title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: In 2017, the Toyota Gazoo Racing Factory, which had been developing motorsport vehicles, was reorganized and the "Gazoo Racing Company" was established. As an in-house company, it strengthened its independence and contributed to Toyota's car making by feeding back the knowledge gained in the race to road cars, and the direction to secure profitability was decided. The sports conversion brand was reorganized into the GR series ("GRMN", "GR", "GR Sport/GR-S" and "GR Parts"), and the "GR Garage", which is a regional base, was set up at dealers in each region.


title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: In 2019, the GR Supra, the first GR brand-exclusive car, was released. The GR Supra shares a platform with the BMW Z4 (G29) and is produced under contract by Magna Steyr in Austria.


title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: In 2020, the GR Yaris, the second GR-branded car, and the first produced by Toyota, was launched. It is produced at the "GR Factory" inside the Motomachi plant, a production line dedicated to GR-branded vehicles. Unlike most automobile plants, the "GR Factory" does not use a conveyor belt assembly line, instead vehicles are built at stations with more manual assembly processes. The "GR Factory" employs experienced technicians recruited from throughout the company.


title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: In 2021, the GR86, the third GR-branded car, was introduced. The vehicle is the second generation of the 86 sports car, which are jointly developed with Subaru, and produced Subaru's Gunma assembly plant.


title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: In 2022, the GR Corolla, the fourth GR-branded car, and the second produced by Toyota, was unveiled. Built mainly for the North American market, the GR Corolla will be produced at the "GR Factory" alongside the GR Yaris, which is not sold in North America.


title: Toyota Gazoo Racing

text: Gazoo Racing is involved in the creation of vehicles in three categories. GR models are bespoke vehicles, GR Sport models are more entry-level conversions of existing models, and GRMN ("Gazoo Racing, tuned by the Meister of the Nürburgring") models are the top of the line, limited production conversions of existing models, including GR vehicles.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: Semi-formal wear or half dress is a grouping of dress codes indicating the sort of clothes worn to events with a level of formality between informal wear and formal wear. In the modern era, the typical interpretation for men is black tie for evening wear and black lounge suit for day wear, corresponded by either a pant suit or an evening gown for women.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: Whether one would choose to wear morning or evening semi-formal has traditionally been defined by whether the event will commence before or after 6:00 p.m.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: In addition, equivalent versions may be permitted such as ceremonial dresses (including court dresses, diplomatic uniforms and academic dresses), religious clothing, and national costumes, and military mess dresses.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: For evening wear (after 6 p.m.), the code is black tie. In formal evening dress, or white tie dress, this practice of substituting colors in ties is much less common since men's fashion tends to follow tradition more deeply as it becomes more formal.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: The origins of evening semi-formal attire date back to the later 19th century when Edward, Prince of Wales (subsequently Edward VII), wanted a more comfortable dinner attire than the swallowtail coat.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: In spring 1886, the Prince invited James Potter, a rich New Yorker, and his wife Cora to Sandringham House, the Prince's hunting estate in Norfolk. When Potter asked for the Prince's dinner dress code, the Prince sent him to his tailor, Henry Poole & Co., in London, where he was given a suit made to the Prince's specifications with the dinner jacket.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: On returning to Tuxedo Park, New York, in 1886, Potter's dinner suit proved popular at the Tuxedo Park Club. Not long afterward, when a group of men from the club chose to wear such suits to a dinner at Delmonico's Restaurant in New York City, other diners were surprised. They were told that such clothing was popular at Tuxedo Park, so the particular cut then became known as the "tuxedo".


title: Semi-formal wear

text: From its creation into the 1920s, this dinner jacket was considered appropriate dress for dining in one's home or club, while the tailcoat remained in place as appropriate for public appearance.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: For formal dining, uniformed services officers and non-commissioned officers often wear mess dress equivalents to the civilian black tie and evening dress. Mess uniforms may vary according to the wearers' respective branches of the armed services, regiments, or corps, but usually include a short Eton-style coat reaching to the waist. Some include white shirts, black bow ties, and low-cut waistcoats, while others feature high collars that fasten around the neck and corresponding high-gorge waistcoats. Some nations' armed services have black tie and white tie equivalent variants in their mess dress.


title: Semi-formal wear

text: In tropical areas, primarily in Western diplomatic and expatriate communities, Red Sea rig is sometimes worn, in which the jacket and waistcoat are omitted and a red cummerbund and trousers with red piping are worn instead.


title: Police use of firearms in the United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom is made up of four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales (which make up Great Britain), and Northern Ireland. In Northern Ireland, all police officers carry firearms. In the rest of the United Kingdom, only some police officers carry firearms; that duty is instead carried out by specially-trained firearms officers. This originates from the formation of the Metropolitan Police Service in the 19th century, when police were not armed, partly to counter public fears and objections over armed enforcers as this had been previously seen due to the British Army maintaining order when needed. The arming of police in Great Britain is a perennial topic of debate.


text: However, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (formerly the Royal Ulster Constabulary), Northern Ireland Security Guard Service, Ministry of Defence Police, Civil Nuclear Constabulary, Belfast Harbour Police, Belfast International Airport Constabulary, and some of the Specialist Operations units of the Metropolitan Police involved in firearms and counter-terrorism policing are all issued firearms as a matter of routine. Every force also has a firearms unit, with armed response vehicles.


text: In relation to specialist firearms officers, in the year 2011–12, there were 6,756 Authorised Firearms Officers, 12,550 police operations in which firearms were authorised throughout England and Wales and five incidents where conventional firearms were used.


text: The vast majority of officers are instead issued with other items for personal defence, such as speedcuffs, extendable "ASP" batons, and incapacitant sprays such as PAVA or CS spray. While not firearms, incapacitant sprays are subject to some of the same rules and regulations as a projectile firing firearm under Section 5 (b) of the Firearms Act 1968.


text: Since 2004, police forces have issued Tasers to Authorised Firearms Officers for use against armed assailants which are considered by the authorities to be a less-lethal alternative to conventional firearms.


text: The Irish Constabulary (later known as the Royal Irish Constabulary), the police force in Ireland from 1822 until 1922, when the country was part of the United Kingdom, was a paramilitary force. Its members were armed with carbines and sword bayonets.


text: Male members of Northern Ireland's police force, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), were armed from the beginning due to the threat from the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The first female members were armed in 1993. Firearms were used routinely by the RUC during The Troubles, and a number of people were killed by RUC firearms or plastic bullets during that time. In 2001 the RUC became the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI). It remained an armed police force, partly due to the continued threat from dissident Irish republicanism. Today, the PSNI have wide-ranging anti-terrorism powers through various acts of parliament not available elsewhere in the UK. Police officers at PSNI have access to a wide range of weapons, which include firearms, CS spray, water cannon, attenuating energy projectiles and tasers.


text: Northern Ireland also has a ballistics register, which covers both police and civilian-held firearms. It is mandated that during registration, all weapons undergo test firing and that the fired bullet and cartridge case must be stored by the police for the purpose of forensic examination. This is in the event that the weapon is used in a crime or when determining lawful shooting for police officers.


text: There is an emerging view that the exceptionalism of the Northern Ireland police force is already fading. This is, however, not due to changes at PSNI but on account of the increasing adoption of its policing methods and practices in the rest of the UK.


text: Police use of firearms in Great Britain has been tightly limited and controversial as senior officers want forces to retain a "British Bobby" or Dixon of Dock Green effect on the community, policing by respect and consent rather than at the point of a gun. In Great Britain during the Second World War, firearms were only carried while protecting 10 Downing Street and the Royal Family, but police were given many firearms in case of invasion. They were never taken on general patrol, partly because a revolver was usually issued without a holster, as holsters were in short supply because of the war. Training for the Webley & Scott revolvers usually consisted of firing six shots and to pass, it was required that three shots had to be on target although loading of the actual weapon was not taught.


text: On 26 May 1940, Scotland Yard issued a memorandum detailing the Metropolitan Police use of firearms in wartime. It was decided that even though the police was non-combatant, they would provide armed guards at sites deemed a risk from enemy sabotage, and would assist the British Armed Forces in the event of an invasion. On 1 June 1940, 3,500 Ross Rifles, which had last seen service in 1916, and 72,384 rounds of .303 ammunition were received from the military and were distributed among Police divisions. Rifles were also issued to the Port of London Authority Police.


text: In 1948, after the Second World War, concerns were aired by the Home Office of the police force's role in another war or nuclear attack, to combat this it was decided that some of the forces would be lent Sten Guns by the Ministry of Defence and a number of Lee–Enfield No4 Mk 2s. These, along with revolvers and ammunition, were kept in secret depots around the United Kingdom, so every force had the weapons close and could get access to them when and if the time should come.


text: Historically, officers on night patrols in some London divisions were frequently armed with Webley revolvers. These were introduced following the murder of two officers in 1884, although individual officers were able to choose whether to carry the weapons. Armed police were rare by the turn of the century, and were retired formally in July 1936. However, after the Battle of Stepney in 1911, Webley semi-automatics were issued to officers. From 1936, firearms could only be issued by a sergeant with good reason, and only then to officers who had been trained in their use.


text: The issue of routine arming in Great Britain was raised after the 1952 Derek Bentley case, in which a constable was shot dead and a sergeant severely wounded, and again after the 1966 Massacre of Braybrook Street, in which three London officers were killed. As a result, around 17% of officers in London became authorised to carry firearms. After the deaths of a number of members of the public in the 1980s fired upon by police, control was considerably tightened, many officers had their firearm authorisation revoked, and training for the remainder was greatly improved. As of 2005, around 7% of officers in London are trained in the use of firearms. Firearms are also only issued to an officer under strict guidelines.


text: To allow armed officers to respond rapidly to an incident, most forces have patrolling Armed Response Vehicles (ARVs). ARVs were modelled on the Instant Response Cars introduced by the West Yorkshire Police in 1976, and were first introduced in London in 1991, with 132 armed deployments being made that year.


text: Although largely attributable to a significant increase in the use of imitation firearms and air weapons, the overall increase in firearms crime between 1998/99 and 2002/03 (it has been decreasing since 2003/04, although use of imitations continued to rise) has kept this issue in the spotlight. In October 2000, Nottinghamshire Police introduced regular armed patrols to the St Ann's and Meadows estates in Nottingham, in response to fourteen drug-related shootings in the two areas in the previous year. Although the measure was not intended to be permanent, patrols were stepped up in late 2001 after further shootings, after which the firearms crime declined dramatically.


text: In September 2004, the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Office approved the use of tasers throughout England and Wales by Authorised Firearms Officers following a trial. In November 2008, the Home Secretary approved the use of tasers throughout England and Wales for all officers, lifting the Authorised Firearms Officer restriction, with officers who receive training and carry a taser known as 'specially trained units' (STU's).


text: In 2010, following the serious injury of an unarmed officer in a knife attack, the chairman of the Police Memorial Trust, Michael Winner stated that he had put up memorials to 44 officers and that he believed, "It is almost certain that at least 38 of those <nowiki>[Police Officers]</nowiki> would be alive had they been armed". In response, chairman of the Metropolitan Police Federation Peter Smyth said, "A lot of police officers don't want to be armed. We don't want a call to arms, I don't think that's necessary."


text: In 2013, Police Scotland was formed with the inaugural Chief Constable granting a standing authority for ARV officers to overtly wear handguns, instead of being secured or concealed, and to deploy their weapons without requiring approval and also to be tasked for routine incidents (non-firearms incidents). A survey conducted by the Scottish Police Authority showed that 53% of the public supported sending ARV officers to routine calls and incidents while wearing a visible sidearm.


text: In May 2014, the Firearms Act 1968 was amended to recognise the British Transport Police (BTP) as a police force under the Act in order to provide BTP a firearms licensing exemption the same as other police forces. BTP had, since armed policing commenced in February 2012, required an Authorised Firearms Officer (AFO) to apply to their local police force in a private capacity for a firearms certificate to enable them to perform the AFO role.


text: In February 2015, "The Times" reported that most forces in England and Wales dispatch armed officers to domestic incidents and other routine police call-outs based on information released under Freedom of Information laws; of the 43 police forces sent a request by the "Times", half gave only partial information or rejected requests outright.


text: Surveys by the Police Federation of England and Wales have continued to show police officers' considerable resistance to routine arming. Although in the Federation's most recent (2017) Officer/Arming survey, 66% of respondents were against the routine arming of police compared to 82% in 2006. Furthermore, 42.5% of respondents wanted firearms not to be issued routinely to all officers, but for more officers to receive training and issued firearms as needed.


text: The use of firearms by the police in England and Wales is covered by statute (such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and the Human Rights Act 1998), policy (such as the Home Office "Code of Practice on Police use of Firearms and Less Lethal Weapons" and the ACPO "Manual of Guidance on Police Use of Firearms") and common law.


text: AFOs may only carry firearms when authorised by an "appropriate authorising officer". The appropriate authorising officer must be of the rank of Inspector or higher. When working at airports, nuclear sites, on Protection Duties and deployed in Armed Response Vehicles in certain areas, 'Standing Authority' is granted to carry personal sidearms. All members of the Police Service of Northern Ireland have authority to carry a personal issue handgun as a matter of routine, both on duty and off. In all forces, use of other weapons such as semi-automatic carbines requires further training and authorisation. Semi-automatic carbines are stored in a locked armoury inside Armed Response Vehicles. Equipping of semi-automatic carbines rests on a judgment of the AFO.


text: United Kingdom law allows the use of "reasonable force" to make an arrest or prevent a crime or to defend oneself. If the force used is fatal, then the European Convention of Human Rights only allows "the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary". Firearms officers may therefore only discharge their weapons "to stop an imminent threat to life".


text: ACPO policy states that "use" of a firearm includes both pointing it at a person and discharging it (whether accidentally or negligently, or intentionally).


text: As with all use of force in England and Wales, the onus is on the individual officer to justify their actions in court.


text: Different police forces use a variety of firearms. Although for forces in England and Wales, guidance is provided from ACPO and the Home Office decisions on what weapons will be employed by an individual force largely rest with the Chief Constable.


text: In Northern Ireland, the PSNI issues all of its police officers with the Glock 17 pistol, and allows its officers to carry their issue sidearm off-duty.


text: According to an October 2005 article in "The Independent", in the preceding 12 years, 30 people had been shot dead by police. Many police shootings in the UK were carried out by the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) during the Troubles in Northern Ireland (1960s–1990s). During the conflict, RUC officers killed 56 people in shooting incidents, including at least 30 civilians and at least 20 members of paramilitary groups.


text: The national media has criticised the policies of police forces which they have deemed "shoot to kill." Police firearms training teaches the use and discharge of firearms to "remove the threat" rather than to kill. Following the 11 September 2001 attacks new guidelines were developed for identifying, confronting, and dealing forcefully with terrorist suspects. These guidelines were given the code name "Operation Kratos".


text: Based in part on advice from the security forces of Israel and Sri Lanka—two countries with experience of suicide bombings—Operation Kratos guidelines allegedly state that the head or lower limbs should be aimed at when a suspected suicide bomber appears to have no intention of surrendering. This is contrary to the usual practice of aiming at the torso, which presents the biggest target, as a hit to the torso may detonate an explosive belt.


text: Sir Ian Blair appeared on television 24 July 2005 to accept responsibility for the error on the part of the Metropolitan Police in shooting Jean Charles de Menezes, mistakenly identified as a suicide bomber three days prior, and to acknowledge and defend the policy, saying that "There is no point in shooting at someone's chest because that is where the bomb is likely to be. There is no point in shooting anywhere else if they fall down and detonate it."


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: The Battle of Loudoun Hill was fought on 10 May 1307, between a Scots force led by King Robert the Bruce and the English commanded by Aymer de Valence, Earl of Pembroke. It took place beneath Loudoun Hill, in Ayrshire, and ended in a victory for King Robert. It was the king's first major military victory. The battlefield is currently under research to be included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: King Robert the Bruce and Valence had first met in combat the previous year at the Battle of Methven just outside Perth where Valence's night time surprise attack had brought the king to the edge of disaster. Robert's army virtually disintegrated under Valence's rapid onslaught, with many of the king's leading supporters falling in battle or being executed as prisoners. What was left of his force was mauled for a second time soon after this by the Macdougalls of Lorn, allies of the English, at the Battle of Dalrigh. As an organised military force the army of Scotland ceased to exist, and the king took to the heather as a fugitive.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: For a time he took refuge in Dunaverty Castle near the Mull of Kintyre, but with his enemies closing in once more, he sought refuge on Rathlin Island near the coast of Ulster, according to some, and the Orkney Isles, according to others.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: In February 1307 King Robert crossed from the island of Arran in the Firth of Clyde to his own earldom of Carrick, in Ayrshire, landing near Turnberry, where he knew the local people would be sympathetic, but where all the strongholds were held by the English. He attacked the town of Turnberry where many English soldiers were garrisoned inflicting many deaths and gaining a substantial amount of loot. A similar landing by his brothers Thomas and Alexander in Galloway met with disaster on the shores of Loch Ryan at the hands of Dungal MacDouall, the principal Balliol adherent in the region. Thomas and Alexander's army of Irish and Islemen was destroyed, and they were sent as captives to Carlisle, where they were later executed on the orders of Edward I. King Robert established himself in the hill country of Carrick and Galloway.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: King Robert had learned well the sharp lesson delivered at Methven: never again would he allow himself to be trapped by a stronger enemy. His greatest weapon was his intimate knowledge of the Scottish countryside, which he used to his advantage. As well as making good use of the country's natural defences, he made sure that his force was as mobile as possible. King Robert was now fully aware that he could rarely expect to get the better of the English in open battle. His army was often weak in numbers and ill-equipped. It would be best used in small hit-and-run raids, allowing the best use of limited resources. He would keep the initiative and prevent the enemy from bringing his superior strength to bear. Whenever possible, crops would be destroyed and livestock removed from the path of the enemy's advance, denying him fresh supplies and fodder for the heavy war horses. Most important of all, King Robert recognised the seasonal nature of English invasions, which swept over the country like summer tides, only to withdraw before the onset of winter.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: King Robert won his first small success at Glen Trool, where he ambushed an English force led by Aymer de Valence, attacking from above with boulders and archers and driving them off with heavy losses. He then passed through the moors by Dalmellington to Muirkirk, appearing in the north of Ayrshire in early May, where his army was strengthened by fresh recruits. Here he soon encountered Aymer de Valence, commanding the main English force in the area. In preparing to meet him he took up a position on 10 May on a plain south of Loudoun Hill, some 500 yards wide and bounded on either side by deep morasses.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: Bruce scouted the ground and made the necessary preparations. John Barbour describes his actions in his rhyming chronicle:


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: The lines in Barbour also indicate that King Robert dug three ditches in front of his men which the English would have to struggle past.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: Valence's only approach was over the highway through the bog, where the parallel ditches the king's men dug outwards from the marsh restricted his room for deployment, with the ditches in front of the Scots impeding him still further, effectively neutralizing his advantage in numbers. Valence was forced to attack along a narrowly constricted front upwards towards the waiting enemy spears. It was a battle reminiscent in some ways of Stirling Bridge, with the same 'filtering' effect at work.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: A frontal charge by the English knights was stopped by the king's spearmen militia, who effectively slaughtered them as they were on unfavourable ground, thus the militia soon defeated the knights. As the king's spearmen pressed downhill on the disorganised knights, they fought with such vigour that the rear ranks of the English began to flee in panic. A hundred or more were killed in the battle, while Aymer de Valence managed to escape the carnage and fled to the safety of Bothwell Castle.


title: Battle of Loudoun Hill

text: Seven years after the Battle of Loudoun Hill, King Robert defeated another English force under Edward II at the pivotal Battle of Bannockburn.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: World Class Wreckin' Cru was an American electro group, during the 1980s in the Los Angeles area, that contributed to rap's development. Two of its members, Dr. Dre and DJ Yella, attained greater fame as members of N.W.A, which pioneered gangsta rap. A song by the Cru had also featured R&B singer Michel'le.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: World Class Wreckin' Cru debuted in the nightclub Eve After Dark, owned by Alonzo Williams, an early West Coast DJ very popular in the Los Angeles area. In the 1970s, Williams had begun producing dance songs under the name Disco Construction, named after funk group Brass Construction. At his songs' popularity, Williams arranged nightclub performances. Initially directing its music program was Detroit-born Andre "Unknown DJ" Manuel, influenced by East Coast sounds, like Soulsonic Force, Orbit, and Scorpio.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: As the 1980s opened, electronic funk arrived, sampling drum beats and borrowing from old-school rap. Disco Construction created a subgroup, the Wreckin' Cru, which was the Lonzos' roadies. Later, this honorific prefix "World Class" signified a recording group. Lonzo hired two local DJs—Antoine "Yella" Carraby and Andre "Dr. Dre" Young—who became the original Mix Masters for KDAY. Wreckin' Cru performed in various shows elsewhere in Los Angeles, too, including shows promoted by Lonzo as well as opening for New Edition.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: Alonzo Williams created the label "Kru-cut" which began releasing The Wreckin' Cru music through the mid-1980s with very minimal resources through Macola Records", a local independent record manufacturing and distributing company. The Cru released the single "Slice", followed by "Surgery" and a full-length album titled "World Class". The success of their early releases led to a major record deal with CBS/Epic Records. After being signed to CBS records Lonzo was asked if he had any other acts. After seeing Dre's cousin Jinx' group perform in a rap contest, a teenage group called C.I.A. (Cru' In Action) starring O'Shea "Ice Cube" Jackson, Dre's cousin Tony ‘Sir Jinx’ Wheaton and Darrell ‘K-Dee’ Johnson, who with Dre would record a demo tape called "She's a Skag". The group was then signed to a single deal with CBS.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: After being released from CBS the WCWC had the group's biggest hit, "Turn off The Lights." WCWC, known as a dance and romance act, also had songs like "Surgery," "Juice," "Cabbage Patch," and "Lovers."


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: By 1985 Kru-Cut had produced World Class’ debut album, "World Class", with Cli-N-Tel leaving to control his own direction in life, leaving Shakespeare to step up to be the prominent MC as they signed with Epic Records. With this they released a string of singles and also their second album, "Rapped In Romance".


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: World Class's success was building an army of fans in the underground scene and each member a valued reputation. At this stage the look of Prince and Michael Jackson's Thriller outfits were cool, glitzy purple leather suits, sequin suits not unlike the glam-rock look running parallel to this scene, Dre was growing tired of the image and considered Lonzo's direction to be soft and yearned to control his own expression in music.


title: World Class Wreckin' Cru

text: At this time, Dre was working on side projects for local entrepreneur Eric "Eazy-E" Wright in the Kru-Cut studio, and Ice Cube was ghostwriting for the World Class single "House Calls/Cabbage Patch" in 1987. In April 1988, featuring Michel'le, Dre's girlfriend, their hit slow jam """Before You Turn off the Lights""" peaked at #54 on the Billboard Black Singles Charts. The last time Dre was arrested and jailed for missed court appearances on multiple traffic violations was in 1986, when he owed $166, enough for an arrest warrant, and Lonzo refused to bail him out a third time. Eazy-E posted it in return for Dre's production for E's new record label, Ruthless Records. Eazy and Dre's combined collaboration of talent known as N.W.A. As a solo artist, Lonzo released another LP, titled "Phases in Life", in 1990. World Class member Shakespeare sought to become a pastor.


title: Georgian Dream

text: Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia (, "Kartuli ocneba – Demok’rat’iuli Sakartvelo") is a social democratic political party in Georgia. The party was established on 19 April 2012 by the billionaire businessman Bidzina Ivanishvili. Georgian Dream and its partners in a coalition also named Georgian Dream won majorities in the 2012, 2016, and 2020 general elections. The party is currently led by Irakli Kobakhidze as Party Chairman and Irakli Garibashvili as Prime Minister.


title: Georgian Dream

text: The party evolved from the public movement Georgian Dream, launched by Ivanishvili as a platform for his political activities in December 2011. Since Ivanishvili was not a Georgian citizen at the moment of the party's inaugural session, the lawyer Manana Kobakhidze was elected as an interim, nominal chairman of the Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia. The party also includes several notable Georgians such as the politician Sozar Subari, former diplomat Tedo Japaridze, chess grandmaster Zurab Azmaiparashvili, security commentator Irakli Sesiashvili, writer Guram Odisharia and famed footballer Kakha Kaladze.


title: Georgian Dream

text: The party successfully challenged the ruling United National Movement (UNM) in the 2012 parliamentary election, pledging to increase welfare spending and pursue a more pragmatic foreign policy with Russia. It won this election in coalition with six other opposition parties, with 54.97% of the vote, being allotted 85 seats in parliament. The governing UNM took 40.34%. President Mikheil Saakashvili conceded that his party lost, and pledged to support the constitutional process of forming a new government.


title: Georgian Dream

text: On 25 October 2012, Bidzina Ivanishvili was elected as the prime minister of Georgia. During this period, the State Universal Healthcare Program came into force (making emergency surgeries and childbirth free of charge), the reform of the system of self-governance was initiated and the project on saving agriculture was developed. In November 2013, Ivanishvili voluntarily stepped down as prime minister after just 13 months in office, saying that he was quitting the political arena.


title: Georgian Dream

text: In October 2013, Giorgi Margvelashvili, a member of the Georgian Dream party, won presidential election, gaining 61.12% of the vote. He succeeded President Mikheil Saakashvili, who had served the maximum two terms since coming to power in the bloodless 2003 "Rose Revolution".


title: Georgian Dream

text: In April 2018 senior MP Gedevan Popkhadze threatened to quit the party for its endorsement of an opposition-nominated candidate, journalist Ninia Kakabadze to the supervisory board of the Georgian Public Broadcaster. Popkhadze criticized Kakabadze for being anti-religious. The incident is seen as an internal conflict between long-time GD members which joined the party while it was in opposition and a new group of members who were installed in high positions prior to the 2016 parliamentary elections. The news agency Democracy and Freedom Watch related the incident to the return of Bidzina Ivanishvili as chairman of the party later that month, which furthermore was perceived as a move to maintain the unity of the coalition.


title: Georgian Dream

text: In August 2018, Irakli Kobakhidze announced that the party would not nominate a candidate for the 2018 presidential elections. Instead it would support the independent candidate Salome Zourabichvili.


title: Georgian Dream

text: During the 2019 Georgian protests, the party was accused of being corrupt, covertly pro-Russian and subservient to Russian interests by a group of Georgian opposition parties who led the demonstrations. In late 2019 Facebook publicly announced that it removed from Facebook and Instagram a number of accounts and pages engaged in coordinated inauthentic behavior that sought to promote the Georgian Dream government. Analysts said that although Georgian Dream suffered a dip in popularity in the aftermath of the 2019 protests, its relatively successful handling of the COVID-19 pandemic led to a boost in popularity, which helped it to secure victory in the 2020 parliamentary election. However, accusations of electoral fraud by the Georgian opposition subsequently led to the six-month political crisis in Georgia.


title: Georgian Dream

text: On 11 January 2021, shortly after the election, Ivanishvili announced that he was decisively leaving politics and resigned as Chairman of Georgian Dream, stating that "he had accomplished his goal". Irakli Kobakhidze was elected as a new chairman of the party.


title: Georgian Dream

text: In February 2021, the Georgian Dream underwent split following the Giorgi Gakharia's unexpected resignation from the post of Prime Minister of Georgia. Gakharia cited disagreement with his party colleagues over enforcing an arrest order for Nika Melia, who was sent to pre-trial detention by the Court after he declined to pay bail. Melia, chairman of the opposition United National Movement party, was accused of organizing mass violence during the anti-government protests in 2019. Although Gakharia agreed that Melia's prosecution was lawful, he wanted to postpone Melia's arrest to avoid further political tensions between the government and the opposition. Gakharia also said that he no longer agreed with the positions of the Georgian Dream and he therefore was leaving the party. Several MPs from Georgian Dream joined him to form a new party For Georgia. The Georgian Dream party supported Irakli Garibashvili to replace Gakharia, and the Parliament voted 89–2 to appoint him as the next prime minister. Garibashvili had an earlier term as prime minister in 2013–2015, and was considered to be a close ally of Bidzina Ivanishvili, which led to speculations whether Ivanishvili continued to influence politics behind the scenes.


title: Georgian Dream

text: Even though the government and the opposition worked to bring an end to the political crisis in April 2021, the tensions remained high. In tense 2021 Georgian local elections, the Georgian Dream managed to secure victory, gaining 46.75% of the vote. The mayoral candidates of the Georgian Dream won in all municipalities except Tsalenjikha. However, the party lost majority in seven out of 64 municipal assemblies.


title: Georgian Dream

text: Like many parties of power, Georgian Dream lacks a clear ideology. The reasons were given for this range from the party's history as an all-encompassing front of people opposed to the UNM government to the standard opportunism associated with such parties. Levan Lortkipanidze, a political science student at Tbilisi State University, described it as "a party of nomenclature, public servants, 'intelligentsia', medium and large businessmen, and technocrats – a party, which is held together through loyalty to its charismatic leader and the opposition to the government of the 'Rose Revolution.'"


title: Georgian Dream

text: The party self-identifies as social democratic and names the creation of a welfare state as an objective. According to the Georgian Institute of Politics, Georgian Dream's economic policy comprises a combination of the pre-existing free market model, created by their predecessors, with a comprehensive centre-left safety net. The introduction of universal healthcare and insurance systems are often cited as the most successful policies implemented by the Georgian Dream. Nevertheless, it has been reported that a number of left-wing activists view the party as "ideologically amorphous". The Georgian Dream is registered as an observer with the Party of European Socialists.


title: Georgian Dream

text: The party's positions on social and cultural issues have been described as ambiguous and inconsistent. It has been reported that the party has both culturally liberal and conservative factions. The party has at times been described as liberal by leading party politicians such as Irakli Kobakhidze. During its first government, the party passed legislation against discrimination toward LGBT individuals, making Georgia the most LGBT-friendly country in the South Caucasus de jure. In 2017, the party's majority amended the constitution to define marriage as "a union between a woman and a man for the purpose of creating a family". According to the 2021 study by the Georgian Institute of Politics, on a number of issues, such as the legalization of soft drugs, selling agricultural land to foreigners, abolishing mandatory military service, providing sex education in high schools, teaching Orthodox Christianity and funding the Georgian Orthodox Church from the state budget, the Georgian Dream holds moderately conservative views, while it holds liberal positions on issues such as allowing ethnic minorities to receive state services in their own language.


title: Georgian Dream

text: In the field of foreign policy and security, the Georgian Dream supports the European integration, while also taking pragmatic approach to Russia. In December 2020, the Parliament of Georgia, attended only by the representatives of the "Georgian Dream", adopted a resolution declaring integration into the EU and NATO as Georgia's priorities "without alternative". The resolution also talks about strengthening the partnership with the UK, France, the Baltic countries and the Visegrad Group. The documents points at the "pragmatic and principled" policy towards Russia. Under the Georgian Dream leadership, Georgia has signed an Association Agreement and a Free Trade Agreement with the European Union.


title: Georgian Dream

text: Georgian Dream – Democratic Georgia was the leading member of the Georgian Dream Coalition, which initially included six political parties of diverse ideological orientations. The coalition was made up of parties ranging from pro-market and pro-western liberals to nationalists and protectionists, united in their dislike of Saakashvili and the United National Movement. The name of the alliance is inspired by a rap song by Ivanishvili's son Bera.


title: Peripheral vision

text: Peripheral vision, or "indirect vision", is vision as it occurs outside the point of fixation, i.e. away from the center of gaze or, when viewed at large angles, in (or out of) the "corner of one's eye". The vast majority of the area in the visual field is included in the notion of peripheral vision. "Far peripheral" vision refers to the area at the edges of the visual field, "mid-peripheral" vision refers to medium eccentricities, and "near-peripheral", sometimes referred to as "para-central" vision, exists adjacent to the center of gaze.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The inner boundaries of peripheral vision can be defined in any of several ways depending on the context. In everyday language the term "peripheral vision" is often used to refer to what in technical usage would be called "far peripheral vision." This is vision outside of the range of stereoscopic vision. It can be conceived as bounded at the center by a circle 60° in radius or 120° in diameter, centered around the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed. However, in common usage, peripheral vision may also refer to the area outside a circle 30° in radius or 60° in diameter. In vision-related fields such as physiology, ophthalmology, optometry, or vision science in general, the inner boundaries of peripheral vision are defined more narrowly in terms of one of several anatomical regions of the central retina, in particular the fovea and the macula.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The fovea is a cone-shaped depression in the central retina measuring 1.5 mm in diameter, corresponding to 5° of the visual field. The outer boundaries of the fovea are visible under a microscope, or with microscopic imaging technology such as OCT or microscopic MRI. When viewed through the pupil, as in an eye exam (using an ophthalmoscope or retinal photography), only the central portion of the fovea may be visible. Anatomists refer to this as the clinical fovea, and say that it corresponds to the anatomical foveola, a structure with a diameter of 0.35 mm corresponding to 1 degree of the visual field. In clinical usage the central part of the fovea is typically referred to simply as the fovea.


title: Peripheral vision

text: In terms of visual acuity, "foveal vision" may be defined as vision using the part of the retina in which a visual acuity of at least 20/20 (6/6 metric or 0.0 LogMAR; internationally 1.0) is attained. This corresponds to using the foveal avascular zone (FAZ) with a diameter of 0.5 mm representing 1.5° of the visual field. Although often idealized as perfect circles, the central structures of the retina tend to be irregular ovals. Thus, foveal vision may also be defined as the central 1.5–2° of the visual field. Vision within the fovea is generally called central vision, while vision outside of the fovea, or even outside the foveola, is called peripheral, or indirect vision.


title: Peripheral vision

text: A ring-shaped region surrounding the fovea, known as the parafovea, is sometimes taken to represent an intermediate form of vision called paracentral vision. The parafovea has an outer diameter of 2.5 mm representing 8° of the visual field.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The macula, the next larger region of the retina, is defined as having at least two layers of ganglia (bundles of nerves and neurons) and is sometimes taken as defining the boundaries of central vs. peripheral vision (but this is controversial). Estimates of the macula’s size differ, its diameter estimated at 6° – 10° (corresponding to 1.7 – 2.9 mm), up to 17° of the visual field (5.5 mm). The term is familiar in the general public through the widespread macular degeneration (AMD) at older age, where central vision is lost.


title: Peripheral vision

text: When viewed from the pupil, as in an eye exam, only the central portion of the macula may be visible. Known to anatomists as the clinical macula (and in clinical setting as simply the macula) this inner region is thought to correspond to the anatomical fovea.


title: Peripheral vision

text: A dividing line between near and mid peripheral vision at 30° radius can be based on several features of visual performance.


title: Peripheral vision

text: Visual acuity declines systematically up to 30° eccentricity: At 2°, acuity is half the foveal value, at 4° one-third, at 6° one-fourth etc. At 30°, it is one-sixteenth the foveal value. From thereon the decline is steeper. (Note that it would be wrong to say, the value were halved "every" 2°, as said in some textbooks or in previous versions of this article.)


title: Peripheral vision

text: Color perception is strong at 20° but weak at 40°. In dark-adapted vision, light sensitivity corresponds to rod density, which peaks just at 18°. From 18° towards the center, rod density declines rapidly. From 18° away from the center, rod density declines more gradually, in a curve with distinct inflection points resulting in two humps. The outer edge of the second hump is at about 30°, and corresponds to the outer edge of good night vision.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The outer boundaries of peripheral vision correspond to the boundaries of the visual field as a whole. For a single eye, the extent of the visual field can be (roughly) defined in terms of four angles, each measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed. These angles, representing four cardinal directions, are 60° upwards, 60° nasally (towards the nose), 70–75° downwards, and 100–110° temporally (away from the nose and towards the temple). For both eyes the combined visual field is 130–135° vertically and 200–220° horizontally.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The loss of peripheral vision while retaining central vision is known as tunnel vision, and the loss of central vision while retaining peripheral vision is known as central scotoma.


title: Peripheral vision

text: Peripheral vision is weak in humans, especially at distinguishing detail, color, and shape. This is because the density of receptor and ganglion cells in the retina is greater at the center and lowest at the edges, and, moreover, the representation in the visual cortex is much smaller than that of the fovea (see visual system for an explanation of these concepts). The distribution of receptor cells across the retina is different between the two main types, rod cells and cone cells. Rod cells are unable to distinguish color and peak in density in the near periphery (at 18° eccentricity), while cone cell density is highest in the very center, the fovea. Note that this does not mean that there is a lack of cones representing in the periphery; colors can be distinguished in peripheral vision.


title: Peripheral vision

text: Flicker fusion thresholds decline towards the periphery, but do that at a lower rate than other visual functions; so the periphery has a relative advantage at noticing flicker. Peripheral vision is also relatively good at detecting motion (a feature of Magno cells).


title: Peripheral vision

text: Central vision is relatively weak in the dark (scotopic vision) since cone cells lack sensitivity at low light levels. Rod cells, which are concentrated further away from the fovea, operate better than cone cells in low light. This makes peripheral vision useful for detecting faint light sources at night (like faint stars). Because of this, pilots are taught to use peripheral vision to scan for aircraft at night.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The distinctions between foveal (sometimes also called central) and peripheral vision are reflected in subtle physiological and anatomical differences in the visual cortex. Different visual areas contribute to the processing of visual information coming from different parts of the visual field, and a complex of visual areas located along the banks of the interhemispheric fissure (a deep groove that separates the two brain hemispheres) has been linked to peripheral vision. It has been suggested that these areas are important for fast reactions to visual stimuli in the periphery, and monitoring body position relative to gravity.


title: Peripheral vision

text: When viewed at large angles, the iris and pupil appear to be rotated toward the viewer due to the optical refraction in the cornea. As a result, the pupil may still be visible at angles greater than 90°.


title: Peripheral vision

text: The rim of the retina contains a large concentration of cone cells. The retina extends farthest in the superior-nasal 45° quadrant (in the direction from the pupil to the bridge of the nose) with the greatest extent of the visual field in the opposite direction, the inferior temporal 45° quadrant (from the pupil of either eye towards the bottom of the nearest ear). Vision at this extreme part of the visual field is thought to be possibly concerned with threat detection, measuring optical flow, color constancy, or circadian rhythm.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT, Inc., formerly known as the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company (), is a Philippine telecommunications, internet and digital service holdings company. It is one of the country's major telecommunications providers, along with Globe Telecom and startup Dito Telecommunity. Founded in 1928, it is the oldest and largest telecommunications company in the Philippines, in terms of assets and revenues.


title: PLDT

text: The company's core businesses are fixed-line telecommunications, mobile telephony services, broadband, and internet of things services under various brands. It also has investments in broadcasting, print media, utilities, and direct-to-home satellite services, among others. As of 2019, PLDT is listed in the Philippine Stock Exchange and New York Stock Exchange (the only Philippine company to be listed in NYSE) and is being controlled by First Pacific, a Hong Kong-based investment management company; Nippon Telegraph and Telephone, through its subsidiaries; and JG Summit, a major conglomerate that operates the airline Cebu Pacific, food manufacturer Universal Robina, and real estate firm Robinsons Land.


title: PLDT

text: Throughout the past decades, PLDT has received numerous complaints from the Philippine House of Representatives and Senate regarding slow internet connection.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT was established on November 18, 1928, by a Philippine Government act. Philippine legislature and approved by then governor-general Henry L. Stimson by means of a merger of four telephone companies under operation of the American telephone company GTE. Known as Act 3436, the bill granted PLDT a 50-year charter and the right to establish a Philippine telephone network linking major points nationwide. However, PLDT had to meet a 40-day deadline to start implementing the network, which would be implemented over a period of one to four years.


title: PLDT

text: By the 1930s, PLDT had an expansive fixed-line network and for the first time linked the Philippines to the outside world via radiotelephone services, connecting the Philippines to the United States and other parts of the world.


title: PLDT

text: Telephone service in the Philippines was interrupted due to World War II. At the end of the war, the Philippines' communications infrastructure was in ruins. U.S. military authorities eventually handed over the remains of the communications infrastructure to PLDT in 1947, and with the help of massive U.S. aid to the Philippines during the 1940s and 1950s, PLDT recovered so quickly that its telephone subscribers outpaced that of pre-war levels by 1953.


title: PLDT

text: On December 20, 1967, a group of Filipino entrepreneurs and businessmen led by Ramon Cojuangco took control of PLDT after buying its shares from the American telecommunications company GTE. The group took control of PLDT's management on January 1, 1968, with the election of Gregorio S. Licaros and Cojuangco as chairman and president of PLDT, respectively. A few months later, PLDT's main office in Makati (known today as the Ramon Cojuangco Building) was opened, and PLDT's expansion programs begin, hoping to bring reliable telephone services to the rural areas. It was also during that time that PLDT was able to use Intelsat II F-4 communications satellite to beam international events such as the Apollo 8 mission and the funeral of Robert F. Kennedy in 1968.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT was permitted to operate during Martial Law. During the 1970s, PLDT was nationalized by the government of then-president Ferdinand Marcos and in 1981, in compliance of then existing policy of the Philippine government to integrate the Philippine telecommunications industry, purchased substantially all of the assets and liabilities of Republic Telephone Company, becoming the country's telephone monopoly. Under this monopoly, service expansion were severely curtailed or practically nonexistent. In the Martial Law years people would apply for phone service only to wait for years and years on end behind an impossibly long application backlog. It is not unheard of for people and small businesses back then to barter for a single telephone line in the black market for tens of thousands of pesos. The incumbent Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew referred to the situation when visiting the Philippines during the term of President Fidel V. Ramos. He said, albeit in jest, “In the Philippines, 95% of the population has no telephone, while the remaining 5% are waiting for that dial tone.”


title: PLDT

text: After President Marcos was overthrown in 1986, the company was re-privatized and Cojuangco's son, Antonio "Tonyboy" O. Cojuangco, Jr. became chief executive. By 1995, with the passage of the Telecommunications Act and the subsequent deregulation of the Philippine telecommunications industry, the company has been de-monopolized.


title: PLDT

text: In 1992, PLDT partnered with AT&T Corporation to expand its services into rural communities; including USA Direct Roving Van Service, a mobile van equipped with cellular phones, to provide toll service to some previously unserved rural communities; point-to-point international digital leased line service; payphone services; and magnetic prepaid telephone cards. By 1997, the company, through Mabuhay Satellite Corporation, launched the Philippines' first local communications satellite Agila II (It was later divested to Asia Broadcast Satellite in 2009).


title: PLDT

text: In 1998, Hong Kong-based First Pacific Company Ltd. acquired a 17.5% controlling stake in PLDT for approximately P29.7 billion. Following the acquisition by the First Pacific group, Manuel V. Pangilinan became the new president and CEO of PLDT, replacing Cojuangco, who assumed the post of chairman until 2004. An additional investment was added in 2000 through a share-swap agreement; where NTT Communications, a subsidiary of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone, acquired a share in PLDT in exchange for its co-owned wireless telecom company Smart Communications.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT acquired 51.55% of the shares of Digital Telecommunications Philippines from JG Summit Holdings in March 2011 with the cost of ₱69.2 Billion. Because of this, the shares of Digitel and JG Summit in the PSE surges while PLDT's shares remained unchanged. In the deal, JG Summit will have a 12% share in PLDT. It was finalized by the National Telecommunications Commission on October 26, 2011. In exchange of the transaction, PLDT's subsidiary Smart Communications surrendered the mobile frequency and spectrum being used by its service Red Mobile to the government, which was finalized in 2016.


title: PLDT

text: In April 2016, the company, then known as the Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, dropped the "long distance telephone" from its corporate name and was renamed PLDT Inc. Its board of directors approved the new corporate name to reflect on the company's new range of services, mainly focusing on data services. On June 13, 2016, PLDT and its subsidiary Smart unveiled their new logos and identity as part of the company's continuing digital pivot.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT's fixed line business offers services intended for enterprises, small and medium enterprises, and corporate consumers – including corporate data, ICT solutions, data networking, and cybersecurity solutions. PLDT also offers local exchange telephone services for Subic Bay Freeport, Clark Freeport Zone, Bonifacio Global City, and selected cities in Mindanao through its subsidiaries.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT's retail fixed line services are branded under PLDT Home brand. It offers home broadband, IPTV, and triple play packages with devices from TP-Link and Roku.


title: PLDT

text: Smart, its flagship brand, offers commercial wireless services through its 2G, 3G, 3.5G HSPA+, 4G LTE network, and 5G in the key areas in the Philippines. Smart also offers terrestrial satellite communication services and wireless complimentary offerings.


title: PLDT

text: TNT provides a wide range of offerings in low-cost call, text, and mobile internet packages, as well as other value-added services.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT currently invests in media through Pilipinas Global Network and MediaQuest Holdings, funded through its Beneficial Trust Fund. MediaQuest's assets include broadcasting firms TV5 Network and Nation Broadcasting Corporation, direct-to-home satellite operator Cignal TV, and major newspaper companies The Philippine Star and BusinessWorld, among others.


title: PLDT

text: PLDT also has investments in energy utility (Meralco, through PLDT Communication and Energy Ventures), business jet transportation (Pacific Global One Aviation Company), and e-commerce and financial technology development (Voyager Innovations), among others.


title: PLDT

text: The company's ownership is divided among the public (41.55%), Philippine Telecommunications Investments Corporation (12.05%), Metro Pacific Resources, Inc. (9.98%); non-Philippine subsidiaries of First Pacific Company Limited (3.54%), NTT Communications Corp. (5.85%), NTT DoCoMo, Inc. (14.5%), and JG Summit Group (11.27%).


title: PLDT

text: In October 2015, PLDT introduced so-called "volume boosters" (instead of 30% bandwidth throttling in 2014 and 256kbit/s bandwidth throttling in 2015) when exceeding monthly 30GB to 70GB bandwidth cap for TD-LTE connection plans (Ultera). "In case your usage exceeds your monthly volume allowance, you can still enjoy the internet by purchasing additional volume boosters. Otherwise, connectivity will be halted until your monthly volume is refreshed on your next billing cycle." Globe followed the suit with a similar "volume boost" arrangement.


title: PLDT

text: This practice has since been weaned off for fixed broadband such as DSL and fiber optic, particularly with capped rates being silently retired. Globe, who previously retired all their unlimited data rates to capped ones, have reintroduced uncapped rates too.


title: PLDT

text: In 2015, PLDT increased lock-in period for TD-LTE connection plans from 24 to 36 months (3 years) with the pre-termination fee equal to the full balance for the remaining period. After the lock-in period the contract is automatically renewed for another 36 months subject to the same terms and conditions. As of now the Globe lock-in period is still 2 years with no pre-termination fee outside of the lock-in period. The PLDT TD-LTE contract allows PLDT to change the terms and conditions at any time with the only way left for subscribers to opt out of the altered service through paying the full pre-termination fee: "8.3 Modification. SBI reserves the right at its discretion to modify, delete or add to any of the terms and conditions of this Agreement at any time without further notice. It is the Subscriber’s responsibility to regularly check any changes to these Terms and Conditions. The Subscriber’s continued use of the Service after any such changes constitutes acceptance of the new Terms and Conditions." Even as the Consumer Act of the Philippines states "Unfair or Unconscionable Sales Act or Practice ... the following circumstances shall be considered ... that the transaction that the seller or supplier induced the consumer to enter into was excessively one-sided in favor of the seller or supplier", the practice of inducing extremely long-term contracts with the ultimate pre-termination penalty has not been legally challenged yet.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Body of Evidence is a 1993 erotic thriller film directed by Uli Edel, written by Brad Mirman, and starring Madonna and Willem Dafoe, with Joe Mantegna, Anne Archer, Julianne Moore, and Jürgen Prochnow in supporting roles.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Madonna's performance in the film was universally derided by film critics and it marked her fourth film acting performance to be widely panned, following "Shanghai Surprise", "Who's That Girl," and "Bloodhounds of Broadway".


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: In France and Japan, the film was released under the name Body. In Japan, Madonna's other 1993 film "Dangerous Game" was released there as "Body II" even though the films have nothing in common nor are related to each other in narrative.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: The elderly and wealthy Andrew Marsh dies from complications stemming from an erotic incident involving bondage and homemade pornography. The main suspect is his lover Rebecca Carlson (Madonna) who proclaims her innocence to lawyer Frank Dulaney (Willem Dafoe). Initially believing her, Dulaney agrees to represent her.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: District Attorney Robert Garrett seeks to prove that Carlson deliberately killed Marsh in bed to receive the $8 million he left her in his will. As the trial begins, Carlson and Dulaney enter a sadomasochistic sexual relationship behind the back of Dulaney's unsuspecting wife, Sharon (Julianne Moore).


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: During their first sexual encounter, Carlson secures Dulaney’s arms behind his back using his own belt and alternatively pours hot wax and champagne on him before having sex.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: After an ex-lover of Carlson’s testifies that he both changed his will to favour her and that she engaged in similar risky sexual behaviour with him, Dulaney attempts to end their affair.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Sharon, Dulaney’s wife, confronts him about the affair having figured it out from a phone call with Carlson as well as the strange marks on his body from the hot wax. Dulaney goes to Carlson's home and accuses her of telling his wife about them (although Sharon says she worked it out from her tone alone). When Dulaney accidentally knocks her to the ground, Carlson begins to masturbate on the floor in front of him. Carlson pulls out handcuffs, Dulaney forcibly cuffs her hands instead and sexually assaults her. Initially she resists before appearing to enjoy the assault.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Footage from Marsh’s home video reveals that he had an affair with his secretary, Joanne Braslow, who is a key witness against Carlson. He also had previously left Braslow more money in his will before beginning his relationship with Carlson. She says that she was hurt but she loved him and would never hurt him. However, there is evidence that she bought the murder weapon. Carlson suggests to Dulaney that the secretary tried to frame her, but he is now less sure of her innocence in the crime.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Carlson takes the stand and her surprising testimony that Roston had an affair with another man convinces the jury, which acquits her. Before leaving court, she mockingly thanks Dulaney indicating that she may be guilty after all.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Dulaney visits Carlson's home and overhears an incriminating conversation between her and Marsh's doctor, Alan Paley. He confronts the co-conspirators, realizing that it was Paley who supplied the fatal dose of cocaine. Carlson is unconcerned about his discovery, but Paley is upset to find out that she was sleeping with Dulaney as well. Paley realizes she does not care about him and becomes enraged when she tells him she has already forgotten him.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: After a struggle with Dulaney who tries to save Carlson, Paley shoots her twice. She plunges from a window to her death. Paley is arrested for murdering her.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Before leaving the scene with his wife to repair their relationship, Dulaney then tells Garret he should've won the case with Garrett replying: "I did".


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: "Body of Evidence" was filmed in Portland, Oregon, with the Pittock Mansion serving as a primary location. The cemetery scene featured in the beginning of the film was shot on location at Lone Fir Cemetery.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: Julianne Moore said her nude scene in this movie was "just awful": "I was too young to know better. It was the first time I'd been asked to get naked and it turned out to be completely extraneous and gratuitous."


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: "Body of Evidence" performed poorly at the box office. In its second week it experienced a 60% drop. It grossed $13 million in the United States and Canada and $25 million internationally for a worldwide total of $38 million.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: The film originally received the rare NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America. The first theatrical release was censored for the purpose of obtaining an R rating, reducing the film's running time from 101 to 99 minutes. The video premiere, however, restored the deleted material.


title: Body of Evidence (1993 film)

text: "Body of Evidence" has an 8% rating at Rotten Tomatoes based on 38 reviews, with a rating average of 3.10/10. The critical consensus reads, ""Body of Evidence"'s sex scenes may be kinky, but the ludicrous concept is further undone by the ridiculous dialogue." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade of "C" on scale of A+ to F. The film appeared on the 2005 list of Roger Ebert's most hated films. The screenplay and performances were especially disparaged. His colleague Gene Siskel called "Body of Evidence" a "stupid and empty thriller" that is worse than her softcore coffee table book "Sex".


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 between the Ghurid forces of Muhammad Ghuri and the Rajput Confederacy of Prithviraj Chauhan. It took place near Tarain (modern Taraori), which is , north of Delhi. The battle ended in a decisive victory for the invading Ghurids and their successful penetration in north Indian plain.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: The battle is regarded as a watershed event in Medieval India history as it led to the destruction of Rajput powers for a while and laid the foundation of Muslim rule in North India, which led to the establishment of Delhi Sultanate.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: Prithviraj Chauhan's forces had defeated the Ghurids at the First Battle of Tarain in 1191. The Ghurid king Mu'izz al-Din, who was seriously injured in the battle, returned to Ghazni, and made preparations to avenge his defeat.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: Historians generally date the second battle of Tarain to 1192, although there is a possibility that it happened in late 1191.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: According to the 16th-17th century writer Firishta, the battle, "the Chauhan army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry", which is considered an exaggeration by modern historians. According to Satish Chandra the figures were exaggerated in order to "emphasise the challenge faced by Muizzuddin and the scale of his victory". Kaushik Roy similarly notes that Muslim chroniclers regularly exaggerated Hindu military strength to glorify the Muslim kings, and 300,000 was probably the theoretical number that could potentially be mobilized by all the Rajput kingdoms at the time.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: According to Indian sources like Hammir Mahakavya and Prithviraj Raso, Chahamana army was simultaneously engaged on multiple fronts and Prithviraj had only a part of his army at the battlefield. His other army was about to reach Prithviraj but the fate was already decided in favour of Muizuddin.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: According to Minhaj-i-Siraj, Mu'izz al-Din brought 120,000 fully armored men to battle, He personally commanded an elite cavalry force of 40,000 men. According to historian Kaushik Roy, while the real strength of the armies is not certain, it can be speculated that Prithviraj's army was numerically superior.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: The battle occurred in the same field as the first one. Knowing the Chahamana forces were well-disciplined, the Ghurids did not want to engage in melee combat with them. Instead the Ghurids army was formed into five units, and four units were sent to attack the enemy flanks and rear.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: According to Minhaj, Mu'izz ad-Din directed a light cavalry force of 10,000 mounted archers, divided into four divisions, to surround the Chahamana forces on the four sides. He instructed these soldiers not to engage in combat when the enemy advanced to attack, and instead feign retreat in order to exhaust the Chahamana elephants, horses, and infantry.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: In hopes of causing a break in the enemy lines, Mu'izz al-Din ordered his fifth unit to feign retreat. The Chahamana forces charged the fleeing Ghurid unit, as the Ghurids expected. The Ghurids then sent a fresh cavalry unit of 12,000 and they managed to throw back the enemy advance. The remaining Ghurid forces then attacked and the Chahamana troops fled in panic. According to Minhaj, Mu'izz ad-Din's strategy "exhausted and wearied the unbelievers", ultimately resulting in a "victory to Islam".


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: Minhaj states that Prithviraj ("Rae Pithora") dismounted from his elephant, and fled from the battlefield on a horse. He was, however, captured in the neighbourhood of Sursuti, and later "dispatched to hell". Most medieval sources state that Prithviraj was taken to the Chahamana capital Ajmer, where Muhammad planned to reinstate him as a Ghurid vassal. Sometime later, Prithviraj rebelled against Muhammad, and was killed for 'treason'.


title: Second Battle of Tarain

text: The Ghurid forces subjugated the entire Chahamana territory of "Siwalikh" (or Sawalakh, that is, Sapadalaksha). The Ghurids then appointed his son Govindaraja IV on the throne of Ajmer as their vassal. Prithviraj's younger brother Hariraja dethroned Govindaraja, and recaptured a part of his ancestral kingdom, but was later defeated by the Ghurid general Qutb al-Din Aibak. The Ghurids subsequently defeated another powerful king - Jayachandra of Gahadavala dynasty - at the Battle of Chandawar, and conquered parts of northern India as far as Bengal.


title: Tina Cole

text: Christina Yvonne Cole (born August 4, 1943) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her role as Katie Miller Douglas on the sitcom "My Three Sons" (1967–1972). She previously had a recurring role as Sunny Day in the detective series "Hawaiian Eye" (1963). She was also a member of the Four King Cousins, a subgroup of the King Family Singers. In 1963, she played the minor (uncredited) role of Ruth Stewart in "Palm Springs Weekend", a spring break party film set in Palm Springs, California. She also appeared previously in "My Three Sons" as a friend of Robbie (circa 1966), cast in the role of Joanne, before the Katie role was created. She also was on the show as Sherry in the fifth season.


title: Tina Cole

text: Cole is the daughter of Yvonne King and Buddy Cole. She has a sister, Cathy Green, and four children.


title: Tina Cole

text: After leaving television, Cole was the director of the Sacramento Children's Theatre. She was an acting coach at the John Robert Powers acting schools in Roseville and Elk Grove, California, and in 2013 returned to on-screen acting.


title: Tina Cole

text: In late 2013, she performed with her King Cousins (sister Cathy and cousins Candy and Carolyn) and made a one-off appearance at the Catalina Jazz Club in Hollywood in November. They made subsequent appearances at the same club in April 2014 and August 2016. She is a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.


title: Dark Blood

text: Dark Blood is a 2012 American-Dutch thriller film directed by George Sluizer, written by Jim Barton, and starring River Phoenix, Judy Davis, and Jonathan Pryce. The film was not completed due to the death of Phoenix in 1993, shortly before the end of the project (it would also be the final film made by Sluizer) and remained unfinished for 19 years. It was the last film to feature River Phoenix and the only film in which Phoenix portrayed a villain.


title: Dark Blood

text: It premiered to a private guest audience on September 27, 2012 at the Netherlands Film Festival in Utrecht, Netherlands. The film was shown twice more, publicly, on October 2, 2012 at the festival. It was shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival in February 2013, the Miami International Film Festival in March 2013, the Split Film Festival in September 2013, and the Brussels International Fantastic Film Festival in April 2014. On January 26, 2018, "Dark Blood" was released on DVD in Germany.


title: Dark Blood

text: The film follows Boy (Phoenix), a young widower, who retreats to the desert after his wife dies of radiation following nuclear tests near their home. Boy is waiting for the end of the world and carves Kachina dolls, believing they contain magical powers. A couple, Harry (Pryce) and Buffy (Davis) travel to the desert on a second honeymoon in an attempt to save their marriage. Their car breaks down in the middle of nowhere and the couple is rescued by Boy. Boy holds them prisoner because of his desire for Buffy and his ambition to create a better world with her.


title: Dark Blood

text: The movie begins with Harry, an actor who hasn't worked in over a year, and his wife Buffy, an ex-showgirl, traveling by car on their "second honeymoon". After staying overnight at a motel, the owner informs Harry of previous nuclear testing taking place in the town. The following day, their Bentley eventually breaks down, leading them to run out of water in the middle of the desert. Harry insists on staying with the car rather than to look for help. While Harry sleeps in the back seat, Buffy notices a light in the distance and follows it, leading her to the front door of a cabin belonging to a widower named Boy. He drives with her to rescue Harry. After mentioning he is one-eighth Hopi Native American, Boy reveals a cave filled with candles and voodoo dolls that he believes have magical powers, which he spends his time making waiting for the world to end.


title: Dark Blood

text: During their stay, Boy promises to drive them to the nearest town, but keeps delaying this offer by dismantling the entire engine of his truck after telling the couple there's a problem with it, and later telling them he is waiting for friends to arrive before he can take them to town. His friends, meanwhile have been told by Boy where to find their Bentley and they tow it away. Buffy and Boy become attracted to each other, angering Harry. Harry tells Boy to leave her alone while on a shooting hunt. The two have an argument and Boy retreats, leaving Harry to find his way back from the desert. Boy later fires a shot at Harry, but tells him he was shooting a snake in a passive-aggressive gesture. Eventually, the couple become aware that Boy will not let them leave. Exasperated, Harry announces he is walking to the town and marches off alone. After an argument with Buffy, Boy drives off frustrated, finds Harry dehydrated, gives him water and brings him back to the cabin where Boy locks Harry in a barn, telling Buffy he's gone mad from the heat.


title: Dark Blood

text: Later on, as they are all sleeping, Harry wakes silently, rouses Buffy and steals the keys to Boy's truck in an escape attempt that is quickly thwarted by Boy who catches them as they are leaving his cabin. A fight ensues and after hitting him with a crowbar, Harry is judged by means of a kangaroo court, and ordered to chop wood as punishment. As he is cutting the wood, he sees Buffy removing her clothes and is forced to overhear as his wife is raped, turning his back, unable to watch. Buffy later comes outside to tell Harry that Boy is finally taking them to the town. Boy's friends approach, bringing the repaired Bentley, and Boy announces only Harry can leave in his car. Outraged, Harry attacks Boy with the axe, only for Boy to block the axe's blow with his rifle above his head. However, unable to withstand Harry's strength, the axe hits Boy, splitting open his head and knocking him to the ground. Acting in self-defence, Harry is forced to fatally wound Boy's dog when it tries to attack him. Boy gets to his feet, telling Harry that he has never wanted to kill a man before, his finger on the trigger of the rifle. Harry begs for his life, but Boy then collapses from the bleeding head wound.


title: Dark Blood

text: At that moment the couple's car is delivered by Boy's native friends, who take Boy inside the cabin, where he requests to see Buffy. As his last physical effort, he lifts himself to embrace her, dying in her arms as Harry is held at gunpoint outside. Buffy exits and the couple's fate is up to Boy's friends, one of whom is a sheriff - but, despite the crime, the two are told to leave immediately in their car. Boy's friends set the cabin ablaze as a funeral pyre.


title: Dark Blood

text: Harry and Buffy drive along out of the desert disoriented, exhausted and silent. They hold hands and Harry asks Buffy if she's okay. She replies that she is not as she glances back at the fire's glow. The couple fall silent again.


title: Dark Blood

text: "Dark Blood" consisted of roughly five weeks of on location shooting in Torrey, Utah and was scheduled to complete three weeks of filming interior scenes in Los Angeles, California on a sound stage. Parts of the film were also shot in Gallup, New Mexico. There is a scene shot at Mesa Verde National Park in Montezuma County, Colorado. Filming was only 80% finished before Phoenix's death on October 31, 1993. Production halted while insurers and financiers tried to determine if the movie could be completed, but with important scenes still needing to be shot, the film was abandoned on November 18 of that same year. For the 2012 release, roughly four to six missing scenes were replaced with Sluizer providing narration.


title: Dark Blood

text: It was revealed in October 2011 that director George Sluizer had held onto the footage, fearing it would be destroyed, and that he had reedited the material and believed that with some adjustments a completed film could be released in 2012. In 1999 the insurance company that owned the negatives wanted to stop paying storage costs, so they considered having the film destroyed. Sluizer entered the storage area that held the negative and removed it. It was speculated that Sluizer would ask Phoenix's younger brother Joaquin Phoenix to dub River's voice. The Phoenix family made it clear that they would not participate in the project, saying in a statement, "In regard to releasing River's last film, Joaquin Phoenix and his family have not been in communication with the director nor will they participate in any way.”


title: Dark Blood

text: On May 18, 2012, a trailer for the film and an interview with Sluizer were released on YouTube. The film premiered to an invited audience on September 27, 2012, at the Netherlands Film Festival in Utrecht, Netherlands. It had its international premiere out of competition at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Dark Blood

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received four positive reviews and one negative one, for a score of 80%, with an average rating of 6/10.


title: Dark Blood

text: Geoffrey Macnab from "The Guardian" gave the film three out of five stars, stating that ""Dark Blood" is fragmentary, uneven and downright odd in parts but it also has huge curiosity value. The director's solution for bridging the considerable gaps is to read out descriptions of what is missing. It's a simple but surprisingly effective tactic. His narration ensures that the film is just about coherent." Ard Vijn from "Twitch" says the movie is "almost polished enough to be regarded as a finished film. Almost. The images, music and actors definitely make watching it a worthwhile exercise."


title: Namespace

text: In computing, a namespace is a set of signs ("names") that are used to identify and refer to objects of various kinds. A namespace ensures that all of a given set of objects have unique names so that they can be easily identified.


title: Namespace

text: Namespaces are commonly structured as hierarchies to allow reuse of names in different contexts. As an analogy, consider a system of naming of people where each person has a given name, as well as a family name shared with their relatives. If the first names of family members are unique only within each family, then each person can be uniquely identified by the combination of first name and family name; there is only one Jane Doe, though there may be many Janes. Within the namespace of the Doe family, just "Jane" suffices to unambiguously designate this person, while within the "global" namespace of all people, the full name must be used.


title: Namespace

text: Computer networks and distributed systems assign names to resources, such as computers, printers, websites, and remote files. Operating systems can partition kernel resources by isolated namespaces to support virtualization containers.


title: Namespace

text: Similarly, hierarchical file systems organize files in directories. Each directory is a separate namespace, so that the directories "letters" and "invoices" may both contain a file "to_jane".


title: Namespace

text: In computer programming, namespaces are typically employed for the purpose of grouping symbols and identifiers around a particular functionality and to avoid name collisions between multiple identifiers that share the same name.


title: Namespace

text: In networking, the Domain Name System organizes websites (and other resources) into hierarchical namespaces.


title: Namespace

text: Element names are defined by the developer. This often results in a conflict when trying to mix XML documents from different XML applications.


title: Namespace

text: If these XML fragments were added together, there would be a name conflict. Both contain a element, but the elements have different content and meaning.


title: Namespace

text: The following XML distinguishes between information about the HTML table and furniture by prefixing "h" and "f" at the beginning of the elements.


title: Namespace

text: A name in a namespace consists of a namespace name and a local name. The namespace name is usually applied as a prefix to the local name.


title: Namespace

text: When local names are used by themselves, name resolution is used to decide which (if any) particular name is alluded to by some particular local name.


title: Namespace

text: Delegation of responsibilities between parties is important in real-world applications, such as the structure of the World Wide Web. Namespaces allow delegation of identifier assignment to multiple name issuing organisations whilst retaining global uniqueness. A central Registration authority registers the assigned namespace names allocated. Each namespace name is allocated to an organisation which is subsequently responsible for the assignment of names in their allocated namespace. This organisation may be a name issuing organisation that assign the names themselves, or another Registration authority which further delegates parts of their namespace to different organisations.


title: Namespace

text: A naming scheme that allows subdelegation of namespaces to third parties is a hierarchical namespace.


title: Namespace

text: A hierarchy is recursive if the syntax for the namespace names is the same for each subdelegation. An example of a recursive hierarchy is the Domain name system.


title: Namespace

text: An example of a non-recursive hierarchy are Uniform Resource Name representing an Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) number.


title: Namespace

text: A namespace name may provide context (scope in computer science) to a name, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, the context of a name may also be provided by other factors, such as the location where it occurs or the syntax of the name.


title: Namespace

text: For many programming languages, namespace is a context for their identifiers. In an operating system, an example of namespace is a directory. Each name in a directory uniquely identifies one file or subdirectory.


title: Namespace

text: As a rule, names in a namespace cannot have more than one meaning; that is, different meanings cannot share the same name in the same namespace. A namespace is also called a context, because the same name in different namespaces can have different meanings, each one appropriate for its namespace.


title: Namespace

text: As well as its abstract language technical usage as described above, some languages have a specific keyword used for explicit namespace control, amongst other uses. Below is an example of a namespace in C++:


title: Namespace

text: A namespace in computer science (sometimes also called a name scope) is an abstract container or environment created to hold a logical grouping of unique identifiers or symbols (i.e. names). An identifier defined in a namespace is associated only with that namespace. The same identifier can be independently defined in multiple namespaces. That is, an identifier defined in one namespace may or may not have the same meaning as the same identifier defined in another namespace. Languages that support namespaces specify the rules that determine to which namespace an identifier (not its definition) belongs.


title: Namespace

text: This concept can be illustrated with an analogy. Imagine that two companies, X and Y, each assign ID numbers to their employees. X should not have two employees with the same ID number, and likewise for Y; but it is not a problem for the same ID number to be used at both companies. For example, if Bill works for company X and Jane works for company Y, then it is not a problem for each of them to be employee #123. In this analogy, the ID number is the identifier, and the company serves as the namespace. It does not cause problems for the same identifier to identify a different person in each namespace.


title: Namespace

text: In large computer programs or documents it is common to have hundreds or thousands of identifiers. Namespaces (or a similar technique, see Emulating namespaces) provide a mechanism for hiding local identifiers. They provide a means of grouping logically related identifiers into corresponding namespaces, thereby making the system more modular.


title: Namespace

text: Data storage devices and many modern programming languages support namespaces. Storage devices use directories (or folders) as namespaces. This allows two files with the same name to be stored on the device so long as they are stored in different directories. In some programming languages (e.g. C++, Python), the identifiers naming namespaces are themselves associated with an enclosing namespace. Thus, in these languages namespaces can nest, forming a namespace tree. At the root of this tree is the unnamed global namespace.


title: Namespace

text: Within this block, identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared. Outside of this block, the namespace specifier must be prefixed. For example, outside of codice_1, codice_2 must be written codice_3 to be accessed. C++ includes another construct that makes this verbosity unnecessary. By adding the line


title: Namespace

text: Identifiers that are not explicitly declared within a namespace are considered to be in the global namespace.


title: Namespace

text: These identifiers can be used exactly as they are declared, or, since the global namespace is unnamed, the namespace specifier codice_5 can be prefixed. For example, codice_6 can also be written codice_7.


title: Namespace

text: Namespace resolution in C++ is hierarchical. This means that within the hypothetical namespace codice_8, the identifier codice_9 refers to codice_10. If codice_10 doesn't exist, it then refers to codice_12. If neither codice_10 nor codice_12 exist, codice_9 refers to codice_16, an identifier in the global namespace.


title: Namespace

text: Namespaces in C++ are most often used to avoid naming collisions. Although namespaces are used extensively in recent C++ code, most older code does not use this facility because it did not exist in early versions of the language. For example, the entire C++ Standard Library is defined within codice_17, but before standardization many components were originally in the global namespace. A programmer can insert the codice_18 directive to bypass namespace resolution requirements and obtain backwards compatibility with older code that expects all identifiers to be in the global namespace. However the use of the codice_18 directive for reasons other than backwards compatibility (e.g., convenience) is considered to be against good code practices.


title: Namespace

text: In Java, the idea of a namespace is embodied in Java packages. All code belongs to a package, although that package need not be explicitly named. Code from other packages is accessed by prefixing the package name before the appropriate identifier, for example codice_20 in codice_21 can be referred to as codice_22 (this is known as the fully qualified class name). Like C++, Java offers a construct that makes it unnecessary to type the package name (codice_23). However, certain features (such as reflection) require the programmer to use the fully qualified name.


title: Namespace

text: Unlike C++, namespaces in Java are not hierarchical as far as the syntax of the language is concerned. However, packages are named in a hierarchical manner. For example, all packages beginning with codice_24 are a part of the Java platform—the package contains classes core to the language, and contains core classes specifically relating to reflection.


title: Namespace

text: In Java (and Ada, C#, and others), namespaces/packages express semantic categories of code. For example, in C#, codice_25 contains code provided by the system (the .NET Framework). How specific these categories are and how deep the hierarchies go differ from language to language.


title: Namespace

text: Function and class scopes can be viewed as implicit namespaces that are inextricably linked with visibility, accessibility, and object lifetime.


title: Namespace

text: Namespaces are heavily used in C# language. All .NET Framework classes are organized in namespaces, to be used more clearly and to avoid chaos. Furthermore, custom namespaces are extensively used by programmers, both to organize their work and to avoid naming collisions.


title: Namespace

text: When referencing a class, one should specify either its fully qualified name, which means namespace followed by the class name,


title: Namespace

text: or add a using statement. This, eliminates the need to mention the complete name of all classes in that namespace.


title: Namespace

text: In the above examples, System is a namespace, and Console and Convert are classes defined within System.


title: Namespace

text: In Python, namespaces are defined by the individual modules, and since modules can be contained in hierarchical packages, then namespaces are hierarchical too.


title: Namespace

text: In general when a module is imported then the names defined in the module are defined via that module's namespace, and are accessed in from the calling modules by using the fully qualified name.


title: Namespace

text: The codice_26 statement can be used to insert the relevant names directly into the calling module's namespace, and those names can be accessed from the calling module without the qualified name:


title: Namespace

text: Since this directly imports names (without qualification) it can overwrite existing names with no warnings.


title: Namespace

text: A special form of the statement is codice_27 which imports all names defined in the named package directly in the calling module's namespace. Use of this form of import, although supported within the language, is generally discouraged as it pollutes the namespace of the calling module and will cause already defined names to be overwritten in the case of name clashes.


title: Namespace

text: Python also supports codice_28 as a way of providing an alias or alternative name for use by the calling module:


title: Namespace

text: In XML, the XML namespace specification enables the names of elements and attributes in an XML document to be unique, similar to the role of namespaces in programming languages. Using XML namespaces, XML documents may contain element or attribute names from more than one XML vocabulary.


title: Namespace

text: Namespaces were introduced into PHP from version 5.3 onwards. Naming collision of classes, functions and variables can be avoided.


title: Namespace

text: In programming languages lacking language support for namespaces, namespaces can be emulated to some extent by using an identifier naming convention. For example, C libraries such as libpng often use a fixed prefix for all functions and variables that are part of their exposed interface. Libpng exposes identifiers such as:


title: Namespace

text: This naming convention provides reasonable assurance that the identifiers are unique and can therefore be used in larger programs without naming collisions. Likewise, many packages originally written in Fortran (e.g., BLAS, LAPACK) reserve the first few letters of a function's name to indicate which group it belongs to.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: Lee Dong-gun made his debut in the entertainment industry in 1998 as a singer, but he would later gain fame as an actor, starring in television dramas such as "Sweet 18", "Lovers in Paris", and "Stained Glass".


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: Lee took a break from acting in 2005, claiming he felt overwhelmed with his workload in both television and film. He resumed his work in 2006, with "Smile Again".


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: During a fan meeting event in Japan held on 5 December 2005, Lee announced the release of his first photobook which also included a making-of DVD, poster and postcard. The success of "Lovers in Paris" along with promotions for his new film "My Boyfriend Is Type B" helped to increase his popularity in Japan.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: Lee participated in the "Hallyu Expo in Asia" on Jeju island which commenced on 28 November 2006 and spanned a total of 100 days. This large-scale event was intended to promote Korean culture across Asia and expected to bring in 150,000 tourists to stimulate the local economy. He also attended the sequel to the Hallyu Expo which was held in Japan titled "FACE in Japan Premium Event". This two-day event from 14 to 15 August 2007, featured Korean celebrities with large fanbases and was intended as a cultural exchange program between Korea and Japan.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: Lee released a 14-track album titled "My Biography" in 2008, his first full-length album in a decade. It included 6 Korean songs, 6 Japanese songs and 2 instrumentals. It was first released in Japan before becoming available in Korea. The same year, he starred in the television series " Night After Night" alongside Kim Sun-ah, and starred alongside an ensemble cast in the romance film "Love Now".


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: In December 2011, three months prior to the completion of his mandatory military service, Lee signed with talent agency Mask Entertainment. After the termination of his contract with Mask Entertainment, Lee signed with FNC Entertainment in November 2012.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: In 2013, Lee was cast in the lead role for the time-travel romance "Marry Him If You Dare". This was followed in 2015 by the titular role in cable series "Super Daddy Yeol", which was based on the webtoon of the same name. In 2016, Lee starred in the family drama "The Gentlemen of Wolgyesu Tailor Shop". He also starred in his first Chinese drama, "Hello Mr. Right" alongside actress Guan Xiaotong.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: In the historical drama "Queen for Seven Days", Lee impressed viewers with his a wide range of emotions and acting performance with his role as the tyrannical Joseon ruler Yeonsangun. He then starred in action drama "Sketch", playing a member of a special operations command who seeks revenge for the death of his wife; and slice-of-life drama "Where Stars Land".


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: On 20 March 2008, Lee's 19-year-old brother Lee Joon-yub, a student at the University of Sydney, was fatally stabbed during a brawl with two Chinese teenage gang members at Hungry Jack's in World Square, Sydney. The victim's friend, 22-year-old Song Jung-ho, was critically injured but survived. Lee flew to Sydney to identify his brother's body and attend a requiem mass at the Chapel of St. John's College; after cremation, his family brought back Lee Joon-yub's ashes to Seoul.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: Lee enlisted for his mandatory military service on 15 June 2010 at the 102 Reserves in Chuncheon, Gangwon Province for four weeks of basic training followed by 21 months of active duty. He served at the Defense Media Agency of the Ministry of National Defense and was appointed Honorary Ambassador of Military. He was discharged on 28 March 2012, and on the same day, he was appointed promotional ambassador for the 2012 Korean Formula One Grand Prix held at the Korea International Circuit in October.


title: Lee Dong-gun

text: On 28 February 2017, Lee Dong-gun was confirmed to be dating Jo Yoon-hee, his co-star in "The Gentlemen of Wolgyesu Tailor Shop". On 2 May, Lee announced that they have registered their marriage and are expecting their first child. The couple held a private wedding ceremony on 29 September and welcomed a baby girl on 14 December 2017. On May 29, 2020, they divorced due to irreconcilable differences.