paquette later led an attempt to create an Alexander Hamilton Center on campus, but it was unsuccessful. The center, renamed the Alexander Hamilton Institute for the Study of Western Civilization, subsequently opened in an off-campus facility located in the village of Clinton.


title: Hamilton College

text: Among the more recent developments are the Taylor Science Center, the largest construction project in the college's history (2005); the Charlean and Wayland Blood Fitness and Dance Center (2006); major expansion and renovation of the Kirner-Johnson Building (2009); the Sadove Student Center at Emerson Hall (2010); the Ruth and Elmer Wellin Museum of Art (2012); and the Kevin and Karen Kennedy Center for Theatre and the Studio Arts (2014). Hamilton's athletic facilities include an ice rink, swimming pool, several athletics fields, a golf course, a three-story climbing wall, and a ten-court Squash Center. The college was listed as a census-designated place in 2020.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Daniel Burke library was completed in 1972 at a cost of more than $5.5 million and designed by architect Hugh Stubbins. It holds 500,000 volumes in approximately 80,000 square feet. The library houses the Information Commons and Information Technology Services, and includes a variety of print and electronic materials.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Kirner-Johnson Building, or KJ, is home to Hamilton's social science departments, the Arthur Levitt Public Affairs Center, the Nesbitt-Johnson Writing Center and the Oral Communication Center. The building has a large, naturally-lit, two-story commons that is a popular gathering place for students to study or socialize between classes. In order to create a space that allows for both activities, the inner point of the commons features four small waterfalls that provide just enough white noise to encourage conversation while acoustically insulating those who prefer to study. In 2004, planning for the renovation and expansion of the Kirner-Johnson building received an Award of Merit from the American Institute of Architects. The project was completed in 2008.


title: Hamilton College

text: The 700-seat hall hosts the College Orchestra conducted by Heather Buchman, Hamilton College Choir and College Hill Singers, Jazz Band, and Faculty Dance Concerts as well as guest artists from around the globe.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Ruth and Elmer Wellin Museum of Art is the college's public art museum that also serves as a teaching resource for its students. Exhibits have included contemporary and historical paintings, photography, art and culture, and student exhibitions. The museum building was designed so that the exhibit areas, archives, art storage, conservation workshops, administrative offices, and teaching spaces are all visible to museum visitors. Students are involved many aspects of the museum's functions and the building features classrooms for art and art history courses.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton College's Sage Rink, built in 1921, is the oldest indoor collegiate hockey rink in America. Northeastern University's Matthews Arena is the oldest rink in America for a collegiate team; however, it was originally built as a commercial arena and not purchased by the university until 1979. Sage was financed by the widow of industrialist Russell Sage, whose name graces a number of Central New York college edifices, including Russell Sage College. In addition to Continental men's and women's teams, youth hockey, high school teams, adult amateur efforts and the famous Clinton Comets, who dominated the semi-professional Eastern Hockey League in the 1960s and early 1970s, have played at the Sage Rink. It was renovated in 1993, when it got better lighting, ice-making equipment, and structural enhancements. The rink houses the college's Men's and Women's varsity and club hockey teams, physical education classes, and local youth hockey games.


title: Hamilton College

text: At Litchfield Observatory (obs. code: 789), pioneering German–American astronomer Christian Peters discovered some 48 asteroids. The observatory burned down but is currently marked on campus by its telescope mount outside of the Siuda Admissions and Financial Aid House. The current observatory, a quarter of a mile from campus, is powered by solar energy and is open for student use. The existing observatory, located 100 feet from College Hill Road, was built with rock from the same quarry as the original building.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Hamilton College Chapel is a historically protected landmark and is the only three-story chapel still standing in America.


title: Hamilton College

text: The cottage was believed to be the original residence of Samuel Kirkland when he began his missionary work to the Oneida, though some scholars have argued it was built years after Kirkland moved to the area. The cottage is completely original, although it was moved from its original location on Kirkland's property (known today as Harding Farm) to its current place on the main quadrangle of the Hamilton Side. The cottage is currently used for matriculation ceremonies.


title: Hamilton College

text: At one time serving as the residence of the Oren Root family, the house was the birthplace of Elihu Root, who served as Secretary of State and War and won the 1912 Nobel Peace Prize. Built in 1812, the house served as the student dining hall for Hamilton College. In 1834 it was adapted as a residence for Horatio Buttrick, superintendent of the Buildings and Grounds Department and college registrar. After his daughter married Oren Root, he allowed the young couple to take over the house. Their son Elihu Root was born there. The house has since been renamed Buttrick Hall. It serves as office space for the President of the college and the Dean of Faculty.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Elihu Root House originally belonged to Elihu Root, who used it as his summer house. It was next used by the Office of Admission. As of September 2009, it housed the Dean of Students Office, the Registrar, and the department of Residential Life.


