title: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: The microfilariae are transferred into a vector, which are most commonly mosquito species of the genera "Culex", "Anopheles", "Mansonia", and "Aedes". Inside the mosquito, the microfilariae mature into motile larvae called juveniles; these migrate to the labium after a period around 10 days. When the infected mosquito has its next blood meal, "W. bancrofti" larvae are deposited from the mouthparts onto the skin of the prospective host and migrate through microcuts in the dermis or the tract created by the proboscis into the bloodstream of the new human host. The larvae move through the lymphatic system to regional lymph nodes, predominantly in the legs and genital area. The larvae develop into adult worms over the course of a year, and reach sexual maturity in the afferent lymphatic vessels. After mating, the adult female worm can produce thousands of microfilariae that migrate into the bloodstream. A mosquito vector can bite the infected human host, ingest the microfilariae, and thus repeat the lifecycle. The organism notably does not multiply within its intermediate host, the mosquito.


title: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: The effects of "W. bancrofti" were documented early in ancient texts. Ancient Greek and Roman writers noted the similarities between the enlarged limbs and thickened, cracked skin of infected individuals to that of elephants, hence the name elephantiasis to describe the disease.


title: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: In 1862 in Paris, Jean-Nicolas Demarquay found what appeared to be nematode worms in the fluid aspirated from a hydrocele in a young man from Havana, Cuba. Unaware of this observation, three years later in Bahia, Brazil, Otto Wucherer found these same worms but this time in urine from a woman with chyluria. Ignorant of both these observations, Timothy Lewis in India in 1870 found them in the urine of an Indian with chyluria then two years later found them in blood. Some of Lewis's specimens were examined in the same year in England by George Busk who named them "Filaria sanguinis hominis". In 1876 and 1877, Joseph Bancroft in Brisbane, Australia found adult worms in lymphatic abscesses in patients with larvae in the blood. He sent them to Spencer Cobbold in London who named them "Filaria Bancrofti". Patrick Manson in Xiamen, China (then called Amoy) made two important observations. Firstly he discovered in 1877 that if "Culex quinquefasciatus" and "Aedes aegypti" mosquitoes fed on a person with larvae (microfilariae) in the blood, they moulted twice in the insects' abdomen and became larger worms now called infective larvae. Secondly, he found in 1879 that the blood-dwelling forms had a nocturnal periodicity with large numbers appearing in the blood around midnight with minimal numbers in the middle of the day. This coincided with the biting habits of these mosquitoes. Manson surmised that infected mosquitoes drowned and infective larvae were ingested in water. In 1899, Thomas Bancroft in Brisbane fed laboratory-reared mosquitoes on a patient with microfilaraemia, kept them for 16 days, then sent some specimens to George Low in London. Low prepared histological sections of the mosquitoes and found that the larvae migrated from the abdomen to the thorax to the salivary glands then passed down the proboscis suggesting that infective larvae were injected at a subsequent mosquito bite. In 1902, Thomas Bancroft proved that this was the mode of transmission using a related worm, "Dirofilaria immitis", and generated adult worms in experimentally infected dogs. In 1921, Léon Seurat erected the genus "Wuchereria" and placed this worm in it as "Wuchereria bancrofti".


title: Wuchereria bancrofti

text: "W. bancrofti" is speculated to have been brought to the New World by the slave trade. Once it was introduced to the New World, this filarial worm disease persisted throughout the areas surrounding Charleston, South Carolina, until its sudden disappearance in the 1920s.


title: Waterproofing

text: Waterproofing is the process of making an object or structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress of water under specified conditions. Such items may be used in wet environments or underwater to specified depths.


title: Waterproofing

text: "Water-resistant" and "waterproof" often refer to resistance to penetration of water in its liquid state and possibly under pressure, whereas "damp proof" refers to resistance to humidity or dampness. Permeation of water vapour through a material or structure is reported as a moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR).


title: Waterproofing

text: The hulls of boats and ships were once waterproofed by applying tar or pitch. Modern items may be waterproofed by applying water-repellent coatings or by sealing seams with gaskets or o-rings.


title: Waterproofing

text: Waterproofing is used in reference to building structures (such as basements, decks, or wet areas), watercraft, canvas, clothing (raincoats or waders), electronic devices and paper packaging (such as cartons for liquids).


title: Waterproofing

text: In construction, a building or structure is waterproofed with the use of membranes and coatings to protect contents and structural integrity. The waterproofing of the building envelope in construction specifications is listed under "07 - Thermal and Moisture Protection" within MasterFormat 2004, by the Construction Specifications Institute, and includes roofing and waterproofing materials.


title: Waterproofing

text: In building construction, waterproofing is a fundamental aspect of creating a building envelope, which is a controlled environment. The roof covering materials, siding, foundations, and all of the various penetrations through these surfaces must be "water-resistant" and sometimes waterproof. Roofing materials are generally designed to be water-resistant and shed water from a sloping roof, but in some conditions, such as ice damming and on flat roofs, the roofing must be waterproof. Many types of waterproof membrane systems are available, including felt paper or tar paper with asphalt or tar to make a built-up roof, other bituminous waterproofing, ethylene propylene diene monomer EPDM rubber, hypalon, polyvinyl chloride, liquid roofing, and more.


title: Waterproofing

text: Walls are not subjected to standing water, and the water-resistant membranes used as housewraps are designed to be porous enough to let moisture escape. Walls also have vapor barriers or air barriers. Damp proofing is another aspect of waterproofing. Masonry walls are built with a damp-proof course to prevent rising damp, and the concrete in foundations needs to be damp-proofed or waterproofed with a liquid coating, basement waterproofing membrane (even under the concrete slab floor where polyethylene sheeting is commonly used), or an additive to the concrete.


title: Waterproofing

text: In buildings using earth sheltering, too much humidity can be a potential problem, so waterproofing is critical. Water seepage can lead to mold growth, causing significant damage and air quality issues. Properly waterproofing foundation walls is required to prevent deterioration and seepage.


title: Waterproofing

text: Another specialized area of waterproofing is rooftop decks and balconies. Waterproofing systems have become quite sophisticated and are a very specialized area. Failed waterproof decks, polymer or tile, are one of the leading causes of water damage to building structures, and of personal injury when they fail. Where major problems occur in the construction industry is when improper products are used for the wrong application. While the term "waterproof" is used for many products, each of them has a very specific area of application, and when manufacturer specifications and installation procedures are not followed, the consequences can be severe. Another factor is the impact of expansion and contraction on waterproofing systems for decks. Decks constantly move with changes in temperatures, putting stress on the waterproofing systems. One of the leading causes of waterproof deck system failures is the movement of underlying substrates (plywood) that cause too much stress on the membranes resulting in a failure of the system. While beyond the scope of this reference document, waterproofing of decks and balconies is a complex of many complimentary elements. These include the waterproofing membrane used, adequate slope-drainage, proper flashing details, and proper construction materials.


title: Waterproofing

text: The penetrations through a building envelope must be built in a way such that water does not enter the building, such as using flashing and special fittings for pipes, vents, wires, etc. Some caulkings are durable, but many are unreliable for waterproofing.


title: Waterproofing

text: From the late 1990s to the 2010s, the construction industry has had technological advances in waterproofing materials, including "integral waterproofing systems" and more advanced membrane materials. Integral systems such as hycrete work within the matrix of a concrete structure, giving the concrete itself a waterproof quality. There are two main types of integral waterproofing systems: the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic systems. A hydrophilic system typically uses a crystallization technology that replaces the water in the concrete with insoluble crystals. Various brands available in the market claim similar properties, but not all can react with a wide range of cement hydration by-products and thus require caution. Hydrophobic systems use concrete sealers or even fatty acids to block pores within the concrete, preventing water passage.


title: Waterproofing

text: Sometimes the same materials used to keep water out of buildings are used to keep water in, such as a pool or pond liners.


title: Waterproofing

text: New membrane materials seek to overcome shortcomings in older methods like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Generally, new technology in waterproof membranes relies on polymer-based materials that are very adhesive to create a seamless barrier around the outside of a structure.


title: Waterproofing

text: Waterproofing should not be confused with roofing, since roofing cannot necessarily withstand hydrostatic head while waterproofing can.


title: Waterproofing

text: The standards for waterproofing bathrooms in domestic construction have improved over the years, due in large part to the general tightening of building codes.


title: Waterproofing

text: Some garments, and tents, are designed to give greater or lesser protection against rain. For urban use raincoats and jackets are used; for outdoor activities in rough weather there is a range of hiking apparel. Typical descriptions are "showerproof", "water resistant", and "waterproof". These terms are not precisely defined. A showerproof garment will usually be treated with a water-resisting coating, but is not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. This is suitable for protection against light rain, but after a short time water will penetrate. A water-resistant garment is similar, perhaps slightly more resistant to water but also not rated to resist a specific hydrostatic head. A garment described as waterproof will have a water-repellent coating, with the seams also taped to prevent water ingress there. Better waterproof garments have a membrane lining designed to keep water out but allow trapped moisture to escape ("breathability")—a "totally" waterproof garment would retain body sweat and become clammy. Waterproof garments specify their hydrostatic rating, ranging from 1,500 for light rain, to 20,000 for heavy rain.


title: Waterproofing

text: Waterproof garments are intended for use in weather conditions which are often windy as well as wet and are usually also wind resistant.


