title: Andesite

text: Andesite is an aphanitic (fine-grained) igneous rock that is intermediate in its content of silica and low in alkali metals. It has less than 20% quartz and 10% feldspathoid by volume, with at least 65% of the feldspar in the rock consisting of plagioclase. This places andesite in the basalt/andesite field of the QAPF diagram. Andesite is further distinguished from basalt by its silica content of over 52%. However, it is often not possible to determine the mineral composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very fine grain size, and andesite is then defined chemically as volcanic rock with a content of 57% to 63% silica and not more than about 6% alkali metal oxides. This places andesite in the O2 field of the TAS classification. Basaltic andesite, with a content of 52% to 57% silica, is represented by the O1 field of the TAS classification but is not a distinct rock type in the QAPF classification.


title: Andesite

text: Andesite is usually light to dark gray in colour, due to its content of hornblende or pyroxene minerals. but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Darker andesite can be difficult to distinguish from basalt, but a common rule of thumb, used away from the laboratory, is that andesite has a color index less than 35.


title: Andesite

text: The plagioclase in andesite varies widely in sodium content, from anorthite to oligoclase, but is typically andesine, in which anorthite makes up about 40 mol% of the plagioclase. The pyroxene minerals that may be present include augite, pigeonite, or orthopyroxene. Magnetite, zircon, apatite, ilmenite, biotite, and garnet are common accessory minerals. Alkali feldspar may be present in minor amounts.


title: Andesite

text: Andesite is usually porphyritic, containing larger crystals (phenocrysts) of plagioclase formed prior to the extrusion that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained matrix. Phenocrysts of pyroxene or hornblende are also common. These minerals have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt and are therefore the first to form solid crystals. Classification of andesites may be refined according to the most abundant phenocryst. For example, if hornblende is the principal phenocryst mineral, the andesite will be described as a "hornblende andesite".


title: Andesite

text: Andesite lava typically has a viscosity of 3.5 × 10 cP at . This is slightly greater than the viscosity of smooth peanut butter. As a result, andesitic volcanism is often explosive, forming tuffs and agglomerates. Andesite vents tend to build up composite volcanoes rather than the shield volcanoes characteristic of basalt, with its much lower viscosity resulting from its lower silica content and higher eruption temperature.


title: Andesite

text: Block lava flows are typical of andesitic lavas from composite volcanoes. They behave in a similar manner to ʻaʻā flows but their more viscous nature causes the surface to be covered in smooth-sided angular fragments (blocks) of solidified lava instead of clinkers. As with ʻaʻā flows, the molten interior of the flow, which is kept insulated by the solidified blocky surface, advances over the rubble that falls off the flow front. They also move much more slowly downhill and are thicker in depth than ʻaʻā flows.


title: Andesite

text: Though andesite is common in other tectonic settings, it is particularly characteristic of convergent plate margins. Even before the Plate Tectonics Revolution, geologists had defined an "andesite line" in the western Pacific that separated basalt of the central Pacific from andesite further west. This coincides with the subduction zones at the western boundary of the Pacific Plate. Magmatism in island arc regions comes from the interplay of the subducting plate and the "mantle wedge", the wedge-shaped region between the subducting and overriding plates. The presence of convergent margins dominated by andesite is so characteristic of the Earth's unique plate tectonics that the Earth has been described as an "andesite planet".


title: Andesite

text: During subduction, the subducted oceanic crust is subjected to increasing pressure and temperature, leading to metamorphism. Hydrous minerals such as amphibole, zeolites, or chlorite (which are present in the oceanic lithosphere) dehydrate as they change to more stable, anhydrous forms, releasing water and soluble elements into the overlying wedge of mantle. Fluxing water into the wedge lowers the solidus of the mantle material and causes partial melting. Due to the lower density of the partially molten material, it rises through the wedge until it reaches the lower boundary of the overriding plate. Melts generated in the mantle wedge are of basaltic composition, but they have a distinctive enrichment of soluble elements (e.g. potassium (K), barium (Ba), and lead (Pb)) which are contributed from sediment that lies at the top of the subducting plate. Although there is evidence to suggest that the subducting oceanic crust may also melt during this process, the relative contribution of the three components (crust, sediment, and wedge) to the generated basalts is still a matter of debate.


title: Andesite

text: Basalt thus formed can contribute to the formation of andesite through fractional crystallization, partial melting of crust, or magma mixing, all of which are discussed next.


title: Andesite

text: To achieve andesitic composition via fractional crystallization, a basaltic magma must crystallize specific minerals that are then removed from the melt. This removal can take place in a variety of ways, but most commonly this occurs by crystal settling. The first minerals to crystallize and be removed from a basaltic parent are olivines and amphiboles. These mafic minerals settle out of the magma, forming mafic cumulates. There is geophysical evidence from several arcs that large layers of mafic cumulates lie at the base of the crust. Once these mafic minerals have been removed, the melt no longer has a basaltic composition. The silica content of the residual melt is enriched relative to the starting composition. The iron and magnesium contents are depleted. As this process continues, the melt becomes more and more evolved eventually becoming andesitic. Without continued addition of mafic material, however, the melt will eventually reach a rhyolitic composition. This produces the characteristic basalt-andesite-rhyolite association of island arcs, with andesite the most distinctive rock type.


title: Andesite

text: Partially molten basalt in the mantle wedge moves upwards until it reaches the base of the overriding crust. Once there, the basaltic melt can either underplate the crust, creating a layer of molten material at its base, or it can move into the overriding plate in the form of dykes. If it underplates the crust, the basalt can (in theory) cause partial melting of the lower crust due to the transfer of heat and volatiles. Models of heat transfer, however, show that arc basalts emplaced at temperatures 1100–1240 °C cannot provide enough heat to melt lower crustal amphibolite. Basalt can, however, melt pelitic upper crustal material.


title: Andesite

text: In continental arcs, such as the Andes, magma often pools in the shallow crust creating magma chambers. Magmas in these reservoirs become evolved in composition (dacitic to rhyolitic) through both the process of fractional crystallization and partial melting of the surrounding country rock. Over time as crystallization continues and the system loses heat, these reservoirs cool. In order to remain active, magma chambers must have continued recharge of hot basaltic melt into the system. When this basaltic material mixes with the evolved rhyolitic magma, the composition is returned to andesite, its intermediate phase. Evidence of magma mixing is provided by the presence of phenocrysts in some andesites that are not in chemical equilibrium with the melt in which they are found.


title: Andesite

text: High-magnesium andesites ("boninites") in island arcs may be primitive andesites, generated from metasomatized mantle.


title: Andesite

text: In 2009, researchers revealed that andesite was found in two meteorites (numbered GRA 06128 and GRA 06129) that were discovered in the Graves Nunataks icefield during the US Antarctic Search for Meteorites 2006/2007 field season. This possibly points to a new mechanism to generate andesite crust.


title: Andesite

text: Along with basalts, andesites are a component of the Martian crust. The presence of distinctive steep-sided domes on Venus suggests that andesite may have been erupted from large magma chambers where crystal settling could take place.


title: Anahí

text: Anahí Giovanna Puente Portilla (born 14 May 1983), known mononymously as Anahí, is a Mexican actress and singer. In 1986, she started her acting career when she was cast on "Chiquilladas". After working on many successful telenovelas produced by Televisa, including "Alondra" (1995), "Vivo por Elena" (1998), "El Diario de Daniela" (1998) and "Mujeres Engañadas" (1999), her first leading role was in Pedro Damián's production, "Primer Amor... A Mil por Hora" (2000). In 2003, she joined the cast in "Clase 406". Anahí reached international success in 2004 after starring in "Rebelde" and being part of the twice-nominated for a Latin Grammy Award group RBD, who sold over 15 million records worldwide. In 2011, she starred in "Dos Hogares", her last telenovela to date.


title: Anahí

text: In 1993, at the age of 10, Anahí released her debut self-titled studio album. In 1996, she released her second album, "¿Hoy Es Mañana?", which featured the singles "Corazón de Bombón", "Por Volverte a Ver" and "Descontrolándote". She went on to record two additional albums titled "Anclado en Mi Corazón" (1997) and "Baby Blue" (2000). In 2009, Anahí released her fifth album, "Mi Delirio", which sold 500,000 copies worldwide. The album debuted at number two on "Billboard"s Latin Pop Albums chart and number four on "Billboard"s Top Latin Albums chart, and was certified Gold in Brazil. Mi Delirio World Tour was her first worldwide tour. According to "Billboard", Mi Delirio World Tour was the seventh most profitable tour of 2010.


title: Anahí

text: Anahí's sixth studio album, "Inesperado" (2016), was preceded by the singles "Rumba", "Eres" and "Amnesia". "Rumba", a collaboration with reggaeton singer Wisin, peaked at number one on "Billboard"s Tropical Songs chart. The album debuted on "Billboard"s Latin Pop Albums and Top Latin Albums charts, while it was number one on "Billboard" Brazil, with her being the first Mexican artist to achieve that. She has sold over five million albums worldwide in her career as a solo artist, being the best-selling RBD member in the United States. Anahí sings in various languages apart from Spanish, including English, Portuguese and Italian.


title: Anahí

text: Anahí Giovanna Puente was born on 14 May 1983, in Mexico City, Mexico, to Spanish father Enrique Puente, and Mexican mother Marichelo Portilla. She has an older sister, television personality Marichelo Puente (born 1978), and an older half-sister, Diana Puente, from her father's previous marriage.


title: Anahí

text: Anahí began her career on a Mexican television program called "Chiquilladas" When she was two years old. She then starred in numerous films, including "Nacidos para Morir" and "Había Una Vez Una Estrella", with the latter earning her an Ariel Award for Best Child Actress in 1989. She then went on to star in several telenovelas, including "Mujer, Casos de la Vida Real", "Hora Marcada", "Vivo por Elena", "La Telaraña" and "El diario de Daniela".


title: Anahí

text: In 2001, Anahí was cast as the fourteen-year-old Jovanna Luna in "Primer Amor", alongside Kuno Becker, Ana Layevska, and Mauricio Islas. The teen-oriented soap opera was one of the highest-rated in its time-slot during its run.


title: Anahí

text: In 2002, she was cast as Jessica in "Clase 406" where she worked alongside Alfonso Herrera, Dulce María, and Christian Chávez, who later became her bandmates in RBD.


title: Anahí

text: She starred in "Rebelde" in 2004, a Mexican remake of the hit Argentine telenovela, "Rebelde Way". Before "Rebelde", Anahí had coincidentally starred in "Ángeles Sin Paraíso" with Felipe Colombo, star of the original "Rebelde Way". On "Rebelde", Anahí portrayed Mia Colucci, a popular girl from a wealthy family. "Rebelde" was an international hit and had over 440 episodes, airing from 2004 to 2006.


title: Anahí

text: Following the success of "Rebelde", in 2007, Televisa released "", which starred the members of RBD. The sitcom was based on the fictional lives of the members of RBD. The characters of the sitcom were not based on the band's characters in "Rebelde", but were instead intended to be similar to the actors' real personalities. "RBD: La Familia" was the first Mexican show shot entirely in HDTV. The show ran from 14 March 2007, to 13 June 2007, lasting 13 episodes.


title: Anahí

text: In February 2011, four years after her last appearance in a TV series, Anahí was chosen to play the lead role in "Dos Hogares", a telenovela written and produced by Emilio Larrosa. After prolonged negotiations, Anahí accepted the role. Filming began on 25 April 2011, and ended on 14 January 2012. The TV series premiered on 27 June 2011, and aired its final episode on 20 January 2012.


title: Anahí

text: In 1993, at the age of 10, she released her debut album, "Anahí". She later released a second album, "¿Hoy Es Mañana?", which featured the singles "Corazón de Bombón", "Por Volverte a Ver", and "Descontrolándote". She went on to record two additional albums titled "Anclado En Mi Corazón" and "Baby Blue."


title: Anahí

text: The success of "Rebelde" launched RBD. RBD released nine studio albums, including records in Spanish, Portuguese and English. They have sold over 20 million albums worldwide, 17 million digital downloads, and have toured across South America, North America, Central America and Europe.


title: Anahí

text: In 2006, following the success of RBD, Anahí re-released her solo album, "Baby Blue", under the name "Una Rebelde en Solitario". The following year, a compilation album was released titled, "Antes de Ser Rebelde".


title: Anahí

text: On 15 August 2008, RBD released a statement, stating that they had decided to split up. They went on one final tour, Gira del Adiós World Tour, which ended in late 2008. In November 2008, Anahi and Dulce María collaborated with Tiziano Ferro on a song called "El Regalo Más Grande".


title: Anahí

text: In April 2009, Anahí launched an official website and Twitter page announcing her first solo album since RBD's split. She debuted her first solo single since RBD, "Mi Delirio", at the 2009 Premios Juventud in Miami, Florida. It was released for digital download on 18 August 2009. "Mi Delirio" was released on 24 November 2009. The album has been certified Gold in Brazil, Anahí becoming the second Mexican artist — after Thalía — who was certified Gold in that country.


title: Anahí

text: According to "Billboard", Mi Delirio World Tour was the seventh most profitable tour in 2010. She performed in 10 concerts, attended by over 35,000 people.


title: Anahí

text: Following the success of "Mi Delirio", on 23 November 2010, Anahí released "Mi Delirio" – deluxe edition. The album includes all the songs released with the first album, plus four bonus songs: "Alérgico", "Pobre Tu Alma", "Ni Una Palabra" and "Aleph". The first two were released as singles. The album also contains a letter from Brazilian author Paulo Coelho to Anahí, a photo gallery, and a written message from Anahí to her fans. The album contains a song inspired by Coelho's book Aleph, which follows the third single "Alérgico". There are three known versions of the song: the album version with Anahí only; the Portuguese version featuring Brazilian singer Renee Fernandes, included in the "Mi Delirio" – deluxe edition (Brazilian edition bonus track); and a duet version featuring Noel Schajris, included in the "Mi Delirio" – deluxe edition (Colombian edition bonus track). (In the US, this version is instead being on a special edition, "Alérgico (Fan edition) – EP".)


title: Anahí

text: In 2010, Anahí presented the Kids Choice Awards Mexico and was nominated in three categories, winning for Favorite Artist and Favorite Look. She performed as well, introducing her single, "Alérgico". The album debuted at number 14 in Mexico, spending seven consecutive weeks in the top 100. "Alérgico" became the second most played song in Mexico for 11 weeks, and was number one on iTunes.


title: Anahí

text: In 2011, Anahí and Christian Chávez worked together for the first time since the dissolution of RBD. They recorded a song, "Libertad", which was released on iTunes on 12 April 2011. The song was included on Christian Chávez's album. In May 2011, Anahí and the Latin pop stars Bryan Amadeus and Ale Sergi were invited by MTV Latin America to perform the opening theme for the TV series "Popland!". The song, entitled "Click", was released on iTunes on 13 September 2011. On 5 July 2011, Anahí released a new single, "Dividida", which is also the opening theme of the TV series she starred in, "Dos Hogares". She also recorded the ending theme with Carlos Ponce, "Rendirme En Tu Amor", which was released on J


title: Anahí

text: 24 July 2011. In December 2011, Anahí was invited by prodigious Mexican singer Juan Gabriel to be featured on a song with him on his album of duets, entitled "Con Tu Amor".


title: Anahí

text: Anahí released a song called "Absurda" in late 2012, and its lyric video was released on YouTube on 30 January. On 4 February 2013, the single was released for digital download. A new album was announced with a 2013 release date, but was later cancelled.


title: Anahí

text: Anahí released a song, "Están Ahí", without any previous promotion, on 25 May 2015. The song's lyrics pay homage to her fans. A month later, she announced the return of her musical career and released a comeback single "Rumba" featuring Puerto Rican rapper Wisin, and the album "Inesperado" was released in 2016.


title: Anahí

text: On 25 April 2015, Anahí married Manuel Velasco Coello, the Governor of Chiapas, elected in December 2012. While her marriage to the sitting governor would normally make her the head of the Chiapas chapter of the National System for Integral Family Development, the position had already been granted to Leticia Coello, the mother of the then-unmarried Governor, in 2012.


title: Anahí

text: She was widely criticized on social media for wearing a dress costing the state 120,000 Mexican pesos (US$, ) during the 2015 celebrations of the Cry of Dolores in Chiapas. Many of the criticisms focused on the fact that Chiapas is the poorest State in the Union.


title: Anahí

text: During the filming of "Primer Amor", Anahí battled a serious eating disorder, anorexia. She weighed approximately 75 pounds (34 kg) at her lowest weight. She spent time in five different treatment centers, and visited doctors and psychologists across the country. One day after returning from a family vacation, she began to feel faint, and was rushed to a hospital, where her heart stopped for eight seconds. She has since recovered and become a vocal spokesperson against eating disorders in Mexico. In 2008, with the support of Televisa, Anahí launched a campaign against anorexia and bulimia.


title: Anahí

text: In 2006, the tax administration of Mexico froze four of Anahí's bank accounts as a preventive measure because she was under investigation for tax fraud. In 2008, after taking the issue to court, Anahí was granted her accounts back, two with Banamex and two at Scotiabank.


title: Anahí

text: In 2007, a Barbie doll version of Anahí, Dulce Maria, and Maite Perroni were released, based on their characters in "Rebelde". "People en Español" named her one of their "50 Most Beautiful" in 2010.


title: Anahí

text: On 11 March 2011, doctors discovered that Anahí's brain was being deprived of a large percentage of oxygen due to a deviated septum. It was determined that this was the main cause of several ailments that had plagued Anahí, including a heart attack. She underwent a successful operation.


title: Anahí

text: On 23 March 2011, Anahí became the spokeswoman for Snickers in Latin America. The advertising campaign that was launched sparked controversy, with National Council to Prevent Discrimination and the National Institute of Women deeming the commercial sexist and filing complaints. Anahí defended the campaign, saying that the commercial wasn't intended to offend anyone. Effem Mexico, the company behind Snickers, disagreed with the sexism complaints. However, before the advertisement aired, they conducted a survey among women, asking their opinions on the content. According to Effem, the majority of the women surveyed did not feel the advertisement was discriminatory.


title: Anahí

text: On 18 September 2011, National Geographic aired the original production of "Obsession: Bodies That Scream", filmed in Latin America, which featured the testimonies of people who suffer from body dysmorphia and eating disorders. Anahí spoke about the five-year period in which she suffered from anorexia, and her recovery. On 12 October 2011, Anahí joined the Non-Violence Project's campaign, "Imagine One Billion Faces For Peace", as a Global Ambassador. The campaign's ambassadors include public figures such as Paul McCartney, Yoko Ono, and Ringo Starr. The campaign aims to honor the legacy of the late John Lennon by calling for peace and non-violence worldwide.


title: Anahí

text: During the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Anahí, alongside other Global Ambassadors, performed in an event for The Non-Violence Project presented by Yoko Ono. "Maxim" named her as one of the Maxim Hot 100 of 2012, calling her a "Mexican beauty" who represents "a true triple threat: she sings, she acts, and writes hilarious tweets".


title: Anahí

text: On 16 July 2013, a nail polish line by Anahí titled ""BE by Anahí"" was released. The line is a collection of 25 different colors, with names relating to her music like "rebelde", "delirio", "absurda", "click", "hipnótico" and "Sálvame".


title: Anahí

text: In April 2012, Anahí began dating the governor of Chiapas, Manuel Velasco Coello. They became engaged in October 2014 and married on 25 April 2015, in a private religious ceremony held in San Cristóbal de las Casas. They have two sons: Manuel, born on 17 January 2017 and Emiliano, born on 2 February 2020.


title: Lord Privy Seal

text: The Lord Privy Seal (or, more formally, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal) is the fifth of the Great Officers of State in the United Kingdom, ranking beneath the Lord President of the Council and above the Lord Great Chamberlain. Originally, its holder was responsible for the monarch's personal (privy) seal (as opposed to the Great Seal of the Realm, which is in the care of the Lord Chancellor) until the use of such a seal became obsolete. Though one of the oldest offices in European governments, it has no particular function today because the use of a privy seal has been obsolete for centuries; it may be regarded as a traditional sinecure, but today, the holder of the office is invariably given a seat in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, and is sometimes referred to as a Minister without Portfolio.


title: Lord Privy Seal

text: Since the premiership of Clement Attlee, the position of Lord Privy Seal has frequently been combined with that of Leader of the House of Lords or Leader of the House of Commons. The office of Lord Privy Seal, unlike those of Leader of the Lords or Commons, is eligible for a ministerial salary under the Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975. The office does not confer membership of the House of Lords, leading to Ernest Bevin's remark on holding this office that he was "neither a Lord, nor a Privy, nor a Seal".


title: Lord Privy Seal

text: During the reign of Edward I, prior to 1307, the Privy Seal was kept by the Controller of the Wardrobe. The Lord Privy Seal was the president of the Court of Requests during its existence.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. () is a historically African American fraternity. It was founded at Howard University in Washington, D.C. on January 9, 1914, by three young African-American male students with nine other Howard students as charter members. The fraternity's founders, A. Langston Taylor, Leonard F. Morse, and Charles I. Brown, wanted to organize a Greek letter fraternity that would exemplify the ideals of "Brotherhood, Scholarship and Service" while taking an inclusive perspective to serve the community as opposed to having an exclusive purpose. The fraternity exceeded the prevailing models of Black Greek-Letter fraternal organizations by being the first to establish alumni chapters, youth mentoring clubs, a federal credit union, chapters in Africa and a collegiate chapter outside of the United States. It is the only fraternity to hold a constitutional bond with a historically African-American sorority, Zeta Phi Beta (ΖΦΒ), which was founded on January 16, 1920 at Howard University in Washington, D.C., through the efforts of members of Phi Beta Sigma.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The fraternity expanded over a broad geographical area in a short amount of time when its second, third, and fourth chapters were chartered at Wiley College in Texas and Morgan State College in Maryland in 1916, and Kansas State University in 1917. Today, the fraternity serves through a membership of more than 200,000 men in over 700 chapters in the United States, Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. Although Phi Beta Sigma is considered a predominantly African-American fraternity, its membership includes college-educated men of African, Caucasian, Hispanic, Native American, and Asian descent. According to its Constitution, academically eligible male students of any race, religion, or national origin may join while enrolled at a college or university through collegiate chapters, or professional men may join through an alumni chapter if a college degree has been attained, along with a certain minimum number of earned credit hours.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma is a member of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and a former member of the North American Interfraternity Conference (NIC). The current International President is Chris V. Rey, J. D., and the fraternity's headquarters are located at 145 Kennedy Street, NW, Washington, D.C.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In the summer of 1910, after a conversation with a recent Howard University graduate in Memphis, Tennessee, A. Langston Taylor thought to establish a fraternity. Soon after, he started as a student at Howard University in Washington, D.C. In October 1913, Taylor and Leonard F. Morse had their initial conversation about starting a fraternity. They included Charles I. Brown as the third member of the founding group. By November 1913, they established a committee to develop what was to become Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity. Soon after the first committee meeting, Taylor, Morse, and Brown chose nine associates to join in creating the fraternity. Those men were the first charter members of the organization.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: On January 9, 1914, the permanent organization of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity was established in the Bowen Room of the 12th Street Y.M.C.A Building in Washington, D.C. On April 15, 1914, the Board of Deans at Howard University officially recognized Phi Beta Sigma and the following week "The University Reporter", Howard University's student newspaper, publicized it.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: During the first two years, the fraternity organized and maintained a Sunday school program, led by A.H. Brown; and opened a public library and art gallery, which became the foundations of the Benjamin Banneker Research Society and the Washington Art Club, respectively. Abraham M. Walker, a fraternity member, was elected associate editor of the "Howard University Journal." The following year, Walker and founder A. Langston Taylor, were elected Editor-in-Chief and circulation manager, respectively. Other fraternity members also advanced to leadership positions at Howard: W.F. Vincent, William H. Foster, John Berry, Earl Lawson, among others, were presidents of the Debating Society, the college YMCA, the Political Science Club, and the Athletic Association, respectively. On the athletic field, captain John Camper and J. House Franklin were standout football players for Howard University.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In the spring of 1915, the fraternity worked to emphasize its intellectual reach. It inducted such African-American scholars as Dr. Edward P. Davis, Dr. Thomas W. Turner, T.M. Gregory, and Dr. Alain Leroy Locke. On March 5, 1915, Herbert L. Stevens was initiated, as the first Graduate member of Phi Beta Sigma.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: A year after the establishment of Phi Beta Sigma, it began expansion to other campuses. On November 13, 1915, Beta chapter was chartered at Wiley College in Marshall, Texas by graduate member Herbert Stevens. Beta chapter became the first chapter of any African-American Greek-lettered organization to be chartered south of Richmond, Virginia. As Phi Beta Sigma continued its expansion in the Eastern and Southern United States, other national fraternities were beginning to take notice.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: On December 28, 1916, Phi Beta Sigma hosted the fraternity's first conclave in Washington, D.C. Some 200 members attended, representing three collegiate chapters, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma (established at Morgan State College in Baltimore). The 1916 conclave authorized production of an official fraternity publication, and member W.F. Vincent was elected as the National Editor.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma responded to a "call to arms" in 1917 as the United States entered the First World War. Alpha chapter had about seventy members in uniform. During the war, many members entered the service or war work. Many fraternity chapters were depleted, and the National Office ceased to function. As a result of deaths and other dislocations resulting from the war, the General Board was forced to re-organize. Fraternity President I. L. Scruggs asked founder and National Treasurer A. Langston Taylor to contact members as soon as they re-appeared in civilian clothes. Taylor helped revive the fraternity by appealing to members in the US, as numerous Sigma men were serving on the European battle front.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: By February 1920, Phi Beta Sigma had expanded to ten active chapters. During the December 1919 Conclave, Phi Beta Sigma's first conclave after the war, A. Langston Taylor was given approval from the General Board to assist in the organization of what was to become Phi Beta Sigma's sister sorority.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In the spring of 1919, Sigma member Charles Robert Samuel Taylor, a student at Howard University, discussed with fellow student Arizona Cleaver his idea for a sister organization to be established. Cleaver presented this idea to fourteen other Howard women. With the help of Charles Taylor and A. Langston Taylor, they began work to found the new sorority.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: With administration permission, Zeta Phi Beta sorority held its first official meeting on January 16, 1920. The founders and charter members of the Sorority were Arizona Cleaver (Stemons), Viola Tyler (Goings), Myrtle Tyler (Faithful), Pearl Anna Neal, and Fannie Pettie (Watts). The five founders chose the name Zeta Phi Beta. The similar names of both Sigma and Zeta are intentional in nature, as the women adopted the Greek letters 'Phi' and 'Beta' to "seal and signify the relationship between the two organizations".


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The newly established Zeta Phi Beta sorority, Inc. was given a formal introduction at the Whitelaw Hotel by their Sigma counterparts, Charles R. and A. Langston Taylor. As National Executive Secretary of Phi Beta Sigma, Charles Taylor wrote to all Sigma chapters requesting they establish Zeta chapters at their respective institutions. With the efforts of Taylor, Zeta added several chapters in areas as far west as Kansas City State College; as far south as Morris Brown College in Atlanta, Georgia; and as far north as New York City.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The 1920s also witnessed the birth of the Harlem Renaissance - a flowering of African-American cultural and intellectual life that began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture. Phi Beta Sigma fraternity brother Alain LeRoy Locke is unofficially credited as the "Father of the Harlem Renaissance." His philosophy served as a strong motivating force in keeping the energy and passion of the Movement at the forefront. In addition to Locke, Sigma brothers James Weldon Johnson and A. Philip Randolph were participants in this creative emergence, led primarily by the African-American community based in the neighborhood of Harlem in New York City.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: On January 31, 1920, Phi Beta Sigma was incorporated in the district of Washington, D.C. and became known as Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Incorporated.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In November 1921, the first volume of the "Phi Beta Sigma Journal" was published. The journal was the official organ of the fraternity; Eugene T. Alexander was named its first editor. The following month, the fraternity held its 1921 Conclave at Morris Brown College in Atlanta, Georgia. This conference saw the first-ever inter-fraternity conference between Phi Beta Sigma and Omega Psi Phi. This would lead to the first inter-fraternity council meeting between the two organizations the following spring in Washington, D.C.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1922, Founder Taylor called for the assembly of the Black Greek-lettered organizations of Howard University to discuss the formation of a governing council. Although the efforts of Taylor failed on that particular day, they would sow the seeds for what was to become the National Pan-Hellenic Council eight years later.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In March 1924, the name of the fraternity's official publication, "The Phi Beta Sigma Journal", was changed to "The Crescent Magazine". The magazine's name change was suggested by members of the Mu chapter at Lincoln University to reference the symbolic meaning of the crescent to the fraternity. At the 1924 conclave, a special exhibit introduced the concept of the "Bigger and Better Negro Business". This would lead to the establishment of Bigger and Better Business as a national program at the 1925 conclave. At the 1928 Conclave, held in Louisville, Kentucky, the tradition of branding the skin with a hot iron, as a part of the initiation process was officially sanctioned by the fraternity.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: At the 1929 Conclave held in New York City, Dr. Carter G. Woodson was invited as a guest speaker and saw the creation of the Distinguished Service chapter. The fall of 1929 saw the crash of the nation's stock markets. Like many other organizations during this period, Phi Beta Sigma faced financial difficulties. With brothers faced with financial worries, some members were forced to leave their respective institutions due to lack of funds to continue their educations; several chapters became inactive. The fraternity saw its income drastically shrink to the point of nearly disappearing completely. As a result of the bank closures, the remaining funds of the fraternity were frozen.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: As the nation came to terms with the Great Depression, Phi Beta Sigma and its members continued to implement programs to support the black community. In February 1930, the General Board met in New York City and appointed then vice president of the Eastern Region, Dr. T. H. Wright, as head of the new Bigger and Better Business program. The first objective of Phi Beta Sigma's new program was to call upon colleges to provide business courses for its students. The fraternity went forward with its plans to implement the bigger and better business program and aid as many financially strapped chapters as possible through scholarships for brothers.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Later that year, at the 1930 Conclave held in Tuskegee, Alabama, northern region vice president C. L. Roberts suggested that instead of a yearly meeting, the annual conclaves should be held once every two years. It was also at this conclave that brother George Washington Carver delivered an impassioned and emotional speech to the brothers in attendance.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Fraternity brother A. Philip Randolph, who organized the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, played a role in the amendments to the Railway Labor Act in 1934. As a result, railway porters were granted rights under federal law. This victory and the continuing work of Randolph and the BSCP led to the Pullman Company contract with the union, which included over $2 million in pay increases for employees, a shorter workweek, and overtime pay. 1934 also marked the birth of Social Action as a national program and the return of founder A. Langston Taylor to the forefront of Sigma. Brother Emmett May was elected as the first director of the social action initiative.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The 1935 Atlanta Conclave saw yet another meeting between Sigma and Omega Psi Phi fraternities. Omega founders Edgar Amos Love and Oscar James Cooper brought greetings to the brothers in attendance of the conference on behalf of the members of Omega Psi Phi. The following year, the general board approved the fraternity's affiliation with the already established National Pan-Hellenic Council. in continuation of Sigma's Social Action initiative, brothers of Sigma were actively involved the Chicago meeting of the National Negro Congress.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: As Phi Beta Sigma prepared for the Silver (25th) Anniversary, a special search was made for lost founder Charles I. Brown. The search would yield no results as to the fate or location of Founder Brown. The 1939 conclave marking the 25th anniversary of the fraternity was held on the campus of Howard University.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: At the 1941 Conclave in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the fraternity became a permanent member of the National Negro Business League. At the same conclave Brother A. Philip Randolph announced a proposed march on Washington, D.C., to protest racial discrimination in defense work and the armed forces. This proposed march would lead then president of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and issue Executive Order 8802 which barred discrimination in governmental and defense industry hiring.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Due to the outbreak of the Second World War no Conclaves were held, although some brothers in various regions were able to assemble independently of the General Board.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: At the fraternity's first spring conclave in 1944, the fraternity voted to support the United Negro College Fund. 1949 would mark the reunion of two of the founders of Sigma: A. Langston Taylor and Leonard F. Morse.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The 1940s and 1950s would show the continued expansion of Phi Beta Sigma. In 1949, the fraternity became an international organization with the chartering of the Beta Upsilon Sigma graduate chapter and the Gamma Nu Sigma graduate chapter in Monrovia, Liberia. The fraternity would extend its international chapters into Geneva, Switzerland, with the chartering of the Gamma Nu Sigma graduate chapter in 1955.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: As the struggle for the civil rights of African Americans renewed in the 1950s, Sigma men held positions of leadership among various civil rights groups, organized protests, and proposed the March on Washington of 1963. In Atlanta, A. Philip Randolph helped with the establishment of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. Randolph and fraternity brother John Lewis would later be involved with the 1963 March on Washington, Randolph as a key organizer and Lewis as a speaker representing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1961, Phi Beta Sigma brother James Forman joined and became the executive secretary of the then newly formed Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. From 1961 to 1965 Forman, a decade older and more experienced than most of the other members of SNCC, became responsible for providing organizational support to the young, loosely affiliated activists by paying bills, radically expanding the institutional staff, and planning the logistics for programs. Under the leadership of Forman and others, SNCC became an important political player at the height of the Civil Rights Movement.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: During the Selma to Montgomery marches, Brothers Hosea Williams and John Lewis led a 54-mile protest march from Selma to the capital of Alabama: Montgomery. Lewis became known nationally for his prominent role in the marches and became a Congressman as a Democrat from Georgia. During police attacks on the peaceful demonstration Lewis was beaten mercilessly, leaving head wounds that are still visible today.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma brothers Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale established the revolutionary left-wing Black Panther Party. Originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, their goal was the protection of African-American neighborhoods from police brutality in the interest of African-American justice. As one of the many advocates of The Black Power Movement, the Black Panthers were considered part of one of the most significant social, political, and cultural movements in U.S. history. "The Movement['s] provocative rhetoric, militant posture, and cultural and political flourishes permanently altered the contours of American Identity."


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1970, brother Melvin Evans was elected the first governor of the United States Virgin Islands. In 1979, Phi Beta Sigma celebrated its 65th anniversary Conclave in Washington, D.C. In 1983, Sigma brother Harold Washington became the first African-American mayor of the city of Chicago, Illinois. In 1986, the Fraternity opened the Phi Beta Sigma Federal Credit Union which is open to members of the Fraternity, members of the sister sorority, Zeta Phi Beta, their families, and their respective Regions and chapters. With the establishment of the credit union, Phi Beta Sigma became the first NPHC organization to offer such an entity to its members.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1989, the Fraternity celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in Washington, D.C. Also in that year, brother Edison O. Jackson became the president of Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York. In 1990, two Sigma brothers made significant firsts in their respective fields as Brothers Charles E. Freeman and Morris Overstreet were elected the first district judge of the Illinois Supreme Court and first African-American elected by popular vote to a statewide office in the state of Texas respectively. In 1995, the fraternity was the only NPHC organization involved with the planning and support of the Million Man March as brother Benjamin Chavis Muhammad served as national coordinator of the March.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2001, Sigma brother Rod Paige became the first African-American Secretary of Education. At the 2003 conclave, in Memphis, Tennessee, the fraternity added Projects S.W.W.A.C & S.A.T.A.P as national programs in attempts to combat cancer and teenage pregnancy. In addition to those projects, the fraternity added Project Vote and the Phi Beta Sigma Capital Hill Summit under the social action umbrella. At the 2007 conclave in Charlotte, North Carolina the fraternity introduced the Sigma Wellness initiatives as the latest national programs.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The 2009 Conclave in New Orleans saw former President William Jefferson Clinton accept honorary member invitation to Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity."


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Fraternity noticed abuse of its trademark by the clothing designer Ralph Lauren in early January 2020. That designer incorporated the Fraternity's name along with other symbolism on the fabric of pants offered for sale on its website. The Fraternity objected and explained in a cease-and-desist letter that such usage was in violation of trademark and was not developed as Fraternity-approved sportswear. "Black Enterprise magazine" profiled this controversy in a January 2020 article.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The founders deeply wished to create an organization that viewed itself as "a part of" the general community rather than "apart from" the general community. They believed that each potential member should be judged by his own merits rather than his family background or affluence... without regard of skin tone or texture of hair. They wished and wanted their fraternity to exist as part of even a greater brotherhood which would be devoted to the "inclusive we" rather than the "exclusive we." The fraternity's defiance of stereotypes that have plagued other organizations indeed goes back to the founders themselves with their careful and deliberate building of the fraternity by promoting a membership with diverse backgrounds.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: From its inception, the Founders also conceived Phi Beta Sigma as a mechanism to deliver services to the general community. Rather than gaining skills to be utilized exclusively for themselves and their immediate families, the founders of Phi Beta Sigma held a deep conviction that they should return their newly acquired skills to the communities from which they had come. This deep conviction was mirrored in the Fraternity's motto, "Culture For Service and Service For Humanity."


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Today, Phi Beta Sigma has blossomed into an international organization of leaders. The fraternity has experienced unprecedented growth and continues to be a leader among issues of social justice as well as proponent of the interests of minority communities, the needy, the oppressed, and the youth. No longer a single entity, the Fraternity has now established the Phi Beta Sigma Educational Foundation, the Phi Beta Sigma Housing Foundation, the Phi Beta Sigma Federal Credit Union, a notable youth auxiliary program, "The Sigma Beta Club," and the Phi Beta Sigma Charitable Outreach Foundation.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma's Constitution states that race, religion, and national origin are not criteria for membership. Membership is predominantly African-American in composition, with members in over 700 collegiate and alumni chapters in the United States, District of Columbia, Germany, Switzerland, The Bahamas, Virgin Islands, South Korea, Japan and countries in Africa. Since its founding in 1914, more than 200,000+ men have joined the membership of Phi Beta Sigma.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: A chapter name ending in "Sigma" denotes a graduate chapter. No chapter of Phi Beta Sigma is designated Omega, the last letter of the Greek alphabet, and deceased brothers are referred to as having joined The Omega chapter.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Through the years, members of Phi Beta Sigma have been involved in incidents related to hazing, although now denounced by the fraternity, incidents have been discovered of pledges being subjected to activities which in some case have resulted in serious injury and even death. Prior to 1990, the Crescent Club was the official pledge club of Phi Beta Sigma and potential candidates interested in becoming a member of the fraternity would join the pledge club before being fully initiated. In response to the increasing number of lawsuits stemming from allegations and incidents related to hazing, Phi Beta Sigma and other members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council jointly agreed to disband pledging as a form of admission. In an attempt to eliminate Hazing from these organizations, each revised its orientation procedures and developed the Membership Intake Process.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2012, then Phi Beta Sigma International President Jimmy Hammock, along with the National Action Network, led by Sigma member Al Sharpton, launched a coalition whose aim was to combat hazing culture not just within the black Greek Lettered Organizations, but also the broader community at large. The coalition, also pledged their support of federal anti-hazing legislation that was being spearheaded by United States House of Representatives member Frederica Wilson. As part of the campaign, the fraternity developed anti-hazing training materials, held a town hall meetings, facilitated workshops and encouraged local chapters to participate in the annual National Anti-Hazing Awareness Day. Phi Beta Sigma's efforts to eliminate hazing from the fraternity continue as local chapters are now mandated to participate in anti-hazing awareness workshops.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1992, a pledge at Southern University (Baton Rouge) went blind after being intentionally hit on the head with a frying pan by a member of the fraternity.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1996, the fraternity was sued by a former pledge and football player at the University of Georgia for violating hazing laws. As a pledge, he was hospitalized with bruises to his buttock and torn blood vessels due to being paddled by fraternity members. Three members were arrested and pled guilty to hazing and battery charges.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 1998, a pledge at Southern Illinois University was struck in the chest by several members of the fraternity which caused him to suffer from a severe asthma attack.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2006, seven Sigmas were arrested for beating pledges from the University of South Carolina. One known pledge was hospitalized due to the severe beatings and torment.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2009, Donnie Wade Jr., a student at Prairie View A&M University, died of extreme exhaustion due to illegal hazing activity while he was pledging the fraternity. His family filed a $97 million lawsuit against the fraternity and the chapter was temporarily expelled from campus for several years.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2012, seven members (six students and one staff member) of the fraternity were banned from the campus of Wiley College after reports surfaced of the brutal and dangerous hazing practices pledges had to go through.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2012, a former pledge at Virginia State University sued the fraternity for $1 million as a result of his problematic experience with the fraternity. He was hospitalized due to constant physical abuse and forced to drop out of college due to emotional trauma that distracted him from completing his studies.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2014, a former Francis Marion University student won a $1.6 million lawsuit against the an individual member of the fraternity and his home owners policy after allegedly suffering acute kidney injury due to being severely beaten throughout his pledge process. Nine Phi Beta Sigma members were arrested.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In 2015, the fraternity was kicked off the campus of Salisbury University until Spring 2017. The university had received several anonymous complaints of pledges being beaten with paddles, forced to drink alcohol, and being harassed.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity's membership includes many notable members who are involved in the fields of arts and entertainment, business, civil rights, education, health, law, politics, science, and sports. The fraternity's membership roster includes heads of state Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, Kwame Nkrumah, William Tolbert, and William V.S. Tubman, the past presidents of Nigeria, the Republic of Ghana, and Liberia respectively. Also the 42nd president of the United States, Bill Clinton is an honorary member. Other notable members include scientist George Washington Carver; the first black Rhodes Scholar, Alain LeRoy Locke; Black Panther Party founder Huey P. Newton; organizer of the Million Man March Benjamin Chavis Muhammad; civil rights activists John Lewis, Hosea Williams and the Rev. Al Sharpton; musicians The Original Temptations; actors Blair Underwood, Ben Vereen and Terrence Howard; television personality Al Roker; and professional athletes Myron M Guyton, Jessie Small, Aaron Jones, Jerry Rice, Emmitt Smith, Hines Ward, Richard Sherman, and Ryan Howard.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Conclave is the legislative power of Phi Beta Sigma. During a conclave year, delegates representing all of the active chapters from within the seven regions of the Fraternity meet in the chosen city. The Conclave-or fraternity convention- is currently held biannually and usually co-hosted by the alumni and collegiate chapters of the chosen city. During the convention, members of the General Board – the administrative body of the fraternity-are elected and appointed. The General Board may act in the interest of the Fraternity when the Conclave is not in session. In addition, seminars, social events, concerts, an international Miss Phi Beta Sigma Pageant, Stepshow, and oratorical contests are also held during the week-long conference. Throughout the years, notable individuals such as George Washington Carver, Dr. Carter G. Woodson, and NFL quarterback Charlie Batch were speakers at past Conclaves.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Current General board is composed of The International President, First Vice-President, Second-Vice President, Treasurer, General Counsel, a Distinguished Service Chapter Representative, the regional directors, the immediate past-president, two collegiate members at large, and director of collegiate affairs. The offices of Second-Vice President and collegiate member at large are reserved positions on the general board for collegiate (undergraduate) members to hold. In addition, the Editor of The Crescent Magazine, Director of publicity, and the National Executive Director make up the members of the General Board. The latter-mentioned members are appointed to their positions and do not hold voting powers.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Established at the 1929 Conclave, the Distinguished Service Chapter is the highest honor bestowed on a member of Phi Beta Sigma. Membership in the Distinguished Service Chapter must be recommended and approved by the awardees Chapter, Region, and by the General Board of the Fraternity prior to entry. One must meet the following criteria in order to be considered for this honor:


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity organizes its chapters according to their regions in the United States and abroad. The seven regions are each led by a regional director and a regional board. A comprehensive list of regions is shown below:


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma aims their focuses on issues that greatly impact the African-American community and the youth of the nation. The Phi Beta Sigma national programs of Bigger and Better Business, Education and Social Action are realized through the Fraternity's overarching program, Sigma Wellness, adopted in 2007. Through its national mentoring program for males ages 8–18, the organization provides opportunities for the development of young men as they prepare for college and the workforce.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The organization's partnerships with the American Cancer Society, March of Dimes, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Boy Scouts of America and the Thurgood Marshall College Fund speaks to its mission to address societal ills including health disparities and educational and developmental opportunities for young males.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Bigger and Better Business serves as an umbrella for other national initiatives involving business. The program's goals include supporting minority businesses, increasing communication with sigma brothers involved with business, and instilling sound business principals and practices to members of the community. Project S.E.E.D. (Sigma Economic Empowerment Development) is the foremost Bigger and Better Business Program. The program was developed to help the membership focus on two important areas: Financial Management and Home ownership.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The founders of Phi Beta Sigma were all educators in their own right. The genesis of the Education Program lies in the traditional emphasis that the fraternity places on Education. During the 1945 conclave in St. Louis, Missouri, the fraternity underwent a constitution restructuring which led to the birth of the Education as a National Program.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The National Program of Education focuses on programming and services to graduate and undergraduates in the fraternity. Programs such as scholarships, lectures, college fairs, mentoring, and tutoring enhance this program on local, regional and national levels.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Project S.E.T. (Sigma Education Time) is focused on increasing grade point averages and graduation rates of collegiates throughout the nation. The program aims to help with job readiness, choosing a career path {3–5 year outlook}, interviewing techniques, negotiating and entrepreneurship.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Sigma Beta Club provides mentoring, guidance, educational tutorial assistance and advise to young men between ages 6 to 18. Created in 1950, it was the first youth auxiliary group of any of the National Pan-Hellenic Council organizations.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: Phi Beta Sigma has from its very beginning concerned itself with improving the general well-being of minority groups. In 1934, a well-defined program of Social Action was formulated and put into action. Elmo M. Anderson, then president of Epsilon Sigma chapter (New York) formulated this program calling for the reconstruction of social order. It was a tremendous success. It fit in with the social thinking of the American public in those New Deal years.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In the winter of 1934, Sigma brothers Elmo Anderson, James W. Johnson, Emmett May and Bob Jiggets presented the Social Action proposition to the Conclave in Washington, D.C. The idea was adopted as a national program at the same conclave. Anderson is credited as "The Father of Social Action".


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The fraternity's five main social action programs are Project Vote, Sigma Wellness, Sigma Presence on Capitol Hill, and projects S.W.W.A.C. and S.A.T.A.P.P.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: "Project S.W.W.A.C." (Sigmas Waging War Against Cancer) is a concentrated and coordinated effort to reduce the incidence of cancer in the African-American community. Through a partnership with the American Cancer Society, the goal of Project S.W.W.A.C. is to increase awareness, with a strong emphasis on early detection and prevention of prostate and colorectal cancer. "Project S.A.T.A.P.P." is a collaborative venture with the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation to address the alarming rise in teenage pregnancy. The "Sigma Wellness Project" is focused on living healthier lifestyles through education. The goal of "Project Vote" is to register and educate citizens and encourage members of the community to participate in the democratic process. The "Sigma Presence on Capitol Hill Program" is focused on presenting Sigma members the opportunity to discuss many of the critical issues facing our communities with members of the U.S. Congress.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: In the early 1950s, Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity developed a youth auxiliary group. Under the direction of Dr. Parlett L. Moore the Sigma Beta Club was founded. While as National Director of Education, Brother Moore was concerned about our changing needs in our communities and recognized the important role that Sigma men could play in the lives of our youth. On April 23, 1954, the first club chapter was organized in Montgomery, AL. Throughout its existence, Sigma Beta Club has been an essential part of the total organizational structure of many of the Alumni chapters of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. and offers men of Sigma a unique opportunity to develop wholesome value, leadership skills, and social and cultural awareness of youth at a most critical stage in the youth's personal development. The Sigma Beta Clubs' principles of focus emphasize Culture, Athletics, Social and Educational needs. Sigma Beta Club programs are geared to meet the needs of its members, but at the same time provide them with a well-rounded outlook that is needed to cope with today's society. Phi Beta Sigma is confident that investing in our youth today will produce effective leaders of tomorrow. Sigma Beta Clubs also provide services to youths in their communities. Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.'s interest in fostering the development of youth into effective leaders has been realized in the establishment of strong and productive Sigma Beta Club all across the country.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The Sigma History Museum was a traveling exhibition created in 2001 by Sigma brothers Mark Pacich, Louis W. Lubin Jr. and Ahab El’Askeni. The museum's initial goal was to dispel the discrepancies of the Fraternity's history, by collecting as many newspaper articles, Crescent Magazines, Conclave Journals, autographs, pictures, etc., as possible. With the help of many Sigma members, in addition to families and friends of Sigmas brothers, some impressive artifacts of the history of the Fraternity were discovered. Among those artifacts, pictures of Sigma Founder A. Langston Taylor; historical pictures from the 1914, 1915, and 1916 yearbooks at Howard University; original letters; Conclave banners; and interviews with Sigma Brother Decatur Morse, son of Sigma Founder Leonard F. Morse, Samuel Proctor Massie II, son of an Alpha chapter charter member, Samuel P. Massie, Robert L. Pollard II, son of Sigma brother Col. Robert L. Pollard who joined Sigma in 1919, and Dr. Gregory Tignor, son of Sigma brother Madison Tignor who also joined Sigma in 1919. The exhibit has been displayed in many cities including; Orlando, Philadelphia, Detroit, Memphis, and Las Vegas.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: On July 16, 2014, as part of the fraternity's centennial celebration, a permanent museum was opened at the Phi Beta Sigma International Headquarters in Washington D.C. As a result, Phi Beta Sigma became the first Historically Black Greek Lettered fraternity to open its own museum.


title: Phi Beta Sigma

text: The assets of the museum have grown since the initial display in 2000. The most coveted possession yet to be acquired are the first 2 issues of the "Phi Beta Sigma Journal". The museum is only 14 issues away from having every Crescent magazine ever printed.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: The Madrid Open (), currently sponsored by Mutua Madrileña and known as the Mutua Madrid Open, is a joint men's and women's professional tennis tournament, held in Madrid, during early May. The clay-court event is classified as an ATP Tour Masters 1000 on the ATP Tour and a WTA 1000 event on the WTA Tour. In the past, it has also been known as the Madrid Masters. The tournament is traditionally played on a red clay surface. The event was played on blue courts in the 2012 tournament edition, with the ATP deciding against blue thereafter.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: Ion Țiriac, a Romanian billionaire businessman and former ATP professional, was the owner of the tournament between 2009 and 2021. According to Digi Sport which interviewed Țiriac in 2019, the tournament brings to the city of Madrid annual benefits exceeding €107 million. In 2021, Țiriac sold the tournament to New York–based giants IMG for approximately €390 Million.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: From its inauguration as a men's only event in 2002, the tournament was classified as one of the ATP Masters Series tournaments, where it replaced the now-defunct Eurocard Open in Stuttgart. It was held from 2002 to 2008 in the Madrid Arena as the first of two Master's indoor hard court late-season events that preceded the ATP Tour Finals (also indoors). It was replaced on the Masters schedule by the Shanghai Masters after the 2008 season. In 2009, the tournament was reborn under new ownership with a new location, new surface, and new time slot. It expanded to include a premier women's contest (replacing the tournament in Berlin) and shifted to an earlier period of the tennis season to become the second Master's tournament of the spring European clay-court swing (replacing the Hamburg Open). The event moved outdoors to Park Manzanares, where a new complex with a retractable-roof equipped main court was constructed, the Caja Magica.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: Țiriac announced in April 2019 that he has extended his sponsorship contract of the Mutua Madrid Open for 10 additional years, until 2031. Because he agreed to continue in Madrid, Țiriac will receive more than 30 million euros from the city of Madrid in the coming years. Feliciano López was announced as the Madrid tournament director, commencing 2019.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: Starting in 2021, the women's tournament, part of the WTA tour, expanded to become a two-week tournament.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: By December of the same year, it was announced Tiriac sold the event to IMG, which is now the new organizator and has already planned an expansion of courts, including a new stadium for over 10,000 people, to be built by partly draining the lake circling Caja Magica.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: In June 2022 ATP announced some changes to the ATP calendar for the coming year. The ATP Masters 1000 event in Madrid along with those in Shanghai and in Rome would now be held over two weeks starting in 2023, thus becoming 12 day events just like the Masters 1000 events in Indian Wells and Miami.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: Tiriac proposed and implemented in 2012 a new color of blue clay for all the courts' surfaces, motivating that it would supposedly be better visually, especially for viewers on television (analogous to some hardcourt surface events migrating to blue from various previous color schemes). Some speculated that the adaptation of blue colour was a nod to the titular sponsor of the tournament, the Spanish insurance giant Mutua Madrileña. This controversial change was subsequently granted and began to be used in the 2012 edition of the tournament. In 2009 one of the outer tennis courts had already been made of the new surface for the players to test it. Manuel Santana, the Open's director, had assured that aside from the colour, the surface kept the same properties as the traditional red clay.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: On 1 December 2011, Țiriac confirmed that the blue clay surface was officially approved for the 2012 edition of the tournament, in both the ATP and WTA circuits.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: However, after the event took place in 2012, threats of future boycotts from some players, especially Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic (who both lost on the blue surface), led the tournament to return to the traditional red clay for the 2013 season.


title: Madrid Open (tennis)

text: Roger Federer is the only male player to win the tournament on three different surfaces: hard courts (2006), red clay (2009), and blue clay (2012). Serena Williams is the only female player to win the tournament on two different surfaces: blue clay (2012) and red clay (2013).


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The Dionysian Mysteries were a ritual of ancient Greece and Rome which sometimes used intoxicants and other trance-inducing techniques (like dance and music) to remove inhibitions and social constraints, liberating the individual to return to a natural state. It also provided some liberation for men and women marginalized by Greek society, among which were slaves, outlaws, and non-citizens. In their final phase the Mysteries shifted their emphasis from a chthonic, underworld orientation to a transcendental, mystical one, with Dionysus changing his nature accordingly. By its nature as a mystery religion reserved for the initiated, many aspects of the Dionysian cult remain unknown and were lost with the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism; modern knowledge is derived from descriptions, imagery and cross-cultural studies.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The Dionysian Mysteries of mainland Greece and the Roman Empire are thought to have evolved from a more primitive initiatory cult of unknown origin (perhaps Thracian or Phrygian) which had spread throughout the Mediterranean region by the start of the Classical Greek period. Its spread was associated with the dissemination of wine, a sacrament or entheogen with which it appears always to have been closely associated (though mead may have been the original sacrament). Beginning as a simple rite, it evolved quickly within Greek culture into a popular mystery religion, which absorbed a variety of similar cults (and their gods) in a typically Greek synthesis across its territories; one late form was the Orphic Mysteries. However, all stages of this developmental spectrum appear to have continued in parallel throughout the eastern Mediterranean until late in Greek history and forcible Christianization.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The ecstatic cult of Dionysus was originally thought to be a late arrival in Greece from Thrace or Asia Minor, due to its popularity in both locations and Dionysus' non-integration into the Olympian Pantheon. After the deity's name was discovered on Mycenean Linear B tablets, however, this theory was abandoned and the cult is considered indigenous, predating Greek civilization. The absence of an early Olympian Dionysus is today explained by patterns of social exclusion and the cult's marginality, rather than chronology. Whether the cult originated on Minoan Crete (as an aspect of an ancient Zagreus) or Africa – or in Thrace or Asia, as a proto-Sabazius – is unanswerable, due to lack of evidence. Some scholars believe it was an adopted cult not native to any of these places and may have been an eclectic cult in its earliest history, although it almost certainly obtained many familiar features from Minoan culture.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The original rite of Dionysus (as introduced into Greece) is associated with a wine cult (not unlike the entheogenic cults of ancient Central America), concerned with the grapevine's cultivation and an understanding of its life cycle (believed to have embodied the living god) and the fermentation of wine from its dismembered body (associated with the god's essence in the underworld). Most importantly, however, the intoxicating and disinhibiting effects of wine were regarded as due to possession by the god's spirit (and, later, as causing this possession). Wine was also poured on the earth and its growing vine, completing the cycle. The cult was not solely concerned with the vine itself, but also with the other components of wine. Wine includes other ingredients (herbal, floral, and resinous) adding to its quality, flavour, and medicinal properties.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Scholars have suggested that, given the low alcoholic content of early wine, its effects may have been due to an additional psychoactive ingredient in its sacramental form, supported by iconography showing herbs being mixed with the wine in the kraters, especially preceding ecstatic behavior. Poppy, from which opium is extracted, is a likely candidate, being sometimes worn as a wreath by the god in art. Also, Honey and beeswax were often added to wine, introducing an even older drink (mead). Károly Kerényi postulated that this wine lore superseded (and partly absorbed) earlier Neolithic mead lore involving bee swarms associated by the Greeks with Dionysus. Mead and beer (with its cereal base) were incorporated into the domain of Dionysus, perhaps through his identification with the Thracian corn deity Sabazius.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Other plants believed to be viniculturally significant were also included in wine lore such as ivy (thought to counteract drunkenness—thus the opposite of the grapevine—and seen as blooming in winter instead of summer); the fig (a purgative of toxins) and the pine (a wine preservative). The bull (from whose horn wine was drunk) and goat (whose flesh provided wineskins, and whose browsing pruned the vines) were also part of the cult, eventually seen as manifestations of Dionysus. Some of these associations had been linked with fertility deities (like Dionysus) and became part of his new role. An understanding of vinicultural lore and its symbolism is key to understanding the cult which emerged from it, assuming a significance other than winemaking that would encompass life, death and rebirth and providing insight into human psychology.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Assuming the Dionysus cult arrived in Greece with the importation of wine, it probably first emerged about 6000 BC in one of two places—the Zagros Mountains and borderlands of Mesopotamia and Persia (with a rich wine culture via Asia Minor), or from wild vines on the mountain slopes of Libya and other regions in North Africa. The latter provided wine to ancient Egypt from about 2500 BC, and was home to ecstatic rites involving animal possession—notably the goat and panther men of the Aissaoua Sufi cult of Morocco (although this cult may have been influenced by the Dionysian one). In any case, Minoan Crete was the next link in the chain, importing wine from the Egyptians, Thracians, and Phoenicians and exporting it elsewhere. The Mysteries probably took shape in Minoan Crete from about 3000 to 1000 BC, since the name "Dionysus" exists nowhere other than Crete and Greece.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The rites were based on a seasonal death-rebirth theme, common among agricultural cults such as the Eleusinian Mysteries. The Osirian Mysteries paralleled the Dionysian, according to contemporary Greek and Egyptian observers. Spirit possession involved liberation from civilization's rules and constraints. It celebrated that which was outside civilized society and a return to primordial nature—which would later assume mystical overtones. It also involved escape from the socialized personality and ego into an ecstatic, deified state or the primal herd (sometimes both). In this sense Dionysus was the beast-god within, or the unconscious mind of modern psychology. Such activity has been interpreted as fertilizing, invigorating, cathartic, liberating and transformative, and so appealed to those on the margins of society: women, slaves, outlaws and "foreigners" (non-citizens, in Greek democracy). All were equal in a cult that inverted their roles, similar to the Roman Saturnalia.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The trance induction central to the cult involved not only chemognosis, but an "invocation of spirit" with the bullroarer and communal dancing to drum and pipe. The trances are described in familiar anthropological terms, with characteristic movements (such as the backward head flick found in all trance-inducing cults found today in Afro-American Vodou and its counterparts). As in Vodou rites, certain rhythms were associated with the trance. Rhythms are also found preserved in Greek prose referring to the Dionysian rites (such as Euripides' "The Bacchae"). This collection of classical quotes describes rites in the Greek countryside in the mountains, to which processions were made on feast days:


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: This practice is demonstrated in Greek culture by the Bacchanals of the Maenads, Thyiades and Bacchoi; many Greek rulers considered the cult a threat to civilized society and wished to control it (if not suppress it altogether). The latter failed; the former would succeed in the foundation of a domesticated Dionysianism as a state religion in Athens. This was but one form of Dionysianism—a cult which assumed different forms in different localities (often absorbing indigenous divinities and their rites, as did Dionysus himself). The Greek Bacchoi claimed that, like wine, Dionysus had a different flavour in different regions; reflecting their mythical and cultural soil, he appeared under different names and appearances in different regions.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Musk, civet, frankincense, storax, ivy, grapes, pine, fig, wine, honey, apples, Indian hemp, orchis root, thistle, all wild and domestic trees.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Dionysus has numerous sacred animals, such as the leopard or bull. Other sacred animals include: Lions and other big cats, goats, donkeys, and serpents.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: The bull and goat and their "enemies", the panther (or any big cat – after the Greeks colonized part of India, Shiva's tiger sometimes replaced the traditional panther or leopard) and the serpent (probably derived from Sabazius, but also found in North African cults); in addition, the dolphin, the lion, and the bee.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Dionysus's association with bulls is found in multiple epithets. In "The Bacchae", Penthus, who opposed his worship in the god's origin city of Thebes, saw horns upon Dionysus's head as he started to go mad.


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Taurokephalos/Taurokranos/Taurometôpos Greek: Ταυροφαγος; a surname of Dionysus in the Orphic mysteries. (Orph. Hymn. 51. 2.) It also occurs as a surname of rivers and the ocean, who were symbolically represented as bulls, to indicate their fertilising effect upon countries. (Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 275, Orest. 1378 ; Aelian, V. H. ii. 33; Horat. Carm. iv. 14, 25.)


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: Tauros; a bull, occurs as a surname of Dionysus. (Eurip. Bacch. 918 ; Athen. xi. p. 476; Plut. Quaest. Graec. 36 ; Lycoph. Cass. 209.)


title: Dionysian Mysteries

text: An ancient Roman inscription written in Ancient Greek dated to 253–255 AD were discovered in the Great Basilica at the Plovdiv (ancient Philippopolis). The inscription refers to the Dionysian Mysteries and also mentions Roman Emperors Valerian and Gallienus. It has been found on a large stele that was used as construction material during the building of the Great Basilica.


title: History of submarines

text: The history of the submarine spans the entire history of human endeavour as mankind has since early civilisation sought to explore and travel under the sea. Humanity has employed a variety of methods to travel underwater for exploration, recreation, research and significantly warfare. While early attempts, such as those by Alexander the Great, were rudimentary, the advent of new propulsion systems, fuels, and sonar, propelled an increase in submarine technology. The introduction of the diesel engine, then the nuclear submarine, saw great expansion in submarine use - and specifically military use - during World War I, World War II, and the Cold War. The Second World War use of the U-Boat by the German Navy against the Royal Navy and commercial shipping, and the Cold War's use of submarines by the United States and Russia, helped solidify the submarine's place in popular culture. The latter conflicts also saw an increasing role for the military submarine as a tool of subterfuge, hidden warfare, and nuclear deterrent. The military use of submarines continues to this day, predominantly by North Korea, China, the United States and Russia.


title: History of submarines

text: Beyond their use in warfare, submarines continue to have recreational and scientific uses. They are heavily employed in the exploration of the sea bed, and the deepest places of the ocean floor. They are used extensively in search and rescue operations for other submarines, surface vessels, and air craft, and offer a means to descend vast depths beyond the reach of scuba diving for both exploration and recreation. They remains a focus of popular culture and the subject of numerous books and films.


title: History of submarines

text: The concept of underwater combat has roots deep in antiquity. There are images of men using hollow sticks to breathe underwater for hunting at the temples at Thebes, but the first known military use occurred during the siege of Syracuse (415–413 BC), where divers cleared obstructions, according to the "History of the Peloponnesian War". At the siege of Tyre (332 BC), Alexander the Great used divers, according to Aristotle. Later legends suggested that Alexander descended into the sea using a primitive submersible in the form of a diving bell, as depicted in a 16th-century illustration in the works of the Mughal poet Amir Khusrau.


title: History of submarines

text: Although there were various plans for submersibles or submarines during the Middle Ages, the Englishman William Bourne designed one of the prototype submarines in 1578. This was to be a completely enclosed boat that could be submerged and rowed beneath the surface. Comprising a completely enclosed wooden vessel sheathed in waterproofed leather, it was to be submerged by using hand-operated wooden screw thread adjustable plungers pressing against flexible leather bags located at the sides to increase or decrease the volume of water to adjust the buoyancy of the craft. The sketch (left) suggests that the depth adjustment was utilizing a crankset projecting above the surface. There is no obvious accommodation for crew. In 1596 the Scottish mathematician and theologian John Napier wrote in his "Secret Inventions" the following: "These inventions besides devises of sayling under water with divers, other devises and strategems for harming of the enemyes by the Grace of God and worke of expert Craftsmen I hope to perform."


title: History of submarines

text: It is unclear whether or not Napier ever carried out his plans. Henry Briggs, who was professor of mathematics at Gresham College, London, and later at Oxford, was a friend of Napier, whom he visited in 1615 and 1616, and was also an acquaintance of Cornelius Van Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I of England, who designed and built the first successful submarine in 1620. Hence, it is not impossible that it was because of the interest taken by Napier in the submarine that Briggs came in touch with Drebbel.


title: History of submarines

text: Drebbel's submarine was propelled by oars. The precise nature of this submarine is unclear, it may be possible that it resembled a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the River Thames between 1620 and 1624. Of one of these tests Constantijn Huygens reports in his autobiography of 1651 the following:


title: History of submarines

text: On 18 October 1690, his son Constantijn Huygens, Jr. commented in his diary on how Drebbel was able to measure the depth to which his boat had descended (which was necessary to prevent the boat from sinking) utilizing a quicksilver barometer:


title: History of submarines

text: In order to solve the problem of the absence of oxygen, Drebbel was able to create oxygen out of saltpetre to refresh the air in his submarine. An indication of this can be found in Drebbel's own work: "On the Nature of the Elements" (1604), in the fifth chapter:


title: History of submarines

text: The introduction of Drebbel's submarine concept seemed beyond conventional expectations of what science was thought to have been capable of at the time. Commenting on the scientific basis of Drebbel's claims, renowned German astronomer Johannes Kepler was said to have remarked in 1607: "If [Drebbel] can create a new spirit, by means of which he can move and keep in motion his instrument without weights or propelling power, he will be Apollo in my opinion."


title: History of submarines

text: Although the first submersible vehicles were tools for exploring underwater, it did not take long for inventors to recognize their military potential. The strategic advantages of submarines were first set out by Bishop John Wilkins of Chester in "Mathematical Magick" in 1648:


title: History of submarines

text: Between 1690 and 1692, the French physicist Denis Papin designed and built two submarines. The first design (1690) was a strong and heavy metallic square box, equipped with an efficient pump that pumped air into the hull to raise the inner pressure. When the air pressure reached the required level, holes were opened to let in some water. This first machine was destroyed by accident. The second design (1692) had an oval shape and worked on similar principles. A water pump controlled the buoyancy of the machine. According to some sources, a spy of German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz called Haes reported that Papin had met with some success with his second design on the River Lahn.


title: History of submarines

text: By the mid 18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England. In 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft. A mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemen's Magazine reported that a similar design had been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion and stability could be applied.


title: History of submarines

text: The carpenter Yefim Nikonov built the first military submarine in 1720 by order of Tsar Peter the Great in Russia. Nikonov armed his submarine with "fire tubes", weapons akin to flame-throwers. The submarine was designed to approach an enemy vessel, put the ends of the "tubes" out of the water, and blow up the ship with a combustible mixture. In addition, Nikonov designed an airlock for aquanauts to come out of the submarine and to destroy the bilge of the ship. With the death of Peter I in January 1725, Nikonov lost his principal patron and the Admiralty withdrew support for the project.


title: History of submarines

text: The first American military submarine was in 1776, a hand-powered egg-shaped (or acorn-shaped) device designed by the American David Bushnell, to accommodate a single man. It was the first submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion. However, according to British naval historian Richard Compton-Hall, the problems of achieving neutral buoyancy would have rendered the vertical propeller of the "Turtle" useless. The route that "Turtle" had to take to attack its intended target, , was slightly across the tidal stream which would, in all probability, have resulted in Ezra Lee becoming exhausted. There are also no British records of an attack by a submarine during the war. In the face of these and other problems, Compton-Hall suggests that the entire story around the "Turtle" was fabricated as disinformation and morale-boosting propaganda, and that if Ezra Lee did carry out an attack, it was in a covered rowing boat rather than in "Turtle". Replicas of "Turtle" have been built to test the design. One replica ("Acorn"), constructed by Duke Riley and Jesse Bushnell (claiming to be a descendant of David Bushnell), used the tide to get within of the in New York City (a police boat stopped "Acorn" for violating a security zone).


title: History of submarines

text: Displays of replicas of "Turtle" which acknowledge its place in history appear in the Connecticut River Museum, the U.S. Navy's Submarine Force Library and Museum, Britain's Royal Navy Submarine Museum and Monaco's Oceanographic Museum.


title: History of submarines

text: In 1800, the French Navy built a human-powered submarine designed by Robert Fulton, the . It also had a sail for use on the surface and so exhibited the first known use of dual propulsion on a submarine. It proved capable of using mines to destroy two warships during demonstrations. The French eventually gave up on the experiment in 1804, as did the British, when Fulton later offered them the submarine design.


title: History of submarines

text: The "Submarino Hipopótamo", the first submarine built in South America, underwent testing in Ecuador on September 18, 1837. Its designer, Jose Rodriguez Lavandera, successfully crossed the Guayas River in Guayaquil accompanied by Jose Quevedo. Rodriguez Lavandera had enrolled in the Ecuadorian Navy in 1823, becoming a Lieutenant by 1830. The "Hipopotamo" crossed the Guayas on two more occasions, but it was abandoned because of lack of funding and interest from the government.


title: History of submarines

text: In 1851 a Bavarian artillery corporal, Wilhelm Bauer, took a submarine designed by him called the "Brandtaucher" (fire-diver) to sea in Kiel Harbour. Built by August Howaldt and powered by a treadwheel, "Brandtaucher" sank, but the crew of three managed to escape.


title: History of submarines

text: During the American Civil War both sides made use of submarines. Examples were the , for the Union, and the "Hunley", for the Confederacy. The "Hunley" was the first submarine to successfully attack and sink an opposing warship. (see below)


title: History of submarines

text: In 1863 the was built by the German American engineer Julius H. Kroehl, and featured a pressurized work chamber for the crew to exit and enter underwater. This pre-figured modern diving arrangements such as the lock-out dive chamber, though the problems of decompression sickness were not well understood at the time. After its public maiden dive in 1866, the "Sub Marine Explorer" was used for pearl diving off the coast of Panama. It was capable of diving deeper than , deeper than any other submarine built before.


title: History of submarines

text: The Chilean government commissioned the in 1865, during the Chincha Islands War (1864–1866) when Chile and Peru fought against Spain. Built by the German engineer Karl Flach, the submarine sank during tests in Valparaiso Bay on May 3, 1866, with the entire eleven-man crew.


title: History of submarines

text: During the War of the Pacific in 1879, the Peruvian government commissioned and built a submarine, the "Toro Submarino" design by the Peruvian engineer and built in Paita, Peru. It is considered the first operational submarine or submersible in Latin America. With 48 feet long (15 meters) and manually operate by a crew of 11 persons, it could sumerge to a depth of 12 ft (3.7 m) with a ventilation system a speed of 3 knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph) and a maximum dive of 72 feet (22 meters). Being fully operational, waiting for its opportunity to attack with naval mines during the Blockade of Callao, it was scuttled to avoid its capture by Chilean troops on January 17, 1881, before the imminent occupation of Lima.


title: History of submarines

text: The first submarine that did not rely on human power for propulsion was the French Navy submarine "Plongeur", launched in 1863, and equipped with a reciprocating engine using compressed air from 23 tanks at . In practice, the submarine was virtually unmanageable underwater, with very poor speed and maneouverability.


title: History of submarines

text: The first air independent and combustion powered submarine was the "Ictineo II", designed by the Catalan engineer Narcís Monturiol. Originally launched in 1864 as a human-powered vessel, propelled by 16 men, it was converted to peroxide propulsion and steam in 1867. The craft was designed for a crew of two, could dive to , and demonstrated dives of two hours. On the surface, it ran on a steam engine, but underwater such an engine would quickly consume the submarine's oxygen. To solve this problem, Monturiol invented an air-independent propulsion system. As the air-independent power system drove the screw, the chemical process driving it also released oxygen into the hull for the crew and an auxiliary steam engine. Apart from being mechanically powered, Monturiol's pioneering double-hulled vessels also solved pressure, buoyancy, stability, diving and ascending problems that earlier designs had encountered.


title: History of submarines

text: The submarine became a potentially viable weapon with the development of the first practical self-propelled torpedoes. The Whitehead torpedo was the first such weapon, and was designed in 1866 by British engineer Robert Whitehead. His 'mine ship' was an long, diameter torpedo propelled by compressed air and carried an explosive warhead. The device had a speed of and could hit a target away. Many naval services procured the Whitehead torpedo during the 1870s and it first proved itself in combat during the Russo-Turkish War when, on 16 January 1878, the Turkish ship "Intibah" was sunk by Russian torpedo boats carrying Whiteheads.


title: History of submarines

text: During the 1870s and 1880s, the basic contours of the modern submarine began to emerge, through the inventions of the English inventor and curate, George Garrett, and his industrialist financier Thorsten Nordenfelt, and the Irish inventor John Philip Holland.


title: History of submarines

text: In 1878, Garrett built a long hand-cranked submarine of about 4.5 tons, which he named the "Resurgam". This was followed by the second (and more famous) "Resurgam" of 1879, built by Cochran & Co. at Birkenhead, England. The construction was of iron plates fastened to iron frames, with the central section of the vessel clad with wood secured by iron straps. As built, it was long by in diameter, weighed , and had a crew of 3. "Resurgam" was powered by a closed cycle steam engine, which provided enough steam to turn the single propeller for up to 4 hours. It was designed to have positive buoyancy, and diving was controlled by a pair of hydroplanes amidships. At the time it cost £1,538.


title: History of submarines

text: Although his design was not very practical – the steam boiler generated intense heat in the cramped confines of the vessel, and it lacked longitudinal stability – it caught the attention of the Swedish industrialist Thorsten Nordenfelt. Discussions between the two led to the first practical steam-powered submarines, armed with torpedoes and ready for military use.


title: History of submarines

text: The first such boat was the "Nordenfelt I", a 56 tonne, vessel similar to Garret's ill-fated "Resurgam", with a range of , armed with a single torpedo, in 1885. Like "Resurgam", "Nordenfelt I" operated on the surface by steam, then shut down its engine to dive. While submerged, the submarine released pressure generated when the engine was running on the surface to provide propulsion for some distance underwater. Greece, fearful of the return of the Ottomans, purchased it. Nordenfelt commissioned the Barrow Shipyard in England in 1886 to build "Nordenfelt II" () and "Nordenfelt III" ("Abdül Mecid") in 1887. They were powered by a coal-fired Lamm steam engine turning a single screw, and carried two 356mm torpedo tubes and two 35mm machine guns. They were loaded with a total of 8 tons of coal as fuel and could dive to a depth of . It was 30.5m long and 6m wide, and weighed 100 tons. It carried a normal crew of 7. It had a maximum surface speed of , and a maximum speed of while submerged. "Abdülhamid" became the first submarine in history to fire a torpedo submerged.


title: History of submarines

text: Nordenfelt's efforts culminated in 1887 with "Nordenfelt IV", which had twin motors and twin torpedoes. It was sold to the Russians, but soon ran aground and was scrapped. Garrett and Nordenfelt made significant advances in constructing the first modern, militarily capable submarines and fired up military and popular interest around the world for this new technology. However, the solution to fundamental technical problems, such as propulsion, quick submergence, and the maintenance of balance underwater was still lacking, and would only be solved in the 1890s.


title: History of submarines

text: A reliable means of propulsion for submerged vessels was only made possible in the 1880s with the advent of the necessary electric battery technology. The first electrically powered submarines were built by the Polish engineer Stefan Drzewiecki in 1881, he designed and constructed the world’s first submarine in Russia, and later other engineers used his design in their constructions, they were James Franklin Waddington and the team of James Ash and Andrew Campbell in England, Dupuy de Lôme and Gustave Zédé in France and Isaac Peral in Spain.


title: History of submarines

text: In 1884, Drzewiecki converted 2 mechanical submarines, installing in each a engine with a new, at the time, source of energy – batteries. In tests, the submarines travelled under the water against the flow of the Neva River at a rate of . They were the first submarines in the world with electric propulsion. Ash and Campbell constructed their craft, the "Nautilus", in 1886. It was long with a engine powered by 52 batteries. It was an advanced design for the time, but became stuck in the mud during trials and was discontinued. Waddington's "Porpoise" vessel showed more promise. Waddington had formerly worked in the shipyard in which Garrett had been active. Waddington's vessel was similar in size to the "Resurgam" and its propulsion system used 45 accumulator cells with a capacity of 660 ampere hours each. These were coupled in series to a motor driving a propeller at about 750 rpm, giving the ship a sustained speed of for at least 8 hours. The boat was armed with two externally mounted torpedoes as well as a mine torpedo that could be detonated electronically. Although the boat performed well in trials, Waddington was unable to attract further contracts and went bankrupt.


title: History of submarines

text: In France, the early electric submarines "Goubet I" and "Goubet II" were built by the civil engineer, Claude Goubet. These boats were also unsuccessful, but they inspired the renowned naval architect Dupuy de Lôme to begin work on his submarine – an advanced electric-powered submarine almost 20 metres long. He didn't live to see his design constructed, but the craft was completed by Gustave Zédé in 1888 and named the . It was one of the first truly successful electrically powered submarines, and was equipped with an early periscope and an electric gyrocompass for navigation. It completed over 2,000 successful dives using a 204-cell battery. Although the "Gymnote" was scrapped for its limited range, its side hydroplanes became the standard for future submarine designs.