title: Hamilton College

text: In 2011, Hamilton opened the Days-Massolo Center with the goal of promoting diversity awareness and fostering dialogue among the wide variety of cultures represented on campus. The center is dedicated to trustees Drew S. Days III and fellow Hamilton trustee Arthur J. Massolo.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Root Glen is a wooded garden on the campus of Hamilton College. The walking area is a result of three generations of the Root family, who are known for their work in scholarships, diplomacy, and art collecting. The Root Glen is a walk along formal gardens and forest trails.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Homestead, a building named and bought by Oren Root in the 1850s, was built adjacent to the Root Glen. Oren and his wife Grace decided to plant various trees, shrubs, and flowers around the building. Then Oren's son Elihu Root inherited the property, and the Roots expanded the gardens. In 1937 Edward Root took over the garden from his father. Grace Root established the Root Glen Foundation after her husband died, which was established to use the land for educational purposes and to promote interest in the study of birds. In 1971, the foundation dissolved and Grace decided to give ownership to Hamilton College. The Root Glen is now maintained by the horticultural grounds staff of the college, and an advisory committee is responsible for the selection of new shrubs and flowers as needed.


title: Hamilton College

text: The Root Glen contains over 65 species of trees, dozens of shrubs, and a wide variety of flowers. Located on the south side of the Glen is a display of trees and plants native to the area.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton currently offers the Bachelor of Arts (stylized A.B or B.A.) degree for 55 areas of study. Hamilton also participates in engineering dual-degree programs with the Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science at Columbia University and the Thayer School of Engineering at Dartmouth College.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton is well known for its flexible curriculum, for which there are no distribution requirements. Beyond the courses required for a concentration, students have near total freedom over their course selection. While there are no distribution requirements, students do have to complete a quantitative and symbolic reasoning requirement, which can be fulfilled through courses in a variety of departments, and a writing requirement, for which students must take at least three writing intensive courses.


title: Hamilton College

text: Additionally, Hamilton students may study abroad. The college administers programs in China, France, and Spain, as well as domestic programs in the Adirondacks, New York City and Washington, D.C.


title: Hamilton College

text: The college has long adhered to an academic honor code. Every student matriculating at Hamilton must sign a pledge to observe the honor code and many examinations are not proctored.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton has been part of the SAT optional movement for undergraduate admission since 2002. Hamilton offers applicants different ways to meet their standardized testing requirements, including a choice of the SAT I, the ACT, or a combination of three SAT Subject Tests.


title: Hamilton College

text: For the Class of 2025 (enrolling fall 2021), Hamilton received 9,380 applications and accepted 1,320 (14.1%), and 533 enrolled. The Class of 2025 is 50% women, 50% men; 32.6% students of color from the U.S. and 7.3% international.


title: Hamilton College

text: The annual ranking for 2021 by "U.S. News & World Report" categorizes Hamilton as "most selective" in admissions and ranks the college tied for ninth overall and tied for 28th in "Best Undergraduate Teaching" among "National Liberal Arts Colleges". "Forbes" in 2019 rated it 59th in its America's Top Colleges ranking of 650 schools, which includes military academies, national universities and liberal arts colleges, and 25th among liberal arts colleges.


title: Hamilton College

text: "Kiplinger's Personal Finance" places Hamilton 11th in its 2019 ranking of best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. Hamilton is ranked 17th in a similar measure by "U.S. News & World Report."


title: Hamilton College

text: The current Hamilton College campus consists of the combined Hamilton and Kirkland College campuses. It has three large wooded areas, known as the Root glen, Rogers glen, and the Kirkland glen.


title: Hamilton College

text: In the mid-1990s, the administration required all underclassmen to live on campus in college housing rather than in fraternity or sorority houses, ultimately resulting in the closure of all fraternity houses and the Emerson Literary Society's house in 1995. It created new social spaces for student use, improved funding for on-campus events, and pursued several other social life changes. The new policy was controversial, especially the administration's decision to prohibit the fraternities from using their houses. Thus, the majority of fraternities concluded they had no choice but to sell their houses to the college, though some fraternities refused to sell their houses until well into the next decade. As the college purchased the houses, it has carried out extensive renovations, in order to turn the buildings into dormitories. The college has revoked or suspended the charters of a few fraternities for extreme behavior, as recently as 2015, because of their causing additional controversy among the students and alumni.


title: Hamilton College

text: Nearly all students live in college-owned dorms. The residence halls have a variety of styles, including former fraternity houses, suites, apartment style housing, co-ops and traditional dormitory-style housing. Hamilton offers a cooperative living option to students, as well as substance-free and quiet housing.