title: Waterproofing

text: Footwear can also be made waterproof by using a variety of methods including but not limited to, the application of beeswax, waterproofing spray, or mink oil


title: Waterproofing

text: Waterproofing methods have been implemented in many types of objects, including paper packaging, cosmetics, and more recently, consumer electronics. Electronic devices used in military and severe commercial environments are routinely conformally coated in accordance with IPC-CC-830 to resist moisture and corrosion but encapsulation is needed to become truly waterproof. Even though it is possible to find waterproof wrapping or other types of protective cases for electronic devices, a new technology enabled the release of diverse waterproof smartphones and tablets in 2013. This method is based on a special nanotechnology coating a thousand times thinner than a human hair which protects electronic equipment from damage due to the penetration of water. Several manufacturers use the nano coating method on their smartphones, tablets, and digital cameras.


title: Waterproofing

text: A 2013 study found that nanotextured surfaces using cone forms produce highly water-repellent surfaces. These nanocone textures are "superhydrophobic" (extremely water-hating).


title: Baikal seal

text: The Baikal seal, Lake Baikal seal or ' (Pusa sibirica""'), is a species of earless seal endemic to Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia. Like the Caspian seal, it is related to the Arctic ringed seal. The Baikal seal is one of the smallest true seals and the only exclusively freshwater pinniped species. A subpopulation of inland harbour seals living in the Hudson Bay region of Quebec, Canada (Lacs des Loups Marins harbour seals), as well as the Saimaa ringed seal and the Ladoga seal (both ringed seal subspecies), are also found in fresh water, but these seals are part of species that also have marine populations.


title: Baikal seal

text: The most recent population estimates are 80,000 to 100,000 animals, roughly equaling the expected carrying capacity of the lake. At present, the species is not considered threatened.


title: Baikal seal

text: The Baikal seal is one of the smallest true seals. Adults typically grow to in length with a body mass from . The maximum reported size is in length and in weight. There are significant annual variations in the weight, with lowest weight in the spring and highest weight, about 38–42% more, in the fall. The animals show very little sexual dimorphism; males are only slightly larger than females. They have a uniform, steely-grey coat on their backs and fur with a yellowish tinge on their abdomens. As the coat weathers, it becomes brownish. When born, the pups weigh and are about long. They have coats of white, silky, natal fur. This fur is quickly shed and exchanged for a darker coat, much like that of adults. Rarely, Baikal seals can be found with spotted coats.


title: Baikal seal

text: The Baikal seal lives only in the waters of Lake Baikal. It is something of a mystery how Baikal seals came to live there in the first place. The skull structure of the Baikal seal suggests it is closely related to the Caspian seal. In addition, the morphological structures in both species suggest they are descended from Arctic ringed seals. They may have swum up rivers and streams or possibly Lake Baikal was linked to the ocean at some point through a large body of water, such as the Tethys Ocean, West Siberian Glacial Lake or West Siberian Plain, formed in a previous ice age. The seals are estimated to have inhabited Lake Baikal for some two million years.


title: Baikal seal

text: The areas of the lake in which the Baikal seals reside change depending on the season, as well as other environmental factors. They are solitary animals for the majority of the year, sometimes living kilometres away from other Baikal seals. In general, a higher concentration of Baikal seals is found in the northern parts of the lake, because the longer winter keeps the ice frozen longer, which is preferable for pupping. However, in recent years, migrations to the southern half of the lake have occurred, possibly to evade hunters. In winter, when the lake is frozen over, seals maintain a few breathing holes over a given area and tend to remain nearby, not interfering with the food supplies of nearby seals. When the ice begins to melt, Baikal seals tend to keep to the shoreline.


title: Baikal seal

text: Since 2008, the Baikal seal has been listed as a Least Concern species on the IUCN Red List. This means that they are not currently threatened or endangered. In 1994, the Russian government estimated that they numbered 104,000. In 2000, Greenpeace performed its own count and found an estimated 55,000 to 65,000 seals. The most recent estimates are 80,000-100,000 animals, roughly equaling the carrying capacity of the lake.


title: Baikal seal

text: In the last century, the kill quota for hunting Baikal seals was raised several times, most notably after the fur industry boomed in the late 1970s and when official counts began indicating more Baikal seals were present than previously known. The quota in 1999, 6,000, was lowered in 2000 to 3,500, which was still nearly 5% of the population if the Greenpeace count is correct. In 2013–2014, the hunting quota was set at 2,500. In addition, new techniques, such as netting breathing holes and seal dens to catch pups, have been introduced. In 2001, a prime seal pelt would bring 1,000 rubles at market. In 2004–2006, about 2,000 seals were killed per year according to official Russian statistics, but in the same period another 1,500–4,000 are thought to have died annually due to drowning in fishing gear, poaching, and the like. In 2012–2013, it was estimated that 2,300–2,800 were hunted per year (combined legal hunting and poaching). Some groups have pressured for higher hunting quotas.


title: Baikal seal

text: Another problem at Lake Baikal is the introduction of pollutants into the ecosystem. Pesticides such as DDT and hexachlorocyclohexane, as well as industrial waste, mainly from the Baikalisk pulp and paper plant, are thought to have exacerbated several disease epidemics among Baikal seal populations. The chemicals are speculated to concentrate up the food chain and weaken the Baikal seal's immune system, making them susceptible to diseases such as canine distemper and the plague, which was the cause of a serious Baikal seal epidemic that resulted in the deaths of 5,000–6,500 animals in 1987–1988. Small numbers died as recently as 2000, but the reason for their deaths is unclear. Canine distemper is still present in the Baikal seal population, but has not caused mass deaths since the earlier outbreaks. In general, levels of DDT and non-ortho PCB have declined in the lake from the 1990s, levels of mono-ortho PCB are unchanged, and the level of perfluorochemicals have increased. Industrialization of the area near Lake Baikal is increasing and future monitoring is necessary. At present, Baikal seals show lower levels of contaminants than seals of Europe and North America, but higher than those in the Arctic.


title: Baikal seal

text: The most serious future threat to the survival of the seal may be global warming, which has the potential to seriously affect a closed cold-water ecosystem such as that of Lake Baikal.


title: Baikal seal

text: The only known natural predator of adult Baikal seals is the brown bear, but this is not believed to occur frequently. The seal pups are typically hidden in a den, but can fall prey to smaller land predators such as the red fox, the sable and the white-tailed eagle.


title: Baikal seal

text: Female Baikal seals reach sexual maturity at 3–6 years of age, whereas males achieve it around 4–7 years. The males and females are not strongly sexually dimorphic. Baikal seals mate in the water towards the end of the pupping season. With a combination of delayed implantation and a nine-month gestation period, the Baikal seals' overall pregnancy is around 11 months. Pregnant females are the only Baikal seals to haul out during the winter. The males tend to stay in the water, under the ice, all winter. Females usually give birth to one pup, but they are one of only two species of true seals with the ability to give birth to twins. Very rarely, triplets or quadruplets have been recorded. The twins often stick together for some time after being weaned. The females, after giving birth to their pups on the ice in late winter, become immediately impregnated again, and often are lactating while pregnant.


title: Baikal seal

text: Baikal seals are slightly polygamous and slightly territorial, although not particularly defensive of their territory. Males mate with around three females if given the chance. They then mark the female's den with a strong, musky odor, which can be smelled by another male if he approaches. The female raises the pups on her own; she digs them a fairly large den under the ice, up to 5 m (16 ft) in length, and more than 2 m (6 ft) wide. Pups as young as two days old then further expand this den by digging a maze of tunnels around the den. Since the pup avoids breaking the surface with these tunnels, this activity is thought to be mainly for exercise, to keep warm until they have built up an insulating layer of blubber.


title: Baikal seal

text: Baikal seal pups are weaned after 2–2.5 months, occasionally up to 3.5 months. During this time, the pups can increase their birth weight five-fold. After the pups are weaned, the mother introduces them to solid food, bringing amphipods, fish, and other food into the den.


title: Baikal seal

text: In spring, when the ice melts and the dens usually collapse, the pup is left to fend for itself. Growth continues until they are 20 to 25 years old.


title: Baikal seal

text: Every year in the late winter and spring, both sexes haul themselves out and begin to moult their coat from the previous year, which is replaced with new fur. While moulting, they refrain from eating and enter a lethargic state, during which time they often die of overheating, males especially, from lying on the ice too long in the sun. During the spring and summer, groups as large as 500 can form on the ice floes and shores of Lake Baikal. Baikal seals can live to over 50 years old, exceptionally old for a seal, although the females are presumed to be fertile only until they are around 30.


title: Baikal seal

text: Their main food source is the golomyanka, a cottoid oilfish found only in Lake Baikal. Baikal seals eat more than half of the annual produced biomass of golomyanka, some 64,000 tons. In the winter and spring, it is estimated that more than 90% of its food consists of golomyankas. The remaining food sources for this seal are various other fish species, especially "Cottocomephorus" (about 7% of the diet during the winter and spring) and Kessler's sculpin (about 0.3% of the diet in the winter and spring), but it may also take some invertebrates such as "Epischura baikalensis", gammarids and molluscs. During the autumn the Baikal seal eats 50-67% fewer golomyankas than in the winter and spring, but significantly more "Cottocomephorus", Kessler's sculpins and stone sculpins. A total of 29 fish species have been recorded in the diet. They feed mainly during twilight and at night, when golomyankas occur in depths as shallow as . During the day, golomyankas are typically found deeper than . Baikal seals can dive up to depths of and stay underwater for more than 40 minutes. Most dives last less than 10 minutes and generally only 2–4 minutes. Baikal seals have two litres more blood than any other seal of their size and can stay underwater for up to 70 minutes if they are frightened or need to escape danger. According to a 2020 paper, Baikal seals also seek food through the use of filter-feeding on amphipods within Lake Baikal. Baikal seals have specialized teeth that allow the seals to expel water while feeding, allowing them to gather large amounts of amphipods while swimming.


