title: Civil defense

text: The US President Kennedy (1961–63) launched an ambitious effort to install fallout shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but would provide some protection against the radiation effects that would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear explosion. In order for most of these preparations to be effective, there had to be some degree of warning. In 1951, CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) was established. Under the system, a few primary stations would be alerted of an emergency and would broadcast an alert. All broadcast stations throughout the country would be constantly listening to an upstream station and repeat the message, thus passing it from station to station.


title: Civil defense

text: In a once classified US war game analysis, looking at varying levels of war escalation, warning and pre-emptive attacks in the late 1950s early 1960s, it was estimated that approximately 27 million US citizens would have been saved with civil defense education. At the time, however, the cost of a full-scale civil defense program was regarded as less effective in cost-benefit analysis than a ballistic missile defense (Nike Zeus) system, and as the Soviet adversary was increasing their nuclear stockpile, the efficacy of both would follow a diminishing returns trend.


title: Civil defense

text: Contrary to the largely noncommittal approach taken in NATO, with its stops and starts in civil defense depending on the whims of each newly elected government, the military strategy in the comparatively more ideologically consistent USSR held that, amongst other things, a winnable nuclear war was possible. To this effect the Soviets planned to minimize, as far as possible, the effects of nuclear weapon strikes on its territory, and therefore spent considerably more thought on civil defense preparations than in U.S., with defense plans that have been assessed to be far more effective than those in the U.S.


title: Civil defense

text: Soviet Civil Defense Troops played the main role in the massive disaster relief operation following the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident. Defense Troop reservists were officially mobilized (as in a case of war) from throughout the USSR to join the Chernobyl task force and formed on the basis of the Kyiv Civil Defense Brigade. The task force performed some high-risk tasks including, with the failure of their robotic machinery, the manual removal of highly-radioactive debris. Many of their personnel were later decorated with medals for their work at containing the release of radiation into the environment, with a number of the 56 deaths from the accident being Civil defense troops.


title: Civil defense

text: In Western countries, strong civil defense policies were never properly implemented, because it was fundamentally at odds with the doctrine of "mutual assured destruction" (MAD) by making provisions for survivors. It was also considered that a full-fledged total defense would have not been worth the very large expense. For whatever reason, the public saw efforts at civil defense as fundamentally ineffective against the powerful destructive forces of nuclear weapons, and therefore a waste of time and money, although detailed scientific research programs did underlie the much-mocked government civil defense pamphlets of the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Civil defense

text: The Civil Defence Corps was stood down in Great Britain in 1968 due to the financial crisis of the mid-1960s. Its neighbors, however, remained committed to Civil Defence, namely the Isle of Man Civil Defence Corps and Civil Defence Ireland (Republic of Ireland).


title: Civil defense

text: In the United States, the various civil defense agencies were replaced with the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in 1979. In 2002 this became part of the Department of Homeland Security. The focus was shifted from nuclear war to an "all-hazards" approach of Comprehensive Emergency Management. Natural disasters and the emergence of new threats such as terrorism have caused attention to be focused away from traditional civil defense and into new forms of civil protection such as emergency management and homeland security.


title: Civil defense

text: Many countries still maintain a national Civil Defence Corps, usually having a wide brief for assisting in large scale civil emergencies such as flood, earthquake, invasion, or civil disorder.


title: Civil defense

text: After the September 11 attacks in 2001, in the United States the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of homeland security and all-hazards emergency management.


title: Civil defense

text: In Europe, the triangle CD logo continues to be widely used. The old U.S. civil defense logo was used in the FEMA logo until 2006 and is hinted at in the United States Civil Air Patrol logo. Created in 1939 by Charles Coiner of the N. W. Ayer Advertising Agency, it was used throughout World War II and the Cold War era. In 2006, the National Emergency Management Association—a U.S. organization made up of state emergency managers—"officially" retired the Civil Defense triangle logo, replacing it with a stylised EM (standing for Emergency management). The name and logo, however, continue to be used by Hawaii State Civil Defense and Guam Homeland Security/Office of Civil Defense.


title: Civil defense

text: The term "civil protection" is currently widely used within the European Union to refer to government-approved systems and resources tasked with protecting the non-combat population, primarily in the event of natural and technological disasters. For example, the EU's humanitarian aid policy director on the Ebola Crisis, Florika Fink-Hooijer, said that civil protection requires "not just more resources, but first and foremost better governance of the resources that are available including better synergies between humanitarian aid and civil protection". In recent years there has been emphasis on preparedness for technological disasters resulting from terrorist attack. Within EU countries the term "crisis-management" emphasizes the political and security dimension rather than measures to satisfy the immediate needs of the population.


title: Civil defense

text: In most former Soviet countries civil defense is the responsibility of governmental ministries, such as Russia's Ministry of Emergency Situations.


title: Civil defense

text: Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease. According to human capital theory in economics, a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses. People rebuild a country after its destruction, and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country that it protect its people. According to psychology, it is important for people to feel as though they are in control of their own destiny, and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense may help to achieve this.


title: Civil defense

text: In the United States, the federal civil defense program was authorized by statute and ran from 1951 to 1994. Originally authorized by Public Law 920 of the 81st Congress, it was repealed by Public Law 93–337 in 1994. Small portions of that statutory scheme were incorporated into the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Public Law 100–707) which partly superseded in part, partly amended, and partly supplemented the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-288). In the portions of the civil defense statute incorporated into the Stafford Act, the primary modification was to use the term "Emergency Preparedness" wherever the term "Civil Defence" had previously appeared in the statutory language.


title: Civil defense

text: An important concept initiated by President Jimmy Carter was the so-called "Crisis Relocation Program" administered as part of the federal civil defense program. That effort largely lapsed under President Ronald Reagan, who discontinued the Carter initiative because of opposition from areas potentially hosting the relocated population.


title: Civil defense

text: Threats to civilians and civilian life include NBC (Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical warfare) and others, like the more modern term CBRN (Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear). Threat assessment involves studying each threat so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.


title: Civil defense

text: Refers to conventional explosives. A blast shelter designed to protect only from radiation and fallout would be much more vulnerable to conventional explosives. See also fallout shelter.


title: Civil defense

text: Shelter intended to protect against nuclear blast effects would include thick concrete and other sturdy elements which are resistant to conventional explosives. The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from the blast, fires and radiation. One of the most prepared countries for a nuclear attack is Switzerland. Almost every building in Switzerland has an "abri" (shelter) against the initial nuclear bomb and explosion followed by the fall-out. Because of this, many people use it as a safe to protect valuables, photos, financial information and so on. Switzerland also has air-raid and nuclear-raid sirens in every village.


title: Civil defense

text: A "radiologically enhanced weapon", or "dirty bomb", uses an explosive to spread radioactive material. This is a theoretical risk, and such weapons have not been used by terrorists. Depending on the quantity of the radioactive material, the dangers may be mainly psychological. Toxic effects can be managed by standard hazmat techniques.


title: Civil defense

text: Mitigation is the process of actively prevents the war or the released of nuclear weapons. It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, nuclear disarmament and more military responses such as a National Missile Defense and air defense artillery. In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include diplomacy, intelligence gathering and direct action against terrorist groups. Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the interstate highway system and the placement of military bases further away from populated areas.


title: Civil defense

text: Preparation consists of building blast shelters and pre-positioning information, supplies, and emergency infrastructure. For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities for the same purpose located near major railheads such as the ones in Denton, Texas and Mount Weather, Virginia.


title: Civil defense

text: Other measures would include continual government inventories of grain silos, the Strategic National Stockpile, the uncapping of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, the dispersal of lorry-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile de-contamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) and DMORT-WMD, and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.


title: Civil defense

text: On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to nuclear fallout is to obtain potassium iodide (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against alpha particles, which are only an internal hazard.


title: Civil defense

text: To support and supplement efforts at national, regional and local level with regard to disaster prevention, the preparedness of those responsible for civil protection and the intervention in the event of disaster


title: Civil defense

text: Staffing a response is always full of problems in a civil defense emergency. After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days. Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized military units, especially civil affairs, Military Police, Judge Advocates and combat engineers.


title: Civil defense

text: However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers. Studies in World War II showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organised teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government. In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services.


title: Civil defense

text: In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the Los Angeles Fire Department to cope with civil emergencies such as earthquakes. The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization. In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by community emergency response teams, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers "certified disaster service workers" who complete such training.


title: Civil defense

text: Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production. The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase. Once the immediate "crisis" has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.


title: Civil defense

text: Preparation for recovery can be very helpful. If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented. One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a "tourist ferry" that performs scenic cruises on the river. When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load.


title: Civil defense

text: Civil Defense is also the name of a number of organizations around the world dedicated to protecting civilians from military attacks, as well as to providing rescue services after natural and human-made disasters alike.


title: Civil defense

text: Worldwide protection is managed by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).


title: Civil defense

text: In a few countries such as Jordan and Singapore (see Singapore Civil Defence Force), civil defense is essentially the same organization as the fire brigade. In most countries, however, civil defense is a government-managed, volunteer-staffed organization, separate from the fire brigade and the ambulance service.