title: Hamilton College

text: All residence halls are co-ed; some have single-sex floors. In October 2010, the college adopted a gender-neutral housing policy, wherein students of either sex may room together in rooms designated for two or more students.


title: Hamilton College

text: Eight fraternities, four sororities, and one co-ed society are active on the Hamilton College campus. Greek organizations maintain a significant (but not overwhelming) social presence, despite being non-residential. These fraternities include two of the "Union Triad", Sigma Phi and Delta Phi. They consist of Alpha Delta Phi (founded at Hamilton College), Chi Psi, Delta Chi, Delta Kappa Epsilon, Delta Upsilon, Psi Upsilon, and Tau Kappa Epsilon. Theta Delta Chi disbanded in 2015 following a suspension by the president of the college.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton is also the home of two Nationally Recognized Latino Greek organizations, La Unidad Latina, Fraternity, Inc. and Sigma Lambda Upsilon, Sorority Inc.


title: Hamilton College

text: While all of the fraternities on campus are affiliated with national organizations, the sororities are unique to Hamilton. Lambda Chi Alpha existed at Hamilton until 1958, when the local chapter, Gamma Eta Zeta, left the national organization in a dispute over the admission of a black member. Gamma Eta Zeta became an independent fraternity called Gryphon, which remained in existence for more than 20 years.


title: Hamilton College

text: Generally, events sponsored by Greek organizations occur on campus and are open to all students. Hamilton also has a co-ed, non-Greek social society: the Emerson Literary Society.


title: Hamilton College

text: WHCL-FM - During the academic year, Hamilton students, faculty, and community members produce a variety of music, news, sports, and talk radio programs at FM frequency 88.7. The station is available through most of the Mohawk Valley region and online at whcl.org. It is the only radio station in Clinton.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Hamilton College Spectator", known simply as "The Spectator" or the "Spec" on campus, is Hamilton College's primary weekly news publication. It is distributed in the campus dining halls, mail center, and library. "The Spectator" covers campus, local, and national news as well as Hamilton sports and campus life. The paper can be found online. The earliest Hamilton College literary magazine, "The Talisman", appeared between 1832 and 1834. Another student publication, "The Radiator", which "The Spectator" marks as its origin, appeared in 1848. A weekly publication, "The Radiator" described itself as, "A Weekly Miscellany of General Literature, Science, and Foreign and Domestic Intelligence". The publication was a collection of short stories, historical sketches, poetry and news excerpts gathered from both foreign and domestic news outlets. The college yearbook, "The Hamiltonian" was first published in 1858. The literary journal, "The Hamilton Literary Monthly", began publication in 1866. "The Campus", which was published between 1866 and 1870, was succeeded in 1899 by another campus newspaper, "Hamilton Life". In 1942, "Hamilton Life" was succeeded by "Hamiltonews", and in 1947, "Hamiltonews" became "The Spectator".


title: Hamilton College

text: "Enquiry" is a weekly publication published by the Alexander Hamilton Institute's undergraduate fellows. The publication features political editorials and essays by Hamilton College students.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Monitor" is a bi-weekly publication started in 2015 that features student essays and editorials pertaining to politics, current events and social justice.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Duel Observer" is a weekly humor and satire publication. Founded by Tom Keane '03, David Schwartz '02, and James Robbins '05, it has adopted the format of a parody newspaper (e.g., "The Onion"). The name refers to the duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton which resulted in Hamilton's death.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Daily Bull" is a daily bulletin that caters to campus counterculture. It is noted for being printed on yellow legal size paper, and is distributed on dining hall tables every morning.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Continental" is a student-run magazine published a few times a semester; it features fashion advice, party photos, and articles on a variety of subjects.


title: Hamilton College

text: "Red Weather" is the college literary magazine, dedicated to promoting the literary arts on campus by printing a variety of student-authored poetry and fiction; it is published twice a year.


title: Hamilton College

text: "The Green Apple" is named for one of the symbols of Kirkland College; it features short stories, poetry, and op-eds, and is printed on green legal-sized paper.


title: Hamilton College

text: On the last day of spring term classes, all afternoon classes are canceled for a campus wide picnic and party. Additionally, a ceremony is held during which students, faculty, and other members of the Hamilton community are recognized for their academic, leadership, and community-development accomplishments. Class and Charter Day is also the biggest party day of the year at Hamilton. The popular "G-Road" party which took place on this day became so infamous for underage drinking and over-indulgence that the college chose to ban the party for Class and Charter Day '09. The college instead provided a free concert for the student body, coordinated by the Student Activities Office and the student-run Campus Activities Board. Concerts have included groups such as The Chainsmokers, Passion Pit, Galantis, White Panda, Sammy Adams, and Macklemore. The concert featured co-hosts WHCL-FM and Social Traditions until 2019 (another student-run organization).