title: Baikal seal

text: According to a 2004 paper on the foraging tactics of Baikal seals, during the summer nights these seals are known to have different foraging strategies during night time and during day time. During the day, these seals use visual clues to search for their prey, which is mainly fish, while during the night they use tactile clues to hunt crustaceans. Since it's brighter during the day, the seals are able to see much better in order to hunt for the fish. Since there's no light at night, they have to hunt with tactile cues. The crustaceans they hunt at night have a diel migration, so they come up into shallower waters during the night, and swim to deeper waters during the day to escape predators. These seals were observed to dive deeper during dawn and dusk in order to get to these crustaceans as they were swimming shallower and deeper, respectively.


title: Baikal seal

text: The Baikal seal has been blamed for drops in omul numbers, but this is not the case. It is estimated that omul only comprises about 0.1% of its diet. The omul's main competitor is the golomyanka and by eating tons of these fish a year, Baikal seals cut down on the omul's competition for resources.


title: Baikal seal

text: Baikal seals have one unusual foraging habit. In early autumn, before the entire lake freezes over, they migrate to bays and coves and hunt Kessler's sculpin, a fish that lives in silty areas and, as a result, usually contains grit and silt in its digestive system. This grit scours the seals' gastrointestinal tracts and expels parasites.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Spats, a shortening of spatterdashes, or spatter guards are a type of classic footwear accessory for outdoor wear, covering the instep and the ankle. Spats are distinct from gaiters, which are garments worn over the lower trouser leg as well as the shoe.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Spats were worn by men and, less commonly, by women in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They fell out of frequent use during the 1920s. Made of white cloth, grey or brown felt material, spats buttoned around the ankle. Their intended practical purpose was to protect shoes and socks from mud or rain, but also served as a feature of stylish dress in accordance with the fashions of the period. Emily Post's 1931 "Etiquette: The Blue Book of Social Usage" stated, "Spats are optional. If chosen, they must match the gloves exactly."


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Increased informality may have been the primary reason for the decline in the wearing of spats. In 1913, friends scrambled to help Griffith Taylor find spats and a top hat to receive the King's Polar Medal from King George V. In 1923 King George V opened the Chelsea Flower Show, an important event in the London Season, wearing a frock coat, gray top hat and spats. By 1926, the King shocked the public by wearing a black morning coat instead of a frock coat (a small but significant change). This arguably helped speed the frock coat's demise (although it was still being worn on the eve of the Second World War). Spats were another clothing accessory left off by the King in 1926. It is said that the moment this was observed and commented on by the spectators it produced an immediate reaction; the ground beneath the bushes was littered with discarded spats.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Another reason for the decline in women's use of spats was the popularity of open-topped shoes with interesting visual details like straps and cutouts in the 1920s. Rising hemlines made it possible for women to show off more intricate footwear, which was meant to be visible, not covered by spats.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: From New York in 1936, the Associated Press observed that "in recent years well-dressed men have been discarding spats because they have become the property of the rank and file." A revival of high-top shoes with cloth uppers was forecast to replace them.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Since the mid-19th century, soldiers of various nations, especially infantry, often wore leggings or spats to protect their lower leg, to keep dirt, sand, and mud from entering their shoes, and to provide a measure of ankle support. French infantry wore white spats for parade and off-duty wear until 1903. Italian soldiers wore a light tan version until 1910, and the Japanese Army wore long white spats or gaiters during the Russo-Japanese War of 1905.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Spats continue as a distinctive feature of the Scottish dress of Highland pipe bands, whether civilian or military. The modern Royal Regiment of Scotland, into which all Scottish line infantry regiments were amalgamated in 2006, retain white spats as part of their uniform. Prior to that date most Scottish infantry units in the British Army and Canadian Army wore spats. For Highland regiments in kilts, spats reached halfway up the calf. For Lowland regiments in trews, spats were visible only over the brogue shoes.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: As part of their parade uniforms, most regiments of the modern Indian and Pakistani armies wear long white spats into which soldiers tuck the bottoms of their trousers. Other full-dress uniforms that still include spats are those of the Finnish Army, Swedish Army, Portuguese Republican National Guard, the Carabiniers of Monaco, the Egyptian Military Police, and the Italian Military Academy of Modena. In the Finnish Navy, spats are part of the winter uniform; and the United States Navy Honor Guard and Rifle Guard wear them while performing ceremonies. Spats are also still used as a traditional accessory in many marching band and drum and bugle corps uniforms in the United States.


title: Spats (footwear)

text: Spats remain in use today as personal protective equipment in certain industries. In foundries, pourers wear leather spats over their boots to protect against splashes of molten metal. Even a small splash that lodges in a shoe or between the shoe and ankle could cause a severe burn. Many welders also wear fire-resistant spats for protection from sparks. Casual chainsaw operators often wear protective spats over steel-toe boots, but professionals are now encouraged to wear true chainsaw boots to prevent injury from accidental chainsaw contact with the foot or ankle.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats also known as Chocolate teacakes are confections consisting of a biscuit base topped with marshmallow-like filling and then coated in a hard shell of chocolate. They were invented in Denmark in the 19th century and later also produced and distributed by "Viau" in Montreal as early as 1901. Some variants of these confections have previously been known in many countries by names comprising equivalents of the English word "negro".


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Whippets are produced in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. They consist of a biscuit base topped with marshmallow-like filling and then coated in a hard shell of pure chocolate.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Whippets first came to the market in 1927, although they had been produced and distributed by Viau under the name "Empire" as early as 1901. They are not associated with the traditional Empire biscuits popular in Western Canada. Today, Whippets are still produced in Montreal at the east end of the Viau factory, which is now owned by Dare Foods. They are currently available with both dark chocolate and milk chocolate coatings, and with several flavors of artificial fruit jam filling inside the marshmallow-like filling.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The cookies are similar to Mallomars of New York City. They also bear a striking resemblance to Tunnock's Tea Cakes as well as Krembos. However, the Tunnock tea cake does not have the same kind of chocolate nor filling.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The Whippet is a distinct part of Montreal culture because it does not travel well outside its area of production. This is partly because the pure chocolate melts very easily (compared with compound chocolate) and therefore they require refrigerated transport in summer. Furthermore, the combination of the hard chocolate shell and the air-filled inner marshmallow make them self-destruct when placed in the unpressurised or semi-pressurised cargo section of an airplane. However, they are currently widely available at grocery locations throughout Canada and occasionally in the US.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Though usually known by their proper trade name "Whippets", these biscuits are also popularly referred to in the Montreal area as "Nun's Farts" in the Anglophone community. Though they bear absolutely no resemblance to the Quebec pastry confections called pets de sœurs, it has been suggested that the combination of dark chocolate coating and white marshmallow filling is evocative of the black and white habits of certain orders of Quebec nuns. This, in conjunction with their light and airy texture, may have given rise to the cheeky Anglo-Quebecois moniker. It is not used by the francophone community.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: An episode of the Canadian science program "How It's Made" showed the production process behind the cookie. However, many aspects of the production process (the amount of marshmallow filling, the ingredients, etc.) were not revealed. The show's narrator described these aspects as "classified information". As Canadian law requires an ingredient list on each package, the amount of confidential information involved is limited.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Another Canadian cookie, "Viva Puffs", is produced by Dare Foods in five flavours. Viva is a trade name; these confections have been known in (English) Canada for at least 50 years as "chocolate puffs".


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: These differ from the domed biscuit or wafer based styles and contain a higher proportion of thicker rippled chocolate, topped with a half walnut.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In the United States, Mallomars are produced by Nabisco. A graham cracker circle is overlaid with extruded marshmallow, then coated in a thin shell of dark chocolate. Mallomars were introduced to the public in 1913, the same year as the Moon Pie (a confection that has similar ingredients). The first box of Mallomars was sold in West Hoboken, New Jersey (now Union City, New Jersey).


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Mallomars are generally available from early October through to April. They are not distributed during the summer months, supposedly because they melt easily in summer temperatures, though this is as much for marketing reasons as for practical ones. Devoted eaters of the cookie have been known to stock up during winter months and keep them refrigerated over the summer, although Nabisco markets other chocolate-coated cookie brands year-round. Eighty-five percent of all Mallomars are sold in the New York metropolitan area. They are produced entirely within Canada, at a factory in Scarborough, Ontario.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Since the 1960s, the New Zealand biscuit manufacturers Griffin's have made MallowPuffs, a chocolate biscuit that is described as a "light fluffy marshmallow sitting on top of a shortcake biscuit, covered in luxurious milk chocolate". The marshmallow in MallowPuffs tends to be more dense and rubbery than in some similar products (such as Tunnock's chocolate teacakes). They come in a variety of flavours, including Cookies and Cream, Hokey Pokey, Toffee, Rocky Road, Double Chocolate and original chocolate. The slogan from a national advertising campaign for MallowPuffs, "Have you done enough for a MallowPuff", has entered the New Zealand cultural lexicon.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Hungary, the product is called "négercsók" ("Negro kiss") and was first introduced in 1980 by the New World Farming and Food Industry Co-operative Society (Hungarian: Újvilág Mezőgazdasági és Élelmiszeripari Szövetkezet) to great success. The production was based on a Danish example, with Danish machinery. Production gradually declined in the 1990s when local confectionaries and food factories had to face heavy competition from abroad.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Denmark the treat was originally made using cream (hence the Danish name "flødeboller" (cream buns)), but the filling was later made from egg whites to help industrialize production and improve shelf life. In Denmark the confection is known as a "flødebolle" (cream bun) and was in some parts, mostly in the Copenhagen area of Denmark, historically known as a "negerbolle" (negro bun) or "negerkys" (negro kiss). In the 1960s through 1980s the term negro was phased out by all major producers due to its use as a racial slur. Denmark also markets a variation shaped more like a patty, hence the name "bøf" (steak). Note that the Swedish word "negerboll" is used for a similar but different confection (Havregrynskugle aka chokladboll).