title: Civil defense

text: As the threat of Cold War eased, a number of such civil defense organizations have been disbanded or mothballed (as in the case of the Royal Observer Corps in the United Kingdom and the United States civil defense), while others have changed their focuses into providing rescue services after natural disasters (as for the State Emergency Service in Australia). However, the ideals of Civil Defense have been brought back in the United States under FEMA's Citizen Corps and Community Emergency Response Team (CERT).


title: Civil defense

text: In the United Kingdom Civil Defence work is carried out by Emergency Responders under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004, with assistance from voluntary groups such as RAYNET, Search and Rescue Teams and 4x4 Response. In Ireland, the Civil Defence is still very much an active organization and is occasionally called upon for its Auxiliary Fire Service and ambulance/rescue services when emergencies such as flash flooding occur and require additional manpower. The organization has units of trained firemen and medical responders based in key areas around the country.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The 1975 is the debut studio album by English rock band the 1975. It was released on 2 September 2013 through Dirty Hit and Polydor. It was recorded with record producer Mike Crossey.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: Between Autumn 2012 and Spring 2013, during which time the album was recorded, the band released four EPs. They toured to support and build momentum for the album, including numerous gigs and special appearances with other artists.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The album received positive reviews from critics, and topped the UK Albums Chart on 8 September. As of March 2016, it had sold 410,981 copies in the UK, and 390,000 copies in the US.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: Between mid-2012 and early 2013, the 1975 released four extended plays: "Facedown," "Sex", "Music for Cars" and "IV"; some of the songs included there would make it onto the album.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The band toured extensively to support the album, raise awareness and build up momentum before dropping the full-length release. They toured London with Bastille and Muse in the second half of The 2nd Law World Tour at the Emirates Stadium on 26 May 2013, the United States with the Neighbourhood on June, and London again with the Rolling Stones at Hyde Park on 13 July. They later played at the Festival Republic Stage at the 2013 Reading and Leeds Festival in August.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The album is mostly labeled as rock because of the band, but the wide variety of genres in the album has led to it being described as electropop, emo, indie pop, pop, pop punk and pop rock. It also includes funk and indie rock elements.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: Frontman Matty Healy described the style as "pretty experimental, and goes from glitchy R&B to big 80s powerpop to mid 90s soul, but it's done in our way obviously."


title: The 1975 (album)

text: In 2012, in an interview with Elliot Mitchell of "When the Gramophone Rings", Healy said that the band had a different approach to recording the album than to the EPs: "I think the best albums are ones where every track could be a potential single. Both our EP's center around a lead track whilst showcasing a wider body of work, whereas we feel the album is lead track after lead track, with all the alternative moments captured in an accessible way." He also said that the album had been "five years in the making, formed through the many different incarnations of the band," and added that it is "drenched in our identity and it's everything that we are. It does span a lot of genres and depth, but it's still a coherent piece of work and everything that makes our band our band, personally I would say it's an ambitious debut record."


title: The 1975 (album)

text: On the content, Healy said: "This recording process has been really fun, as we've had a lot of these songs for a while, and to record them in a completely different mindset with a completely different outlook has been really interesting. (...) The album isn't a haberdashery of past singles and old stuff, it has been focused down into a collective piece of work. There's tracks on there that people would have heard live, and older tracks that we've reworked. This album is a soundtrack to our formative years, so it would be dishonest to not put songs on there that we wrote when we were 21, as we want people to connect to it in the same way that we do."


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The lead single from the album, a re-recorded version of the song "Sex", was scheduled to be released on 26 August 2013. The song premiered on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on 8 July 2013 as his 'Hottest Record in the World'. A music video for the song was released onto YouTube on 26 July 2013.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: On 27 August 2013, the song "Settle Down" premiered on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show as part of his 'Album of the Week' segment, and on 29 August 2013 "Girls" became Lowe's 'Hottest Record'.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: "The 1975" received favourable reviews from contemporary music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 67, based on 17 reviews.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: Ashley Clements of "Gigwise" called the album "Quite possibly the best indie LP of the year." Simon Butcher of "Clash" magazine rated the album 8/10 and wrote: "It's a great pop record with plenty of depth (a rare thing) that will prove divisive. Some will dismiss this band in one listen (or none) as the next Owl City, but with years of playing together already, plenty of fans, and lots of songs ready to go, The 1975 will be one overnight success that'll outlive the critics."


title: The 1975 (album)

text: Dave Reynolds of "Bearded" magazine noticed similarities between the band's and Michael Jackson's story, and wrote that the "unmistakable '80s aesthetic" reflects a homage to "Thriller". "A debut album with 16 tracks should never be able to capture and hold a listeners attention, but The 1975 make a damn good stab at it, with a record littered with pop hooks and imagination. MJ would be proud," he concluded.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: "Q" defined the 1975 as "possibly the first band to take influence from The Thompson Twins, China Crisis and the long-lost Frazier Chorus." "That makes them sound gloriously out of kilter, but the truth is that their jittery genre-jumping is impossibly now," the magazine continued. "Best of all, for all their rarely lauded influence, this is a band who sound like nobody else right now. Hugely intriguing," concluded reviewer John Aizlewood, giving the album 3/5 stars rating.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: The album topped the UK Albums Chart on 8 September, selling 31,538 copies in the first week. On 26 September 2014, it was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of over 300,000 copies. As of December 2018, it has sold 584,808 copies in the UK.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: In the United States, "The 1975" debuted at No. 28 on the "Billboard" 200, with around 15,000 copies sold on its first week of release. It also debuted at No. 8 on "Billboard"'s Rock Albums, and 7 on Alternative Albums. As of March 2016, the album has sold 349,000 copies in the US.


title: The 1975 (album)

text: In addition to the standard edition of the album, a double CD deluxe edition was also released, with the second disc containing the band's four EPs: "Facedown", "Sex", "Music for Cars" and "IV". The iTunes deluxe edition contains additional remixes, making a total of 39 tracks. For the "Sex" EP, the gap of silence between "You" and "Milk" is reduced from 19 minutes to nearly 3.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: Dr. Frederick Chilton is a fictional character appearing in Thomas Harris' novels "Red Dragon" (1981) and "The Silence of the Lambs" (1988), along with the film and television adaptations of Harris's novels.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: Chilton is first introduced in Harris' 1981 novel "Red Dragon" as the pompous, incompetent director of a sanitarium near Baltimore, Maryland, acting as the jailer for the cannibalistic serial killer Hannibal Lecter. When FBI profiler Will Graham goes to Lecter for advice on capturing another serial killer, Francis Dolarhyde, Chilton makes an unwelcome attempt to question Graham about Lecter's psyche. When Dolarhyde learns of Graham's visits with Lecter, the two killers attempt to correspond through the classifieds of a tabloid newspaper; a cleaning crew finds one of Dolarhyde's letters, hidden within Lecter's toilet paper spool. Chilton informs Graham and his superior, Jack Crawford, of the discovery. Lecter's reply is intercepted and revealed to contain Graham's home address, which Dolarhyde uses to track down Graham in the novel's climax.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: In "The Silence of the Lambs", Chilton allows Crawford to send an FBI trainee, Clarice Starling, to interview Lecter about another serial killer, Buffalo Bill. He makes a clumsy pass at Starling on their first meeting and she quickly rejects him. Chilton gradually grows envious of Starling's success, where he has failed, in convincing Lecter to share information. He eventually uses a recording device to eavesdrop on their interviews, from which he learns of Crawford's offer to transfer Lecter to a better prison facility in exchange for revealing Buffalo Bill's identity. Chilton learns that the offer is a trick but sets it up anyway, then quickly hogs the spotlight as the plan's architect. Lecter is transferred, but gives false information: he claims that the killer's name is "Billy Rubin", a pun on bilirubin, a compound that colors human bile and feces and a reference to Chilton's hair color (in the film adaptation, he gives the name "Louis Friend", an anagram for "iron sulfide", or fool's gold, as a red herring). Lecter gives Starling the real information needed to track down Buffalo Bill. Afterwards, Lecter makes a bloody escape from custody after using an improvised handcuff key made from a pen tube (taken from a pen which Chilton himself carelessly left in Lecter's cell) and paper clip he was able to use only when transferred to police custody. While still on the run, Lecter sends a letter to Starling, saying she is safe and he will not come after her, and another letter to Chilton swearing gruesome vengeance. In the film adaptation, Lecter calls Starling and says he is "having an old friend for dinner", as he begins following Chilton.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: Chilton does not appear in "Hannibal"; the hospital has been shut down by the time the novel's events take place. The novel does mention that Chilton disappeared while on vacation in Jamaica seven years earlier; it is strongly suggested that Lecter murdered him.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: In "Manhunter" (1986), the first film adaptation of "Red Dragon", Chilton is played by Benjamin Hendrickson.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: In the TV series "Hannibal", a loose adaptation of the novels, Chilton is portrayed by Raúl Esparza. In this continuity, Chilton was originally a "dangerously incompetent" surgeon who switched his specialty to psychiatry after accidentally killing a patient. In each season (as a running gag) he suffers and improbably survives gruesome and near-fatal injuries, leaving him increasingly debilitated.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: He first appears in the episode "Entrée", in which his patient Dr. Abel Gideon (Eddie Izzard) kills a nurse after Chilton unwittingly influences him into believing that he is the serial killer known as the Chesapeake Ripper. Gideon eventually learns the truth and suffers an identity crisis, and he escapes to seek revenge against all of his previous psychiatrists, including Chilton. Gideon kidnaps and tortures Chilton, intending to leave his organs as a "gift basket" for the real Ripper. Gideon is forced to flee from the police after having removed some of Chilton's less vital organs, leaving him alive but in critical condition.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: Chilton reappears in the second season, minus one kidney, walking with a cane, and now unable to consume protein-rich food. Will Graham (Hugh Dancy)—who has been falsely accused of the Ripper murders—is now a patient under Chilton's custody. He successfully appeals to Chilton's vanity and convinces him to help expose Hannibal Lecter (Mads Mikkelsen) as the real killer. Through Chilton's resources, Graham discovers that Lecter was inducing the blackouts and seizures he was suffering prior to his arrest. Chilton confronts Lecter with this, but claims he will keep his secret, as he is also guilty of "making a patient kill". Graham also discovers that Gideon is aware that Lecter is the Ripper. Armed with this knowledge, Graham points out to Chilton that both he and Gideon claim to know who the Ripper is, and tempts him with the intriguing possibility that the two of them might independently discover the Ripper's identity. Chilton brings Gideon back into his custody, though Gideon does not cooperate and is eventually kidnapped by Lecter. Chilton begins to believe Graham's accusations against Lecter, but attempts to maintain the pretense of ignorance when socializing with the doctor. Lecter frames Chilton for the Ripper murders, kills two FBI agents in Chilton's home, and leaves a dying, dismembered Gideon in his basement. Chilton plans to flee the country, and tries to seek refuge with Graham, who has been exonerated. Knowing Lecter will find Chilton if he flees, Graham asks Jack Crawford (Laurence Fishburne) to arrest Chilton to protect him. During Chilton's interrogation, a surviving Ripper victim, Miriam Lass (Anna Chlumsky), is observing behind a one-way mirror. Upon hearing Chilton's voice, Lass experiences a false memory implanted by Lecter during her imprisonment of Chilton tormenting her. In a moment of blind rage, Lass draws Crawford's gun and shoots Chilton in the face through the mirror.