title: Hamilton College

text: The Citrus Bowl is the first men's hockey home game of the season. Traditionally the game was called the Orange Bowl, and upon the first Hamilton-scored goal, oranges that students had smuggled into the rink were thrown onto the ice at the visiting goalie. This often resulted in a delay-of-game penalty against Hamilton while the ice was cleaned. In recent years, the orange throwing has been banned by the college administration and by NESCAC officials, but the event is still well attended. Orange T-shirts commemorating the event have been distributed in recent years.


title: Hamilton College

text: Rooted in the long-standing tradition of the winter carnival at Hamilton, FebFest is a relatively recent revival. A week-long combination of performances, parties, free food, fireworks, and various other events, FebFest intends to keep student morale high during the winter. Over the years, bands ranging from the Steve Miller Band to Ghostface Killah have performed as a part of festivities.


title: Hamilton College

text: Started in 2004, May Day is an outdoor music festival sponsored by several on-campus organizations, including the Hamilton College Independent Music Fund, WHCL, and the Hamilton College Campus Activities Board. Past performers have included: Citizen Cope, The New Pornographers, The Pharcyde, Dead Meadow, Tim Reynolds, Chromeo, Jennifer Gentle, Rainer Maria, Ted Leo, The Unicorns, J-Live, Catch-22, and Sleater-Kinney. The name refers to the fact that the festival is staged in early May or late April. In recent years as the Class and Charter Day Concert, also held near the end of the spring semester, has become tradition a separate May Day Music Festival has ceased activity.


title: Hamilton College

text: Begun in 2004, HamTrek is an annual sprint-triathlon consisting of a 525-yard swim, 9-mile bike ride, and 3.1-mile run. Participants can compete individually, in unisex teams of 3, or co-ed teams of 3. Prizes are awarded to the winners of the different competing groups. In the late 2000s, HamTrek introduced a fundraising component to benefit the Shawn Grady Memorial Fund. Also, many athletic coaches now require their teams to compete. HamTrek takes place on Class and Charter Day.


title: Hamilton College

text: Every June, alumni, faculty and friends of the college take over the Hamilton campus for an extended weekend of parties, lectures, panel discussions, performances, hikes, games and happy hours.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton is an NCAA Division III school and has been a member of the New England Small College Athletic Conference since 1971. The college sports teams are known as the Hamilton Continentals. Hamilton sponsors 29 sports, including: Baseball (M), Basketball (M&W), Crew (M&W), Cross Country (M&W), Field Hockey (W), Football (M), Golf (M&W), Ice Hockey (M&W), Lacrosse (M&W), Outdoor and Indoor Track & Field (M&W), Soccer (M&W), Softball (W), Squash (M&W), Swimming & Diving (M&W), Tennis (M&W), Volleyball (W).


title: Hamilton College

text: Before the 1993–94 academic year, Hamilton's sports teams could not participate in any national postseason tournaments. The rule was changed that year, allowing Hamilton to participate in Division III tournaments in various sports. On May 18, 2008, Hamilton won its first NCAA championship, when its women's lacrosse team defeated Franklin & Marshall 13–6 in the finals of the NCAA tournament.


title: Hamilton College

text: About 35% of Hamilton's student body participate in its varsity athletic programs. In addition to varsity sports, Hamilton sponsors several club and intramural sports. Club sports include alpine skiing, curling, equestrian, figure skating, men's rugby, women's rugby, tae kwon do, ultimate frisbee, and women's golf. In 2008 the men's rugby team placed fourth in the national Division III tournament.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton's mascot is a Continental, a soldier in America's Continental Army of the Revolutionary War. The college's colors are buff and blue, likely derived from the colors of the 1779 Continental Army's New York regimental coats, which were blue with buff facings. The college's eponym, Alexander Hamilton, played a central role in the Continental Army as General George Washington's Chief of Staff. At many sporting events, Hamilton is represented by the Al-Ham (an abbreviation of Alexander Hamilton) pig. The pig, large, anthropomorphic, and dressed in a Hamilton basketball jersey and a Continental soldier's tricorn hat, was introduced in the early 2000s in an attempt to boost school spirit and interest in Hamilton's athletics programs.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton's football rivalry with Middlebury College dates to 1911. Since 1980, the annual football game between Hamilton and Middlebury has been designated the Rocking Chair Classic. The winning team keeps the Mac-Jack Rocking Chair during the following year. The rivalry has been dominated by Middlebury, which has won the last 14 matches.