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Denmark is one of the largest producers of chocolate-coated marshmallow treats, producing approximately 800 million of these every year. The largest Danish producer, Elvirasminde, produces roughly 650 million treats, sending 400 million abroad and leaving the remaining 250 million to be eaten by the Danish population, putting the amount of "flødeboller" eaten at 45 per Dane per year.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Denmark chocolate-coated marshmallow treats are traditionally handed out in school by children on their birthday. They are found in any supermarket, and most confectioners will have delicacy versions. It is also a popular addition to ice cream cones, offered at most shops selling ice cream. Usually they are placed on top of the last ball of ice cream with whipped cream and jam (Or "Guf", a topping made of whipped egg whites with sugar and fruit flavoring) Sometimes they are even found in restaurants. Many baking enthusiasts see them as a challenge, and it was a technical challenge in "Den store Bagedyst" (The Great Bake Off) on Danish TV.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The popularity of the treat is evident from the sheer number of varieties. Variation in coating ranging from white chocolate over dark chocolate to licorice coating, with or without sprinkles. The base is often a plain wafer in commercial products, but delicacy and homemade versions often have shortbread, marzipan biscuits or other bases. Flavored filling is also very common especially when homemade, but licorice, marzipan and other flavors are commercially available. Variation in form is also common, often this is seen in commercial products ranging from wide and flat (bøf) to tall with sharp edges (Christmas tree).


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Within the last 10 years, luxury versions have become more popular, and has also made the image of the 'flødebolle' change from a basic candy or Cake, to a luxury product suitable as a dessert or present, similar to a box of high-quality chocolates. The luxury versions have a much thicker layer of chocolate, and the chocolate is of a higher quality, available in many variations and additional toppings (Everything from chunked nuts, to small pieces of very thin gold). The bottom biscuit is replaced with Marzipan. These types were usually homemade and only found in special chocolate stores and restaurants, but is now available in most supermarkets, since mass-produced versions have become successful.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Belgium, Milka branded it under the name "Melo-Cakes". These popular treats are sold in packages of six to thirty pieces.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Germany, the was first made commercially in 1920, although the first mention of them dates to 1892. Industrial manufacturing started in the 1950s. The sweets are made all year long, with approximately one billion made per year, placing average consumption at about one dozen per person per year. They are available in supermarkets and bakeries, and are traditionally sold at fairs.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Sometimes they are consumed pressed between two halves of a bun, which is also referred to as a ("Mud Roll" or "Squished Bread Roll")mostly by children. The interior is always egg white foam, sweetened with sugar, but there are also varieties using sugar substitutes available on the German market.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The original colloquial names were ("Moor's Head") and ("Negro's Kiss"), but after eventually accepting that these names are racist and therefore inappropriate, companies changed the product-name to or ("Chocolate Kiss"), or ("Foam Kiss") or to brand-specific names.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In German-speaking Switzerland they are still sold as . In the French-speaking part of Switzerland, as well as in France, they are known as Têtes Choco ("chocolate heads") or more commonly as in France.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The German word (pl. ) is an outdated word for persons with dark skin, and is considered discriminatory by "Duden", the pre-eminent language resource of the German language. It is derived from the Latin , sharing etymological roots with the English word "Moor".


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: though it is entirely unlike the usual English teacake, a sweet roll with dried fruit which is served toasted and buttered. Teacakes are generally served in the afternoon alongside a traditional British tea. There are several manufacturers of chocolate teacakes in the UK, though the best known is Tunnock's, a Scottish company founded in 1890. It was invented by Sir Boyd Tunnock in 1956. He developed the idea of using Italian meringue. He made a biscuit base, hand piped the mallow onto the base and covered it in milk chocolate. The Tunnock's teacake is commonly regarded in the same food category as the British biscuit, eaten at break times with a cup of tea as shown in advertising for the product. Popular throughout the UK, the Tunnock's Teacake enjoys iconic status in Scotland, evoking memories of childhood, or symbolising "home" for Scots around the world.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The Scottish National Blood Transfusion Service gives Tunnock's Teacakes to blood donors in Scotland after giving blood. There is an online appreciation society for the Tunnock's Teacake and Dundee University also has an appreciation society for the Tunnocks Teacake. A giant fully edible replica of a Tunnocks Teacake was made by Michelle Kershaw and Nick Dodds at "Pimp That Snack". The opening ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games in Glasgow featured giant dancing Tunnocks Teacakes. At Hillington, in Glasgow, the biscuit manufacturer William Macdonald gave the world "Penguin", "Munchmallow", "Yo-Yo" and "Bandit" biscuits in the 1940s and 1950s before becoming part of the large United Biscuits conglomerate. Tunnock's teacake is more or less the same as the munchmallow which is now produced in Serbia.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The product itself consists of a small round shortbread base covered with a hemisphere of Italian meringue, a whipped egg white concoction similar to marshmallow. As this soft white fondant is based on egg white rather than gelatine, it is much more delicate than marshmallow. This is then coated in a thin layer of milk or plain chocolate and, in the case of Tunnock's, wrapped in a distinctive red and silver foil for the more popular milk chocolate variety, and a blue and gold wrapping for the plain chocolate type. Several competing brands to Tunnock's, such as Lees' Foods, also include jam in the centre of the teacake. In 2013 British café chain Costa Coffee introduced the giant marshmallow teacake, which is around 3 times the size of a standard teacake, with a chocolate biscuit base topped with marshmallow and raspberry jam in the centre.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: An argument about whether the teacake is a biscuit or a cake led to an action in the European Court of Justice by British company Marks and Spencer. The UK tax authorities eventually accepted the company's argument that the teacakes were cakes (chocolate covered biscuits are taxed, cakes are not) but refused to repay most of the VAT. The European court ruled that in principle the tax should be repaid and in a further hearing before the UK Law Lords in 2009, after 13 years of litigation, Marks and Spencer won full repayment of the tax they had paid from 1973 to 1994, amounting to £3.5 million. This case was fought with Jaffa cakes.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In the Netherlands the name is "Negerzoenen" ("Negro kisses") though some companies have changed the name to "Zoenen" ("Kisses"). This led to some controversy, since the Dutch word "neger" was generally perceived as more neutral compared to the English equivalent "negro", which is considered pejorative and racist. Those often package nine per box to create the play on words "Negen Zoenen" ("Nine Kisses").


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Finland, the name originated from Germany, and they were named "Negro Kisses" ("neekerinsuukot") in 1951. In 2001 the name was changed to "Brunberg's Kisses", after the manufacturer Brunberg from Porvoo, for largely the same reasons as in Denmark, Germany, and elsewhere.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Flanders, the confection is known as "negerinnentetten". The word can either be translated as "negress's tits" or could originate from the French word for head: "tête", as the French word for this confection used to be "tête de nègre", which is French for "negro's head". This is also the probable origin of an alternative name "negertetten". Nowadays manufacturers market the confection under a different name, as the aforementioned terms are considered to be offensive.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Zefir (, may also be spelled "zephyr" or "zephir") is made from fruit and berry purée with added sugar and whipped egg whites. It is commonly produced and sold in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The recipe is a merger of the traditional Russian pastila with French meringue. The name given after the Greek god of the light west wind Zephyr symbolizes its delicate airy consistency.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The consistency is similar to that of marshmallows, Schokokuss or krembo. The form typically resembles traditional meringue. However, in contrast to commercial meringue, it is never crisp. Both pure and chocolate-coated versions are widespread. In contrast to the other confectioneries of this type, it has no biscuit base.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Produced in Serbia by Jaffa, it has a biscuit base and a soft mallow filling covered by a chocolate flavoured coating, and is very similar to the original Glasgow version.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In the Philippines, Fibisco makes a product similar to Mallomars called Choco Mallows that, unlike Mallomars, is available year-round. Likely to allow for a better shelf life in the tropical climate, the "hard chocolate shell" of a Choco Mallow is a soft chocolate covering that does not completely melt at room temperature.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Portugal, these confections are known as "Bombocas". Sold by different brands, usually the supermarket ones. They are sold in 3 main flavors: meringue (white interior), strawberry (pink) and vanilla (yellow). They are being called "Beijinhos" in the last few years.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Bolivia, Chocolates Condor is the traditional manufacturer of "Beso de Negro" (Negro Kiss). The confection is similar to the German Schokoküsse in its use of a sweetened egg white foam filling rather than a marshmallow-based filling. There have been attempts to introduce variations in flavor, but the "classic" version remains the most popular.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Peru, the confections are known as "Beso de Moza" (Girl's Kiss), sold by Nestlé. Currently there is a contest between strawberry and lucuma flavors to become permanent versions of the product.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Colombia and Ecuador, it's called "Beso de Negra" (Black Woman's Kiss) or ""Chocmelo"", a portmanteau of chocolate and "masmelo" (marshmallow). However, these last ones don't always have a cookie as its base.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, Nestlé announced it would rename the confectionary and remove the image on its packaging of a black woman with bare shoulders and a colorful dress.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Brazil the dessert is known as Nhá Benta and is manufactured by the Kopenhagen chocolaterie, but other variants exists in Brazil such as Cacau Show's Montebello (doesn't contain the waffle base) and the one that popularised the international formula for the masses in Brazil, the Dan-Top. The cookies are sold in a variety of flavours, including coconut, lemon, passion fruit, caramel, boysenberry, tonka bean and coffee. It is also known as "teta-de-nega" ("black woman's tit").


