title: MathWorks

text: Little and Steve Bangert rewrote the code for MATLAB in C while they were colleagues at an engineering firm. They founded MathWorks along with Moler in 1984, with Little running it out of his house in Portola Valley, California. Little would mail diskettes in baggies (food storage bags) to the first customers. The company sold its first order, 10 copies of MATLAB, for $500 to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in February 1985. A few years later, Little and the company moved to Massachusetts, and Little hired Jeanne O'Keefe, an experienced computer executive, to help formalize the business. By 1997, MathWorks was profitable, claiming revenue of around $50 million, and had around 380 employees.


title: MathWorks

text: In 1999, MathWorks relocated to the Apple Hill office complex in Natick, Massachusetts, purchasing additional buildings in the complex in 2008 and 2009, ultimately occupying the entire campus. MathWorks expanded further in 2013 by buying Boston Scientific's old headquarters campus, which is near to MathWorks' headquarters in Natick.


title: MathWorks

text: By 2018, the company had around 3,000 employees in Natick and said it had revenues of around $900 million.


title: MathWorks

text: The company's two lead products are MATLAB, which provides an environment for scientists, engineers and programmers to analyze and visualize data and develop algorithms, and Simulink, a graphical and simulation environment for model-based design of dynamic systems. MATLAB and Simulink are used in aerospace, automotive, software and other fields. The company's other products include Polyspace, SimEvents, and Stateflow.


title: MathWorks

text: In 1999 the US Department of Justice filed a lawsuit against MathWorks and Wind River Systems alleging that an agreement between them violated antitrust laws. The agreement in question stipulated that the two companies agreed to stop competing in the field of dynamic control system design software, with MathWorks alone selling Wind River's Matrixx Software and that Wind River would stop all research and development and sales in that field. Both companies eventually settled with the Department of Justice and agreed to sell the MATRIXx software to a third party. MathWorks had total sales of $200 million in 2001, with dynamic control system design software accounting for half of those sales.


title: MathWorks

text: MathWorks's Simulink software was found to have infringed 3 patents from National Instruments related to data flow diagrams in 2003, a decision which was confirmed by a court of appeal in 2004.


title: MathWorks

text: In 2011, MathWorks sued AccelerEyes for copyright infringement in one court, and patent and trademark infringement in another. AccelerEyes accepted consent decrees in both cases before the trials began.


title: MathWorks

text: In 2012, the European Commission opened an antitrust investigation into MathWorks after competitors alleged that Mathworks refused to grant licenses to its intellectual property that would allow people to create software with interoperability with its products. The case was closed in 2014.


title: MathWorks

text: The logo represents the first vibrational mode of a thin L-shaped membrane, clamped at the edges, and governed by the wave equation, which was the subject of Moler's thesis.


title: MathWorks

text: The company annually sponsors a number of student engineering competitions, including EcoCAR, an advanced vehicle technology competition created by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and General Motors (GM). MathWorks sponsored the mathematics exhibit at London's Science Museum.


title: MathWorks

text: In the coding community, MathWorks hosts MATLAB Central, an online exchange where users ask and answer questions and share code. MATLAB Central currently houses around than 145,000 questions in its MATLAB Answers database. The company actively supports numerous academic institutions to advance STEM education, including giving funding to MIT Open Courseware and MITx.


title: James Traficant

text: James Anthony Traficant Jr. (May 8, 1941 – September 27, 2014) was an American politician who served as a Democratic, and later independent, member of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio. He represented the 17th Congressional District, which centered on his hometown of Youngstown and included parts of three counties in northeast Ohio's Mahoning Valley. He was expelled from the House after being convicted of ten felony counts, including taking bribes, filing false tax returns, racketeering, and forcing his congressional staff to perform chores at his farm in Ohio and houseboat in Washington, D.C. He was sentenced to prison and released on September 2, 2009, after serving a seven-year sentence.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant died on September 27, 2014, following a tractor accident at his farm in Green Township, Ohio.


title: James Traficant

text: Born into a working-class Catholic family in Youngstown, Ohio, Traficant was the son of Agnes ("née" Farkas) and James Anthony Traficant Sr. He was of mostly Italian and Hungarian ancestry. Traficant graduated from Cardinal Mooney High School in 1959 before receiving a B.S. in education from the University of Pittsburgh in 1963. He played quarterback for Pitt's football team, and his teammates included Mike Ditka. Traficant was drafted in the NFL's twentieth round (276th overall) by the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1963, and tried out for the Steelers and the Oakland Raiders of the American Football League, but did not play professionally. He later obtained an M.S. in educational administration from the University of Pittsburgh in 1973 and a second master's degree in counseling from Youngstown State University in 1976.


title: James Traficant

text: At the start of his career, Traficant was the consumer finance director for the Youngstown Community Action Program. He taught courses on drug and alcohol dependency and recovery at Youngstown State University and Kent State University, as well as lecturing on drug and alcohol abuse for colleges and government agencies outside Ohio. In addition, Traficant taught at the Ohio Peace Officer Training Academy. He was the executive director of the Mahoning County Drug Program from 1971 to 1981, and Sheriff of Mahoning County from 1981 to 1985. While serving as sheriff, Traficant made national headlines by refusing to execute foreclosure orders on several unemployed homeowners, many of whom had been left out of work. This endeared him to the local population, which was dealing with a declining economy following the closures and relocations of steel making and steel-associated businesses. Traficant's career in Youngstown served as the focus of "Crooked City: Youngstown, OH.," a podcast produced by Marc Smerling.


title: James Traficant

text: In 1983, he was charged with racketeering for accepting bribes. Traficant, who represented himself in the criminal trial, argued that he accepted the bribes only as part of his own alleged secret undercover investigation into corruption. Traficant was acquitted of the charges, becoming the only person ever to win a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) case while representing himself.


title: James Traficant

text: Publicity from the RICO trial increased Traficant's local visibility. He was elected as a Democrat to Congress from Ohio's 17th District, defeating Lyle Williams, a three-term Republican incumbent. He was reelected eight times without serious opposition.


title: James Traficant

text: While in Congress, Traficant was a supporter of immigration reduction, and a strong opponent of illegal immigration. In the controversy surrounding the defeat of Congressman Bob Dornan (R-CA) by Democrat Loretta Sanchez, Traficant was the only Democratic member of Congress who advocated a new election, owing to Dornan's allegations of voting in that race by undocumented immigrants. The allegations went unproven, and a new election was not held.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant's major legislative accomplishment in the House was the adoption of some of his proposals to constrain enforcement activities by the Internal Revenue Service against delinquent taxpayers.


title: James Traficant

text: After the Republicans took control of the House in 1995, Traficant tended to vote more often with the Republicans than with his own party. On the issue of abortion, Traficant voted with the position of the National Right to Life Committee 95% of the time in the 105th Congress, and 100% of the time in the 106th and 107th Congresses. However, he voted against all four articles of impeachment against Bill Clinton. After he voted for Republican Dennis Hastert for Speaker of the House in 2001, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority and refused to give him any committee assignments. Because the Republicans did not assign him to any committees either, Traficant became the first member of the House of Representatives in over a century—outside the top leadership—to lack a single committee assignment.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant championed the unpopular case of John Demjanjuk, a Ukrainian-born autoworker from Seven Hills who had been convicted in Israel and sentenced to hang for having been the brutal Nazi concentration camp guard Ivan the Terrible. For almost a decade, Traficant (along with Pat Buchanan) insisted that Demjanjuk had been denied a fair trial, and been the victim of mistaken identity; in 1993 the Supreme Court of Israel overturned the conviction, on the basis of doubt. Demjanjuk was later deported to Germany on May 11, 2009, after the Supreme Court of the United States refused to overturn his deportation order. Demjanjuk was tried and convicted by a German criminal court of being an accessory to murder, but died before the German Appellate Court could hear his case, thereby voiding the conviction.


title: James Traficant

text: Following Pat Buchanan's recommendation to reconsider the denaturalization of former Nazi and NASA scientist Arthur Rudolph, who had been brought to the United States under Operation Paperclip, Traficant spoke to the Friends of Arthur Rudolph, an organization based in Huntsville, Alabama. He argued that denaturalization had happened because of a "powerful Jewish lobby" influencing Congress. He added that it was a violation of a United States citizen's civil rights, and he suggested that Rudolph return to the United States nonetheless. Additionally, he "introduced a resolution in Congress [...] calling for an investigation into the OSI's handling of Rudolph's case." Meanwhile, in 1990, Traficant had planned to meet Rudolph in Niagara Falls, on the Canadian–American border; however, Rudolph was arrested by immigration officials in Toronto, and the meeting never occurred.


title: James Traficant

text: In 2001, Traficant was indicted on federal corruption charges for taking campaign funds for personal use. Again, he opted to represent himself, insisting that the trial was part of a vendetta against him dating back to his 1983 trial. After a two-month federal trial, on April 11, 2002, he was convicted of ten felony counts including bribery, racketeering, and tax evasion. Per longstanding House convention, House Democrats directed him not to cast any votes pending an investigation by the United States House Committee on Ethics.


title: James Traficant

text: Eventually, the House Ethics Committee recommended that Traficant be expelled from Congress. On July 24, the House voted to expel him in a 420-1 vote. The sole vote against expulsion was Representative Gary Condit, who at the time was in the midst of a scandal of his own and had been defeated in his reelection primary. Traficant was the first representative to be expelled since Michael Myers in 1980 as a result of the Abscam scandal.


title: James Traficant

text: After his expulsion, Traficant ran as an independent candidate for another term in the House while incarcerated at the United States Penitentiary, Allenwood. He received 28,045 votes, or 15 percent, and became one of only a handful of individuals in the history of the United States to run for a federal office from prison. The election was won by one of his former aides, Tim Ryan.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant entered the Federal Correctional Institution, Allenwood Low, on August 6, 2002, with the Federal Bureau of Prisons ID # 31213-060. He served his first seventeen months at Allenwood. He claimed that he was put in solitary confinement shortly after his arrival for incitement to riot after he told a guard, "People can't hear you. Speak up." During the seven years of his incarceration, Traficant refused any visitors, saying that he didn't want anyone to see him. He was released on September 2, 2009, at age 68, and was subject to three years of supervised release.