title: Hamilton College

text: Hamilton typically enrolls about 1,900 students; in 2019 47% are male and 53% are female. About 60% of students come from public schools, and 40% come from private schools. Hamilton's 2019 students come from 45 U.S. states and 46 countries. A recent year reported that 5% of Hamilton students were described as international, 5% as African-American, 1% as Native American, 8% as Asian/Pacific Islander, 4% Hispanic, 70% White, and 9% as unknown ethnicity.


title: Hamilton College

text: Notable enrollees who did not graduate include the abolitionist Theodore Weld and actors Peter Falk and Tony Goldwyn.


title: Hamilton College

text: Prominent fictional alumni include the newspaper editor Charles Webb from the Thornton Wilder play "Our Town."


title: Hamilton College

text: Notable faculty have included philosophers such as Leo Strauss; writers such as Natalie Babbitt, Alex Haley and poet Howard Nemerov; composers such as Jay Reise; and diplomats and politicians such as Edward S. Walker, Jack F. Matlock Jr. and Bernie Sanders.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: The 1922 United Kingdom general election was held on Wednesday 15 November 1922. It was won by the Conservative Party, led by Bonar Law, which gained an overall majority over the Labour Party, led by J. R. Clynes, and a divided Liberal Party.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: This election is considered one of political realignment, with the Liberal Party falling to third-party status. The Conservative Party went on to spend all but eight of the next forty-two years as the largest party in Parliament, and Labour emerged as the main competition to the Conservatives.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: The election was the first not to be held in Southern Ireland, due to the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921, under which Southern Ireland was to secede from the United Kingdom as a Dominion – the Irish Free State – on 6 December 1922. This reduced the size of the House of Commons by nearly one hundred seats, when compared to the previous election.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: The Liberal Party had divided into two factions following the ousting of H. H. Asquith as Prime Minister in December 1916. From then until October 1922 the Conservatives had been in coalition with a Liberal faction (which later became the "National Liberals") led by David Lloyd George. Following the Carlton Club meeting which led to the creating of the 1922 Committee, Lloyd George resigned as Prime Minister and Bonar Law formed a Conservative majority government.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: Although still leader of the Liberal Party and a frequent public speaker, former Prime Minister Asquith was no longer a particularly influential figure in the national political debate, and he had played no part in the downfall of the Lloyd George coalition. Most attention was focused on Law and Lloyd George. Asquith's daughter Violet Bonham-Carter, a prominent Liberal Party campaigner, likened the election to a contest between a man with sleeping sickness (Bonar Law) and a man with St Vitus Dance (Lloyd George).


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: Some of Lloyd George's National Liberals were not opposed by Conservative candidates (e.g. Winston Churchill, who was defeated at Dundee nonetheless), while many leading Conservatives (e.g. former leaders Arthur Balfour and Sir Austen Chamberlain, and former Lord Chancellor Lord Birkenhead) were not members of Bonar Law's government, and hoped to hold the balance of power after the election (comparisons were made with the Peelite group—the ousted Conservative front bench of the late 1840s and 1850s); this was not to be, as Bonar Law won an overall majority.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: It was the first election at which Labour surpassed the combined strength of both Liberal parties in votes and seats. The election was also notable for Labour in that it saw future Prime Minister Clement Attlee elected as an MP for Limehouse.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: Some Liberal candidates stood calling for a reunited Liberal Party, while others appear to have backed both Asquith and Lloyd George. Few sources are able to agree on exact numbers, and even in contemporary records held by the two groups, some MPs were claimed for both sides. By one estimate, there were 29 seats where Liberals stood against one another. This is thought to have cost them at least 14 seats, 10 of them to Labour, so in theory a reunited Liberal Party would have been much closer to, and perhaps even ahead of, Labour in terms of seats. However, in reality the two factions were on poor terms, and Lloyd George was still hoping for a renewed coalition with the Conservatives.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: Neither of the leaders of the two main parties succeeded in enjoying their achievement in the election for very long; within less than a month of the election, Clynes was defeated in a leadership challenge by former Labour leader Ramsay MacDonald, while Bonar Law would only last a little over seven months as Prime Minister before being forced to step down due to a terminal illness, resulting in Stanley Baldwin succeeding him as both party leader and Prime Minister. As a result, Bonar Law was the shortest-serving UK Prime Minister of the twentieth century. Parliament was dissolved on 26 October.


title: 1922 United Kingdom general election

text: The Labour Party proposed to nationalise the mines and railways, to impose a levy on financial capital, and to revise the peace treaties. It promised a higher standard of living for workers, higher wages, and better housing.