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Arnott's Chocolate Royals are a chocolate coated-marshmallow treat of Australia, which are available in milk and dark chocolate varieties, and are similar in appearance to a Tunnock's teacake. Unlike Tunnock's however, royals have a thin layer of jam between the biscuit and marshmallow, and are smaller in size in compared to a Tunnock's teacake.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In South Africa, a similar confection is Sweetie Pies, originally made by Cadbury's but now by Beyers.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Iran this is considered a popular treat for children. The local version is sold under several brands, all commonly called ( "Bastani zemestani"; literally meaning "winter ice cream").


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Levantine countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Jordan, it has historically been called ( "Ras Al-Abed"; slavehead), however it has since been renamed to "Sambo". In Lebanon, a local variation went on sale in the 1950s under the name "ras el abd" (slave's head) by Gandour; however, it has since been changed to "Tarboush" or "Tarboosh" (Fez) but continues to be referred to by the former name in public.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Krembo, or "Creambo" (, a contraction meaning literally "Cream-in-it"), is the name of a chocolate-coated marshmallow treat that is popular in Israel, especially in the winter as an alternative to ice-cream. "Krembo whipped snack" consists of a round biscuit base (17% of total weight), topped with fluffy marshmallow creme-like foam (53%), coated in a thin layer of compound chocolate (about 30%) and wrapped in colorful, thin aluminum foil. Over time, different flavorings have been attempted for the foam by the different manufacturers, but the most popular have always predominantly been the vanilla flavoring and, to a lesser extent, the mocha flavoring. According to a study funded by Strauss, Israel's leading Krembo producer, 69% of Israelis prefer to eat Krembos from the top down (starting with the cream), and only 10% start with the biscuit at the bottom; the rest had no preference.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: European chocolate-coated marshmallow treats were popular as homemade sweets in Mandate Palestine, when it was known as Kushi (Hebrew כושי, roughly Negro) and Rosh Kushi (Hebrew language: ראש כושי roughly ""Negro's head"") This name was borrowed from the names then used in Europe. It entered mass production in 1966. The first manufacturer, the Whitman Company, coined the name "Krembo". In Hebrew, the word "krembo" is a combination of "krem" (cream) and "bo" (in it). A mocha flavour was introduced in 1967. In 1979 Whitman was acquired by Strauss which has the major part of the krembo market in Israel. During the 1980s and 1990s smaller manufacturers introduced additional flavours such as banana and strawberry but failed to achieve a significant market share. Today Strauss controls 54% of the krembo market in Israel.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Krembos are a seasonal treat sold only four months a year, from October to February. Nevertheless, 50 million krembos are sold each year—an average of 9 per person. Krembos are exported to the United States and Canada, and sold mostly in kosher shops and import stores.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In 2005, Strauss signed an agreement with Unilever to export ice cream and krembos to the United States and Canada due to a demand for products of this type with strict Kosher certification. Under terms of the agreement, they may be sold only in kosher supermarkets and import shops. The distributor in North America is Dairy Delight, a subsidiary of Norman's Dairy. In 2007, Nestlé introduced an ice cream variation of krembo called "Lekbo" (Hebrew: לקבו, ""lick inside"").


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: The average krembo weighs and has 115 calories. According to the fine print on packing foil, per 100 g of krembo there are 419 calories, 3.2 g protein, 64 g carbohydrates (of which 54 g are sugars); 16.7% Fats (of which 13.9% are poly-saturated fatty acids, less than 0.5% are trans fatty acids) and 67 mg sodium.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In New Zealand, a common chocolate-coated marshmallow treat is the chocolate fish. A fish-shaped delicacy, 12 to 20 centimeters (5 to 8 inches) in length, it is made of pink or white marshmallow covered in a thin layer of milk chocolate. The milk chocolate's texture features scale-like ripples on the fish, created by the fish moving under a blower during production.


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: In Kiwi culture, the chocolate fish is a common immediate reward or prize for a small job done well (e.g. "Give that kid a chocolate fish") so much so that a phrase suggesting a person be awarded one can be said regardless of availability of the treat (and either as a compliment or sarcastically).


title: Chocolate-coated marshmallow treats

text: Chocolate marshmallow pies differ from regular chocolate-coated marshmallow treats in that there is a cake- or cookie-like layer above as well as below the marshmallow filling – that is, the marshmallow filling is sandwiched between two layers of cake or cookie, the entirety then being enrobed in chocolate. Some local names for chocolate marshmallow pies are:


title: Sire Records

text: Sire Records (formerly Sire Records Company) is an American record label owned by Warner Music Group and distributed by Warner Records.


title: Sire Records

text: The label was founded in 1966 as Sire Productions by Seymour Stein and Richard Gottehrer, each investing ten thousand dollars into the new company. Its early releases, in 1968, were distributed in the US by London Records. From the beginning, Sire introduced underground, progressive British bands to the American market. Early releases included the Climax Blues Band, Barclay James Harvest, Tomorrow, Matthews Southern Comfort and proto-punks The Deviants.


title: Sire Records

text: When distribution by London ended after two years, US distribution was handled by various companies: Polydor Records in 1970 and 1971, during which time Sire's famous logo was introduced; by Famous Music from 1972 to 1974, during which time the progressive rock band Focus charted with their 1972 hit "Hocus Pocus"; and by ABC Records, which inherited Sire's distribution deal when it acquired Famous Music. Sire was distributed by Phonogram Inc. in Europe from 1974 to 1977.


title: Sire Records

text: In the 70s, Sire released a number of compilation albums, including the 3 volume "History Of British Rock" series, and acts such as Renaissance, The Turtles, Duane Eddy, the Small Faces, and Del Shannon. Sire had one of its biggest successes when Climax Blues Band reached number 3 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart in 1977 with "Couldn't Get It Right". Also in 1977, Stein, who had previously worked with the Shangri-Las in the 1960s, convinced the group to reform and return to the studio. But the trio working together again proved to be short-lived and they asked to be let out of their contract; the new songs they had recorded were not released by the label.


title: Sire Records

text: In the mid-1970s, Sire transformed itself into a successful independent record label and went on to sign artists from the burgeoning punk rock and new wave scenes, including the Ramones, the Dead Boys, the Undertones, and Talking Heads. Sire returned to major label distribution in 1977 with a new deal with Warner Bros. Records. The following year Warner Bros. and Sire entered negotiations whereas Warner Bros. would purchase Sire Records outright, making Sire one of Warner Bros. subsidiary labels. Over the next several years, Sire saw success in the US and Canada with acts such as the Pretenders, Madonna (their biggest act), Soft Cell, the Cure, Depeche Mode, The Smiths, Martini Ranch and Echo & the Bunnymen. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the label had continued success with a roster that included Ministry, k.d. lang, Ice-T, Seal, and Tommy Page.


title: Sire Records

text: In 1994, Sire switched distribution from Warner Bros. Records to sister label Elektra Records, also part of parent company Warner Music Group (WMG). Stein had been appointed president of Elektra Records under Elektra's newly appointed CEO Sylvia Rhone, so Stein would also be overseeing distribution of Sire releases by Elektra as well as running Elektra day-to-day. Sire left Elektra distribution in 1997 as it became a stand-alone label. But in 2000, Sire and the US division of London Records were merged to become one label, London-Sire Records. This partnership, however, was dissolved in April 2003, at which point the company went back to being called Sire Records, and it returned to distribution with Warner Bros. Records once again.


title: Sire Records

text: In 1998, Sire signed a deal with the band The Tragically Hip to distribute their music outside of Canada. Currently, it signs newcomers, including the Ready Set and Lights.


title: Sire Records

text: In 2009, official music videos displayed on the Sire Records website were taken down because of a copyright claim by parent Warner Music Group, after royalty negotiations between WMG and YouTube (which Sire had been using to host the videos) broke down in December 2008. In September 2009, both parties came to terms, with Warner Music restoring its music onto YouTube.


title: Sire Records

text: In July 2017, Rani Hancock was named the new president of Sire Records. Label co-founder Seymour Stein remained on as chairman. Hancock had previously been the executive vice president and head of A&R at Island Records. In July 2018, Stein departed from Sire Records after a total of 51 years involved at Sire or its parent WMG.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving is underwater diving in water-filled caves. It may be done as an extreme sport, a way of exploring flooded caves for scientific investigation, or for the search for and recovery of divers or, as in the 2018 Thai cave rescue, other cave users. The equipment used varies depending on the circumstances, and ranges from breath hold to surface supplied, but almost all cave-diving is done using scuba equipment, often in specialised configurations with redundancies such as sidemount or backmounted twinset. Recreational cave-diving is generally considered to be a type of technical diving due to the lack of a free surface during large parts of the dive, and often involves planned decompression stops. A distinction is made by recreational diver training agencies between cave-diving and cavern-diving, where cavern diving is deemed to be diving in those parts of a cave where the exit to open water can be seen by natural light. An arbitrary distance limit to the open water surface may also be specified.


title: Cave diving

text: In the United Kingdom, cave-diving developed from the locally more common activity of caving. Its origins in the United States are more closely associated to recreational scuba diving. Compared to caving and scuba diving, there are relatively few practitioners of cave-diving. This is due in part to the specialized equipment and skill sets required, and in part because of the high potential risks due to the specific environment.


title: Cave diving

text: Despite these risks, water-filled caves attract scuba divers, cavers, and speleologists due to their often unexplored nature, and present divers with a technical diving challenge. Underwater caves have a wide range of physical features, and can contain fauna not found elsewhere.