title: James Traficant

text: While in prison, Traficant received support from neo-Nazi David Duke, who urged visitors to his personal website to donate to his personal fund. Duke posted a letter written by Traficant stating that he was targeted by the United States Department of Justice for, among other things, defending John Demjanjuk. Traficant also claimed, in the letter, that he knew facts about "Waco, Ruby Ridge, Pan Am Flight 103, Jimmy Hoffa and the John F. Kennedy assassination", which he may divulge in the future. Author Michael Collins Piper, who wrote "Target: Traficant, The Untold Story" initially helped circulate Traficant's letter, said that "There's stuff I've written about Traficant that's showing up in places I don't even know. It's like (six) degrees of separation with the Internet now," and denied that Traficant had any direct connections to Duke.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant was released from prison on September 2, 2009. On September 6, 2009, 1,200 supporters welcomed him home at a banquet with an Elvis impersonator, and a Traficant lookalike contest. "Welcome home Jimbo" was printed on T-shirts. "I think it's time to tell the FBI and the IRS that this is our country and we're tired—tired of the pressure, tired of the political targeting, tired of a powerful central government that is crippling America," he said. He also said he was considering running for his old seat in Congress. Traficant signed a limited, three-month contract to work as a part-time weekend talk radio host for Cleveland news/talk station WTAM in January 2010. His contract permitted him to quit if he chose to run for office.


title: James Traficant

text: On November 2, 2009, a column by Traficant in the "American Free Press" continued his defense of the accused concentration camp guard John Demjanjuk. Michael Collins Piper defended Traficant against his accusers.


title: James Traficant

text: In September 2010, Traficant was certified to run for the same seat he held before his expulsion, and said that his platform would be to repeal the Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Traficant lost the election to his former aide Tim Ryan, to whom he lost an earlier race in 2002, in which Traficant ran as an independent from his prison cell. Traficant received 30,556 votes, or 16%.


title: James Traficant

text: After his release from prison, he was featured as a guest speaker at a Tea Party protest in Columbiana, Ohio, among other events affiliated with reactionary politics.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant began a grassroots campaign in July 2014, "Project Freedom USA", to, among other things, put people pressure on Congress to get rid of the IRS and "divorce" the Federal Reserve.


title: James Traficant

text: Traficant was injured in an accident at his farm on September 23, 2014. A tractor he was driving into a pole barn flipped over and trapped him underneath. Traficant was taken to Salem Regional Medical Center in Salem, Ohio, then airlifted to St. Elizabeth's Health Center in Youngstown. On the evening of September 24, his wife described him as "sedated and not doing well."


title: James Traficant

text: By September 26, via news reports and statements from attorney and family spokesman Heidi Hanni, it was learned that the family was awaiting the doctors' assessment; there was no word as to whether or not Traficant had suffered a heart attack, but he was still unconscious and was being sedated for pain and other reasons. A number of longtime family friends, including Linda Kovachik, a former congressional aide to Traficant, told "The Vindicator" that it is believed Traficant had a heart attack, causing the tractor accident.


title: James Traficant

text: A text message was sent out Friday evening September 26 by Jim Condit Jr., the Constitution Party candidate for Ohio's 8th congressional district and a close friend who had been traveling with Traficant to help promote Project Freedom USA. The text message stated that "the machines were disconnected at 2:00 p.m. (Friday). He is still breathing. Thousands are praying." On September 27, 2014, Traficant died at a hospice in Poland, Ohio, aged 73. By September 29, Traficant's body had been buried in an undisclosed location after the family had a private funeral, and announced that there would be no public funeral for him.


title: James Traficant

text: A subsequent medical investigation determined that Traficant had not had a heart attack or seizure before the accident, and was not under the influence of drugs or alcohol. In addition, he had not sustained any crushing injuries in the accident. The forensic pathologist who conducted the examination attributed Traficant's death to positional asphyxiation, stating that he had been unable to breathe because of the weight of the tractor on top of him.


title: BRCA1

text: Breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BRCA1 () gene. Orthologs are common in other vertebrate species, whereas invertebrate genomes may encode a more distantly related gene. "BRCA1" is a human tumor suppressor gene (also known as a caretaker gene) and is responsible for repairing DNA.


title: BRCA1

text: "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" are unrelated proteins, but both are normally expressed in the cells of breast and other tissue, where they help repair damaged DNA, or destroy cells if DNA cannot be repaired. They are involved in the repair of chromosomal damage with an important role in the error-free repair of DNA double-strand breaks. If "BRCA1" or "BRCA2" itself is damaged by a BRCA mutation, damaged DNA is not repaired properly, and this increases the risk for breast cancer. "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" have been described as "breast cancer susceptibility genes" and "breast cancer susceptibility proteins". The predominant allele has a normal, tumor suppressive function whereas high penetrance mutations in these genes cause a loss of tumor suppressive function which correlates with an increased risk of breast cancer.


title: BRCA1

text: "BRCA1" combines with other tumor suppressors, DNA damage sensors and signal transducers to form a large multi-subunit protein complex known as the "BRCA1"-associated genome surveillance complex (BASC). The "BRCA1" protein associates with RNA polymerase II, and through the C-terminal domain, also interacts with histone deacetylase complexes. Thus, this protein plays a role in transcription, and DNA repair of double-strand DNA breaks ubiquitination, transcriptional regulation as well as other functions.


title: BRCA1

text: Methods to test for the likelihood of a patient with mutations in "BRCA1" and "BRCA2" developing cancer were covered by patents owned or controlled by Myriad Genetics. Myriad's business model of offering the diagnostic test exclusively led from Myriad being a startup in 1994 to being a publicly traded company with 1200 employees and about $500M in annual revenue in 2012; it also led to controversy over high prices and the inability to obtain second opinions from other diagnostic labs, which in turn led to the landmark "Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics" lawsuit.


title: BRCA1

text: The first evidence for the existence of a gene encoding a DNA repair enzyme involved in breast cancer susceptibility was provided by Mary-Claire King's laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990. Four years later, after an international race to find it, the gene was cloned in 1994 by scientists at University of Utah, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Myriad Genetics.


title: BRCA1

text: The human "BRCA1" gene is located on the long (q) arm of chromosome 17 at region 2 band 1, from base pair 41,196,312 to base pair 41,277,500 (Build GRCh37/hg19) (map). "BRCA1" orthologs have been identified in most vertebrates for which complete genome data are available.


title: BRCA1

text: The human BRCA1 protein consists of four major protein domains; the Znf C3HC4- RING domain, the BRCA1 serine domain and two BRCT domains. These domains encode approximately 27% of BRCA1 protein. There are six known isoforms of BRCA1, with isoforms 1 and 2 comprising 1863 amino acids each.


title: BRCA1

text: The RING motif, a Zn finger found in eukaryotic peptides, is 40–60 amino acids long and consists of eight conserved metal-binding residues, two quartets of cysteine or histidine residues that coordinate two zinc atoms. This motif contains a short anti-parallel beta-sheet, two zinc-binding loops and a central alpha helix in a small domain. This RING domain interacts with associated proteins, including BARD1, which also contains a RING motif, to form a heterodimer. The BRCA1 RING motif is flanked by alpha helices formed by residues 8–22 and 81–96 of the BRCA1 protein. It interacts with a homologous region in BARD1 also consisting of a RING finger flanked by two alpha-helices formed from residues 36–48 and 101–116. These four helices combine to form a heterodimerization interface and stabilize the BRCA1-BARD1 heterodimer complex. Additional stabilization is achieved by interactions between adjacent residues in the flanking region and hydrophobic interactions. The BARD1/BRCA1 interaction is disrupted by tumorigenic amino acid substitutions in BRCA1, implying that the formation of a stable complex between these proteins may be an essential aspect of BRCA1 tumor suppression.


title: BRCA1

text: The ring domain is an important element of ubiquitin E3 ligases, which catalyze protein ubiquitination. Ubiquitin is a small regulatory protein found in all tissues that direct proteins to compartments within the cell. BRCA1 polypeptides, in particular, Lys-48-linked polyubiquitin chains are dispersed throughout the resting cell nucleus, but at the start of DNA replication, they gather in restrained groups that also contain BRCA2 and BARD1. BARD1 is thought to be involved in the recognition and binding of protein targets for ubiquitination. It attaches to proteins and labels them for destruction. Ubiquitination occurs via the BRCA1 fusion protein and is abolished by zinc chelation. The enzyme activity of the fusion protein is dependent on the proper folding of the ring domain.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 serine cluster domain (SCD) spans amino acids 1280–1524. A portion of the domain is located in exons 11–13. High rates of mutation occur in exons 11–13. Reported phosphorylation sites of BRCA1 are concentrated in the SCD, where they are phosphorylated by ATM/ATR kinases both in vitro and in vivo. ATM/ATR are kinases activated by DNA damage. Mutation of serine residues may affect localization of BRCA1 to sites of DNA damage and DNA damage response function.