title: Madras (film)

text: Madras is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language political action drama film written and directed by Pa. Ranjith. The film stars Karthi, Catherine Tresa, marking the debut in Tamil cinema and Kalaiyarasan while Charles Vinoth, Riythvika, V. I. S. Jayapalan, Poster Nandakumar, and Mime Gopi play supporting roles. Set in the backdrop of North Madras, the storyline revolves around Kaali (Karthi) and his friend Anbu (Kalaiyarasan), a political aspirant, who get embroiled in a brutal political rivalry, between two factions of a political party, after laying claim to a wall.


title: Madras (film)

text: "Madras" is the second directorial venture of Ranjith after "Attakathi". Before the film's announcement, Karthi and Ranjith decided to collaborate for a different project in December 2012, which failed to materialise. Later Ranjith announced this project in July 2013. Principal photography commenced on 11 October 2013 at Vyasarpadi in Chennai. Most of the film's shooting was done in localities in and around the northern part of the city, namely Kasimedu, a locality in the Royapuram area of north Chennai, Otteri and Perambur. After multiple title changes, the film's final title was announced in May 2014. Filming was wrapped up by June 2014.


title: Madras (film)

text: The film was produced and distributed by Studio Green in association with Dream Factory. Santhosh Narayanan composed the soundtrack and score, while the cinematography and editing were handled by Murali G. and Praveen K. L. respectively. After multiple delays, the film released on 26 September 2014. The film received critical acclaim, praising the major technical aspects of the film, the direction, screenplay, performances of the cast members, particularly Karthi and Kalaiyarasan. At the 62nd Filmfare Awards South, "Madras" was nominated in eleven categories, winning four. At the 9th Vijay Awards, it received fifteen nominations and won three awards. The film won six 4th South Indian International Movie Awards, seven Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards and four Edison Awards.


title: Madras (film)

text: Kaali is an impulsive and short-tempered working-class man who works in an IT company and enjoys playing football during his free time. His best friend is Anbu, a young political aspirant. They live in the dilapidated flats of a housing board in Vyasarpadi, North Chennai, along with their friends.


title: Madras (film)

text: Meanwhile, in a long-standing bloody feud, two factions of a political party have been laying claim to a wall on which they can paint the portraits of their respective political leaders. Anbu, under the local leader of one of the parties, Maari, is determined to claim that wall for their own party. Kannan, the chief's party, along with his son Perumal are hell-bent on making sure that their opponents's efforts go in vain. The painting of Kannan's father Krishnappan's face has been on the wall for two decades, since the start of the feud.


title: Madras (film)

text: The two parties and their supporters get into frequent clashes and scrapes. In the meantime, Kaali falls in love with a politician's daughter Kalaiarasi, but she remains cold with him. In a spur of motivation due to the upcoming elections, Anbu reserves the wall for their party. Although the wall is in their area and technically theirs, the opposition asks Anbu to give it up as the portrait of their patriarch had been there for quite some time. Moreover, since three deaths had previously taken place in connection to the wall, along with the deaths of members from both parties, people have started to consider the wall as a bad omens.


title: Madras (film)

text: When Anbu declines, a goon of Kannan's starts insulting Anbu, Kaali attacks him, leading to Kannan seeing Anbu as the reason for Maari's resurgence. Kannan's henchmen plan to kill Anbu and Kaali. Kalaiarasi professes her love to Kaali. When the henchmen try to kill Kaali and Anbu, they escape and hide behind a van. They see Perumal, who does not notice them, talking on a phone, giving orders to kill Anbu at any cost. Kaali then kills Perumal with a straight hit to head using a crowbar. Anbu and Kaali are told by Maari to surrender at Kanchipuram district court to avoid being killed by the henchmen.


title: Madras (film)

text: However, the FIR contains Anbu's name. Anbu takes responsibility of the murder, despite Kaali being against it, and hopes to be released soon, Kannan's henchmen hack Anbu to death and seriously wound Kaali outside the court. Kaali slides into depression by guilt and swears revenge, attempting to kill Kannan. Afterwards, he is berated for his short temper by his parents and Maari, who want him to get his life back together. Maari assures Kaali, Anbu's death will be avenged. Kalairasi begins to comfort Kaali, where they spend time together and get married.


title: Madras (film)

text: One day, Kaali and Kalaiarasi arrive at a restaurant, where he notices one of Maari's henchmen sitting at the next table. When he goes up to the henchman for a chat, the latter runs away in fear. After Kaali catches him, he learns that Maari had joined hands with the opposing party to become MLA of RK Nagar and was the brain behind Anbu's assassination. Though reluctant, Kalaiarasi lets Kaali to pursue his vengeance.