title: Cave diving

text: The procedures of cave-diving have much in common with procedures used for other types of penetration diving. They differ from open-water diving procedures mainly in the emphasis on navigation, gas management, operating in confined spaces, and that the diver is physically constrained from direct ascent to the surface during much of the dive.


title: Cave diving

text: As most cave-diving is done in an environment where there is no free surface with breathable air allowing an above-water exit, it is critically important to be able to find the way out before the breathing gas runs out. This is ensured by the use of a continuous guideline between the dive team and a point outside of the flooded part of the cave, and diligent planning and monitoring of gas supplies. Two basic types of guideline are used: permanent lines, and temporary lines. Permanent lines may include a main line starting near the entrance/exit, and side lines or branch lines, and are marked to indicate the direction along the line to the nearest exit. Temporary lines include exploration lines and jump lines.


title: Cave diving

text: Decompression procedures may take into account that the cave diver usually follows a very rigidly constrained and precisely defined route, both into and out of the cave, and can reasonably expect to find any equipment such as drop cylinders temporarily stored along the guideline while making the exit. In some caves, changes of depth of the cave along the dive route will constrain decompression depths, and gas mixtures and decompression schedules can be tailored to take this into account.


title: Cave diving

text: Most open-water diving skills apply to cave-diving, and there are additional skills specific to the environment, and to the chosen equipment configuration.


title: Cave diving

text: The essential cave-diving procedure is navigation using a guide line. This includes laying and marking line, following line and interpreting line markers, avoiding entanglement, recovering from entanglement, maintaining and repairing line, finding lost line, jumping gaps, and recovering line, any of which may need to be done in zero visibility, total darkness, tight confined spaces or a combination of these conditions.


title: Cave diving

text: Losing the guide line in a cave is a potentially life-threatening emergency. While following recommended best practice makes it highly unlikely that a diver will lose the line, it can and does happen, and there are procedures which will usually work to find it again. Any reliable information on where the diver is likely to be relative to the last known position of the line may be critical, and the procedure of choice will depend on what is reliably known. In all situations, the diver will attempt to stabilise the situation and avoid getting further lost, and make a thorough visual check in all directions from where they are at the time, taking into account the possibility of the line being in a line trap. If the diver has not also separated from their buddy, the buddy may know where the line is, and can be asked, and if the diver is separated from their buddy, the buddy may be at the line, and the buddy's light may be visible.


title: Cave diving

text: Stabilising the position is generally done by finding the nearest feasible tie-off point and securely tying off a search line. The direction of the guide line when last seen should be known, and therefore the direction the diver was swimming in before losing the line. If the diver was neutrally buoyant while following the line, the approximate depth can be reconstructed by finding the depth of neutral buoyancy again, without adjusting inflation of BCD or dry suit. Unless the line was lost by the diver not noticing a change of direction, it is likely to be at much the same depth, in much the same direction, and at a similar lateral and vertical distance as when last seen, making it logical to try that direction first. While swimming towards the estimated position of the line and slowly paying out search line, the diver will search visually, and in low visibility or darkness, also by feel, making arm sweeps across the expected direction of the line, while defending the head from impact with the other arm. The distance swum towards the estimated position of the lost line can be measured by the spacing and number of knots paid out on the search line. If the search fails, the diver will return to the tie off and try again in the next best guess for the direction the line may be. The diver may also choose to try a different search method. The best search method for any given situation will depend on the water conditions, the layout of the section of cave, the way the line was laid, the situational knowledge and skills of the diver, and the equipment available – a method that would be ideal for one situation might not work at all for another.


title: Cave diving

text: If the line is found, but not the other divers, the diver can tie off their search reel to the guide line as an indicator to other members of the team that they were lost but have found the guide line, and indicate the direction that they intend to proceed along the guideline with a personal directional marker so that others who see it while searching for the lost diver will know whether the diver chose the right direction to exit the cave.


title: Cave diving

text: This is generally the converse situation to the lost guide line, in that the diver loses contact with their buddy or team but remains in contact with the guide line, so is not themself lost. Their first priority is to not get lost or disorientated, and in furtherance of this aim would attach a directional line marker to the guide line indicating the direction to the exit before starting a search. The search line can be tied to the directional maker to prevent it from sliding along the line during the search. The direction for the search would depend on the layout of that part of the cave, and where the missing diver should have been in the group. The search party must consider their own safety first, regarding how much gas they can afford to use in a search, which will depend on the stage of the dive when the diver is noticed to be missing. When searching in darkness, the searches should periodically turn off their lights as this will allow them to see the lost diver's light more easily.


title: Cave diving

text: Gas planning is the aspect of dive planning which deals with the calculation or estimation of the amounts and mixtures of gases to be used for a planned dive profile. It usually assumes that the dive profile, including decompression, is known, but the process may be iterative, involving changes to the dive profile as a consequence of the gas requirement calculation, or changes to the gas mixtures chosen. Use of calculated reserves based on planned dive profile and estimated gas consumption rates rather than an arbitrary pressure based on a fraction of the initial gas supply is sometimes referred to as rock bottom gas management. The purpose of gas planning is to ensure that for all reasonably foreseeable contingencies, the divers of a team have sufficient breathing gas to safely return to a place where more breathing gas is available. In almost all cases this will be the surface.


title: Cave diving

text: The primary breathing apparatus may be open circuit scuba or rebreather, and bailout may also be open circuit or rebreather. Emergency gas may be shared among the team members, or each diver may carry their own, but in all cases each diver must be able to bail out onto a gas supply of their own for long enough to get to the next planned source of emergency gas. If for any reason this situation no longer applies, there is a single point of critical failure, and the risk becomes unacceptable, so the dive should be turned.


title: Cave diving

text: Gas management also includes the blending, filling, analysing, marking, storage, and transportation of gas cylinders for a dive, and the monitoring and switching of breathing gases during a dive, and the provision of emergency gas to another member of the dive team. The primary aim is to ensure that everyone has enough to breathe of a gas suitable for the current depth at all times, and is aware of the gas mixture in use and its effect on decompression obligations and oxygen toxicity risk.


title: Cave diving

text: The rule of thirds for gas management is a rule of thumb used by divers to plan dives so they have enough breathing gas remaining in their diving cylinder at the end of the dive to be able to complete the dive safely. This rule mostly applies to diving in overhead environments, such as caves and wrecks, where a direct ascent to the surface is impossible and the divers must return the way they came.


title: Cave diving

text: For divers following the rule, one third of the gas supply is planned for the outward journey, one third is for the return journey and one third is a safety reserve. However, when diving with a buddy with a higher breathing rate or a different volume of gas, it may be necessary to set one third of the buddy's gas supply as the remaining 'third'. This means that the turn point to exit is earlier, or that the diver with the lower breathing rate carries a larger volume of gas than he alone requires.


title: Cave diving

text: A different option for penetration dives is the Half + 15 bar (half + 200 psi) method, in which the contingency gas for the stage is carried in the primary cylinders. Some divers consider this method to be the most conservative when multi-staging. If all goes to plan when using this method, the divers surface with stages nearly empty, but with all the contingency gas still in their primary cylinders. With a single stage drop, this means the primary cylinders will still be about half-full.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving training includes equipment selection and configuration, guideline protocols and techniques, gas management protocols, communication techniques, propulsion techniques, emergency management protocols, and psychological education. Cave diver training also stresses the importance of risk management and cave conservation ethics. Most training systems offer progressive stages of education and certification.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving is one of the most challenging and potentially dangerous kinds of diving and presents many hazards. Cave-diving is a form of penetration diving, meaning that in an emergency a diver cannot swim vertically to the surface due to the cave's ceilings, and so must swim the entire way back out. The underwater navigation through the cave system may be difficult and exit routes may be at a considerable distance, requiring the diver to have sufficient breathing gas to make the journey. The dive may also be deep, resulting in potential deep diving risks.


title: Cave diving

text: Visibility can vary from nearly unlimited to low, or non-existent, and can go from very good to very bad in a single dive. While a less-intensive kind of diving called cavern diving does not take divers beyond the reach of natural light (and typically no deeper than ), and penetration not further than , true cave-diving can involve penetrations of many thousands of feet, well beyond the reach of sunlight. The level of darkness experienced creates an environment impossible to see in without an artificial source of light even if the water is clear. Caves often contain sand, mud, clay, silt, or other sediment that can further reduce underwater visibility in seconds when stirred up.


title: Cave diving

text: The water in caves can have strong flow. Most caves flooded to the surface at the cave mouth are either springs or siphons. Springs have out-flowing currents, where water is coming up out of the Earth and flowing out across the land's surface. Siphons have in-flowing currents where, for example, an above-ground river is going underground. Some caves are complex and have some tunnels with out-flowing currents, and other tunnels with in-flowing currents. Inflowing currents can cause serious problems for the diver, as they make the exit more difficult, and the diver is carried to spaces that are unfamiliar and may be dangerous, while outflowing currents generally make the exit quicker and the diver is carried through places they have been before and can be prepared for difficult areas.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving has been perceived as one of the more deadly sports in the world. This perception may be exaggerated because the majority of divers who have died in caves have either not undergone specialized training or have had inadequate equipment for the environment. Some cave divers have suggested that cave-diving is statistically much safer than recreational diving due to the much larger barriers imposed by experience, training and equipment cost, but there is no definitive statistical evidence for this claim.


title: Cave diving

text: There is no reliable worldwide database listing all cave-diving fatalities. Such fractional statistics as are available, however, suggest that few divers have died while following accepted protocols and while using equipment configurations recognized as acceptable by the cave-diving community. In the very rare cases of exceptions to this rule there have typically been unusual circumstances.