title: Frederick Chilton

text: The season 3 episode "Aperitivo" reveals that Chilton survived the gunshot wound, but was disfigured, losing an eye and his upper teeth on the left side of his face; he wears makeup and prosthetics to conceal his injuries. He approaches Lecter's other surviving victims—Graham, Crawford, Alana Bloom (Caroline Dhavernas), and Mason Verger (Joe Anderson)—and entreats them to pursue Lecter. After Lecter surrenders to Crawford, he is found insane at trial and incarcerated at the Baltimore State Hospital for the Criminally Insane, initially under Chilton's care; Bloom eventually replaces Chilton as the administrator of the hospital. Chilton writes a best-selling true crime volume about Lecter that is filled with distortions and inaccuracies. He plans to write another one about "The Tooth Fairy", a serial killer who murders entire families. Graham convinces him to give an interview with him in which they say that "The Tooth Fairy" is ugly, impotent, homosexual, and the product of incest. The killer, Francis Dolarhyde (Richard Armitage), retaliates by kidnapping Chilton and forcing him to recant his statements; he then bites Chilton's lips off and sets him on fire (in the original novel "Red Dragon", this fate befalls Freddy Lounds). He survives, but is horribly burned and barely able to speak. He is last seen recuperating in an oxygen tank, accusing Graham of deliberately setting him up to be maimed.


title: Susan Misner

text: Susan Misner (; born February 8, 1971) is an American actress and dancer. She has appeared in a number of TV series as a guest star, as well as several recurring roles.


title: Susan Misner

text: Misner portrayed Grace Davidson on the ABC soap opera "One Life to Live" from March 12, 1999, to November 17, 1999. In 2002, Misner appeared in the film "Chicago" as Liz, performing the "Cell Block Tango" number.


title: Susan Misner

text: Misner has guest starred on many TV series, including three of the series in the "Law & Order" franchise—"" (2001/2005), "" (2002) and "Law & Order" (2006)—as well as both "" (2002) and "" (2004). She appeared as Theresa on "Rescue Me" (2006–07), and later as Gretchen Martin in the 2007 miniseries "The Bronx Is Burning". She appeared in two episodes of the hit CBS procedural "Without a Trace" during the 2004–2005 television season. In several episodes of the first season (2011) in "Person of Interest", Misner played opposite Jim Caviezel as his ex-girlfriend Jessica in flashbacks. In 2017, Misner had a guest appearance as Philomena on "The Blacklist".


title: Susan Misner

text: She portrayed Alison Humphrey in several episodes of The CW series "Gossip Girl" and Sergeant Burnett in "New Amsterdam" (2008). In 2010, she played the girlfriend of therapist Paul Weston in the series "In Treatment". More recently, she has the role of Sandra Beeman in "The Americans", and the recurring role of Simone Canning in "The Good Wife".


title: RFU Championship

text: The RFU Championship is an English rugby union competition comprising twelve clubs. It is the second level of men’s English rugby and is played by both professional and semi-professional players. The competition has existed since 1987, when English clubs were first organised into leagues.


title: RFU Championship

text: The Championship is governed by the Rugby Football Union (RFU). The current competition format is a double round-robin tournament, where teams play each other home and away. The 2021-22 season had no playoff phase, and no team was promoted to the Premiership as no team met the minimum standards criteria.


title: RFU Championship

text: The governing body for rugby union in England, the RFU, first allowed league hierarchies in 1987. This came nearly a century after leagues were first established in football and cricket, England's other two principal team sports.


title: RFU Championship

text: The RFU's reluctance to allow leagues was based on a perceived threat to the sport's amateurism regulations: competitive leagues were seen as making clubs more likely to use incentives to attract and retain the best players.


title: RFU Championship

text: When formalised leagues were finally permitted in the 1987-88 season, the second level was known as 'Courage League National Division Two'. The league has since had several different names before becoming the RFU Championship in the 2009-10 season.


title: RFU Championship

text: In November 2008, the Rugby Football Union (RFU) published a plan for a new professional tier below the Premiership. The 12-team Championship replaced the 16-team National Division One.


title: RFU Championship

text: To enable Level 2 to transition from 16 teams to 12, the RFU proposal called for five teams to be relegated at the end of the 2008–09 season. The relegated teams would play in the third level of rugby, known as ‘National Division 2’ in 2008–09 and to be known as ‘National League 1’ in 2009–10.


title: RFU Championship

text: Additionally, one team would be relegated from the Premiership (Level 1 to Level 2), one team would be promoted to the Premiership (Level 2 to Level 1), and one team would be promoted from National Division 2 (Level 3 to Level 2).


title: RFU Championship

text: The RFU Council voted overwhelmingly in favour of the new proposal, and the first Championship season started the following year, in 2009.


title: RFU Championship

text: Automatic promotion to the Premiership has not been a consistent feature of the RFU Championship. A playoff tournament was used to decide promotion between the 2009–10 and 2016–17 seasons, as well as in the 2020–21 season.


title: RFU Championship

text: In seasons without a promotion playoff (2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20), the team at the top of the league was automatically promoted to the Premiership.


title: RFU Championship

text: The RFU plans to reintroduce possible promotion at the end of the 2023–24 season, by means of a play-off between the top placed team in the Championship and the bottom placed side in the Premiership.


title: RFU Championship

text: The COVID-19 pandemic caused the 2019–20 season to be prematurely ended. Final standings were based on a "best playing record formula" and promotion and relegation remained for the 1st and 12th placed clubs respectively.


title: RFU Championship

text: The 2020–21 season was impacted by the above mentioned pandemic and as a consequence a shorter season kicked off in spring 2021. The reduced season saw each team play each other once only with the top two teams entering a two-legged promotion playoff. There was no relegation due to cancellation of National League 1.


title: RFU Championship

text: In February 2021 a moratorium on relegation from the Premiership into the Championship was approved and it was confirmed that the RFU were working on a review of the minimum standards criteria for promotion and the league structure from 2021–22. The moratorium was extended for a further two years in June 2021 and also could include promotion from the Championship at the end of the 2022–23 season if there was promotion in the previous season. There was also no relegation from the Championship in 2021–22.


title: RFU Championship

text: The RFU Championship clubs were in dispute with the RFU over funding for the competition and claimed that each club was owed £77,000 for the past three seasons, and will be owed a further £120,000 over the next four seasons. The clubs believed they should have received £295,000 in 2009–10, rising to £400,000 by 2015–16 and further believe there was a breach of contract on the part of the RFU. The RFU stated that the original funding was an estimate and by 2015–16 the figure will be £359,400. When the RFU announced the hiatus of promotion play-offs, it also announced funding increases from both itself and the Premiership, including a new system which ties some of the new funding to each Championship side's performance in the league season. The extra funding provided prior to 2016–17 was removed prior to the 2020–21 season.


title: RFU Championship

text: For sponsorship reasons, the competition was officially known as the Greene King IPA Championship between the 2013–14 and 2020–21 seasons.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul has a career-high ATP singles ranking of world No. 28, achieved on 26 September 2022, and doubles ranking of No. 97, achieved on 12 September 2022. He won his maiden ATP title at the 2021 Stockholm Open.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Tommy Paul was consistently one of the highest ranked juniors of his class. Paul reached a career-high ITF junior rank of No. 3 on December 9, 2015.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul reached two junior Grand Slam finals in 2015. He won the 2015 French Open boys' singles title by defeating fellow American Taylor Fritz in the final in three sets. At the same tournament he reached the final in doubles partnering fellow American William Blumberg. He also reached the final at the 2015 US Open boys' singles, this time losing to Fritz in three sets.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul turned pro in 2015. Unusually for an American, Paul has shown a preference for playing on clay, having won the Junior French Open and his first four ITF Futures singles titles on clay. He qualified for the main draw of a major for the first time at the 2015 US Open, losing to Andreas Seppi in the first round.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: In March 2016, Paul cracked the top 200 for the first time by qualifying for the Miami Masters. In April, Paul was awarded a wildcard into the 2016 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships at Houston, and defeated 53rd-ranked Paolo Lorenzi in the first round for his first career ATP level win.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: In July 2017, after going through qualifying at the Atlanta Open, he defeated seventh seed and 53rd-ranked Chung Hyeon in three sets. He then went on to defeat Malek Jaziri in three sets to advance to his first ATP Tour-level quarterfinal. Then he was defeated by third seed Gilles Müller. Following his performance in Atlanta, Tommy was awarded a wildcard into the ATP 500 Washington Open. Paul defeated Casper Ruud to advance to the second round. He then played Lucas Pouille and achieved the biggest win of his career, defeating the Frenchman in straight sets. In the next round, he faced Gilles Müller again, but this time came out on top in three sets to reach his first ATP 500 quarterfinal. He lost to Kei Nishikori in three sets.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: In September, Paul broke into the top 100 for the first time in his career having won his second ATP Challenger title of the year in New Haven, after winning in Sarasota earlier in the season.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his 2020 season at the first edition of the Adelaide International. Getting past qualifying, he reached the semifinals where he lost to fellow qualifier Lloyd Harris. Ranked 80 at the Australian Open, Paul reached the third round of a Grand Slam for the first time in his career by beating 18th seed and world No. 20, Grigor Dimitrov, in the second round. He was defeated in the third round by Márton Fucsovics.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his 2021 season at the Delray Beach Open. Seeded fifth, he lost in the second round to compatriot and eventual finalist, Sebastian Korda. Seeded 15th at the Murray River Open, he was defeated in the second round by Australian Alexei Popyrin. Ranked 53 at the Australian Open, he lost in the second round to 24th seed Casper Ruud.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: In March, Paul competed at the Rotterdam Open. He reached the quarterfinals where he fell to qualifier and eventual finalist, Márton Fucsovics. At the Abierto Mexicano in Acapulco, he was eliminated in the first round by fourth seed Milos Raonic. In Miami, he was beaten in the first round by Marcos Giron.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his clay-court season at the Sardegna Open. Seeded eighth, he lost in the first round to Yannick Hanfmann. At the Monte-Carlo Masters, he was defeated in the second round by ninth seed Roberto Bautista Agut. In Madrid, he was ousted from the tournament in the second round by sixth seed and world No. 7, Andrey Rublev. Getting past qualifying at the Italian Open, he lost in the first round to tenth seed Roberto Bautista Agut. At the Lyon Open, he was defeated in the second round by second seed, world No. 5, and eventual champion, Stefanos Tsitsipas. Seeded sixth at the first edition of the Emilia-Romagna Open in Parma, Italy, he reached the semifinals where he lost to Sebastian Korda. Ranked 52 at the French Open, he beat Christopher O'Connell in a first-round five-set thriller before he lost in the second round to world No. 2, Daniil Medvedev. As a result, he entered the top 50 on June 14, 2021.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul qualified to represent the United States at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. He lost in the first round to 11th seed Aslan Karatsev of Russia.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his US Open Series at the Washington Open and lost in the first round to Daniel Elahi Galán. Getting past qualifying at the Canadian Open in Toronto, he was defeated in the second round by tenth seed Roberto Bautista Agut. Making it through qualifying at the Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, he beat 16th seed, Cristian Garín, in the first round. He was eliminated in the second round by Lorenzo Sonego. Ranked 54 at the US Open, he lost in the first round to Roberto Carballés Baena in four sets.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: During the week of September 27, Paul competed at the San Diego Open. He lost in the first round to Sebastian Korda. At the Indian Wells Masters, he recorded one of the biggest wins of his career, defeating fourth seed and world No. 5, Andrey Rublev, to reach the round of 16. Previously, he had never made the third round of an ATP Masters 1000 event. This was his second win against a top 10 opponent after he defeated Alexander Zverev in Acapulco in 2020. He was beaten in the fourth round by 21st seed and eventual champion, Cam Norrie. At the Kremlin Cup in Moscow, he lost in the second round to sixth seed and eventual finalist, Marin Čilić. In St. Petersburg, he was defeated in the second round by fifth seed and eventual finalist, Taylor Fritz. Getting past qualifying at the Paris Masters, he lost in the second round to seventh seed and world No. 10, Hubert Hurkacz. Paul played his final tournament of the season at the Stockholm Open. He reached the first ATP final of his career, defeating fifth seed, Taylor Fritz, in the second round, former world No. 1 and three-time Grand Slam champion, Andy Murray, in the quarterfinals, and eighth seed, Frances Tiafoe, in the semifinals. He won the title, defeating third seed and defending champion, Denis Shapovalov. He became the 10th first-time titlist of the year.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his 2022 season at the Adelaide International 1. Seeded sixth, he reached the quarterfinals where he lost to top seed and eventual champion, Gaël Monfils. At the Adelaide International 2, he made it to the quarterfinals where he was defeated by fourth seed Marin Čilić. Ranked No. 41 at the Australian Open, he was eliminated in the second round by Miomir Kecmanović.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Seeded fourth at the Delray Beach Open, Paul reached the semifinals where he fell to top seed Cam Norrie. At the Abierto Mexicano in Acapulco, he won his first-round match when his opponent, world No. 6 and fifth seed Matteo Berrettini, retired due to injury. He was beaten in the quarterfinals by fourth seed, former world No. 1, three-time champion, and eventual champion, Rafael Nadal. Representing the U.S. in the Davis Cup tie against Colombia, Paul played one match and won over Nicolás Mejía. In the end, the USA beat Colombia 4–0 to make up for Colombia beating them last year. At the Indian Wells Masters, he upset world No. 3, Alexander Zverev, in the second round for the biggest win of his career to reach the third round for a second time. He lost in the third round to 29th seed Alex de Minaur. The following week at the Miami Open, he defeated 23rd seed, Karen Khachanov, in the second round to reach the third round for the first time. He was ousted from the tournament in the third round by 11th seed Taylor Fritz. As a result, he reached the top 35 at world No. 34 on 4 April 2022.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his clay-court season at the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships in Houston. Seeded seventh, he lost in the second round to Nick Kyrgios. Seeded seventh at the Estoril Open, he was defeated in the first round by 2015 champion Richard Gasquet. In Madrid, he lost in the first round to 10th seed, Jannik Sinner, in a tight three-set match, despite having match points at 5–3 and 6–5 in the second set. At the Italian Open, he was beaten in the second round by Alex de Minaur. Seeded sixth at the Geneva Open, he lost in the first round to Tallon Griekspoor. Seeded 30th at the French Open, he was defeated in the first round by Cristian Garín.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul began his grass-court season at the Rosmalen Open in 's-Hertogenbosch. Seeded seventh, he lost in the first round to compatriot Brandon Nakashima in a match that consisted of three tiebreakers. In Queens, he beat sixth seed, Denis Shapovalov, in the first round. In the second round, he defeated three-time Grand Slam champion and former world No. 3, Stan Wawrinka. In the quarterfinals, he lost to second seed, world No. 10, defending champion, and eventual champion, Matteo Berrettini. At the Eastbourne International, he upset second seed and world No. 13, Jannik Sinner, in the second round. He was beaten in the quarterfinals by sixth seed, world No. 24, and defending champion, Alex de Minaur. Seeded 30th at Wimbledon, he defeated Jiří Veselý in the third round to reach the fourth round of a Grand Slam for the first time in his career. He lost in the fourth round to ninth seed, world No. 12, and home crowd favorite, Cameron Norrie.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul started his preparation for the US Open at the Atlanta Open. Seeded fifth, he reached the quarterfinals where he lost to Ilya Ivashka. Seeded 14th at the Washington Open, he was defeated in the second round by 2019 champion and eventual champion, Nick Kyrgios. At the Canadian Open, he stunned second seed and world No. 4, Carlos Alcaraz, in the second round, the third top-5 win of his career. He reached the quarterfinals of a Masters 1000 for the first time in his career after defeating 13th seed, Marin Čilić, in the third round. He lost in the quarterfinals to Dan Evans in three sets. Despite the loss, he reached a new career-high of world No. 31 on 15 August 2022. At the Western & Southern Open in Cincinnati, he lost in the second round to Denis Shapovalov in three sets.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Seeded 29th at the 2022 US Open, he reached the third round for the first time at this Major after defeating Bernabé Zapata Miralles and compatriot Sebastian Korda both in five sets matches, the latter lasting over three hours. He lost to 5th seed and eventual finalist Casper Ruud in a third consecutive five set match lasting almost four hours and half hours.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: He recorded the biggest win of his career defeating world No. 2 Rafael Nadal in the second round the 2022 Rolex Paris Masters, his fourth Top-10 victory of the year, recovering from a set and a break down and denying him the No. 1 bid. He went on to defeat Pablo Carreño Busta to reach the quarterfinals for the first time at this tournament, having defeated three Spaniards in a row, including Roberto Bautista Agut in the first round.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul possesses a strong attacking forehand and solid footwork along the baseline and speed coming into net, attributes that have allowed him success on clay surfaces.


title: Tommy Paul (tennis)

text: Paul's record against players who have been ranked in the top 10, with those who are active in boldface. Only ATP Tour main draw matches are considered:


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: Marquez Reshard Valdes-Scantling (born October 10, 1994) is an American football wide receiver for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at NC State and South Florida, and was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the fifth round of the 2018 NFL Draft.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: Valdes-Scantling attended and played high school football at Lakewood High School. He recorded 50 receptions for 800 receiving yards and 14 receiving touchdowns as a senior.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: Valdes-Scantling played college football at NC State from 2013 to 2014 and South Florida from 2015 to 2017. He had to sit out the 2015 season due to transfer rules.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: Valdes-Scantling was drafted by the Green Bay Packers with the 174th overall pick in the fifth round of the 2018 NFL Draft. He signed his rookie contract on May 7, 2018. He made his NFL debut in the Packers' season opener against the Chicago Bears on September 9, 2018, recording a 21-yard kick return in the 24–23 victory. He recorded his first professional reception in the following game against the Minnesota Vikings. He started his first career game in place of the injured Randall Cobb in a Week 4 win over the Buffalo Bills, catching one pass for 38 yards. Still starting in place of Cobb during a Week 5 loss to the Detroit Lions, Valdes-Scantling had a breakout performance, notching seven receptions for 68 yards and a touchdown. He followed that up with a three-catch, 103-yard performance during a Week 6 win over the San Francisco 49ers. On October 28, 2018, in a 27–29 loss to the Los Angeles Rams, he had two receptions for 45 yards, including a 40-yard receiving touchdown. The following week, a 17–31 loss to the New England Patriots, he had three receptions for 101 yards. Overall, he finished his rookie season with 38 receptions for 581 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns. He finished seventh among rookies in receiving yards.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: In Week 3 against the Denver Broncos, Valdes-Scantling caught six passes for 99 yards and his first receiving touchdown of the season as the Packers won 27–16. During Week 7 against the Oakland Raiders, Valdes-Scantling finished with two catches for 133 receiving yards, including a 74-yard touchdown as the Packers won 42–24. Overall, Valdes-Scatling finished the 2019 season with 26 receptions for 452 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: In Week 1 against the Minnesota Vikings, Valdes-Scantling caught four passes for 96 yards and his first touchdown of the season during the 43–34 win. In Week 9 against the San Francisco 49ers on "Thursday Night Football", he had two receptions for 53 receiving yards and two touchdowns in the 34–17 victory. In Week 10, against the Jacksonville Jaguars, he had four receptions for 149 receiving yards, including a 78-yard receiving touchdown, during the 24–20 win. In Week 11 against the Indianapolis Colts, Valdes-Scantling recorded a key 47-yard catch on a late fourth quarter drive that resulted in a game-tying field goal by Mason Crosby. However, he also lost a fumble on the Packers' second play in overtime, allowing the Colts to kick the game-winning field goal.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: In the against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Valdes-Scantling recorded four catches for 115 yards and a touchdown during the 31–26 loss.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: Valdes-Scantling was placed on injured reserve on October 2, 2021. He was activated from injured reserve on November 6, 2021. In Week 11, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had four receptions for 123 yards and a touchdown in the 34–31 loss. He finished the 2021 season with 26 receptions for 430 receiving yards and three receiving touchdowns.


title: Marquez Valdes-Scantling

text: On March 24, 2022, Valdes-Scantling signed a three-year, $30 million contract with the Kansas City Chiefs. In Week 7, against the San Francisco 49ers, he had three receptions for 111 yards in the 44–23 victory.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Metrication (or metrification) is the process of introducing the International System of Units, also known as SI units or the metric system, to replace a jurisdiction's traditional measuring units. U.S. customary units have been defined in terms of metric units since the 19th century, and the SI has been the "preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce" since 1975 according to United States law. However, conversion was not mandatory and many industries chose not to convert, and U.S. customary units remain in common use in many industries as well as in governmental use (for example, speed limits are still posted in miles per hour). Unlike other countries, there is no governmental or major social desire to implement further metrication.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Although customary units are used more often than metric units in the U.S., the SI system is used extensively in some fields such as science, medicine, electronics, the military, automobile production and repair, and international affairs. Post-1994 federal law also mandates most packaged consumer goods be labeled in both customary and metric units.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Immediately after independence, the United States used a variety of units of measure, including Dutch units and English units. The 1789 Constitution grants Congress the authority to determine standards of measure, though it did not immediately use this authority to impose a uniform system. The United States was one of the first nations to adopt a decimal currency, under the Coinage Act of 1792.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In 1793, Thomas Jefferson requested artifacts from France that could be used to adopt the metric system in the United States, and Joseph Dombey was sent from France with a standard kilogram. Before reaching the United States, Dombey's ship was blown off course by a storm and captured by pirates, and he died in captivity on Montserrat.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In the early 19th century, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the government's surveying and map-making agency, used a meter standard ("Committee Meter", French: "Mètre des Archives") brought from Switzerland. Shortly after the American Civil War, the 39th United States Congress protected the use of the metric system in commerce with the Metric Act of 1866 and supplied each state with a set of standard metric weights and measures.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In 1875 the United States solidified its commitment to the development of the internationally recognized metric system by becoming one of the original seventeen signatory nations to the Metre Convention, also known as the Treaty of the Metre. The signing of this international agreement concluded five years of meetings in which the metric system was reformulated, refining the accuracy of its standards. The Metre Convention established the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (Bureau international des poids et mesures, BIPM) in Sèvres, France, to provide standards of measurement for worldwide use.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Under the Mendenhall Order of 1893, metric standards, developed through international cooperation under the auspices of BIPM, were officially adopted as the fundamental standards for length and mass in the United States, though some metric standards were used in practice before then. The definitions of United States customary units, such as the foot and pound, have been based on metric units since then.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The 1895 Constitution of Utah, in Article X, Section 11, originally mandated that: "The Metric System shall be taught in the public schools of the State." This section was repealed, effective July 1, 1987.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: On July 4, 1876, Melvil Dewey (known for his Dewey Decimal Classification) incorporated the American Metric Bureau in Boston to sell rulers and other metric measuring tools. Dewey had hoped to make his fortune selling metric supplies.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The General Conference on Weights and Measures is the governing body for the modern metric system and comprises the signing nations of the Treaty of the Metre. The General Conference on Weights and Measures approved an updated version of the metric system in 1960 named "Le Système international d'unités" ("International System of Units") and abbreviated "SI".


title: Metrication in the United States

text: On February 10, 1964, the National Bureau of Standards (now known as the National Institute of Standards and Technology) issued a statement that it would use the metric system, except where this would have an obvious detrimental effect.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In 1968 Congress authorized the , a three-year study of systems of measurement in the United States, with emphasis on the feasibility of metrication. The United States Department of Commerce conducted the study. A 45-member advisory panel consulted and took testimony from hundreds of consumers, business organizations, labor groups, manufacturers, and state and local officials. The final report of the study concluded that the U.S. would eventually join the rest of the world in the use of the metric system of measurement. The study found that metric units were already implemented in many areas and that their use was increasing. The majority of study participants believed that conversion to the metric system was in the best interests of the United States, particularly in view of the importance of foreign trade and the increasing influence of technology in the United States.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The U.S. Metric Study recommended that the United States implement a carefully planned transition to the principal use of the metric system over a decade. Congress passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 "to coordinate and plan the increasing use of the metric system in the United States". Voluntary conversion was initiated, and the United States Metric Board (USMB) was established for planning, coordination, and public education. The public education component led to public awareness of the metric system, but the public response included resistance, apathy, and confusion. In 1981 the USMB reported to Congress that it lacked the clear Congressional mandate necessary to bring about national conversion. Because of this ineffectiveness and an effort of the Reagan administration—particularly from Lyn Nofziger's efforts as a White House advisor to the Reagan administration, to reduce federal spending—the USMB was disbanded in the autumn of 1982.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The ending of the USMB increased doubts that metrication would really be implemented. Public and private sector metrication slowed even while competitiveness between nations and demands of global marketplaces increased.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The American National Metric Council (ANMC) was established in 1973 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as a non-profit, tax-exempt organization for planning and coordinating metric activity in all sectors of the U.S. economy. The ANMC became a separately incorporated organization in 1976. The ANMC was intended to facilitate U.S. metrication by maintaining a voluntary and orderly process that minimizes costs and maximizes benefits, and to provide information, forums, individual assistance, and other services for its subscribers. The ANMC attempted to coordinate the metric planning of many industrial sectors, unlike the USMB, which only attempted to implement the policy set forth in the Metric Conversion Act of 1975. After the formation of the USMB, committees of the ANMC submitted conversion plans for the chemical sector and for the instruments sector. These sector conversion plans were later approved by the USMB. From 1975 through 1987, the ANMC held a series of well-attended annual conferences. Subsequently, a series of National Metric Conferences, jointly sponsored by the ANMC, the U.S. Metric Association (USMA), the Department of Commerce, and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), were held from 1989 through 1993.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Congress included new encouragement for U.S. industrial metrication in the Omnibus Foreign Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988. This legislation amended the Metric Conversion Act of 1975 and designated the metric system as "the Preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce". The legislation states that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry, especially small business, as it voluntarily converts to the metric system of measurement. The legislation required most federal agencies to use the metric system in their procurement, grants, and other business-related activities by the end of 1992. While not mandating metric use in the private sector, the federal government has sought to serve as a catalyst in the metric conversion of the country's trade, industry, and commerce. Exceptions were made for the highway and construction industries. The Department of Transportation planned to require metric units by 2000, but this plan was canceled by the 1998 highway bill TEA21. The U.S. military has generally high use of the metric system, partly because of the need to work with other nations' militaries.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: , signed by President George H. W. Bush on July 25, 1991, citing the Metric Conversion Act, directed departments and agencies within the executive branch of the United States Government to "take all appropriate measures within their authority" to use the metric system "as the preferred system of weights and measures for United States trade and commerce", and authorized the Secretary of Commerce "to charter an Interagency Council on Metric Policy ("ICMP"), which will assist the Secretary in coordinating Federal Government-wide implementation of this order."


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Some members of Congress attempted to ban use of the metric system on federal highways in 1992 and 1993. These bills were not popular in the House of Representatives and failed before a vote.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The use of two different unit systems caused the loss of the Mars Climate Orbiter in 1999. NASA specified metric units in the contract. NASA and other organizations applied metric units in their work, but one subcontractor, Lockheed Martin, provided software that calculated and reported thruster performance data to the team in pound-force-seconds, rather than the expected newton-seconds. The spacecraft was intended to orbit Mars at about altitude, but incorrect data caused it to descend instead to about , burning up in the Martian atmosphere.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The effort toward national metrication is based on the premise that the U.S. industrial and commercial productivity, mathematics and science education, and the competitiveness of its products and services in world markets would be enhanced by adopting the metric system. Gerard Iannelli, director of the U.S. Metric Program, gave the opinion that Americans have so far not done so because of the effort it takes to "translate" from customary to metric units when both measurements are not shown. He also cited what he perceived to be ineffective attempts at public education and awareness.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In June 2010 NIST called for an amendment to the Fair Packaging and Labeling Act that would allow manufacturers the option to voluntarily label their packages solely in metric units, rather than being dual-labeled with U.S. customary units and metric units as is currently required. The goal of these changes would be to encourage metric labeling, leading to greater agreement of U.S. labeling laws and simplifying domestic and international commerce. NIST Metric Program coordinator Elizabeth Gentry added that the proposed changes were "in response to requests by U.S. manufacturers and consumers", particularly that "manufacturers want to take control of the limited net quantity of contents real estate on their packaging."


title: Metrication in the United States

text: On December 31, 2012, a petition was created on the White House's petitioning system, petitioning the White House to "Make the Metric system the standard in the United States, instead of the Imperial system." On January 10, 2013, this petition garnered over 25,000 signatures, exceeding the threshold needed to require the Obama Administration to officially respond to the petition. Patrick D. Gallagher, director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, provided the official response stating that customary units were defined in the metric system, thus making the nation "bilingual" in terms of measurement systems. Gallagher also said that using the metric system was a choice to be made by individuals.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Early in 2013, state Representative Karl Rhoads introduced bill HB36 into the Hawaii House of Representatives that sought to make the metric system mandatory within his state. Called "Relating to the Metric System", the bill stipulated that the law would come into effect on January 1, 2018. By June 2014, bill HB36 had not gained enough support and was considered dead. However, in January 2019, Rhoads presented bill SB428 to the Hawaii State Legislature, saying that "strong reasons exist for Hawaii and other states to switch to the metric system". It was proposed to establish a task force to explore the use of the metric system for distance and speed measurements on public signs. If either bill had become law, Hawaii would have been the first state to introduce the metric system on a broad scale.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In January 2015, Oregon State Senator Brian Boquist, at the request of metric enthusiast David Pearl, proposed Oregon Senate Bill 166, which was similar to the Hawaiian bill. It would have established the International System of Units as the official units of measurement within the State of Oregon. The bill was in committee upon adjournment on July 6, 2015.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: During Lincoln Chafee's 2016 presidential election campaign, he advocated for the switch to metric units. Following a widely panned debate performance and poor polling numbers, Chafee announced on October 23, 2015, that he would be ending his campaign.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Most Americans have studied the common metric units at school. Also, newer units introduced by engineers and scientists from the 18th century on, such as volts, megapixels, and kilotons and megatons of TNT, are generally formulated in terms of powers of 10.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Use of units based on the SI is widespread for many applications. Residential electric power plans use kilowatt hours. The luminous flux from lamps is specified in lumens, derived from the candela rather than the candle.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The letter "K" is commonly used to denote "thousand" (e.g., "She earns $80K"), even though this is inconsistent with the lowercase "k" in SI. This usage has largely replaced the letter "G" (for "grand", used almost exclusively for money) and the Roman numeral "M" that was commonly used for "thousand" before the 1960s; in fact, the "M" has now come to denote "million" (e.g., "$32.5M budget").