title: BRCA1

text: The dual repeat BRCT domain of the BRCA1 protein is an elongated structure approximately 70 Å long and 30–35 Å wide. The 85–95 amino acid domains in BRCT can be found as single modules or as multiple tandem repeats containing two domains. Both of these possibilities can occur in a single protein in a variety of different conformations. The C-terminal BRCT region of the BRCA1 protein is essential for repair of DNA, transcription regulation and tumor suppressor function. In BRCA1 the dual tandem repeat BRCT domains are arranged in a head-to-tail-fashion in the three-dimensional structure, burying 1600 Å of hydrophobic, solvent-accessible surface area in the interface. These all contribute to the tightly packed knob-in-hole structure that comprises the interface. These homologous domains interact to control cellular responses to DNA damage. A missense mutation at the interface of these two proteins can perturb the cell cycle, resulting a greater risk of developing cancer.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 is part of a complex that repairs double-strand breaks in DNA. The strands of the DNA double helix are continuously breaking as they become damaged. Sometimes only one strand is broken, sometimes both strands are broken simultaneously. DNA cross-linking agents are an important source of chromosome/DNA damage. Double-strand breaks occur as intermediates after the crosslinks are removed, and indeed, biallelic mutations in "BRCA1" have been identified to be responsible for Fanconi Anemia, Complementation Group S, a genetic disease associated with hypersensitivity to DNA crosslinking agents. BRCA1 is part of a protein complex that repairs DNA when both strands are broken. When this happens, it is difficult for the repair mechanism to "know" how to replace the correct DNA sequence, and there are multiple ways to attempt the repair. The double-strand repair mechanism in which BRCA1 participates is homology-directed repair, where the repair proteins copy the identical sequence from the intact sister chromatid.


title: BRCA1

text: In the nucleus of many types of normal cells, the BRCA1 protein interacts with RAD51 during repair of DNA double-strand breaks. These breaks can be caused by natural radiation or other exposures, but also occur when chromosomes exchange genetic material (homologous recombination, e.g., "crossing over" during meiosis). The BRCA2 protein, which has a function similar to that of BRCA1, also interacts with the RAD51 protein. By influencing DNA damage repair, these three proteins play a role in maintaining the stability of the human genome.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 is also involved in another type of DNA repair, termed mismatch repair. BRCA1 interacts with the DNA mismatch repair protein MSH2. MSH2, MSH6, PARP and some other proteins involved in single-strand repair are reported to be elevated in BRCA1-deficient mammary tumors.


title: BRCA1

text: A protein called valosin-containing protein (VCP, also known as p97) plays a role to recruit BRCA1 to the damaged DNA sites. After ionizing radiation, VCP is recruited to DNA lesions and cooperates with the ubiquitin ligase RNF8 to orchestrate assembly of signaling complexes for efficient DSB repair. BRCA1 interacts with VCP. BRCA1 also interacts with c-Myc, and other proteins that are critical to maintain genome stability.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 directly binds to DNA, with higher affinity for branched DNA structures. This ability to bind to DNA contributes to its ability to inhibit the nuclease activity of the MRN complex as well as the nuclease activity of Mre11 alone. This may explain a role for BRCA1 to promote lower fidelity DNA repair by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). BRCA1 also colocalizes with γ-H2AX (histone H2AX phosphorylated on serine-139) in DNA double-strand break repair foci, indicating it may play a role in recruiting repair factors.


title: BRCA1

text: Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are common environmental sources of DNA cross links that often require repairs mediated by BRCA1 containing pathways.


title: BRCA1

text: This DNA repair function is essential; mice with loss-of-function mutations in both BRCA1 alleles are not viable, and as of 2015 only two adults were known to have loss-of-function mutations in both alleles; both had congenital or developmental issues, and both had cancer. One was presumed to have survived to adulthood because one of the BRCA1 mutations was hypomorphic.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 was shown to co-purify with the human RNA Polymerase II holoenzyme in HeLa extracts, implying it is a component of the holoenzyme. Later research, however, contradicted this assumption, instead showing that the predominant complex including BRCA1 in HeLa cells is a 2 megadalton complex containing SWI/SNF. SWI/SNF is a chromatin remodeling complex. Artificial tethering of BRCA1 to chromatin was shown to decondense heterochromatin, though the SWI/SNF interacting domain was not necessary for this role. BRCA1 interacts with the NELF-B (COBRA1) subunit of the NELF complex.


title: BRCA1

text: Certain variations of the "BRCA1" gene lead to an increased risk for breast cancer as part of a hereditary breast–ovarian cancer syndrome. Researchers have identified hundreds of mutations in the "BRCA1" gene, many of which are associated with an increased risk of cancer. Females with an abnormal BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene have up to an 80% risk of developing breast cancer by age 90; increased risk of developing ovarian cancer is about 55% for females with BRCA1 mutations and about 25% for females with BRCA2 mutations.


title: BRCA1

text: These mutations can be changes in one or a small number of DNA base pairs (the building-blocks of DNA), and can be identified with PCR and DNA sequencing.


title: BRCA1

text: In some cases, large segments of DNA are rearranged. Those large segments, also called large rearrangements, can be a deletion or a duplication of one or several exons in the gene. Classical methods for mutation detection (sequencing) are unable to reveal these types of mutation. Other methods have been proposed: traditional quantitative PCR, multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), and Quantitative Multiplex PCR of Short Fluorescent Fragments (QMPSF). Newer methods have also been recently proposed: heteroduplex analysis (HDA) by multi-capillary electrophoresis or also dedicated oligonucleotides array based on comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH).


title: BRCA1

text: Some results suggest that hypermethylation of the BRCA1 promoter, which has been reported in some cancers, could be considered as an inactivating mechanism for BRCA1 expression.


title: BRCA1

text: A mutated "BRCA1" gene usually makes a protein that does not function properly. Researchers believe that the defective BRCA1 protein is unable to help fix DNA damage leading to mutations in other genes. These mutations can accumulate and may allow cells to grow and divide uncontrollably to form a tumor. Thus, BRCA1 inactivating mutations lead to a predisposition for cancer.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 mRNA 3' UTR can be bound by an miRNA, Mir-17 microRNA. It has been suggested that variations in this miRNA along with Mir-30 microRNA could confer susceptibility to breast cancer.


title: BRCA1

text: In addition to breast cancer, mutations in the "BRCA1" gene also increase the risk of ovarian and prostate cancers. Moreover, precancerous lesions (dysplasia) within the Fallopian tube have been linked to "BRCA1" gene mutations. Pathogenic mutations anywhere in a model pathway containing BRCA1 and BRCA2 greatly increase risks for a subset of leukemias and lymphomas.


title: BRCA1

text: Women who have inherited a defective BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene are at a greatly elevated risk to develop breast and ovarian cancer. Their risk of developing breast and/or ovarian cancer is so high, and so specific to those cancers, that many mutation carriers choose to have prophylactic surgery. There has been much conjecture to explain such apparently striking tissue specificity. Major determinants of where BRCA1/2 hereditary cancers occur are related to tissue specificity of the cancer pathogen, the agent that causes chronic inflammation or the carcinogen. The target tissue may have receptors for the pathogen, may become selectively exposed to an inflammatory process or to a carcinogen. An innate genomic deficit in a tumor suppressor gene impairs normal responses and exacerbates the susceptibility to disease in organ targets. This theory also fits data for several tumor suppressors beyond BRCA1 or BRCA2. A major advantage of this model is that it suggests there may be some options in addition to prophylactic surgery.


title: BRCA1

text: BRCA1 expression is reduced or undetectable in the majority of high grade, ductal breast cancers. It has long been noted that loss of BRCA1 activity, either by germ-line mutations or by down-regulation of gene expression, leads to tumor formation in specific target tissues. In particular, decreased BRCA1 expression contributes to both sporadic and inherited breast tumor progression. Reduced expression of BRCA1 is tumorigenic because it plays an important role in the repair of DNA damages, especially double-strand breaks, by the potentially error-free pathway of homologous recombination. Since cells that lack the BRCA1 protein tend to repair DNA damages by alternative more error-prone mechanisms, the reduction or silencing of this protein generates mutations and gross chromosomal rearrangements that can lead to progression to breast cancer.


title: BRCA1

text: Similarly, BRCA1 expression is low in the majority (55%) of sporadic epithelial ovarian cancers (EOCs) where EOCs are the most common type of ovarian cancer, representing approximately 90% of ovarian cancers. In serous ovarian carcinomas, a sub-category constituting about 2/3 of EOCs, low BRCA1 expression occurs in more than 50% of cases. Bowtell reviewed the literature indicating that deficient homologous recombination repair caused by BRCA1 deficiency is tumorigenic. In particular this deficiency initiates a cascade of molecular events that sculpt the evolution of high-grade serous ovarian cancer and dictate its response to therapy. Especially noted was that BRCA1 deficiency could be the cause of tumorigenesis whether due to BRCA1 mutation or any other event that causes a deficiency of BRCA1 expression.


title: BRCA1

text: Only about 3%–8% of all women with breast cancer carry a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. Similarly, "BRCA1" mutations are only seen in about 18% of ovarian cancers (13% germline mutations and 5% somatic mutations).


title: BRCA1

text: Thus, while BRCA1 expression is low in the majority of these cancers, "BRCA1" mutation is not a major cause of reduced expression. Certain latent viruses, which are frequently detected in breast cancer tumors, can decrease the expression of the BRCA1 gene and cause the development of breast tumors.


title: BRCA1

text: "BRCA1" promoter hypermethylation was present in only 13% of unselected primary breast carcinomas. Similarly, "BRCA1" promoter hypermethylation was present in only 5% to 15% of EOC cases.


title: BRCA1

text: Thus, while BRCA1 expression is low in these cancers, "BRCA1" promoter methylation is only a minor cause of reduced expression.


title: BRCA1

text: There are a number of specific microRNAs, when overexpressed, that directly reduce expression of specific DNA repair proteins (see MicroRNA section DNA repair and cancer) In the case of breast cancer, microRNA-182 (miR-182) specifically targets BRCA1. Breast cancers can be classified based on receptor status or histology, with triple-negative breast cancer (15%–25% of breast cancers), HER2+ (15%–30% of breast cancers), ER+/PR+ (about 70% of breast cancers), and Invasive lobular carcinoma (about 5%–10% of invasive breast cancer). All four types of breast cancer were found to have an average of about 100-fold increase in miR-182, compared to normal breast tissue. In breast cancer cell lines, there is an inverse correlation of BRCA1 protein levels with miR-182 expression. Thus it appears that much of the reduction or absence of BRCA1 in high grade ductal breast cancers may be due to over-expressed miR-182.


title: BRCA1

text: In addition to miR-182, a pair of almost identical microRNAs, miR-146a and miR-146b-5p, also repress BRCA1 expression. These two microRNAs are over-expressed in triple-negative tumors and their over-expression results in BRCA1 inactivation. Thus, miR-146a and/or miR-146b-5p may also contribute to reduced expression of BRCA1 in these triple-negative breast cancers.


title: BRCA1

text: In both serous tubal intraepithelial carcinoma (the precursor lesion to high grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HG-SOC)), and in HG-SOC itself, miR-182 is overexpressed in about 70% of cases. In cells with over-expressed miR-182, BRCA1 remained low, even after exposure to ionizing radiation (which normally raises BRCA1 expression). Thus much of the reduced or absent BRCA1 in HG-SOC may be due to over-expressed miR-182.


title: BRCA1

text: Another microRNA known to reduce expression of BRCA1 in ovarian cancer cells is miR-9. Among 58 tumors from patients with stage IIIC or stage IV serous ovarian cancers (HG-SOG), an inverse correlation was found between expressions of miR-9 and BRCA1, so that increased miR-9 may also contribute to reduced expression of BRCA1 in these ovarian cancers.


title: BRCA1

text: DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer, and deficiencies in DNA repair appears to underlie many forms of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, DNA damage tends to accumulate. Such excess DNA damage may increase mutational errors during DNA replication due to error-prone translesion synthesis. Excess DNA damage may also increase epigenetic alterations due to errors during DNA repair. Such mutations and epigenetic alterations may give rise to cancer. The frequent microRNA-induced deficiency of "BRCA1" in breast and ovarian cancers likely contribute to the progression of those cancers.


title: BRCA1

text: All germ-line BRCA1 mutations identified to date have been inherited, suggesting the possibility of a large "founder" effect in which a certain mutation is common to a well-defined population group and can, in theory, be traced back to a common ancestor. Given the complexity of mutation screening for BRCA1, these common mutations may simplify the methods required for mutation screening in certain populations. Analysis of mutations that occur with high frequency also permits the study of their clinical expression. Examples of manifestations of a founder effect are seen among Ashkenazi Jews. Three mutations in BRCA1 have been reported to account for the majority of Ashkenazi Jewish patients with inherited BRCA1-related breast and/or ovarian cancer: 185delAG, 188del11 and 5382insC in the BRCA1 gene. In fact, it has been shown that if a Jewish woman does not carry a BRCA1 185delAG, BRCA1 5382insC founder mutation, it is highly unlikely that a different BRCA1 mutation will be found. Additional examples of founder mutations in BRCA1 are given in Table 1 (mainly derived from).


title: BRCA1

text: As women age, reproductive performance declines, leading to menopause. This decline is tied to a reduction in the number of ovarian follicles. Although about 1 million oocytes are present at birth in the human ovary, only about 500 (about 0.05%) of these ovulate. The decline in ovarian reserve appears to occur at a constantly increasing rate with age, and leads to nearly complete exhaustion of the reserve by about age 52. As ovarian reserve and fertility decline with age, there is also a parallel increase in pregnancy failure and meiotic errors, resulting in chromosomally abnormal conceptions.


title: BRCA1

text: Women with a germ-line "BRCA1" mutation appear to have a diminished oocyte reserve and decreased fertility compared to normally aging women. Furthermore, women with an inherited "BRCA1" mutation undergo menopause prematurely. Since BRCA1 is a key DNA repair protein, these findings suggest that naturally occurring DNA damages in oocytes are repaired less efficiently in women with a "BRCA1" defect, and that this repair inefficiency leads to early reproductive failure.


title: BRCA1

text: As noted above, the BRCA1 protein plays a key role in homologous recombinational repair. This is the only known cellular process that can accurately repair DNA double-strand breaks. DNA double-strand breaks accumulate with age in humans and mice in primordial follicles. Primordial follicles contain oocytes that are at an intermediate (prophase I) stage of meiosis. Meiosis is the general process in eukaryotic organisms by which germ cells are formed, and it is likely an adaptation for removing DNA damages, especially double-strand breaks, from germ line DNA. (Also see article Meiosis). Homologous recombinational repair employing BRCA1 is especially promoted during meiosis. It was found that expression of four key genes necessary for homologous recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks ("BRCA1, MRE11, RAD51" and "ATM") decline with age in the oocytes of humans and mice, leading to the hypothesis that DNA double-strand break repair is necessary for the maintenance of oocyte reserve and that a decline in efficiency of repair with age plays a role in ovarian aging.


title: BRCA1

text: Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. At diagnosis, almost 70% of persons with NSCLC have locally advanced or metastatic disease. Persons with NSCLC are often treated with therapeutic platinum compounds (e.g. cisplatin, carboplatin or oxaliplatin) that cause inter-strand cross-links in DNA. Among individuals with NSCLC, low expression of "BRCA1" in the primary tumor correlated with improved survival after platinum-containing chemotherapy. This correlation implies that low BRCA1 in cancer, and the consequent low level of DNA repair, causes vulnerability of cancer to treatment by the DNA cross-linking agents. High BRCA1 may protect cancer cells by acting in a pathway that removes the damages in DNA introduced by the platinum drugs. Thus the level of "BRCA1" expression is a potentially important tool for tailoring chemotherapy in lung cancer management.


title: BRCA1

text: Level of "BRCA1" expression is also relevant to ovarian cancer treatment. Patients having sporadic ovarian cancer who were treated with platinum drugs had longer median survival times if their "BRCA1" expression was low compared to patients with higher "BRCA1" expression (46 compared to 33 months).


title: BRCA1

text: A patent application for the isolated BRCA1 gene and cancer promoting mutations discussed above, as well as methods to diagnose the likelihood of getting breast cancer, was filed by the University of Utah, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and Myriad Genetics in 1994; over the next year, Myriad, (in collaboration with investigators at Endo Recherche, Inc., HSC Research & Development Limited Partnership, and University of Pennsylvania), isolated and sequenced the BRCA2 gene and identified key mutations, and the first BRCA2 patent was filed in the U.S. by Myriad and other institutions in 1995. Myriad is the exclusive licensee of these patents and has enforced them in the US against clinical diagnostic labs. This business model led from Myriad being a startup in 1994 to being a publicly traded company with 1200 employees and about $500M in annual revenue in 2012; it also led to controversy over high prices and the inability to get second opinions from other diagnostic labs, which in turn led to the landmark "Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics" lawsuit. The patents began to expire in 2014.


title: BRCA1

text: According to an article published in the journal, "Genetic Medicine", in 2010, "The patent story outside the United States is more complicated... For example, patents have been obtained but the patents are being ignored by provincial health systems in Canada. In Australia and the UK, Myriad's licensee permitted use by health systems but announced a change of plans in August 2008. Only a single mutation has been patented in Myriad's lone European-wide patent, although some patents remain under review of an opposition proceeding. In effect, the United States is the only jurisdiction where Myriad's strong patent position has conferred sole-provider status." Peter Meldrum, CEO of Myriad Genetics, has acknowledged that Myriad has "other competitive advantages that may make such [patent] enforcement unnecessary" in Europe.


title: BRCA1

text: As with any gene, finding variation in BRCA1 is not hard. The real value comes from understanding what the clinical consequences of any particular variant are. Myriad has a large, proprietary database of such genotype-phenotype correlations. In response, parallel open-source databases are being developed.


title: BRCA1

text: Legal decisions surrounding the BRCA1 and BRCA2 patents will affect the field of genetic testing in general. A June 2013 article, in "Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics" (No. 12-398), quoted the US Supreme Court's unanimous ruling that, "A naturally occurring DNA segment is a product of nature and not patent eligible merely because it has been isolated," invalidating Myriad's patents on the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. However, the Court also held that manipulation of a gene to create something not found in nature could still be eligible for patent protection. The Federal Court of Australia came to the opposite conclusion, upholding the validity of an Australian Myriad Genetics patent over the BRCA1 gene in February 2013. The Federal Court also rejected an appeal in September 2014. Yvonne D'Arcy won her case against US-based biotech company Myriad Genetics in the High Court of Australia. In their unanimous decision on October 7, 2015, the "high court found that an isolated nucleic acid, coding for a BRCA1 protein, with specific variations from the norm that are indicative of susceptibility to breast cancer and ovarian cancer was not a 'patentable invention.'"


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise is a city in central-western Broward County, Florida, United States, and is a principal city of the Miami metropolitan area. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 97,335.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise was incorporated in 1961 and founded by Norman Johnson, a developer whose Upside-Down House attracted buyers to what was then a remote area.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 1960, Iowa-born developer Norman Johnson paid $9 million for 2,650 acres of land in southwestern Broward County. By 1961, this community of 1.75 square miles—which Johnson named Sunrise Golf Village—had fewer than 350 residents.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: It has been reported that the community was to be named Sunset Village—but this did not occur because of objections from residents who felt that "sunset" was too final. (Originally called "Sunset," the name did not sit well with the retirees whom developers wanted to attract, so a change was made to "Sunrise.")


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Johnson and F. E. Dykstra developed and built an "upside-down house" to lure prospective property buyers. The home was completely furnished, and the carport featured an upside-down automobile. Public interest was aroused through numerous news stories—including a feature in Life magazine. The structure became a national attraction that drew thousands to the Village. People came to stand on the ceiling—and many stayed to make their home in the community.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 1961, Norman Johnson was appointed by Governor C. Farris Bryant as the first Mayor of Sunrise Golf Village.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: According to "City of Sunrise Golf Village," a booklet produced by the City in 1969: "On January 10, 1967, (a date called for by City Charter) Sunrise Golf Village emerged from a developer's operation into a free city under complete control of its residents. Also, on this auspicious date, the City elected a Mayor and seven Councilmen to four-year terms of office. The City of Sunrise Golf Village which comprises 3 1/2 square miles, has no air pollution or drainage problems, all paved streets, and street lighting throughout the entire City."


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: That first elected mayor was John Lomelo Jr.—a former Miami nightclub owner who was drawn to Sunrise Golf Village by the Upside-Down House.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Originally known as Sunrise Golf Village, the City had a population of 4,300 and comprised just 1.75 square miles by 1967. Then, during the 1970s—as Broward County began to push west—the City experienced its first real growth.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 1971, the City, by referendum, changed its name to the City of Sunrise. Through annexation, Sunrise eventually expanded to its current boundaries—encompassing more than 18 square miles, reaching the Everglades and dropping south of I-595/State Road 84. The City is situated approximately six miles west of Fort Lauderdale, and is adjoined by the communities of Weston, Davie, Tamarac, Lauderhill, and Plantation.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: By October 1984, the City had reached an estimated population of 50,000. In the mid-1980s, growth gave way to challenges, as the City was faced with financial difficulties, limited economic opportunities and a lack of adequate civic amenities. In the early 1990s, Sunrise worked to put its financial house in order, rebuild its infrastructure and establish itself as a center for business headquarters. It is the site of Sawgrass International Corporate Park—at 612 acres, the largest corporate park in south Florida.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 1990, the first phase of Sawgrass Mills opened in Sunrise. Due to its continued popularity and expansion, the shopping and entertainment center has grown to almost 2.3 million square feet. It features 350 outlet and value retailers; food courts and full-service restaurants; movie theater and family entertainment venues.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The National Car Rental Center—now the FLA Live Arena—opened its doors in 1998. The arena is the home of the National Hockey League's Florida Panthers, and hosts top entertainers and events.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Thanks in large part to these shopping and entertainment destinations, Sunrise has become one of Florida's top tourist draws. Its location at the center of Miami-Dade, Broward and Palm Beach counties—in close proximity to the Florida Turnpike and I-95, and bordered by the Sawgrass Expressway, I-75 and I-595—makes Sunrise accessible to area residents and visitors alike.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise operates its own utility services (water, wastewater, and natural gas), as well as municipal fire-rescue and police departments. The City also maintains its own system of parks, as well as a soccer club, golf course, tennis club, playgrounds and swimming pools. The Sunrise Civic Center includes a 300-seat theater, an art gallery, an athletic club, and banquet facilities. Sunrise is also home to eleven public schools.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In September 2010, Sunrise was "lost" by Google Maps. Individuals attempting to get driving directions or locate a business in Sunrise were redirected to Sarasota, Florida. This was the third time this occurred in Sunrise's history.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: On February 2, 2021, a shootout occurred between a gunman and several FBI agents at an apartment complex in Sunrise. At the time, the agents were serving a federal warrant related to a child exploitation case. Two FBI agents were fatally shot and three others were injured. The gunman, who was the subject of the warrant, was later found dead after barricading himself inside the apartment. The shootout was the most violent incident in the FBI's history since the 1986 shootout that left two agents dead and five others injured, and it was also the first time an agent was fatally shot in the line of duty since 2008.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 97,335 people, 39,427 households, and 22,112 families residing in the city.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: As of 2010, there were 37,609 households, with 13.6% being vacant. As of 2000, 33.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6% were married couples living together, 13.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.2% were non-families. 27.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the average family size was 3.12.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 24.9% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 31.7% from 25 to 44, 18.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 82.5 males.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the city was $40,998, and the median income for a family was $47,908. Males had a median income of $35,706 versus $28,147 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,713. About 7.3% of families and 9.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.3% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: As of 2000, speakers of English as a first language accounted for 71.92%, while Spanish was 16.75%, French Creole was at 2.53%, Yiddish at 1.14%, Portuguese at 1.01%, Italian at 0.84%, French at 0.83%, Hebrew at 0.61%, and Chinese at 0.59% of the population.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: As of 2000, Sunrise had the 107th highest percentage of Cuban residents in the US, at 2.29% of the city's population, and the sixtieth highest percentage of Colombian residents in the US, at 2.44% of the city's population (tied with Weehawken, New Jersey.) It also had the fourteenth most Jamaican-populated area in the US, with 7.6% of all residents, and the fifty-third highest concentration of Haitians (tied with Lake Alfred and Miami Gardens' Bunche Park neighborhood) at 2.8% of the population.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise's tax base includes BB&T Center, Sawgrass Mills, Sawgrass International Corporate Park, IKEA and other commercial developments. Quality job creation through corporate attraction has long been a priority in the City.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise includes branches of Coventry Healthcare; AT&T – Regional HQ; United Healthcare; Mednax – HQ; HealthTrust Workforce Solutions – Corp HQ: BlackBerry; General Dynamics; Broadspire – HQ; Publix; Interim Services; FoxConn; Andrx; BHA Engineering – HQ; HG Holdings – HQ; MDR Fitness – HQ; S&B Industry – HQ; Grant Thornton – Regional HQ; Cigna Healthcare; Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL); Marsh Insurance – Regional HQ; CoreLogic; New York Life; Pet Supermarket – HQ; T-Mobile; Sunshine Health – HQ; International Bullion Brokers – HQ; Bolton Medical – U.S. HQ; Synergistix – HQ; HBO – Latin America HQ; GL Homes – HQ; Prudential Florida Realty – HQ; Federal-Mogul – South America HQ; Martin Professional – U.S. HQ; E. & J. Gallo Winery – South America HQ; Chubb Insurance – Latin America HQ; Wendy's – Latin America HQ; IKEA; American Express Headquarters.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Air France's United States reservations call center is located in the Sawgrass Technology Park in Sunrise.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Emerson Electric Company announced on July 26, 2011 that it would locate its Latin America headquarters at Sawgrass International Corporate Park.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The City of Sunrise announced a New Homebuyer Incentive Program on January 20, 2012. Under this innovative new program, The City of Sunrise will reimburse homebuyers up to $2,000 for select improvements to a newly purchased single-family foreclosure or short sale home. The new program is an effort to attract new residents to Sunrise - and benefit existing residents by helping to improve the appearance and property values in Sunrise neighborhoods.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise hosts events throughout the year in celebration of holidays, seasons and other occasions. Highlights include:


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Earth Day Festival: This celebration of green living sponsored by the city's Utilities Department. The Earth Day Festival features live music; children's rides and activities; a farmer's market; unique, handcrafted goods, ethnic and traditional foods, and eco-conscious organizations. Giveaways include BPA-free water bottles that can be filled throughout the day at the City's complimentary water station.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Cultural Festival: Designed to celebrate, highlight and unify the diverse cultures represented in the City, the festival showcases multi-ethnic foods, music, art, and dance. This event is held each November in City Park.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Harvest Festival: Held each October, this festival includes costume contests, horse-drawn hayrides and an old fashioned pumpkin patch.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Fourth of July Parade & Fireworks: This regional celebration begins with a patriotic parade, followed by a family-friendly party with free food, rides and live entertainment. The evening's events – made possible by a public/private partnership with the former Bank Atlantic Center, now BB&T Center – include fireworks and live music.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Woodstock: This annual event features hand-made crafts from local artists. Held the first weekend in December, it is a popular event and also features local musical talents, among other entertainment.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise's FLA Live Arena is the home of the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League. The arena also hosts concerts, circuses, ice shows and other events. The venue's 2011 first-quarter, non-hockey attendance numbers ranked No. 4 in the United States and No. 17 in the world based on calculations by entertainment trade publication Pollstar.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 2015, the local girls youth soccer club Sunrise l9veSC recorded 3 state championships out of 6 age groups (U14, U15, and U17). In 2016, the U15 and U17 teams qualified for the US Youth Soccer National League with the U15 finishing second and the U17 finishing third.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: In 2010, Sunrise finished the complete renovation and rebranding of its executive course, Seven Bridges at Springtree Golf Club. The 67-acre facility first opened in 1972. It now features a 7,000-square-foot clubhouse with a pro shop, locker rooms and a 120-seat dining area available for breakfast, lunch and catered events.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The City also operates the 15-court Sunrise Tennis Club, three pools, and more than 250 acres of park land.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The Sunrise Suns Wheelchair Basketball Team originally began as a recreational team under the umbrella of Spinal Cord Injury Support Group, Broward chapter. Dr Lauren Lerner, Fran Wade and Sue Krinsky all of HealthSouth Sunrise Rehabilitation Hospital as well as members of the board of directors for the Spinal Cord Injury Support Group saw a need to develop a wheelchair basketball program for the disabled.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The City of Sunrise operates under a commission/manager form of government, led by a mayor and four city commissioners who are elected to four-year terms on a non-partisan basis. The deputy mayor and assistant deputy mayor are selected on a rotating basis in March of each year.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: It is the commission's responsibility to set policy, establish laws and adopt the city's budget. The commission-appointed city manager oversees the day-to-day operations of Sunrise.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Commission meetings are typically conducted on the second and fourth Tuesday of each month in City Hall. Live and archived video of public meetings is available on www.sunrisefl.gov. Meetings are also rebroadcast on local Comcast Cable Channel 78.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise is a full-service city with a comprehensive array of departments, including: Finance and Administrative Services, City Attorney, City Clerk, City Manager, Community Development, Leisure Services, Information Technology, Human Resources, and Utilities.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: Sunrise is home to 11 public schools – eight elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school – operated by Broward County Public Schools. Higher education is offered by nearby public and private institutions, including Broward College, Barry University and Nova Southeastern University.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The Sunrise Utilities Department operates a water and wastewater system that spans approximately 70 miles and serves more than 200,000 residential and commercial customers. The system consists of over 500 miles of water distribution mains; over 600 miles of sewer piping and mains; 200 wastewater and pump stations; three water treatment facilities; four water re-pump facilities and three wastewater treatment plans.


title: Sunrise, Florida

text: The Utilities Department also oversees the sixth largest municipal gas system in Florida, serving nearly 10,000 homes and businesses.


title: Perimeter

text: A perimeter is a closed path that encompasses, surrounds, or outlines either a two dimensional shape or a one-dimensional length. The perimeter of a circle or an ellipse is called its circumference.


title: Perimeter

text: Calculating the perimeter has several practical applications. A calculated perimeter is the length of fence required to surround a yard or garden. The perimeter of a wheel/circle (its circumference) describes how far it will roll in one revolution. Similarly, the amount of string wound around a spool is related to the spool's perimeter; if the length of the string was exact, it would equal the perimeter.


title: Perimeter

text: The perimeter is the distance around a shape. Perimeters for more general shapes can be calculated, as any path, with formula_1, where formula_2 is the length of the path and formula_3 is an infinitesimal line element. Both of these must be replaced by algebraic forms in order to be practically calculated. If the perimeter is given as a closed piecewise smooth plane curve formula_4 with


title: Perimeter

text: A generalized notion of perimeter, which includes hypersurfaces bounding volumes in formula_8-dimensional Euclidean spaces, is described by the theory of Caccioppoli sets.


title: Perimeter

text: Polygons are fundamental to determining perimeters, not only because they are the simplest shapes but also because the perimeters of many shapes are calculated by approximating them with sequences of polygons tending to these shapes. The first mathematician known to have used this kind of reasoning is Archimedes, who approximated the perimeter of a circle by surrounding it with regular polygons.


title: Perimeter

text: The perimeter of a polygon equals the sum of the lengths of its sides (edges). In particular, the perimeter of a rectangle of width formula_9 and length formula_10 equals formula_11


title: Perimeter

text: An equilateral polygon is a polygon which has all sides of the same length (for example, a rhombus is a 4-sided equilateral polygon). To calculate the perimeter of an equilateral polygon, one must multiply the common length of the sides by the number of sides.


title: Perimeter

text: A regular polygon may be characterized by the number of its sides and by its circumradius, that is to say, the constant distance between its centre and each of its vertices. The length of its sides can be calculated using trigonometry. If is a regular polygon's radius and is the number of its sides, then its perimeter is


title: Perimeter

text: A splitter of a triangle is a cevian (a segment from a vertex to the opposite side) that divides the perimeter into two equal lengths, this common length being called the semiperimeter of the triangle. The three splitters of a triangle all intersect each other at the Nagel point of the triangle.


title: Perimeter

text: A cleaver of a triangle is a segment from the midpoint of a side of a triangle to the opposite side such that the perimeter is divided into two equal lengths. The three cleavers of a triangle all intersect each other at the triangle's Spieker center.


title: Perimeter

text: The perimeter of a circle, often called the circumference, is proportional to its diameter and its radius. That is to say, there exists a constant number pi, (the Greek "p" for perimeter), such that if is the circle's perimeter and its diameter then,


title: Perimeter

text: To calculate a circle's perimeter, knowledge of its radius or diameter and the number suffices. The problem is that is not rational (it cannot be expressed as the quotient of two integers), nor is it algebraic (it is not a root of a polynomial equation with rational coefficients). So, obtaining an accurate approximation of is important in the calculation. The computation of the digits of is relevant to many fields, such as mathematical analysis, algorithmics and computer science.


title: Perimeter

text: The perimeter and the area are two main measures of geometric figures. Confusing them is a common error, as well as believing that the greater one of them is, the greater the other must be. Indeed, a commonplace observation is that an enlargement (or a reduction) of a shape make its area grow (or decrease) as well as its perimeter. For example, if a field is drawn on a 1/ scale map, the actual field perimeter can be calculated multiplying the drawing perimeter by . The real area is times the area of the shape on the map. Nevertheless, there is no relation between the area and the perimeter of an ordinary shape. For example, the perimeter of a rectangle of width 0.001 and length 1000 is slightly above 2000, while the perimeter of a rectangle of width 0.5 and length 2 is 5. Both areas are equal to 1.


title: Perimeter

text: Proclus (5th century) reported that Greek peasants "fairly" parted fields relying on their perimeters. However, a field's production is proportional to its area, not to its perimeter, so many naive peasants may have gotten fields with long perimeters but small areas (thus, few crops).


title: Perimeter

text: If one removes a piece from a figure, its area decreases but its perimeter may not. In the case of very irregular shapes, confusion between the perimeter and the convex hull may arise. The convex hull of a figure may be visualized as the shape formed by a rubber band stretched around it. In the animated picture on the left, all the figures have the same convex hull; the big, first hexagon.


title: Perimeter

text: The isoperimetric problem is to determine a figure with the largest area, amongst those having a given perimeter. The solution is intuitive; it is the circle. In particular, this can be used to explain why drops of fat on a broth surface are circular.


title: Perimeter

text: This problem may seem simple, but its mathematical proof requires some sophisticated theorems. The isoperimetric problem is sometimes simplified by restricting the type of figures to be used. In particular, to find the quadrilateral, or the triangle, or another particular figure, with the largest area amongst those with the same shape having a given perimeter. The solution to the quadrilateral isoperimetric problem is the square, and the solution to the triangle problem is the equilateral triangle. In general, the polygon with sides having the largest area and a given perimeter is the regular polygon, which is closer to being a circle than is any irregular polygon with the same number of sides.


title: Perimeter

text: The word comes from the Greek περίμετρος "perimetros", from περί "peri" "around" and μέτρον "metron" "measure".


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: "The Entertainer" is a 1902 classic piano rag written by Scott Joplin. It was sold first as sheet music, and in the 1910s as piano rolls that would play on player pianos. The first recording was by blues and ragtime musicians the Blue Boys in 1928, played on mandolin and guitar.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: As one of the classics of ragtime, it returned to international prominence as part of the ragtime revival in the 1970s, when it was used as the theme music for the 1973 Oscar-winning film "The Sting". Composer and pianist Marvin Hamlisch's adaptation reached No. 3 on the "Billboard" pop chart and spent a week at No. 1 on the easy listening chart in 1974. "The Sting" was set in the 1930s, a full generation after the end of ragtime's mainstream popularity, thus giving the inaccurate impression that ragtime music was popular at that time.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: The Recording Industry Association of America ranked it at No. 10 on its "Songs of the Century" list.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: "The Entertainer" is sub-titled "A Rag Time Two Step", which was a form of dance popular until about 1911, and a style which was common among rags written at the time.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: It is primarily set in the key of C major; however, for the C section (commonly referred to as the 'Trio'), it modulates to F major, then transitions back to C major for the D section. The B section contains an indication that the melody is to be played an octave higher on the repeat.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: In the June 7, 1903, "St. Louis Globe-Democrat", contemporary composer Monroe H. Rosenfeld described "The Entertainer" as "the best and most euphonious" of Joplin's compositions to that point. "It is a jingling work of a very original character, embracing various strains of a retentive character which set the foot in spontaneous action and leave an indelible imprint on the tympanum". Joplin may have performed the piece at a fundraiser in Parsons, Kansas on April 27, 1904.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: Suggested by the rag's dedication to "James Brown and his Mandolin Club", author Rudi Blesh wrote that "some of the melodies recall the pluckings and the fast tremolos of the little steel-stringed plectrum instruments". Stark issued an arrangement of the piece for two mandolins and a guitar.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: The copyright on "The Entertainer" was registered December 29, 1902, along with two other Joplin rags, "A Breeze from Alabama" and "Elite Syncopations", all three of which were published by John Stark & Son of St. Louis, Missouri. The centerpiece of the original cover art featured a minstrel show caricature of a black man in formal attire on a theater stage.


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: In November 1970, Joshua Rifkin released a recording called "" on the classical label Nonesuch, which featured as its second track "The Entertainer". It sold 100,000 copies in its first year and eventually became Nonesuch's first million-selling record. The "Billboard" Best-Selling Classical LPs chart for September 28, 1974, has the record at No. 5, with the follow-up, "Volume 2", at No. 4, and a combined set of both volumes at No. 3. Separately both volumes had been on the chart for sixty-four weeks. The album was nominated in 1971 for two Grammy Award categories, Best Album Notes and Best Instrumental Soloist Performance (without orchestra), but at the ceremony on March 14, 1972, Rifkin did not win in any category. In 1979 Alan Rich in the "New York Magazine" wrote that by giving artists like Rifkin the opportunity to put Joplin's music on disk, Nonesuch Records "created, almost alone, the Scott Joplin revival".


title: The Entertainer (rag)

text: Marvin Hamlisch lightly adapted and orchestrated Joplin's music for the 1973 film "The Sting", for which he won an Academy Award for Best Original Song Score and Adaptation on April 2, 1974. His version of "The Entertainer" reached No. 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on May 18, 1974, prompting "The New York Times" to write, "the whole nation has begun to take notice". Thanks to the film and its score, Joplin's work became appreciated in both the popular and classical music worlds, becoming (in the words of music magazine "Record World"), the "classical phenomenon of the decade". In the United States, "The Entertainer" is one of many songs commonly played by ice cream trucks to attract attention.


title: Bull riding

text: Bull riding is a rodeo sport that involves a rider getting on a bucking bull and attempting to stay mounted while the animal tries to buck off the rider.


title: Bull riding

text: American bull riding has been called "the most dangerous eight seconds in sports." To receive a score, the rider must stay on top of the bull for eight seconds with the use of one hand gripped on a bull rope tied behind the bull's forelegs. Touching the bull or themselves with the free hand, or failing to reach the eight-second mark, results in a no-score ride. Depending on the bull riding organization and the contest, up to four judges might judge the rider and four judge the bull on their performance. For most organizations, a perfect score is 100 points. In general, most professional riders score in the neighborhood of the mid-70s to the high 80s.


title: Bull riding

text: Outside of the United States, bull riding traditions with varying rules and histories also exist in Canada, Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, the Philippines, Japan, South Africa, England, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Australia and New Zealand with the majority of them following similar rules, especially with the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) organization.


title: Bull riding

text: The taming of bulls has ancient roots in contests dating as far back as Minoan culture. Bull riding itself has its direct roots in Mexican contests of equestrian and ranching skills now collectively known as charreada. During the 16th century, a hacienda contest called jaripeo developed. Originally considered a variant of bull fighting, in which riders literally rode a bull to death, the competition evolved into a form where the bull was simply ridden until it stopped bucking. By the mid-19th century, charreada competition was popular on Texas and California cattle ranches where Anglo and Hispanic ranch hands often worked together.


title: Bull riding

text: Scottish noblewoman Frances Erskine Inglis, 1st Marquise of Calderón de la Barca witnessed Bull Riding while living in Mexico in 1840, and wrote about it in her book "Life in Mexico" (1843):


title: Bull riding

text: Many early Texas rangers, who had to be expert horse riders and later went on to become ranchers, learned and adapted Hispanic techniques and traditions to ranches in the United States. Many also enjoyed traditional Mexican celebrations, and H. L. Kinney, a rancher, promoter and former Texas Ranger staged what is thought to be the first Anglo-American organized bullfight in the southwest in 1852. This event also included a jaripeo competition and was the subject of newspaper reports from as far away as the New Orleans Daily Delta. However, popular sentiment shifted away from various blood sports and both bullfighting and prize fighting were banned by the Texas legislature in 1891. In the same time period, however, Wild West Shows began to add steer riding to their exhibitions, choosing to use castrated animals because steers were easier to handle and transport than bulls. Additionally, informal rodeos began as competitions between neighboring ranches in the American Old West. The location of the first formal rodeo is debated. Deer Trail, Colorado claims the first rodeo was in 1869, but so does Cheyenne, Wyoming in 1872.


title: Bull riding

text: Although steer riding contests existed into the 1920s, the sport did not gain popularity until bulls were returned to the arena and replaced steers as the mount of choice. The first-known rodeo to use brahma bulls was in Columbia, Mississippi, produced in 1935 by Canadian brothers Earl and Weldon Bascom with Jake Lybbert and Waldo Ross. This rodeo was the first to feature a bull riding event at a night rodeo held outdoors under electric lights. A pivotal moment for modern bull riding, and rodeo in general, came with the founding of the Rodeo Cowboy Association (RCA) in 1936, which later became the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA). Through this organization, many hundreds of rodeos are held each year. Since that time, the popularity of all aspects of the rodeo has risen. In addition to the PRCA, which has PRCA ProRodeo with bull riding and the Xtreme Bulls events for bull riding only, there is the Professional Bull Riders (PBR), which has staged events since 1993. The organization’s championship event, the PBR World Finals, took place in Las Vegas, Nevada for nearly 30 years. As of 2022, it now takes place in Fort Worth, Texas. The PBR's major league tour, titled the Unleash the Beast Series since 2018, is televised on CBS Sports Network, with the primary broadcast network televising selected bonus rounds (known as 15/15 bucking battles). The major league tour was previously known as the Bud Light Cup Series from 1994 to 2002, then the Built Ford Tough Series from 2003 to 2017. From these roots, bull riding as a competitive sport has spread to a number of other nations worldwide.


title: Bull riding

text: Each bull has a unique name and number called a brand used to help identify it. A sufficient number of bulls, each judged to be of good strength, health, agility, and age, are selected to perform. The rider and bull are matched randomly before the competition, although starting in 2008, some ranked riders are allowed to choose their own bulls from a bull draft for selected rounds in PBR events. In more recent times, bulls must have the tips of their horns shaved off and filed down so they are not sharp.


title: Bull riding

text: A rider mounts a bull and grips a flat braided rope. After they secure a good grip on the rope, the rider nods to signal they are ready. The bucking chute (a small enclosure which opens from the side) is opened and the bull storms out into the arena. The rider must attempt to stay on the bull for at least eight seconds, while only touching the bull with their riding hand. The other hand must remain free for the duration of the ride. Originally, the rules required a 10-second ride, but that was changed to the current eight seconds.


title: Bull riding

text: The bull bucks, rears, kicks, spins, and twists in an effort to throw the rider off. This continues for a number of seconds until the rider is bucked off of the bull or dismounts after completing the ride. A loud buzzer or whistle announces the completion of an eight-second ride.


title: Bull riding

text: Throughout the ride, bullfighters, also popularly known as rodeo clowns, stay near the bull to aid the rider if necessary. When the ride ends, either intentionally or not, the bullfighters distract the bull to protect the rider from harm. Then the guys or girls on the horses rope the bull and take the bull into the exit chute so the next rider can go.


title: Bull riding

text: Many competitions have a format that involves multiple rounds, sometimes called "go-rounds". Generally, events span two to three nights. The rider is given a chance to ride one bull per night. The total points scored by the end of the event are recorded, and after the first or first two go-rounds, the top 20 riders are given a chance to ride one more bull. This final round is called the "short go" or sometimes it is called the championship round. After the end of the short go, the rider with the most total points wins the event. A rider who had a disturbance during his or her ride can go to the judges himself and ask for a reride. The bull can fall, another bull gets out, someone interfered, or the bull did not buck are all reasons why a rider can be given a reride. With rerides they all run different. Either you get the same bull or one will be drawn for you at random.


title: Bull riding

text: Scoring is done consistently within a rodeo organization. The two largest sanctioning bodies are the PRCA and PBR. They vary slightly in how they score bull rides. There are many other organizations, and each has its own particular rules on how they score, but most follow rules similar to the PRCA. The rider only scores points if he successfully rides the bull for 8 seconds. The bull is always given a score. In the PRCA, a ride is scored from 0–100 points. Both the rider and the bull are awarded points. In the regular season, there are four judges, two judges scoring the bull's effort from 0–25 points, and two judges scoring the rider's performance from 0-25 points. There is the potential for the rider and the bull to earn up to 50 points each. The two scores are added together for a total ride score of up to 100 points. This system was spearheaded by former PRCA president Dale Smith. Scores of zero are quite common, as many riders lose control of the animal almost immediately after the bull leaves the bucking chute. Many experienced professionals are able to earn scores of 75 or more. Scores above 80 are considered excellent, and a score in the 90s exceptional.


title: Bull riding

text: In the PBR, a ride is scored from 0-100 points in total. Up to 50 points is scored for the rider and 50 points for the bull. The rider only scores points if he successfully rides the bull for 8 seconds. The bull is always given a score. Four judges award a score of up to 25 points each for the rider's performance, and four judges award up to 25 points each for the bull's effort. Then all the scores are combined and then the total is divided in half for the official score.


title: Bull riding

text: Judges award points based on several key aspects of the ride. Bull riding rules require for judges to be former bull riders themselves. They look for constant control and rhythm in the rider in matching their movements with the bull. Points are usually deducted if a rider is constantly off balance. For points actually to be awarded, the rider must stay mounted for a minimum of 8 seconds, and they are scored only for actions during those 8 seconds. The ability to control the bull well allows riders to gain extra "style" points. These are often gained by spurring the animal. A rider is disqualified for touching the bull, the rope, or themself with their free arm.


title: Bull riding

text: Bulls have more raw power and a different style of movement from bucking horses. One move particular to bulls is a belly roll ("sunfishing"), in which the bull is completely off the ground and kicks either his hind feet or all four feet to the side in a twisting, rolling motion. Bulls also are more likely than horses to spin in tight, quick circles, and are less likely to run or to jump extremely high ("break in two").


title: Bull riding

text: For the bull, judges look at the animal's overall agility, power and speed; his back legs kick, and his front end drops. In general, if a bull gives a rider a very hard time, more points will be awarded. If a rider fails to stay mounted for at least 8 seconds, the bull is still awarded a score. The PBR and PRCA record bulls' past scores so that the best bulls can be brought to the finals, ensuring that riders will be given a chance to score highly. Both organizations award one bull an award for the best bull of the year, decided by bull scores in both buckoffs and successful qualified rides. The award brings prestige to the ranch at which the bull was raised.


title: Bull riding

text: If a rider scores sufficiently low due to poor bull performance, the judges may offer the rider the option of a re-ride. By taking the option, the rider gives up the score received, waits until all other riders have ridden, and rides again. This can be risky because the rider loses their score and risks being bucked off and receiving no score. A re-ride may also be given if a bull stumbles or runs into the fence or gate.


title: Bull riding

text: In some PBR events that use an elimination style bracket, if both riders in a bracket fail to reach eight seconds, the rider who lasts longer advances to the next round. Otherwise, the rider with a higher score advances.


title: Bull riding

text: Bull riders use many pieces of equipment both functionally and to ensure maximum safety, both to themselves and to the animals


title: Bull riding

text: The primary piece of equipment used is the "bull rope". It is a braided rope made of polypropylene, grass, or some combination. A handle is braided into the center of the rope and is usually stiffened with leather. One side of the rope is tied in an adjustable knot that can be changed for the size of bull. The other side of the rope (the tail) is a flat braid and is usually coated with rosin to keep it from sliding through the rider's hand. A metallic bell is strapped to the knot and hangs directly under the bull throughout the ride. In addition to the sound the bell produces, it also gives the rope some weight, allowing it to fall off the bull once a rider has dismounted.


title: Bull riding

text: Chaps are probably the most noticeable piece of bull rider clothing, as their distinctive coloring and patterns add flair to the sport. Usually made of leather, chaps also provide protection for the rider's legs and thighs.


title: Bull riding

text: Bull riders wear a protective vest which is made of high density foam that allows the shock to disperse over a wide area, thereby reducing pain and injury. The vest’s foam is covered with a ballistic material called Spectra, similar to Kevlar. It is then covered up with leather, giving it a western look.


title: Bull riding

text: Bull rider Cody Lambert was inspired to create a protective vest for fellow riders after witnessing the fatal injury of his friend and 1987 PRCA world champion bull rider, Lane Frost who died at the 1989 Cheyenne Frontier Days rodeo. After successfully riding his bull during the championship round, Frost dismounted and landed in the dirt. The bull then turned and pressed a horn against Frost’s back and pushed him against the mud, breaking several of his ribs. Frost got up and took a few steps towards the bucking chutes and signaled for help. He then collapsed, causing some of the broken ribs to puncture his heart and lungs. He died on the arena floor before he could be transported to the hospital.


title: Bull riding

text: Lambert based the bull riding protective vest on the one worn by his brother who was a horse jockey. He debuted the vest at the California Rodeo Salinas in the summer of 1993, and for several months, he was the only bull rider using one. It was not until the spring of 1994 when other contestants began riding with vests. The number of bull riders with vests grew over the months, and by the autumn of that year, the vast majority of riders were using them. They were officially made mandatory for all contestants by 1996. Some bull riding vests also include a neck roll for protection to the neck, although very few riders use a vest with said modification.


title: Bull riding

text: To prevent a rope burn, riders must wear a protective glove, usually made of leather. It must be fastened to the rider's hand since the force the animal is able to exert could easily tear it away. The rider often applies rosin to the glove, which allows for additional grip.


title: Bull riding

text: Cowboy boots are worn with blunted and loosely locked spurs help keep the rider balanced and is crucial piece of equipment to the sport as a whole. The bulls are unharmed by the rowels, as their hide is roughly seven times thicker than a human being's skin. Truly skilled riders will often "spur" the bull in the hope of achieving extra style points from the judges.


title: Bull riding

text: For most of bull riding’s history, the primary headgear worn by contestants was cowboy hats. However, things started to slowly change during the latter years of the 20th century. Among the earliest bull riders to use protective headgear was 1982 PRCA world champion, Charlie Sampson. At a rodeo during the latter part of the 1983 PRCA regular season, Sampson suffered a major wreck that cracked his skull and fractured nearly every bone in his face. As a result, he had reconstructive surgery. When the regular season ended, he had won enough money to qualify for the National Finals Rodeo in Oklahoma City in December. Against doctors’ recommendations, he decided to compete at the event. However, his face was still recovering, so he rode at the event with a lacrosse helmet and a neck roll. When his face was healed up, Sampson went back to riding in a cowboy hat. However, he would suffer additional facial injuries throughout the rest of his career and rode with a helmet if his injuries were severe enough to warrant it. He would always go back to riding in a hat when healed up and never made a helmet a permanent part of his gear.


title: Bull riding

text: Into the 1990s, a small number of other professional bull riders began using protective headgear such as leather face masks with metal bars that they wore under their hats while riding or modified ice hockey helmets. Like Charlie Sampson, most of these riders only wore headgear while recovering from serious facial or head injuries, only to ditch it when healed up. Very few bull riders made protective headwear a permanent part of their gear. However, by 2003, though still a minority, helmeted bull riders were more common than ever. Many were now riders that did not necessarily suffer serious injuries, but who grew up riding with them for the sake of extra safety. The number of contestants who rode with helmets grew throughout the rest of the 2000s; Especially during the latter years of the decade.


title: Bull riding

text: By the early 2010s, manufacturers were building helmets made specifically for bull riding. Around the same time, most up-and-comers were already riding with helmets. In 2013, the PBR made it mandatory that all contestants at their events who were born on or after October 15, 1994 ride with a full bull riding helmet. Those born before that date were grandfathered in and permitted to ride with a protective face mask underneath their hat or simply with their hat if so desired.


title: Bull riding

text: Public health researchers found evidence suggesting that bull riding helmets are protective, when riders wearing one particular type of helmet suffered approximately 50% fewer head and facial injuries.


title: Bull riding

text: In 2004, at the 1st International Rodeo Research and Clinical Care Conference in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, the licensed rodeo and bull riding medical personnel and clinicians recommended to the rodeo and bull riding associations mentioned in the agreement the mandatory use of helmets to all youth bull riders and the recommendation of helmets to all adult bull riders.


title: Bull riding

text: For competitors under the age of 18, mandatory protective headgear incorporating an ice hockey-style helmet is worn. Riders who use helmets as youths tend to continue wearing them as they reach adulthood and turn professional.


title: Bull riding

text: The "flank strap" is a soft cotton rope at least 5/8" in diameter and is used without extra padding like sheepskin or neoprene. It is tied around the bull's flank. Contrary to popular belief, the flank strap is not tied around the bull's testicles. This rope is to encourage the bull to use his hind legs more in a bucking motion, as this is a true test of a rider's skill in maintaining the ride. The flank strap causes the bull to buck in motions such as bucking side to side, jumping up and down, or kicking its legs in the air in a circular motion. If it is applied improperly a rider may request to ride again, as the bull will not buck well if the flank strap is too tight. The flank strap is applied by the stock contractor or his designate.


title: Bull riding

text: The "arenas" used in professional bull riding vary. Some are rodeo arenas that are used only for bull riding and other rodeo events. Others are event centers that play host to many different sports. Common to all arenas is a large, open area that gives the bulls, bull riders, and bull fighters plenty of room to maneuver. The area is fenced, 6 to 7 feet high or more, to protect the audience from escaped bulls. The fencing of the arena is metal fencing that has metal rods across it so that when the bulls buck and kick the fence they do not bust the fence and end up in the crowd. This is a safety feature. There are generally exits on each corner of the arena for riders to get out of the way quickly. Riders can also hop onto the fence to avoid danger. One end of the arena contains the bucking chutes from which the bulls are released. There is also an exit chute where the bulls can exit the arena. An arena usually contains two to for bucking chutes. Especially for big events to keep it flowing the nights of the events. They load the bulls into all two to four chutes releasing one at a time. There is also an exit chute where the bulls can exit the arena. Also in the arena there will be two to four guys mounted on horses with roped and chaps on to rope the bulls and take them into the exit chute to help keep all people in the arena safe and keep the show moving. These guys or girls will lasso the bull around the head and neck and pull them into the exit chute where one of the workers will open the exit chute and put the bull back.


title: Bull riding

text: In the United States and Canada, most professional bull riders start out riding in high school rodeo or other junior associations. From there, riders may go on the college rodeo circuit or to one of several national or regional semi-professional associations including the Southern Extreme Bull Riding Association (SEBRA), the National Federation of Professional Bull Riders (NFPB), the International Bull Riders Association (IBR), the Professional Championship Bull Riders Tour (PCB), the American Bull Riders Tour (ABT), Bull Riders Canada (BRC), the International Professional Rodeo Association (IPRA), the Cowboys Professional Rodeo Association (CPRA), the United Professional Rodeo Association (UPRA), the Southern Rodeo Association (SRA), the Professional Western Rodeo Association (PWRA), the Canadian Cowboys Association (CCA), among others. Bull riders compete in these organizations as they are climbing the ladder to the professional ranks and to supplement their income.


title: Bull riding

text: In Mexico, there are a number of American-style bull riding organizations. The three main professional ones include PBR Mexico, Cuernos Chuecos (Crooked Horns), and La Federacion Mexicana de Rodeo (The Mexican Rodeo Federation). The latter of which is Mexico's top organization that includes all of American Rodeo's standard events, including bull riding. There are also a number of regional semi-pro associations.


title: Bull riding

text: Professional bull riders can win in excess of $100,000 a year while competing in either the PBR or PRCA circuits.


title: Bull riding

text: There are approximately 200 rodeos and bushmen's carnivals held annually across Australia. At most of these events bull riding is one of the featured competitions.


title: Bull riding

text: Initially bullocks and steers were used for roughriding events and these were owned by local graziers that lent them for these events. Nowadays bulls are used for the open events and stock contractors supply the various roughriding associations. Contract stock has produced a more uniform range of bucking stock which is also quieter to handle. The competitions are run and scored in a similar style to that used in the United States.


title: Bull riding

text: In May 1992, the National Rodeo Council of Australia (NRCA) was formed to promote and further the sport of rodeo and has represented the following associations, which also control bull riding:


title: Bull riding

text: There are strict standards for the selection, care and treatment of rodeo livestock, arenas, plus equipment requirements and specifications.


title: Bull riding

text: Chainsaw was one of Australia's most famous bucking bulls. Only nine contestants scored on him and he won the Australian national title of Bull of the Year a world record eight times during 1987 to 1994.


title: Bull riding

text: Some of Australia's best bull riders travel and compete internationally in Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Some of Australia's leading bull riders conduct bull riding clinics to assist learners and novice riders.


title: Bull riding

text: A World Challenge of Professional Bull Riders (PBR) was held on 29 May 2010 at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre (BEC). The 2010 PBR Finals were held over two nights at the Australian Equine and Livestock Events Centre (AELEC), with five top-ranked professional bull riders from the United States and 25 of Australia's best bull riders contesting the event.


title: Bull riding

text: Rodeo is also popular in country regions of New Zealand where approximately 32 rodeos, which include bull riding contests, are held each summer.


title: Bull riding

text: There is debate between animal rights/welfare organizations and bull riding enthusiasts over many aspects of the sport. One source of controversy is the flank strap. The flank strap is placed around a bull's flank, just in front of the hind legs, to encourage bucking. Critics say that the flank strap encircles or otherwise binds the genitals of the bull. However, the flank strap is anatomically impossible to place over the testicles. Many point out that the bull's genes are valuable and that there is a strong economic incentive to keep the animal in good reproductive health. Further, particularly in the case of bulls, an animal that is sick and in pain usually will not want to move at all, will not buck as well, and may even lie down in the chute or ring rather than buck.


title: Bull riding

text: Critics also claim that electric cattle prods ("hot shots") are used to injure and torture bulls, while supporters of bull riding claim that the cattle prod simply gets the bull out of the chute quickly and is only a moderate irritation due to the thickness of the animal's hide. Cattle prods have not been used in the Professional Bull Riders (PBR) tour for several years. However, in smaller associations, a cattle prod is still sometimes used to ensure that the animal leaves the chute as soon as the rider nods their head. Cattle prods are not allowed by any major association.


title: Bull riding

text: Spurs are also a source of controversy, though modern rodeo rules place strict regulations on the type and use of spurs and participants point out that they are a tool commonly used in other non-rodeo equestrian disciplines. Spurs used in bull riding do not have a fixed rowel, nor can they be sharpened. The PBR currently allows only two types of rowels to ensure the safety of the animals.