title: Cave diving

text: Most cave divers recognize five general rules or contributing factors for safe cave-diving, which were popularized, adapted and became generally accepted from Sheck Exley's 1979 publication "Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival". In this book, Exley included accounts of actual cave-diving accidents, and followed each one with a breakdown of what factors contributed to the accident. Despite the unique circumstances of each individual accident, Exley found that at least one of a small number of major factors contributed to each one. This technique for breaking down accident reports and finding common causes among them is now called "accident analysis", and is taught in introductory cave-diving courses. Exley outlined a number of these resulting cave-diving rules, but today these five are the most recognized:


title: Cave diving

text: Most cave-diving fatalities are due to running out of gas before reaching the exit. This is often the direct consequence of getting lost, whether the guide line is found again or not, and whether the visibility deteriorates, lights fail, or someone panics. On rare occasions equipment failure is unrecoverable, or a diver becomes inextricably trapped, seriously injured, incapacitated by using an unsuitable gas for the depth, or swept away by strong flow. Getting lost means separation from the continuous guide line to the exit, and not knowing the direction to the exit.


title: Cave diving

text: Some cave divers are taught to remember the five key components with the mnemonic: ""The Good Divers Always Live"" (training, guide, depth, air, light).


title: Cave diving

text: In recent years new contributing factors were considered after reviewing accidents involving solo diving, diving with incapable dive partners, video or photography in caves, complex cave dives and cave-diving in large groups. With the establishment of technical diving, the use of mixed gases—such as trimix for bottom gas, and nitrox and oxygen for decompression—reduces the margin for error. Accident analysis suggests that breathing the wrong gas for the depth or not analyzing the breathing gas properly has also led to cave-diving accidents.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving requires a variety of specialized procedures, and divers who do not correctly apply these procedures may significantly increase the risk to the members of their team. The cave-diving community works hard to educate the public on the risks they assume when they enter water-filled caves. Warning signs with the likenesses of the Grim Reaper have been placed just inside the openings of many popular caves in the US, and others have been placed in nearby parking lots and local dive shops.


title: Cave diving

text: Many cave-diving sites around the world include open-water basins, which are popular open-water diving sites. The management of these sites try to minimize the risk of untrained divers being tempted to venture inside the cave systems. With the support of the cave-diving community, many of these sites enforce a "no-lights rule" for divers who lack cave training—they may not carry any lights into the water with them. It is easy to venture into an underwater cave with a light and not realize how far away from the entrance (and daylight) one has swum; this rule is based on the theory that, without a light, divers will not venture beyond daylight.


title: Cave diving

text: In the early phases of cave-diving the analysis shows that 90% of accidents were "not" trained cave divers; from the 2000s on the trend has reversed to 80% of accidents involving trained cave divers. Modern cave divers' capability and available technology allows divers to venture well beyond traditional training limits and into actual exploration. The result is an increase of cave-diving accidents, in 2011 the yearly average of 2.5 fatalities a year tripled. In 2012 fatalities reached the highest annual rate to that date at over 20.


title: Cave diving

text: As response to the increase in fatalities during the years 2010 onwards, the International Diving Research and Exploration Organization (IDREO) was created in order to "bring awareness of the current safety situation of Cave Diving" by listing current worldwide accidents by year and promoting a community discussion and analysis of accidents through a "Cave Diver Safety Meeting" held annually.


title: Cave diving

text: Equipment used by cave divers ranges from fairly standard recreational scuba configurations, to more complex arrangements which allow more freedom of movement in confined spaces, extended range in terms of depth and time, allowing greater distances to be covered in acceptable safety, and equipment which helps with navigation, in what are usually dark, and often silty and convoluted spaces.


title: Cave diving

text: Scuba configurations which are more often found in cave-diving than in open water diving include independent or manifolded twin cylinder rigs, side-mount harnesses, sling cylinders, rebreathers and backplate and wing harnesses. Bill Stone designed and used epoxy composite tanks for exploration of the San Agustín and Sistema Huautla caves in Mexico to decrease the weight for dry sections and vertical passages.


title: Cave diving

text: Stage cylinders are cylinders which are used to provide gas for a portion of the penetration. They may be deposited on the bottom at the guideline on preparation dives, to be picked up for use during the main dive, or may be carried by the divers and dropped off at the line during the penetration to be retrieved on the way out.


title: Cave diving

text: One of the high risk hazards of cave-diving is getting lost in the cave. The use of guide lines is the standard mitigation for this risk. Guide lines may be permanent or laid and recovered during the dive, using cave reels to deploy and recover the line. Permanent branch lines may be laid with a gap between the start of the branch line and the nearest point on the main line. Line used for this purpose is known as cave line. Gap spools with a relatively short line are commonly used to make the jump.


title: Cave diving

text: Line arrows are used to point towards the nearest exit, and cookies are used to indicate use of a line by a team of divers.


title: Cave diving

text: Silt screws are short lengths of rigid tube (usually plastic) with one sharpened end and a notch or slot at the other end to secure the line, which are pushed into the silt or detritus of the cave floor as a place to tie off a guideline when no suitable natural tie-off points are available.


title: Cave diving

text: A simple plastic helmet, such as those used in water sports like whitewater kayaking, is good protection in case of accidental contact with the cave ceiling or stalactites.


title: Cave diving

text: Diver propulsion vehicles, or Scooters, are sometimes used to extend the range by reducing the work load on the diver and allowing faster travel in open sections of cave. Reliability of the diver propulsion vehicle is very important, as a failure could compromise the ability of the diver to exit the cave before running out of gas. Where this is a significant risk, divers may tow a spare scooter.


title: Cave diving

text: Dive lights are critical safety equipment, as it is dark inside caves. Each diver generally carries a primary light, and at least one backup light. A minimum of three lights is recommended. The primary light should last the planned duration of the dive, as should each of the backup lights.


title: Cave diving

text: Cavern diving is an arbitrarily defined, limited scope activity of diving in the naturally illuminated part of underwater caves, where the risk of getting lost is small, as the exit can be seen, and the equipment needed is reduced due to the limited distance to surface air. It is defined as a recreational diving activity as opposed to a technical diving activity on the grounds of low risk and basic equipment requirements.


title: Cave diving

text: Jacques-Yves Cousteau, co-inventor of the first commercially successful open circuit scuba equipment, was the world's first open circuit scuba cave diver. However, many cave divers penetrated caves prior to the advent of scuba with surface supplied breathing apparatus through the use of umbilical hoses and compressors. SCUBA diving in all its forms, including cave-diving, has advanced in earnest since Cousteau introduced the Aqua-Lung in 1943.


title: Cave diving

text: Two regions have had particular influence on cave-diving techniques and equipment due to their very different cave-diving environments. These are the United Kingdom, and the United States, mainly Florida.


title: Cave diving

text: The Cave Diving Group (CDG) was established informally in the United Kingdom in 1935 to organise training and equipment for the exploration of flooded caves in the Mendip Hills of Somerset. The first dive was made by Jack Sheppard on 4 October 1936,


title: Cave diving

text: using a home-made drysuit surface fed from a modified bicycle pump, which allowed Sheppard to pass Sump 1 of Swildon's Hole. Swildon's is an upstream feeder to the Wookey Hole resurgence system. The difficulty of access to the sump in Swildon's prompted operations to move to the resurgence, and the larger cave there allowed use of standard diving dress which was secured from the Siebe Gorman company. In UK cave-diving, the term "Sherpa" was used without irony for the people who carry the diver's gear although this has gone out of fashion; support is now more normally used, and before the development of SCUBA equipment such undertakings could be monumental operations.


title: Cave diving

text: Diving in the spacious third chamber of Wookey Hole led to a rapid series of advances, each of which was dignified by being given a successive number, until an air surface was reached at what is now known as "Chamber 9." Some of these dives were broadcast live on BBC radio, which must have been a quite surreal experience for both diver and audience.


title: Cave diving

text: The number of sites where standard diving dress could be used is clearly limited and there was little further progress before the outbreak of World War II reduced the caving community considerably. However, the rapid development of underwater warfare through the war made a lot of surplus equipment available. The CDG re-formed in 1946 and progress was rapid. Typical equipment at this time was a frogman rubber diving suit for insulation (water temperature in the UK is typically 4 °C), an oxygen diving cylinder, soda lime absorbent canister and counter-lung comprising a rebreather air system and an "AFLOLAUN", meaning "Apparatus For Laying Out Line And Underwater Navigation." The AFLOLAUN consisted of lights, line-reel, compass, notebook (for the survey), batteries, and more.


title: Cave diving

text: Progress was typically by "bottom walking", as this was considered less dangerous than swimming (note the absence of buoyancy controls). The use of oxygen put a depth limit on the dive, which was considerably compensated by the extended dive duration. This was the normal diving equipment and methods until approximately 1960 when new techniques using wetsuits (which provide both insulation and buoyancy ), twin open-circuit SCUBA air systems the development of side mounting cylinders, helmet-mounted lights and free-swimming with fins. The increasing capacity and pressure rating of air bottles also extended dive durations.


title: Cave diving

text: In the 1970s, cave-diving greatly increased in popularity among divers in the United States. However, there were very few experienced cave divers and almost no formal classes to handle the surge in interest. The result was a large number of divers trying to cave dive without any formal training. This resulted in more than 100 fatalities over the course of the decade. The state of Florida came close to banning SCUBA diving around the cave entrances. The cave-diving organizations responded to the problem by creating training programs and certifying instructors, in addition to other measures to try to prevent these fatalities. This included posting signs, adding no-lights rules, and other enforcements.


title: Cave diving

text: In the United States, Sheck Exley was a pioneering cave diver who first explored many underwater cave systems in Florida, and many throughout the US and the world. On 6 February 1974, Exley became the first chairman of the Cave Diving Section of the National Speleological Society.


title: Cave diving

text: Since the 1980s, cave-diving education has greatly reduced diver fatalities, and it is now rare for an agency trained diver to perish in an underwater cave. Also in the 1980s, refinements were made to the equipment used for cave-diving, most importantly better lights with smaller batteries. In the 1990s, cave-diving equipment configurations became more standardized, due mostly to the adaptation and popularization of the "Hogarthian Rig", developed by several North Florida cave divers, named in honor of William "Hogarth" Main, which promotes equipment choices that "keep it simple and streamlined".


title: Cave diving

text: Today, the cave community is most focused on training, exploration, public awareness, and cave conservation.


title: Cave diving

text: Documentary films made by Wesley C. Skiles and Jill Heinerth have contributed to the increasing popularity of cave-diving in the early 21st century.


title: Cave diving

text: Four divers using scuba dived from the Right Imperial Cave in the Jenolan system in the Blue Mountains to an upstream chamber on 30 October 1954.


title: Cave diving

text: Cave-diving venues can be found on all continents except Antarctica, where the average temperature is too low for water to remain liquid in caves.


title: Cave diving

text: There are few flooded caves in Africa which are known and accessible. There are several in South Africa, a few in Namibia and Zimbabwe, and some large caves recently discovered in Madagascar.


title: Cave diving

text: There are a large number of flooded caves in the limestone regions and other regions of Asia, particularly in the karst regions of China and Southeast Asia. Some are accessible for recreational cave-diving, but most have probably not yet been found or explored.


title: Cave diving

text: Australia has many spectacular water filled caves and sinkholes, many of them in the Mount Gambier region of South Australia.


title: Cave diving

text: North America has many cave-diving venues, particularly in Florida, USA, and the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico.


title: Cave diving

text: Caves and caverns as geographical entities are defined differently from cave-diving and cavern-diving, so it is possible to be cavern diving in what is technically a cave, and cave-diving in what is technically a cavern.


title: Cave diving

text: A cave dive can be categorised by the topology of the route, which can be linear, include a circuit, or be a traverse.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: Big Brother 17 is the seventeenth season of the American reality television series "Big Brother". The season premiered on June 24, 2015 with a two-night premiere with the following episode airing on June 25, 2015, broadcast on CBS in the United States and Global in Canada. The season ended with a 90-minute season finale on September 23, 2015, following the fall season premiere of "", after 98 days of competition. Julie Chen returned as host. On September 23, 2015, Steve Moses was crowned the winner defeating Liz Nolan in a 6-3 jury vote. James Huling was voted as the season's America's Favorite HouseGuest.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: "Big Brother" follows a group of contestants, known as HouseGuests, who live inside a custom-built house outfitted with cameras and microphones recording their every move 24 hours a day. The HouseGuests are sequestered with no contact with the outside world. During their stay, the HouseGuests share their thoughts on their day-to-day lives inside the house in a private room known as the Diary Room. Each week, the HouseGuests compete in competitions in order to win power and safety inside the house.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: At the start of each week, the HouseGuests compete in a Head of Household (abbreviated as "HOH") competition. The winner of the HoH competition is immune from eviction and selects two HouseGuests to be nominated for eviction. As with the previous season, the first five weeks of the season feature two concurrent Heads of Household. Each HoH would nominate two HouseGuests for eviction, for a total of four nominees. The two pairs of nominees would then compete in a "Battle of the Block" competition. The winning pair would be removed from the block, with the HoH who nominated them dethroned. The dethroned HoH would later be eligible to be nominated as a replacement if the Veto is used, while the Battle of the Block winners are safe for the rest of the week.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: Six HouseGuests are then selected to compete in the Power of Veto (abbreviated as "PoV") competition: the reigning HoH, the nominees, and three other HouseGuests chosen by random draw. The winner of the PoV competition has the right to either revoke the nomination of one of the nominated HouseGuests or leave them as is. If the veto winner uses this power, the HoH must immediately nominate another HouseGuest for eviction. The PoV winner is also immune from being named as the replacement nominee. The HouseGuest overthrown as a result of the Battle of the Block competition is eligible to be nominated by the reigning Head of Household if the Power of Veto is used.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: On eviction night, all HouseGuests vote to evict one of the nominees, though the Head of Household and the nominees are not allowed to vote. This vote is conducted in the privacy of the Diary Room. In the event of a tie, the Head of Household casts the tie-breaking vote. The nominee with the most votes is evicted from the house. The last nine evicted HouseGuests comprise the Jury and are sequestered in a separate location following their eviction and ultimately decide the winner of the season. The Jury is only allowed to see the competitions and ceremonies that include all of the remaining HouseGuests; they are not shown any interviews or other footage that might include strategy or details regarding nominations. The viewing public is able to award an additional prize of by choosing "America's Favorite HouseGuest". All evicted HouseGuests are eligible to win this award except for those who either voluntarily leave or are forcibly removed.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: On June 16, 2015, 14 HouseGuests were announced by CBS, including Audrey Middleton, the first transgender contestant to appear on the American version of "Big Brother," professional wrestler and former WWE NXT competitor Austin Matelson and Vanessa Rousso, who, when the season began, was ranked among the top five women in poker history in terms of all-time money winnings. On June 25, 2015, "The Amazing Race 26" alumni Jackie Ibarra and Jeff Weldon were revealed as the 15th and 16th HouseGuests as part of the first Takeover. It was later revealed that HouseGuest Liz Nolan and her twin sister, Julia, were competing as one for the Twin Twist; after surviving the first five evictions, the twins began competing separately, increasing the total number of HouseGuests to 17, the most ever in an American season of "Big Brother."


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: In the "Big Brother" version of "The Price is Right", James Huling and Da'Vonne Rogers were both selected as competitors of the show. James and Da'Vonne both returned as HouseGuests on "Big Brother 18". Jason Roy was a HouseGuest on "", while Liz Nolan made an appearance for a Halloween event. In 2020, Da'Vonne returned for a third time to compete on "Big Brother: All-Stars".


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: Outside "Big Brother", Da'Vonne Rogers also competed on MTV's "", where she was paired with "Big Brother 18" castmate Jozea Flores. Da'Vonne Rogers, Liz Nolan, and Julia Nolan all appeared on "". Da'Vonne also appeared on the fifth season of "Ex on the Beach".


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: CBS announced the season's twist, BB Takeover, on June 17, 2015, in which a surprise guest would visit the house each week to reveal a different twist to the HouseGuests. Though it was initially announced that there would be a guest every week, there were no Takeovers after Week 3; in an interview during the season, Julie Chen stated that the twist had been cancelled because "there was enough going on” with the other elements of the game, though no official announcement was ever made to the HouseGuests.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: The Battle of the block was first introduced in the sixteenth season. In the twist, two houseguests would be nominated by each Head of Household. Each pair of HouseGuests would compete in a Battle of the Block competition. Whichever pair won would have safety for the week, and the Head of Household who nominated them would be dethroned, leaving one Head of Household remaining.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: As with the fifth season, a pair of twins competed as one HouseGuest, switching every few days between the house and a sequestered location off-site. The twins, Liz and Julia, played as Liz, changing places in the Diary Room with approximately ten minutes to catch each other up. After the twins survived the first five evictions, the twist was revealed and both twins competed separately. Though the twist was not officially revealed to the other HouseGuests before its completion, the twins were allowed to discuss it freely.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: For the first five weeks, two Heads of Household were named each week. Each HoH named their set of Nominations. The two pairs of nominees then competed in the "Battle of the Block" competition. The winning pair would win Immunity for the week (indicated by ), while the HoH who nominated them would be dethroned (indicated in strikethrough). The dethroned HoH would later be eligible to be nominated after the Power of Veto had been used.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: On September 24, 2014, CBS announced that it had renewed "Big Brother" for its seventeenth and eighteenth editions for broadcast in summer 2015 and 2016, respectively. The series would continue to be hosted by Julie Chen.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: On June 15, 2015, CBS released pictures of the house via "Entertainment Tonight", which has a modern steel beach house theme. The upstairs is 155 square feet larger than in previous seasons, the result of the incorporation of a glass bridge added in by "Big Brother" house designer Scott Storey. Season 17 is the first season for which the live feeds were bundled with CBS All Access, an over-the-top streaming service launched by CBS in January 2015 that allows users to view past and present episodes of CBS shows, and includes the live feeds and special "Big Brother" content.


title: Big Brother 17 (American season)

text: While the aired episodes had transitioned to HD the previous season, BB17 was the first season in which the live internet feeds were broadcast in HD.


title: Andrea Thompson

text: Rebecca Andrea Thompson (born January 6, 1960) is an American actress, known for her roles on the television series "Falcon Crest", "Babylon 5", "JAG", "24", and "NYPD Blue".


title: Andrea Thompson

text: Andrea Thompson was born January 6, 1960 in Dayton, Ohio. When she was six, her family moved to Australia. She left high school at 16, and after an extended period of travel, she moved to New York City. She began modeling and studied acting at the Strasberg Studio and the Herbert Berghof Studio under Uta Hagen.


title: Andrea Thompson

text: Thompson began her career as a voiceover artist, which continues today. Her first significant film role was in the 1987 film "Wall Street". In 1989, she was cast on the soap opera "Falcon Crest" as the scheming Genele Ericson during the show's final season, and played photojournalist Maggie Dawson in the Season 3, Episode 2 of the series "Quantum Leap". In 1991, she played Nurse Helen Caldwell in the comedy film "Delirious". In 1993 she was cast on the science fiction television series "Babylon 5" as telepath Talia Winters. Thompson left the series in the middle of its second season.