title: Madras (film)

text: At a local meeting where Maari is being felicitated, Kaali spills the beans and the locals chase Maari out. Kaali splashes paint on the wall, thus ruining the portrait. Soon, everyone follows suit. Maari plots to kill Kaali, but is betrayed by the touted successor of the opposing party. In a final showdown, Kaali subdues the henchmen sent to kill him and grievously injures Maari, who is soon killed. Kaali and Kalaiarasi start teaching about in the building whose wall was the cause of this bloody feud. The wall now has a theme of children's education painted on it. However, Kannan still wants to have his father's portrait on the wall.


title: Madras (film)

text: Studio Green signed up Pa. Ranjith to direct a film for their production house after they had bought and distributed the director's successful previous venture, "Attakathi" (2012). In December 2012, Ranjith confirmed that he would shortly begin work on a project titled "Sarpatta Paramparai" with Karthi in the lead role, though production was subsequently delayed and did not take off as planned. In July 2013, it was announced that the pair would collaborate on a new script, with Santhosh Narayanan being signed on as composer, G Murali as cinematographer and Praveen K L as editor. Ranjith later clarified that "Sarpatta Parambarai" and "Madras" were two different scripts. Although the producers liked both scripts, Ranjith decided to shoot "Madras" first as Karthi had accidentally read the script of "Madras" and liked its concept and characters. In an interview with "The New Indian Express", Ranijth said that the film was not based on an individual and that Karthi's role was that of an IT graduate named Kaali, further adding that no make-up was used for any of the cast members. Ranjith also informed that some changes were made to the script to accommodate Karthi as the hero. Karthi said that he chose the script as he liked the way his character was portrayed in a realistic manner without making any commercial compromises. Ranjith later explained that it was a "film about Dalits and their way of life". The team had initially titled the film as "Kabali", but later opted to change it to "Kaali", before settling for the title "Madras" in May 2014.


title: Madras (film)

text: Actress Sai Pallavi was the first choice of the female lead but she denied the film offer due to pursue her medical studies in Georgia. Then, Reports initially suggested that Nazriya Nazim would portray the leading female role in the film, while Nithya Menen and Lakshmi Menon were also linked to the role. Later in October 2013, Catherine Tresa was finalised to be the female lead in the film, thereby making her debut in Tamil films with the project. Catherine informed that she would play a "deglamourised" role in which her character was named Kalaiarasi, a bold and assertive woman. Mime artists 'Mime' Gopi and Hari Krishnan were cast in supporting roles; Harikrishnan who played a mentally challenged man named Johnny in the film said that he lost 15 kilos for the role and added that it took him nine months to "let Johnny ‘occupy’ him". Kalaiyarasan, who had a short role in Ranjith's first film, was given the pivotal role of Anbu, the protagonist's best friend, after he had cleared three screen tests. Riythvika of "Paradesi" (2013) fame, was paired opposite Kalaiarasan. Rama, who is known for her role in director Bharathiraja's "En Uyir Thozhan" (1990), and Jaya Rao were chosen to play Karthi's parents. Apart from Karthi, all other actors were either debuting in Tamil cinema with "Madras" or had previously appeared in minor character roles, with Ranjith explaining that he selected newcomers and unpopular actors "to lend authenticity to the film".


title: Madras (film)

text: Principal photography commenced on 11 October 2013 with a small puja ceremony at Vyasarpadi in Chennai. Karthi worked exclusively for the film in the final quarter of 2013, losing about 10 kg of weight and sporting a new look for the venture. Karthi also worked on acquiring the typical Royapuram accent and spent time in northern Chennai trying to learn about their way of life before the shooting began.


title: Madras (film)

text: 60% of the film was completed by mid-December 2013, with scenes shot extensively around Chennai. Two songs from the film were reported to have been completed, both of which were choreographed by Satish. The shooting of the climax of the film took place at Perambur in Chennai. Further portions of the climax sequences were canned in the Jamalia, Sathyamoorthy Nagar and Ram Nagar localities in the city.


title: Madras (film)

text: Karthi, in an interview with "India Today", said that the film would be a tribute to Chennai, whilst commemorating the 375th anniversary of the city's existence. Karthi also learnt to play Football and Carrom for the film as it was one of the sports that is popular in north Chennai. Catherine was given proper training in the style of Tamil spoken in Chennai and the background of people who live in North Chennai for her role.


title: Madras (film)

text: Pa. Ranjith renewed his association with Santhosh Narayanan for composing the film's soundtrack album and background score. The album consists of five songs with two theme music instrumental tracks all composed by Santhosh Narayanan. While Gana Bala penned the lyrics for the two songs sung by him, the remaining three were penned by Kabilan and Uma Devi. The soundtrack album was released on 27 June 2014.