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Televised and radio weather reports are given in degrees Fahrenheit instead of Celsius for dew point and air temperatures, miles per hour for wind speed, inches of mercury for atmospheric pressure (millibars are used only when reporting tropical phenomena such as hurricanes), and other customary units. In some northern border states, temperatures are described in both Fahrenheit and Celsius for the benefit of the cross-border Canadian audiences.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: NOAA Weather Radio broadcasts from the National Weather Service in the Twin Cities of Minnesota provide the local temperature reports in Fahrenheit and in Celsius, as does WXL57 weather radio in Des Moines, Iowa.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Some U.S. consumer products come in round metric sizes. This appears to be increasing because of the international nature of manufacturing, distribution, and sales. Many items are produced in round metric quantities and some manufacturers opt to display the metric quantity first or more prominently (e.g., Oral-B Glide dental floss is available in 35-, 40-, and 50-meter packages).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Perhaps the most common metric item sold is the two-liter bottle. Some supermarket chains also make their store brand soft drinks available in 3-liter sizes. Soft drink containers of 1 and 0.5 liters (and more recently 1.25 liter bottles) are increasingly sold alongside 12 fl oz, 16 fl oz, 20 fl oz, and 24 fl oz (355, 473, 591 and 710 mL) sizes.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The half-liter water bottle (16.9 fl oz) has nearly replaced the 16 ounce size. 700 mL (23.6 fl oz) and one-liter sizes are also common, though 20 fl oz, and 24 fl oz sizes remain popular, particularly in vending machines.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Attempts to sell 3- or 4-liter jugs of milk, instead of gallons (3.785 L), have been largely unsuccessful, and such bottles are rarely seen in the United States. Milk remains sold in binary divisions of the gallon, with half-pints, pints, quarts and half-gallons being the primary sizes.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Shampoo, mouthwash, and dental floss have begun to be sold in metric sizes. PowerBars and similar products have always been sold (but not marketed) by the gram.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Nutritional food labels typically report serving sizes in both systems but only list metric values (g or mg) for the breakdown of individual nutrients.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Wine is sold in standard bottles of 750 mL, as in the rest of the world. A fifth of liquor, once one-fifth of a U.S. gallon, or 757 mL, is now commonly 750 mL, though it is still referred to as "a fifth". Beer is sold in fluid ounce denominations. Regulations are set by the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau which controls the permissible sizes of containers. Unlike non-alcoholic beverages, most alcohol products are not required to carry unit conversions on labels.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Loose fruits and vegetables are near universally priced either per pound or per item. In both supermarkets and steakhouses, cuts of meat are sold in ounces and pounds. Loosely sold goods need not carry a unit conversion.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Since 1992, the federal Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA) has required most packaged consumer goods to be labeled in both customary and metric units. Some industries are engaged in efforts to amend this law to allow manufacturers to use only metric labeling. Forty-eight U.S. states have adopted laws permitting labeling in only metric units, the two exceptions being New York and Alabama.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The electronics and computer industries largely converted to metric standards as new technologies were introduced toward the end of the 20th century, also driven in part by a shift in manufacturing from the U.S. to countries in Asia with metric standards.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Display sizes for screens on TVs and computer monitors are advertised and sold in inches (measured diagonally), although most boxes also state the size in centimeters.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The original phone connector jack dates back to 1878 and still sees use in audio equipment and electric instruments. In many respects, it has been superseded by the 3.5 mm connectors or 2.5 mm headset, which was common on older mobile phones.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: While early floppy disks had a nominal package size of 5 inches (approximately 130 mm), the nominal design diameter of the replacement "3 inch" disks was actually 90 mm. CDs and DVDs are 120 mm in diameter, but their size is rarely mentioned; mini CDs are sometimes called 80 mm CDs.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Computer fan sizes are exclusively referred to by metric units (120 mm or 80 mm case fans, for example), while hard disk drive and CD drive bay sizes are customary measurements, typically 3 inches and 5 inches, respectively. The actual size of the drive bays differ from their name (e.g. 3" drive bays are actually wide, because 3" refers to the historical platter diameter inside the drive). The newer 2 inch and 1.8 inch drive bays are specified in metric and use metric mounting screws. Newer SSDs in the M.2 form factor are measured in millimeters (ex: "M.2 2280" is 22 mm wide by 80 mm long).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Consumer-size photographic film is commonly sold in a 35 mm standard (24×36 mm negative), although print sizes and large format films are defined in inches. Digital camera sensor sizes are measured in an archaic manner indicating inverse fractions of an inch representing the diameter of an equivalent vidicon tube. For example, a sensor is larger than a sensor. However, lenses are marked in terms of focal length in millimeters (e.g., average natural human field of view is a lens with 35–50 mm focal length for 35 mm film).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The weight of vinyl phonograph records is reported in grams. The tracking force and anti-skating settings on a turntable are measured in grams-force.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Clothing is measured in inches, not centimeters. American shoe sizes are measured on different scales for children, men, and women but all sizes are derived from inches. Major multi-national apparel brands including Nike, Adidas, Hanes, and Levi's often sell the same inventory worldwide, with tags containing both SI and customary units in addition to laundry care symbols and instructions in many languages.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Mattress sizes use non-numeric labels, such as king, queen, full, or twin. These sizes are defined in inches, unlike most other countries, which use similar labels defined using metric units. The FPLA mandates bed sheets state the type of bed they are intended for in addition to dimensions in centimeters and inches. The FPLA also mandates dual scales on many other woven goods such as towels.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Of all industries, construction has adopted metric units the least. Dimensional lumber comes in standard nominal inch cross-section sizes and lengths are given in feet. Although model building codes—such as the International Building Code—provide information in both customary and metric units, locally developed building code amendments and zoning codes often provide customary units exclusively. Because of Canada's proximity to the U.S., issues of common units still arise. This tendency in construction is similar to Japan, an otherwise metricated country where traditional construction still uses Japanese units predating metrication.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Aircraft altitudes for air traffic control and related purposes are measured in feet in the U.S. In fact, most of the world has used feet for aviation altitudes since the end of World War II (meters before 1945 in all European countries except the UK), with the notable exceptions of China, North Korea, and many CIS (former Soviet) countries. For instance, an airliner on a long flight, even if neither its starting point nor destination are in the United States, might use a nominal cruising altitude of 36,000 feet, using an internationally standardized system of flight levels (Flight Level 360 in this case). In 2011, Russia switched from metric to foot-denominated flight levels at high altitude to eliminate the need for adjustments when crossing in to or out of its airspace.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Frequent-flyer programs from commercial airlines in the United States, such as American Airlines' AAdvantage and Delta's SkyMiles, are commonly managed using miles. This is likely to continue; in fact, some international airlines that previously used kilometers are switching to miles or using both, to simplify the redemption of miles with United States-based airline partners. Aircraft speed is often measured in knots and elevation in feet (flight level) in many countries.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: For both domestic and international routes, U.S. airlines set luggage size and weight restrictions in terms of customary units. Conversely, international airlines that fly to the U.S. often restrict baggage to metric sizes.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The temperatures in aviation-related weather reports are given in degrees Celsius in the United States.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: For carry-on luggage, the Transportation Security Administration restricts liquids to 3.4 fluid ounces (100 mL). Originally, the agency planned to restrict to 3 oz / 89 mL but switched it to 3.4 oz / 100 mL after pressure from the European Union.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Most students are given some level of introduction to the metric system in elementary, middle, and high school, but the emphasis varies. Instruction primarily centers on the concepts of powers of 10, the associated prefixes, and the conversion from one prefix form to another. Units of length, volume, and mass are typically introduced through comparison with ordinary objects. The metric system is not reinforced much outside the classroom due to lack of popular metric use. Consequently, while students may understand some of the concepts underlying the metric system, they do not necessarily have an intuitive sense of the value of the units.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In science education, students predominantly use metric measures in experiments and equations, allowing those interested in the sciences to become more familiar with the metric system. A few science course credits are requisites for an undergraduate degree in the U.S. which ensures most educated people have some exposure to the metric system. Within higher education, the metric system is universal for classes in the sciences (see below), except for exercises designed to illustrate complex conversions. Engineering programs still widely use English Engineering Units, but this varies depending on the field. Electrical Engineering programs mostly use metric, while fields such as aerospace, materials, thermal, and manufacturing engineering use customary units extensively. Some non-science textbooks in the U.S. use only the metric system without giving conversions in order to promote metrication.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: There are no U.S. customary units for electric current, potential difference, or charge since these concepts were developed after the international adoption of metric in science. The metric units ampere, volt, ohm and coulomb are the only units used. The SI term hertz has replaced the term "cycles per second" for the same unit of frequency.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Energy is often measured in watt hours (SI-based), calories (SI-based), BTUs (customary) or therms (customary) rather than the SI joule. Residential and commercial electrical energy use is metered and billed in kilowatt hours, kW·h, as in most metric countries. Force measurements regularly use the pound instead of the SI newton; torque is measured in pound-feet. Fuel prices are mostly given in customary units, such as dollars per gallon, barrel, thousand cubic feet, or ton (short or long). Heating, cooling, and combustion are often measured in BTUs per hour or refrigeration tons, and powerplant efficiency is often measured by its "heat rate", in BTU per kilowatt hour. The rated power of engines, electric motors, and power plant steam turbines is frequently measured in horsepower. Power plant output is generally expressed in megawatts.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Some market prices, basically of primary unprocessed materials, are quoted in customary units (such as barrels of oil, troy ounces of gold, pounds of frozen pork bellies, etc.). The federal government reports international production figures in metric units (for instance, wheat in metric tons) but in bushels for domestic production figures.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Historically, ammunition rounds designed in the United States were denoted by their caliber in inches (e.g., .45 Colt and .270 Winchester.) Two developments changed this tradition: the large preponderance of different cartridges using an identical caliber and the international arms trade bringing metric calibers to the United States. The former led to bullet diameter (rather than caliber) often being used to describe rounds to differentiate otherwise similar rounds. A good example is the .308 Winchester, which fires the same .30-caliber projectile as the .30-06 Springfield and the .300 Savage. Occasionally, the caliber is just a number close to the diameter of the bullet, like the .220 Swift, .223 Remington and .222 Remington Magnum, all of which actually have .22 caliber or bullets.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The second development is actual metric calibers being introduced to the United States. 6 mm and 7 mm caliber rifles are particularly popular as are 9 mm and 10 mm caliber handguns. These metric caliber rounds are either described by their metric caliber, such as the very popular 7mm Remington Magnum round or have their bullet diameter converted into inches, such as the also extremely popular .243 Winchester. Occasionally, U.S.-designed inch-caliber rounds are stated in metric as well.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The U.S. military, reflecting its need to ensure interoperability with its NATO allies, uses metric measurements for almost all weapons calibers, even for calibers that originated as or were derived from a different measurement (e.g. 7.62 mm rather than .308, or 5.56 mm instead of .223). However, civilian rifles chambered for .223 Remington may load military 5.56 mm ammunition but not fire it safely because 5.56 mm NATO ammunition is loaded to create greater chamber pressure than .223 Remington. Controversy exists whether this is true for civilian rifles chambered for .308 Winchester firing 7.62×51 mm NATO military ammunition. Major handloading manuals in the U.S. use U.S. customary units for all pertinent measurements including bullet diameter, cartridge overall length, powder charge weight, velocity, and maximum pressure, even with European-designed fully metric rounds.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Globalization of manufacturing has led to wide adoption of metric standards, although this is not yet universal. After a period where automobiles were assembled with both customary and metric fasteners in each vehicle, cars are now universally built with metric parts. Automobile engines were once named after their displacement in cubic inches. For example, the Chrysler "426 Hemi" engine would be described as 7 liters in modern terminology. Technical publications by industry publishers and American automakers often give engine displacements in cubic inches as well as cubic centimeters (which are equivalent to milliliters), or liters. For example, the specifications for the Dodge SRT-8 6.1 L Hemi state the displacement as .


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The U.S. military uses metric measurements extensively to ensure interoperability with allied forces, particularly NATO Standardization Agreements (STANAG). Ground forces have measured distances in "klicks", slang for kilometers, since 1918. Most military firearms are measured in metric units, beginning with the M-14 which was introduced in 1957, although there are a few legacy exceptions, such as .50-caliber guns. Aircraft ordnance is normally measured in pounds. Heavy weapon caliber is measured in millimeters. Military vehicles are generally built to metric standards. An exception is the U.S. Navy, whose guns are measured in inches and whose undersea fleet measures distances in terms of "kiloyards" (equivalent to 914.4 m), depth as "feet", and velocity, in some cases, as "feet per second". The Navy and Air Force continue to measure distance in nautical miles and speed in knots; these units are now accepted for use with SI by the BIPM. Furthermore, in military aviation NATO countries use feet for flight heights, as they do in the civilian aviation.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The United States dollar is fully decimal, being divided into 10 dimes, 100 cents (¢), and (for accounting purposes) 1000 mills (₥); this mirrors the decimal divisions of metric units with the prefixes "deci-", "centi-", and "milli-". Coins are currently minted in 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100-cent increments. Banknotes are currently minted in 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100-dollar increments; these numbers follow the pattern of being factors of 10 (1, 2, or 5) multiplied by a power of 10 (1, 10, or 100).


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Illegal drugs and controlled substances are often measured in metric quantities. The federal law prohibiting them defines the penalties in metric masses.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In everyday use within its subculture, marijuana is sold using a combination of metric and US customary units. At small scales the basic unit is the gram (or fractions thereof), but for larger orders fractions of ounces and pounds are used. Informally ounce is often defined in turn as 3.5 grams (an approximate 1.25% rounding error) and referred to simply as "an eighth". The practice of using grams or ounces depending on the size is also common in states that have legalized marijuana. For example, California allows possession of "an ounce" (legally rounded to 28.5 g) of recreational marijuana but only 8 g of concentrate.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: E-juice, used to provide nicotine and vapor in electronic smoking devices, is sold by the milliliter. Some places also require products to display nicotine concentration. In Utah, vape shops are required to have information explaining the difference between mg/mL and percent by volume concentrations.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In science, metric use is essentially universal, though additional specialized units are often used for specific purposes in various disciplines (such as the parsec and light year in astronomy), consistent with worldwide use. Laboratories in the United States almost exclusively use the metric system and SI, such as the Celsius and Kelvin scales for temperature.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Earth sciences, such as hydrology and geology, continue to use customary units for field surveying, due both to the legacy of many decades of data collection and to the need to work with the construction industry, which has not adopted the metric system. American irrigation engineers, for example, talk in acre-feet and cubic feet per second, whereas most other irrigation engineers would refer to gigalitres and cubic metres per second.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Meteorology extensively uses both metric and customary units. The METAR reporting system in use in the United States differs from the one used by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in that wind speeds are delivered in knots (instead of meters per second), water-equivalent precipitation in hundredths of an inch, and altimeter setting in the customary inches of mercury (instead of hectopascals). Furthermore, temperatures are reported in whole degrees Fahrenheit but are converted to Celsius when encoded in METAR reports. Most synoptic observation charts are expressed in SI units, except for the aforementioned wind speeds, which must be converted for the purposes of calculation. Upper-air temperature charts typically use the Celsius scale (the freezing line is of great importance at lower levels of the atmosphere in determining precipitation type) while potential temperature charts use the kelvin; both of these are in line with international usage. Atmospheric vorticity is typically measured in full rotations per 100,000 seconds (a rough metrication of the day) but does not use the SI-recommended radian.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: National Weather Service and TV/radio broadcast public forecasts are given almost exclusively in customary units: degrees Fahrenheit for temperature and dewpoint, fractions of an inch of rain or ice and whole inches of snow (less than an inch often indicated by fractions or informal terms like "dusting" when very low), inches of mercury; and for wind speeds, miles per hour, except in marine forecasts, in which knots are used. Wave heights are measured in feet. Actual sleet and snowfall and their depths on the ground are measured in tenths of an inch, with actual rainfall in hundredths, and ice accretion in either fractions or decimals. Hailstone sizes are typically reported without a fixed unit of measure; they are instead compared to familiar round or spherical items (e.g. dime-sized or golf ball-sized). Barometer readings for hurricanes are usually given in millibars (mb), which are equal to hectopascals (hPa), or ten times the kilopascals (kPa) used in neighboring Canada; the use of inches of mercury in such applications is rapidly declining.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: In early 2007, NASA announced that it would use metric units for all operations on the lunar surface upon its return to the Moon, then projected for 2020. NASA's lunar return program was then canceled in 2010.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The medical field uses predominantly metric units. When interacting with patients certain data, such as their height and weight, is presented in customary units.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Both prescription and non-prescription dosages of pills are always measured in the SI system with the most common unit being the milligram. Smaller dosages use micrograms. Because the SI prefix μ (mu) is not well known among many Americans and is not available on most keyboards the medical industry uses the abbreviation mcg to denote micrograms.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: For vitamins, nutrient amounts are given in gram denominations or WHO standardized international units, known as IU.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: The sizes of pill containers, when occasionally spoken of, are predominantly discussed in terms of fluid drams, although most also contain cubic centimeters and sometimes fluid ounces on the specifications.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: For a long time, liquid dosages of medication were displayed in terms of both milliliters and the customary units of teaspoons and tablespoons, which are standardized as equal to 5 and 15 mL respectively. However, many people colloquially refer to the small spoon in a utensil set as the teaspoon and the big spoon as the tablespoon. After a major analysis in 2015, it was found that the inclusion of tea/tablespoon dosages likely encourages some people to use non-calibrated kitchen utensils as measuring devices. Due to this and reported confusion with the abbreviations TSP and TBSP, the FDA now recommends doctors and pharmaceutical manufacturers use milliliter only dosing instructions. To assist in this transition, drug makers and pharmacies are encouraged to include a disposable measuring cup with liquid medications.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Medicine dosage guidelines are specified in terms of milligrams per kilogram. The exact metric unit used by healthcare professionals in the U.S. does occasionally vary compared to other countries. For example, U.S. diabetes mellitus patients measure their blood sugar levels in milligrams per deciliter (as with cholesterol and other blood concentrations), whereas most other countries use millimoles per liter. American blood glucose meters have the ability to switch between the two.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Blood and urine samples are taken by the milliliter. Intravenous therapy (IV) is dispensed by the milliliter. To avoid confusion, a 1-liter bag is denoted as "1000 mL".


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Anthropometric data such as height may be recorded in centimeters. The body mass index (BMI) is expressed in kg/m, even though it may be computed from pounds and inches. Even if the medical practice takes height and weight data in terms of SI units, it is almost always discussed with the patient in terms of customary units. Exercise is commonly discussed with patients in terms of miles walked. Intake of sugar, sodium, and other nutrients is usually discussed in terms of grams and milligrams.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Use among veterinarians varies. Because of heavy public interaction, animal weights (e.g., for cats or dogs) are nearly always recorded and reported in pounds and ounces. Usage at veterinary teaching hospitals favors SI units.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Accurate sound level measurement devices were not invented until after the microphone or for that matter after the proliferation of the SI system in physics and internationally. Hence, although certain information on sound pressure can theoretically be evaluated in terms of pounds per square inch (PSI), this is virtually never done. Instead, the internationally used decibel (dB) scale is most common. In some cases where there is a desire for a non-logarithmic scale, the decibel-related sone scale is used. For example, appliance noise level is usually rated in terms of sone output. Hearing protection must be labeled in terms of decibel reduction with more detailed charts displaying decibel reduction at given hertz frequencies.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: U.S. citizens are frequently exposed to metric units through coverage of international sporting events, particularly the Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: While the track and field Olympic Trials have always been conducted in metric distances to duplicate the competition the selected athletes are destined for, the National Championships changed to metric in 1974. However, USA Track & Field (USATF) continued to calculate the national championships in the high jump in U.S. customary units until 2002. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) switched its measurement system at the National Championship level in 1976. The final holdout was the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS) administering high school sports, which switched to metric in 1980.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: U.S. track-and-field competitions are commonly run in increments of 400 meters, which roughly correspond to traditional mile-based lengths. In the Olympics, athletes run 1500 meters, not 1600 meters.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Running races in the U.S. are usually run in metric distances (e.g., the 100 meters dash or the 5K run), although the mile distance remains popular. Even 5 and 10 kilometer races most often have mile markers on the course, and no kilometer markers. Long-distance races are often measured in kilometers, although exceptions exist (generally 10 mile races). The marathon is referred to as a 26.219-mile race (the official marathon standard distance originally being in English units — 26 miles, 385 yards) rather than 42.195 km. Ultramarathons are measured in either miles or kilometers, with little standardization either way.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Although the Olympics and U.S. track events have been metric for years, it is still common for sports commentators to provide conversions to help the American audience understand the measurements.


title: Metrication in the United States

text: Measured distances as used in events such as shot put, high jump, and discus throw are, however, often in feet and inches, except at the national and international levels. In 2017, the Florida High School Athletic Association became the first to resist this trend and use metric measures for field events. The field and court sizes for most popular team sports such as soccer were originally set in non-metric units. This is reflected in American football, in which the playing field is divided into yards, and many important statistics are measured in yards. Similarly, the dimensions for all baseball parks, basketball courts, tennis courts and ice hockey rinks are given in feet, golf courses in yards, auto racing tracks in miles (or fractions thereof), and horse racing in furlongs. The lengths of automobile races in the U.S. are generally set in miles. Some sporting equipment, such as skis and poles, is sold in metric units.