title: Madras (film)

text: The film was initially scheduled for a release in July 2014, thereby clashing with Dhanush's film "Velaiyilla Pattathari" (2014). The release date was fixed as 25 July 2014. However, the release was postponed to 29 August 2014 and again to September 2014. The makers cited delay in censor certification as the main reason for the delay in release. On 5 September 2014, Karthi confirmed on his social networking page that the film would release on 26 September 2014. The film's censoring took place at the Four Frames theatre in Chennai on 11 September 2014. The film was given a "U/A" certificate by the Indian Censor Board. ATMUS Entertainment bought the North American distribution rights and released the film in 34 screens across the United States, while Dream Factory distributed the film across other countries worldwide, including India.


title: Madras (film)

text: The film's first look was unveiled on 16 June 2014. The first look posters received positive feedback from fans and raised the film's expectations. Some even pointed out that the first look poster was similar to that of Vijay's first look poster from "Thalaivaa" (2013), but the makers clarified that only the background texture may have appeared to be similar and that Vijay's back was seen, whereas Karthi had a serious body language expression. The trailer of the film was uploaded to YouTube on 27 June 2014.


title: Madras (film)

text: Short video clips of two of the film's songs "Aagayam Theepidicha" and "Naan Nee" were released on YouTube on 12 September 2014. Another official trailer released on 19 September 2014.


title: Madras (film)

text: "Madras" received positive reviews from critics, who praised the performances of the actors, as well as the technical aspects of the film. Udhav Naig, writing for "The Hindu" said, "Rarely does one get to see a Tamil film that reflects the social reality so closely and sketching a detailed account of life that the middle and the upper middle class know little about. Full marks to Pa Ranjith for that". Another critic for "The Hindu", Sudhir Srinivasan, gave a positive feedback regarding Karthi's performance and said, "Karthi, despite looking a bit too sophisticated for the grime of north Chennai, is a revelation with his dialogue delivery and body language. He is every bit the quintessential ‘local paiyan’". Writing for "The New Indian Express", Malini Mannath said, "With an engaging screenplay, deft narration, well fleshed out characters and actors well cast, "Madras" captures the feel, flavour and ambiance of North Chennai with perfect precision". "Sify" said, ""Madras" works big time as writer and director Pa Ranjith has given priority to his script, which hooks the audiences straightaway. It is a triumph of honest writing and heartfelt dialogues. It is a gutsy and outstanding film". M Suganth of "The Times of India" gave 4 out of 5 stars and said, "[...] Ranjith keeps defying our expectations in subtle ways. We think we know what the outcome of a scene would be but he constantly surprises us with how the scene is executed". Haricharan Pudipeddi of "IANS" gave 4 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Very few filmmakers can turn an ordinary tale of politics, friendship and revenge into a masterpiece. Ranjith is one such filmmaker and his "Madras" is probably the best audiences can get from Tamil cinema this year".


title: Madras (film)

text: S Sarawathi of "Rediff" gave 3.5 out of 5 and wrote, "The innovative script, well-etched characters and the commendable performances, strengthened by a brilliant technical team and perfect execution, make Madras one of the best films this year". Ramchander of "Oneindia Entertainment" gave 3.5 on a 5 star rating scale and said, "Director Ranjith, after penning a good story, has tried to forcefully add commercial elements. "Madras" is a gritty revenge drama that cannot be missed by cine goers". Anupama Subramanian of the "Deccan Chronicle" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 and stated, ""Madras" has a strong storyline and a powerful cast to back this up. The major success of the film is attributed to the perfect casting handpicked by Ranjith and extracting the best from them", going on to call it "a not to be missed film". "Indiaglitz" wrote that, "The film is a wholesome entertainer with some minor arguable moments, Ranjith has yet again pulled off a blockbuster in reckoning" and gave a rating of 3.25 out of 5 stars. "Behindwoods" gave 3 out of 5 and wrote, ""Madras", though on the longer side and venturing into predictable territory beyond a point, stands out for the presentation, the characterisations, the performances and for the unflinching direction efforts of Ranjith", before concluding that the film "definitely deserves a trip to the theatres". In contrast, Gautaman Bhaskaran of the "Hindustan Times" gave a rating of 1.5 out of 5 stars and stated, "In the end, "Madras" is but another work about gang wars and political rivalry that can only be watched if you stop disbelieving".


title: Madras (film)

text: "Madras" collected in the US, in the United Kingdom and in Malaysia in the first 3 days of its overseas theatrical run.


title: Wheat and chessboard problem

text: The wheat and chessboard problem (sometimes expressed in terms of rice grains) is a mathematical problem expressed in textual form as: