title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: Mahesh Pratap Mehta is disowned by his father Gajendra Pratap Singh Mehta due to his criminal activities. To get back at him and Raju, Mahesh stabs Gajendra and frames Raju for the same. Inspector Pandey arrives to arrest him, but Raju informs him that Gajendra is still alive and needs critical medical care, following which he escapes police custody. Raju runs to Deepak and both of them hatch a plan to pretend to be nurses from Singapore to save Gajendra's life, as that is Raju's only proof of innocence. At the hospital, Inspector Pandey tells Hoshiyar Chand, Malti and Shalini that Raju is just a poor porter who pretended to be Kunwar Mahendra Pratap Singh Mehta.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: While trying to save Gajendra, Raju and Deepak bump into Malti, Hoshiyar Chand and Shalini, who comes to abort Shalini's unborn child who came because of Deepak. Raju confesses his fraud to Malti, and she forgives him. Hoshiyar Chand and Malti help Raju and Deepak to stop Mahesh from killing Gajendra. Once he gains consciousness, Gajendra announces that since Raju saved his life, he is like a son to him. Shalini also announces her love for Deepak. When Hoshiyar Chand cries about his sons-in-law being a porter and a mechanic, Shaadiram Gharjode arrives and tells Hoshiyar Chand that it was bound to happen to someone so arrogant and proud of his wealth. Gharjode explains that for a happy marriage, wealth isn't needed - love is.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: The film's soundtrack album sold around 3.5million units, making it one of the best-selling Bollywood soundtracks of the year.


title: Coolie No. 1 (1995 film)

text: On 8 March 2019, it was announced that the film will be remade, with David Dhawan as director again and with his son Varun Dhawan and Sara Ali Khan playing the roles of Raju Coolie and Malti Choudhry. The first look poster of the remake "Coolie No. 1" was released on 12 August 2019 on Khan's birthday. The film was originally scheduled to release on 1 May 2020 but was shifted to 25 December 2020 because of COVID-19 pandemic. This film started streaming on 25 December on Amazon Prime Video.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Joseph Marie, comte de Maistre (; 1 April 1753 – 26 February 1821) was a Savoyard philosopher, writer, lawyer, and diplomat who advocated social hierarchy and monarchy in the period immediately following the French Revolution. Despite his close personal and intellectual ties with France, Maistre was throughout his life a subject of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which he served as a member of the Savoy Senate (1787–1792), ambassador to Russia (1803–1817), and minister of state to the court in Turin (1817–1821).


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: A key figure of the Counter-Enlightenment, Maistre regarded monarchy both as a divinely sanctioned institution and as the only stable form of government. He called for the restoration of the House of Bourbon to the throne of France and for the ultimate authority of the Pope in temporal matters. Maistre argued that the rationalist rejection of Christianity was directly responsible for the disorder and bloodshed which followed the French Revolution of 1789.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre was born in 1753 at Chambéry, Duchy of Savoy, at that time part of the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia which was ruled by the House of Savoy. His family was of French and Italian origin. His grandfather André (Andrea) Maistre, whose parents Francesco and Margarita Maistre (née Dalmassi) originated in the County of Nice, had been a draper and councilman in Nice (then under the rule of the House of Savoy) and his father François-Xavier, who moved to Chambéry in 1740, became a magistrate and senator, eventually receiving the title of count from the King of Piedmont-Sardinia. His mother's family, whose surname was Desmotz, were from Rumilly. His younger brother Xavier, who became an army officer, was a popular writer of fiction.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre was probably educated by the Jesuits. After the Revolution, he became an ardent defender of the Jesuits, increasingly associating the spirit of the Revolution with the Jesuits' traditional enemies, the Jansenists. After completing his training in the law at the University of Turin in 1774, he followed in his father's footsteps by becoming a Senator in 1787.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: A member of the progressive Scottish Rite Masonic lodge at Chambéry from 1774 to 1790, Maistre originally favoured political reform in France, supporting the efforts of the magistrates in the Parlements to force King Louis XVI to convene the Estates General. As a landowner in France, Maistre was eligible to join that body and there is some evidence that he contemplated that possibility. Maistre was alarmed by the decision of the States-General to combine aristocracy, clergy and commoners into a single legislative body which became the National Constituent Assembly. After the passing of the August Decrees on 4 August 1789, he decisively turned against the course of political events in France.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre fled Chambéry when it was taken by a French revolutionary army in 1792, but he was unable to find a position in the royal court in Turin and returned the following year. Deciding that he could not support the French-controlled regime, Maistre departed again, this time for Lausanne, Switzerland, where he discussed politics and theology at the salon of Madame de Staël, and began his career as a counter-revolutionary writer, with works such as "Lettres d'un Royaliste Savoisien" ("Letters from a Savoyard Royalist", 1793), "Discours à Mme. la Marquise Costa de Beauregard, sur la Vie et la Mort de son Fils" ("Discourse to the Marchioness Costa de Beauregard, on the Life and Death of her Son", 1794) and "Cinq paradoxes à la Marquise de Nav..." ("Five Paradoxes for the Marchioness of Nav...", 1795).


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: From Lausanne, Maistre went to Venice and then to Cagliari, where the King of Piedmont-Sardinia held the court and the government of the kingdom after French armies took Turin in 1798. Maistre's relations with the court at Cagliari were not always easy. In 1802, he was sent to Saint Petersburg in Russia as ambassador to Tsar Alexander I. His diplomatic responsibilities were few and he became a well-loved fixture in aristocratic and wealthy merchant circles, converting some of his friends to Roman Catholicism and writing his most influential works on political philosophy.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre's observations on Russian life, contained in his diplomatic memoirs and in his personal correspondence, were among Leo Tolstoy's sources for his novel "War and Peace". After the defeat of Napoleon and the restoration of the House of Savoy's dominion over Piedmont and Savoy under the terms of the Congress of Vienna, Maistre returned in 1817 to Turin and served there as magistrate and minister of state until his death. He died on 26 February 1821 and is buried in the Jesuit Church of the Holy Martyrs ("Chiesa dei Santi Martiri").


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: In "Considérations sur la France" ("Considerations on France", 1797), Maistre claimed that France has a divine mission as the principal instrument of good and evil on Earth. He interpreted the Revolution of 1789 as a providential event in which the monarchy, the aristocracy and the "Ancien Régime" in general, instead of directing the influence of French civilization to the benefit of mankind, had promoted the atheistic doctrines of the 18th-century philosophers. He claimed that the crimes of the Reign of Terror were the logical consequence of Enlightenment thought as well as its divinely-decreed punishment.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: In his short book "Essai sur le Principe Générateur des Constitutions Politiques et des Autres Institutions Humaines" ("Essay on the Generative Principle of Political Constitutions and other Human Institutions", 1809), Maistre argued that constitutions are not the product of human reason, but rather come from God, who slowly brings them to maturity.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: What was novel in Maistre's writings was not his enthusiastic defense of monarchical and religious authority "per se", but rather his arguments concerning the practical need for ultimate authority to lie with an individual capable of decisive action as well as his analysis of the social foundations of that authority's legitimacy. In his own words which he addressed to a group of aristocratic French émigrés, "You ought to know how to be royalists. Before, this was an instinct, but today it is a science. You must love the sovereign as you love order, with all the forces of intelligence." Maistre's analysis of the problem of authority and its legitimacy foreshadows some of the concerns of early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: After the appearance in 1816 of his French translation of Plutarch's treatise "On the Delay of Divine Justice in the Punishment of the Guilty", Maistre published "Du Pape" ("On the Pope") in 1819, the most complete exposition of his religious conception of authority. According to Maistre, any attempt to justify government on rational grounds will only lead to unresolvable arguments about the legitimacy and expediency of any existing government and that this in turn will lead to violence and chaos. As a result, Maistre argued that the legitimacy of government must be based on compelling, but non-rational grounds which its subjects must not be allowed to question. Maistre went on to argue that authority in politics should derive from religion and that in Europe this religious authority must ultimately lie with the Pope.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: In addition to his voluminous correspondence, Maistre left two books that were published posthumously. "Soirées de St. Pétersbourg" ("St Petersburg Dialogues", 1821) is a theodicy in the form of a Platonic dialogue in which Maistre argues that evil exists because of its place in the divine plan, according to which the blood sacrifice of innocents returns men to God via the expiation of the sins of the guilty. Maistre sees this as a law of human history as unquestionable as it is mysterious.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: "Examen de la Philosophie de Bacon", ("An Examination of the Philosophy of Bacon", 1836) is a critique of the thought of Francis Bacon, whom Maistre considers to be the fountainhead of the destructive Enlightened thought. Maistre also argued, romantically, that genius plays a pivotal role in great scientific discoveries, as demonstrated by inspired intellects such as Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton, contrary to Bacon's theory about conforming to a mechanistic method.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Together with the Anglo-Irish statesman and philosopher Edmund Burke, Maistre is commonly regarded as one of the founders of European conservatism. Maistre exerted a powerful influence on the Spanish political thinker Juan Donoso Cortés and later on the French monarchist Charles Maurras and his monarchist political movement "Action Française". However, according to Carolina Armenteros, who has written four books about Maistre, his writings influenced not only conservative political thinkers, but also the utopian socialists. Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Henri de Saint-Simon explicitly acknowledged the influence of Maistre on their own thinking about the sources of social cohesion and political authority.


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Liberal critic Émile Faguet described Maistre as "a fierce absolutist, a furious theocrat, an intransigent legitimist, apostle of a monstrous trinity composed of pope, king and hangman, always and everywhere the champion of the hardest, narrowest and most inflexible dogmatism, a dark figure out of the Middle Ages, part learned doctor, part inquisitor, part executioner".


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre's skills as a writer and polemicist ensured that he continues to be read. Matthew Arnold, an influential 19th-century critic, wrote as follows while comparing Maistre's style with that of his Irish counterpart Edmund Burke:


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: "Joseph de Maistre is another of those men whose word, like that of Burke, has vitality. In imaginative power he is altogether inferior to Burke. On the other hand his thought moves in closer order than Burke's, more rapidly, more directly; he has fewer superfluities. Burke is a great writer, but Joseph de Maistre's use of the French language is more powerful, more thoroughly satisfactory, than Burke's use of the English. It is masterly; it shows us to perfection of what that admirable instrument, the French language, is capable."


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: The "Catholic Encyclopedia" of 1910 describes his writing style as "strong, lively, picturesque" and states that his "animation and good humour temper his dogmatic tone". George Saintsbury called him "unquestionably one of the greatest thinkers and writers of the eighteenth century". Although a political opponent, Alphonse de Lamartine admired the splendour of his prose, stating:


title: Joseph de Maistre

text: Maistre is also associated with the Counter-Enlightenment movement Romanticism and is often referred to as a Romantic. Amongst those who admired him was Charles Baudelaire – the most famous Romantic poet in France – who described himself a disciple of the Savoyard counter-revolutionary, claiming that he had taught him how to think.


title: Environmental studies

text: Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Environmental studies connects principles from the physical sciences, commerce/economics, the humanities, and social sciences to address complex contemporary environmental issues. It is a broad field of study that includes the natural environment, the built environment, and the relationship between them. The field encompasses study in basic principles of ecology and environmental science, as well as associated subjects such as ethics, geography, anthropology, policy, education, politics, urban planning, law, economics, philosophy, sociology and social justice, planning, pollution control and natural resource management. There are many Environmental Studies degree programs, including a Master's degree and a Bachelor's degree. Environmental Studies degree programs provide a wide range of skills and analytical tools needed to face the environmental issues of our world head on. Students in Environmental Studies gain the intellectual and methodological tools to understand and address the crucial environmental issues of our time and the impact of individuals, society, and the planet. Environmental education's main goal is to instill in all members of society a pro-environmental thinking and attitude. This will help to create environmental ethics and raise people's awareness of the importance of environmental protection and biodiversity.


title: Environmental studies

text: The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University established a BS in environmental studies degree in the 1950s, awarding its first degree in 1956. Middlebury College established the major there in 1965.


title: Environmental studies

text: The Environmental Studies Association of Canada (ESAC) was established in 1993 "to further research and teaching activities in areas related to environmental studies in Canada". ESAC was officially integrated in 1994, and the first convention for ESAC was held at the Learned Societies Conference in Calgary the same year. ESAC's magazine, "" was first published by Robert A. Paehlke on 4 July 1971.


title: Environmental studies

text: In 2008, The Association for Environmental Studies and Sciences (AESS) was founded as the first professional association in the interdisciplinary field of environmental studies in the United States. The AESS is also the publisher for the "Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences" (JESS), which aims to allow researchers in various disciplinarians related to environmental sciences to have base for researchers to use and publish new information related to environmental studies. In 2010, the National Council for Science and the Environment (NCSE) agreed to advise and support the association. In March of 2011, The association's scholarly journal, the "Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences" (JESS), commenced publication.


title: Environmental studies

text: In the United States, many high school students are able to take environmental science as a college-level course. Over 500 colleges and universities in the United States offer environmental studies as a degree. The University of California, Berkeley has awarded the most degrees in environmental studies for U.S. universities, with 409 degrees awarded in 2019. The universities in the United States that have the highest percentage of degrees awarded is Antioch University-New England, where nearly 35% of degrees awarded in 2019 were in environmental studies.


title: Environmental studies

text: Worldwide, programs in environmental studies may be offered through colleges of liberal arts, life science, social science or agriculture. Students of environmental studies use what they learn the sciences, social sciences, and humanities to better understand environmental problems and potentially offer solutions to them. Students look at how we interact with the natural world and come up with ideas to prevent its destruction.


title: Environmental studies

text: In the 1960s, the word "environment" became one of the most commonly used in educational discourse in the United Kingdom. Educationists were becoming increasingly worried about the influence of the environment on children as well as the school's usage of the environment. The attempt to define the field of environmental studies has resulted in a discussion over its role in the curriculum. The use of the environment is one of the teaching approaches used in today's schools to carry on the legacy of educational philosophy known as 'Progressive education' or 'New education' in the first part of the twentieth century. The primary goal of environmental studies is to assist children in understanding the processes that influence their surroundings so that they do not stay a passive, and often befuddled, observer of the environment, but rather become knowledgeable active mediators of it. The study of the environment can be considered to offer unique chances for the development and exercise of the general cognitive skills that Piaget's work has made educators aware of. Environmental studies are increasingly being viewed as a long-term preparation for higher environmental studies such as Sociology, Archaeology, or Historical Geography.


title: Environmental studies

text: Emmett, Rob, and Frank Zelko (eds.), “Minding the Gap: Working Across Disciplines in Environmental Studies,” "RCC Perspectives" 2014, no. 2. doi.org/10.5282/rcc/6313.


title: Marta Dusseldorp

text: Marta Dusseldorp (born 1 February 1973) is an Australian stage, film and theatre actress. Her television credits include "BlackJack", "Crownies" (and its spin-off "Janet King"), "Jack Irish" and "A Place to Call Home".


title: Marta Dusseldorp

text: Dusseldorp is the granddaughter of Dutch-born engineer Dick Dusseldorp, the founder of Lend Lease Corporation. Her maternal grandfather was Sandy Robertson, a Sydney paediatrician. She attended Ascham School and then Geelong Grammar School, graduating in 1990, and the University of New South Wales, where she majored in theatre and film for two years. She then went on to study at the Victorian College of the Arts in Melbourne.


title: Marta Dusseldorp

text: Dusseldorp played the character of Janet King in the 2011 ABC1 drama series "Crownies", a role she reprised in the 2014 spin-off "Janet King". She is also known for the telemovie series "BlackJack" (2003–2007) as Sam Lawson and the 2012 "Jack Irish" telemovie series as Linda Hillier. She has appeared in guest roles on television series such as "All Saints". She had a starring role in the series "A Place to Call Home", which ran from 2013 until 2018.


title: Marta Dusseldorp

text: She won the award for Best Female Actor in a Supporting Role in a Play in the 2009 Helpmann Awards for her performance as Queen Margaret in Benedict Andrews' "The War of the Roses" with the Sydney Theatre Company. Dusseldorp returned to the stage in 2016 in the premiere of Benedict Andrews' play "Gloria" with the Griffin Theatre Company. In November 2017, Dusseldorp and her husband Ben Winspear played the couple in Joanna Murray-Smith's stage adaptation of "Scenes from a Marriage" for the Queensland Theatre Company. In 2020 she played the role of Erica Bowden in the romantic comedy "Ellie & Abbie (& Ellie's Dead Aunt)".


title: Marta Dusseldorp

text: Dusseldorp was the subject of an episode of the television genealogical documentary series "Who Do You Think You Are?" that first screened on SBS on 14 May 2019.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Gran Turismo 4 is a 2004 racing video game for the PlayStation 2, the fourth installment in the main "Gran Turismo" series and the sixth for the overall series. It was developed by Polyphony Digital and published by Sony Computer Entertainment and was released on December 28, 2004, in Japan and Hong Kong, February 22, 2005, in North America, and March 9, 2005, in Europe, and has since been re-issued under Sony's 'Greatest Hits' line.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Originally planned for a 2003 release, "Gran Turismo 4" was delayed for over a year and a half by Polyphony Digital, and had its online mode removed. The game features over 721 cars from 80 manufacturers, from as early as the 1886 Daimler Motor Carriage, and as far into the future as concepts for 2022. The game also features 51 tracks, many of which are new or modified versions of old "Gran Turismo" tracks, with some notable real-world additions.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: "Gran Turismo 4" was well-received critically and a commercial success, becoming one of the highest-selling games of 2005, and the third best-selling game on the PlayStation 2. The Chinese, Japanese, and South Korean releases of the game were bundled with a 212-page driving guide and lessons on the physics of racing. A limited-edition, "Gran Turismo 4 Online test version", was released in Japan in summer 2006. A PSP enhanced port entitled "Gran Turismo Mobile" was originally planned for development, but was later renamed to "Gran Turismo", which was released October 1, 2009. The follow-up game, "Gran Turismo 5", was released in 2010 for the PlayStation 3.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Players accumulate points by winning races in the normal first-person driving mode, called "A-Spec" mode. Each race event can yield up to a maximum of 200 A-Spec points. Generally, a win using a car with less of an advantage over the AI opponents is worth more points. Points can only be won once, so to win further points from a previously won event, it must be re-won using a car with less of an advantage over the AI. There are also the 34 "Missions" which can yield 250 points each. Despite this, A-Spec points are experience points, not money.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: The new "B-Spec" mode puts players in the place of a racing crew chief: telling the driver how aggressively to drive, when to pass, and mandating pit stops (by monitoring tire wear and fuel level). The speed of the time in the race can be increased up to 3×, allowing for Endurance races to be completed in less time than would take in A-Spec mode. The 3× feature, however, must be turned on after every pit stop because it resets to normal time. The game manual says that the player may speed up B-Spec mode by up to 5×, but this is believed to be a typo. B-Spec points are given out for each race completed in B-Spec mode. This increases the skill level of the AI driver in the categories of vehicle skill, course skill, and battle skill. Players can thereby use B-Spec mode in harder races as the game progresses, but this mode cannot be used on wet, dirt, and snow courses.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Another new addition to the game is the "Driving Missions", which are similar in experience to the license tests, but award successful completion with 250 A-Spec points and 1000 or more credits. Each mission takes place with a given car on a given track or section of track, and a given set of opponents. There are 4 sets of missions: "The Pass", in which the driver must overtake an opponent within a certain distance; "3 Lap Battle", in which the driver must pass 5 opponents over the course of 3 laps; "Slipstream Battle", in which the driver must overtake identical opponents by way of drafting; and "1 Lap Magic", in which the driver starts with a significant time penalty against much slower opponents and must overtake them all in the space of a single lap. Completing each set of missions earns the player a prize car. There are a total of 5 prize cars available to be won, they are the DMC DeLorean, Jay Leno Tank Car, Pagani Zonda Race Car, Toyota 7, and the Nissan R89C.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: A new "Photo Mode" is included in the game, which allows the player to control a virtual camera, taking pictures of their cars on the track or at specific locations, including the Grand Canyon. This game is able to produce a selection of screenshots with variable compression rate (Normal/Fine/SuperFine) and size (up to 1280x960 72dpi), and the user can choose to save or print to a supported USB device.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Compared with "", graphics are greatly improved with more detail on cars and tracks (despite running on the same PlayStation 2 hardware). The physics are also greatly improved, with the major upgrade that cars now experience body movement, such as pitching (forwards and backward rolling) under braking. Barriers have considerably more friction to slow down the cars in GT4 (in an attempt to stop the use of "wall riding"), but there is minimal friction between cars, so the advantage obtained by running into the side of another car (instead of braking) is still present. Each of the Driving Missions and Special Conditions events give a 5-second penalty for hitting the walls or opponents' cars in this way, where the car's speed is restricted to 50 km/h (31 mph) until the timer disappears when it reaches zero.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: The game features a futuristic concept car called the Nike One 2022, designed in collaboration with Nike.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: is a racing video game of the "Gran Turismo" series for Sony PlayStation 2 which is published by Polyphony Digital. It was released on December 4, 2003, in Japan and Southeast Asia and May 26, 2004, in Europe. For undisclosed reasons, the game was not released in the North American market; however, a demo disc featuring Toyota Prius and Toyota MTRC concept car was available in the United States, either on requesting a Toyota Prius brochure online or by attending the Toyota stand at the 2004 New York International Auto Show, that features "Gran Turismo 4 Prologue" branding on the title screen. This short version title preceded the release of the full-length version "Gran Turismo 4" in 2004 and was followed by "Gran Turismo 5: Prologue" in 2007.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: In Japan, a limited "Signature Edition" featuring the signature of the series producer Kazunori Yamauchi on the front cover package preceded the release of the regular edition. The regular edition was also bundled with a white ceramic PlayStation 2 console in a Christmas limited SKU called "PlayStation Racing Pack" released in Japan on October 13, 2002.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: In Europe, the game was bundled with a promotional "Making of DVD Video". While intended to be limited content, the DVD-Video was also included in the Platinum re-release. The DVD was later included in the limited "Gran Turismo 4" "Special DVD Set" released in Japan on June 28, 2004. The regular edition was discontinued and the game was re-issued under Sony's 'Greatest Hits' line in Japan ("PlayStation 2 the Best") on August 5, 2004 and Europe ("Platinum"). As "Gran Turismo 4" was intended to be released in time for the worldwide 2002/2003 Christmas release but was delayed, in consolation, Polyphony brought out "Gran Turismo 4: Prologue" as a sneak preview (including a documentary bonus disc in Europe) to the full experience of "Gran Turismo 4".


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Though it was necessary to limit the number of cars and courses included, this product still included some of the main features of the "Gran Turismo" franchise such as races, time attacks and license tests. The sneak preview also expressed the latest technology Polyphony Digital had accumulated over the past two years. Featuring 50 of "GT4"s then planned 500 cars as well as five courses, this expanded demo was designed as a stop-gap until the complete version was released.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: The game includes a Driving School (License Tests) as well as early versions of some circuits, like the New York track which was modified in the full version. A new "Gran Turismo" official steering wheel, the Driving Force Pro known as GT Force Pro in Japan and supporting force feedback, was released by Logitech (Logicool in Japan) to coincide with the "Gran Turismo 4 Prologue" launch date. The European version came with several extra cars, most of them cars unveiled at the 2004 Geneva Motor Show, such as the BMW Concept M5 and the aforementioned Toyota MTRC.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: is a free 2006 PlayStation 2 game by Polyphony Digital. This is a limited edition of the 2004/2005 racing game "Gran Turismo 4" featuring extra online services that were removed from the standard game due to some issues and a lack of time as the game had been delayed several times. Selecting the extra "Online" mode leads to the "Online Home" that features additional game modes, "Quick Race", "Tuned Car Race", "Private Race" (that requires a password) and "Time Attack". "News" inform about the availability for the online courses or special events, with limited date and time. Public online services ended on September 1, 2006.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: This public beta for "Gran Turismo 4 Online" ("GT4OL") was freely shipped to 4,700 selected gran-turismo.com members from Japan and 300 from South Korea to collaborate as "test players". Online services lasted three months from June 1 to September 1, 2006 and included 6-player "Competition" (対戦, "taisen"), Time Trial, chat (mail message and microphone communication), and an Internet ranking chart was available in the game's website. Nowadays it is possible to play it online again with alternate private servers.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: This test was not intended to precede a "Gran Turismo 4 Online" full-scale release but instead to be used as a way to develop and test online features and structures for the upcoming "Gran Turismo 5" on the PlayStation 3 system. Besides the 5,000 test players, seven special guests were invited to test "Gran Turismo 4 Online". First, a special event named "Top Racer Battle" (トップレーサーBATTLE) was staged in the Polyphony Digital headquarters on August 17. Six drivers from the JGTC Japanese championship entered the game's online multiplayer "Competition" mode.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Motoyama won the test round, a 5-lap Fuji Speedway 2005 race with the drivers' respective JGTC GT500 cars. The actual Top Racer Battle though, a 10-lap Tsukuba Circuit one-make race onboard a Mazda Roadster 1600 NR-A '04, was won by Ryo Michigami. Later from August 25 to September 5, 2006, Kazunori Yamauchi the "Gran Turismo" series producer (re)invited two Japanese and two European professional racing drivers sponsored by PlayStation to enter GT4OL's Time Attack mode Internet ranking chart and, either to challenge him or another guest in a versus race, either to compete with five test drivers in an 8~10 rounds multiplayer online competition called "trophy".


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: The first guest was Super GT GT500 Nissan Motul Pitwork Z driver Satoshi Motoyama (Top Racer Battle challenger), he entered the dedicated "Motoyama Trophy", a 2-lap 10 races online multiplayer competition, and won three rounds. The second guest specially came from France, Sébastien Loeb, LeMans 2005 PlayStation Pescarolo C60 Judd LMP Race Car '04 driver and WRC champion, he set a new Time Attack Internet record on the 24 Hours of Le Mans' Circuit de la Sarthe I ("Loeb Special Attack") and defeated Kazunori Yamauchi in their Pescarolo Online Time Attack duel on the same circuit (Internet rank 10th vs 11th). The last guests were both Top Racer Battle challengers, one is Ryo Michigami, Super GT GT500 Honda Takata Dome NSX driver, the other is Michael Krumm, GT500 Nissan Motul Pitwork Z driver. They competed with each other in a versus battle then entered a special trophy similar to Motoyama's.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: A separate online testing campaign, Gran Turismo 4 Online Public Beta, was also held in North America in 2006 for the now-defunct PlayStation Gamer Advisory Panel members, with the same intention and features as the Japanese online test.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Gran Turismo is a PlayStation Portable game developed by Polyphony Digital. The game was announced at the E3 Sony press conference on May 11, 2004, the same conference where Sony announced the PlayStation Portable. It was delayed repeatedly and its completion was pushed back. At E3 2009, Gran Turismo PSP was finally confirmed for an October 1, 2009 date, and was a launch title for the PSP Go. The game was originally intended to be an exact port of "Gran Turismo 4", although it also included selected content from later games, such as Circuit Ricardo Tormo from "Tourist Trophy" and new cars such as Chevrolet Corvette (C6), Enzo Ferrari and Nissan GT-R SpecV.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Jeremy Clarkson, host of the "Top Gear" television program, performed a head-to-head test of real-life versus "GT4" on an episode of the program. He ran Laguna Seca Raceway in real life and used an Acura NSX for a lap time of 1:57. But in the game, he used a Honda NSX-R (which is lighter) with a lap time of 1:41:148. Clarkson also had to be shown by a race driving instructor where the line was between the game and reality. He pointed out that adjusting one's braking mid-turn in a real car could cause loss of control, and also mentioned that in the game, he is compelled to take bigger risks than he would in real life, and that in the game, the car did not suffer from brake fade. Despite the apparent discrepancies, in a column for "The Sunday Times", Clarkson gave the game a score of three stars out of five and had this to say about it:


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Karl Brauer of edmunds.com performed a similar test, also at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca, in which he and two others — professional race driver A. J. Allmendinger, and IGN gaming editor Justin Kaehler — set times in "GT4" and real life in a variety of cars. Brauer's best time in a Ford GT in the game was 1:38, and his best time on the real track was 1:52. In the four vehicles the trio tested, none was able to duplicate his game times on the real track. Brauer suggested the main differences between the game and reality:


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Many reviewers criticized the game for its continued lack of rendered damage. Instead of actual damage, the cars (depending on the speed and angle in which the collision occurred) simply bounce or spin off of the car, wall, or obstacle. Reviewers complained of the continued ability to take unrealistic short cuts, such as the ones on Fuji Speedway 90's, Driving Park Beginner Course and Circuit de la Sarthe I, where the driver can cut right across the chicane, allowing a player to win by cheating. One reviewer also complained that the game's vehicles do not have enough grip. The game has also been criticized for lack of online play which had been promised during early development, but was announced as being removed at the time of release. Many reviewers expressed disappointment in the game's AI system, noting that "virtual racers will follow their (driving) line with little concern for where the human driver is at any one time". This is more evident during rally races and missions in which a 5-second speed penalty is given for hitting the other cars or the barriers, regardless of who initiated the contact. Some critics found B-Spec mode to offer little to the overall experience.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: Non-video-game publications made some positive reception too. Sean Cunningham of "Maxim" gave the game a perfect ten and asked, "Is "GT4" more fetish than game? Probably. But if this is a fetish, then put a leather hood on us and whip us till we bleed!" Jason Hill of "The Sydney Morning Herald" gave it all five stars and stated that the game's biggest strength "is the realistic handling. You feel every nuance of the car's movements, weight shifts, and suspension, particularly with a Driving Force Pro steering wheel. This is a peerless driving simulation that will test even professional drivers". Charles Herold of "The New York Times" gave it a positive review and stated that while the game "aims for realism, it occasionally falls short. Competitors drive like mindless automatons, seemingly unaware of your existence. Cars can take endless amounts of damage, allowing you to control your turns by bouncing off other cars like a pinball. If a track doesn't have walls, like one set in the Grand Canyon, then an invisible barrier prevents you from going off track". However, Jim Schaefer of "Detroit Free Press" gave it three stars out of four and stated that "GT Mode does a great job of organizing your choices on a large home map. You can leave your garage to race, or jump over to ogle new and used rides at domestic and foreign dealerships, take on special challenges and buy parts upgrades".


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: By February 2005, "Gran Turismo 4" had sold more than units in Japan. By March 2005, "Gran Turismo 4" had sold over units worldwide. "Gran Turismo 4" received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. It sold more than 611,000 units in the United Kingdom by December 2005.


title: Gran Turismo 4

text: By March 2016, "Gran Turismo 4" had shipped 1.27 million copies in Japan, 3.47 million in North America, 6.83 million in Europe, and 180,000 in Asia for a total of 11.76 million copies. It is the third highest-selling game in the "Gran Turismo" franchise, ahead of "Gran Turismo", but behind "Gran Turismo 5" and "".


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The chemical compound trichloroethylene is a halocarbon commonly used as an industrial solvent. It is a clear, colourless non-flammable liquid with a chloroform-like sweet smell. It should not be confused with the similar 1,1,1-trichloroethane, which is commonly known as "chlorothene".


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The IUPAC name is trichloroethene. Industrial abbreviations include TCE, trichlor, Trike, Tricky and tri. It has been sold under a variety of trade names. Under the trade names Trimar and Trilene, trichloroethylene was used as a volatile anesthetic and as an inhaled obstetrical analgesic in millions of patients.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Groundwater and drinking water contamination from industrial discharge including trichloroethylene is a major concern for human health and has precipitated numerous incidents and lawsuits.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Pioneered by Imperial Chemical Industries in Britain, its development was hailed as an anesthetic revolution. Originally thought to possess less hepatotoxicity than chloroform, and without the unpleasant pungency and flammability of ether, TCE use was nonetheless soon found to have several pitfalls. These included promotion of cardiac arrhythmias, low volatility and high solubility preventing quick anesthetic induction, reactions with soda lime used in carbon dioxide absorbing systems, prolonged neurologic dysfunction when used with soda lime, and evidence of hepatotoxicity as had been found with chloroform.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The introduction of halothane in 1956 greatly diminished the use of TCE as a general anesthetic. TCE was still used as an inhalation analgesic in childbirth given by self-administration. Fetal toxicity and concerns for carcinogenic potential of TCE led to its abandonment in developed countries by the 1980s.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The use of trichloroethylene in the food and pharmaceutical industries has been banned in much of the world since the 1970s due to concerns about its toxicity. Legislation has forced the replacement of trichloroethylene in many processes in Europe as the chemical was classified as a carcinogen carrying an R45 risk phrase, "May cause cancer". Many degreasing chemical alternatives are being promoted such as Ensolv and Leksol; however, each of these is based on "n"-propyl bromide which carries an R60 risk phrase of "May impair fertility", and they would not be a legally acceptable substitute.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 2005 it was announced by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that the agency had completed its Final Health Assessment for Trichloroethylene and released a list of new TCE toxicity values. The results of the study have formally characterized the chemical as a human carcinogen and a non-carcinogenic health hazard. A 2011 toxicological review performed by the EPA continues to list trichloroethylene as a known carcinogen.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Prior to the early 1970s, most trichloroethylene was produced in a two-step process from acetylene. First, acetylene was treated with chlorine using a ferric chloride catalyst at 90 °C to produce 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane according to the chemical equation


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane is then dehydrochlorinated to give trichloroethylene. This can be accomplished either with an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Today, however, most trichloroethylene is produced from ethylene. First, ethylene is chlorinated over a ferric chloride catalyst to produce 1,2-dichloroethane.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: When heated to around 400 °C with additional chlorine, 1,2-dichloroethane is converted to trichloroethylene


title: Trichloroethylene

text: This reaction can be catalyzed by a variety of substances. The most commonly used catalyst is a mixture of potassium chloride and aluminum chloride. However, various forms of porous carbon can also be used. This reaction produces tetrachloroethylene as a byproduct, and depending on the amount of chlorine fed to the reaction, tetrachloroethylene can even be the major product. Typically, trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene are collected together and then separated by distillation.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: When it was first widely produced in the 1920s, trichloroethylene's major use was to extract vegetable oils from plant materials such as soy, coconut, and palm. Other uses in the food industry included coffee decaffeination and the preparation of flavoring extracts from hops and spices. It has also been used for removing residual water in the production of 100% ethanol.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: From the 1930s through the 1970s, both in Europe and in North America, trichloroethylene was used as a volatile anesthetic almost invariably administered with nitrous oxide. Marketed in the UK by ICI under the trade name Trilene it was coloured blue (with a dye called waxoline blue) to avoid confusion with the similar smelling chloroform. TCE replaced earlier anesthetics chloroform and ether in the 1940s, but was itself replaced in the 1960s in developed countries with the introduction of halothane, which allowed much faster induction and recovery times and was considerably easier to administer. Trilene was also used as a potent inhaled analgesic, mainly during childbirth. It was used with halothane in the Tri-service field anaesthetic apparatus used by the UK armed forces under field conditions. As of 2000, however, TCE was still in use as an anesthetic in Africa.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: It has also been used as a dry cleaning solvent, although replaced in the 1950s by tetrachloroethylene (also known as perchloroethylene), except for spot cleaning where it is still used under the trade name Picrin.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Trichloroethylene was marketed as 'Ecco 1500 Anti-Static Film Cleaner and Conditioner' until 2009, for use in automatic movie film cleaning machines, and for manual cleaning with lint-free wipes.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Perhaps the greatest use of TCE has been as a degreaser for metal parts. The demand for TCE as a degreaser began to decline in the 1950s in favor of the less toxic 1,1,1-trichloroethane. However, 1,1,1-trichloroethane production has been phased out in most of the world under the terms of the Montreal Protocol, and as a result trichloroethylene has experienced some resurgence in use as a degreaser.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: TCE has also been used in the United States to clean kerosene-fueled rocket engines (TCE was not used to clean hydrogen-fueled engines such as the Space Shuttle Main Engine). During static firing, the RP-1 fuel would leave hydrocarbon deposits and vapors in the engine. These deposits had to be flushed from the engine to avoid the possibility of explosion during engine handling and future firing. TCE was used to flush the engine's fuel system immediately before and after each test firing. The flushing procedure involved pumping TCE through the engine's fuel system and letting the solvent overflow for a period ranging from several seconds to 30–35 minutes, depending upon the engine. For some engines, the engine's gas generator and liquid oxygen (LOX) dome were also flushed with TCE prior to test firing. The F-1 rocket engine had its LOX dome, gas generator, and thrust chamber fuel jacket flushed with TCE during launch preparations.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: TCE is also used in the manufacture of a range of fluorocarbon refrigerants such as 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane more commonly known as HFC 134a. TCE was also used in industrial refrigeration applications due to its high heat transfer capabilities and its low temperature specification. Many industrial refrigeration applications used TCE up to the 1990s in applications such as car testing facilities.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Despite its widespread use as a metal degreaser, trichloroethylene itself is unstable in the presence of metal over prolonged exposure. As early as 1961 this phenomenon was recognized by the manufacturing industry, when stabilizing additives were added to the commercial formulation. Since the reactive instability is accentuated by higher temperatures, the search for stabilizing additives was conducted by heating trichloroethylene to its boiling point in a reflux condenser and observing decomposition. Definitive documentation of 1,4-dioxane as a stabilizing agent for TCE is scant due to the lack of specificity in early patent literature describing TCE formulations. Other chemical stabilizers include ketones such as methyl ethyl ketone.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: When inhaled, trichloroethylene produces central nervous system depression resulting in general anesthesia. These effects may be mediated by trichloroethylene acting as a positive allosteric modulator of inhibitory GABA and glycine receptors. Its high blood solubility results in a less desirable slower induction of anesthesia. At low concentrations it is relatively non-irritating to the respiratory tract. Higher concentrations result in tachypnea. Many types of cardiac arrhythmias can occur and are exacerbated by epinephrine (adrenaline). It was noted in the 1940s that TCE reacted with carbon dioxide (CO) absorbing systems (soda lime) to produce dichloroacetylene and phosgene. Cranial nerve dysfunction (especially the fifth cranial nerve) was common when TCE anesthesia was given using CO absorbing systems. These nerve deficits could last for months. Occasionally facial numbness was permanent. Muscle relaxation with TCE anesthesia sufficient for surgery was poor. For these reasons as well as problems with hepatotoxicity, TCE lost popularity in North America and Europe to more potent anesthetics such as halothane by the 1960s.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The symptoms of acute non-medical exposure are similar to those of alcohol intoxication, beginning with headache, dizziness, and confusion and progressing with increasing exposure to unconsciousness. Respiratory and circulatory depression can result in death.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Much of what is known about the human health effects of trichloroethylene is based on occupational exposures. Beyond the effects to the central nervous system, workplace exposure to trichloroethylene has been associated with toxic effects in the liver and kidney. Over time, occupational exposure limits on trichloroethylene have tightened, resulting in more stringent ventilation controls and personal protective equipment use by workers.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Research from Cancer bioassays performed by the National Cancer Institute (later the National Toxicology Program) showed that exposure to trichloroethylene is carcinogenic in animals, producing liver cancer in mice, and kidney cancer in rats.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The National Toxicology Program's 11th Report on Carcinogens categorizes trichloroethylene as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen”, based on limited evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: One recent review of the epidemiology of kidney cancer rated cigarette smoking and obesity as more important risk factors for kidney cancer than exposure to solvents such as trichloroethylene. In contrast, the most recent overall assessment of human health risks associated with trichloroethylene states, "[t]here is concordance between animal and human studies, which supports the conclusion that trichloroethylene is a potential kidney carcinogen". The evidence appears to be less certain at this time regarding the relationship between humans and liver cancer observed in mice, with the US NAS suggesting that low-level exposure might not represent a significant liver cancer risk in the general population.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The health risks of trichloroethylene have been studied extensively. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsored a "state of the science" review of the health effects associated with exposure to trichloroethylene. The National Academy of Sciences concluded that evidence on the carcinogenic risk and other potential health hazards from exposure to TCE has strengthened since EPA released their toxicological assessment of TCE, and encourages federal agencies to finalize the risk assessment for TCE using currently available information, so that risk management decisions for this chemical can be expedited.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In Europe, the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limit Values (SCOEL) recommends for trichloroethylene an occupational exposure limit (8 hour time-weighted average) of 10 ppm and a short-term exposure limit (15 min) of 30 ppm.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Exposure to TCE occurs mainly through contaminated drinking water. With a specific gravity greater than 1 (denser than water), trichloroethylene can be present as a dense non-aqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) if sufficient quantities are spilled in the environment. Another significant source of vapor exposure in Superfund sites that had contaminated groundwater, such as the Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant, was by showering. TCE readily volatilizes out of hot water and into the air. Long, hot showers would then volatilize more TCE into the air. In a home closed tightly to conserve the cost of heating and cooling, these vapors would then recirculate.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The first known report of TCE in groundwater was given in 1949 by two English public chemists who described two separate instances of well contamination by industrial releases of TCE. Based on available federal and state surveys, between 9% to 34% of the drinking water supply sources tested in the U.S. may have some TCE contamination, though EPA has reported that most water supplies are in compliance with the maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 5 ppb. In addition, a growing concern in recent years at sites with TCE contamination in soil or groundwater has been vapor intrusion in buildings, which has resulted in indoor air exposures, such is in a recent case in the McCook Field neighborhood of Dayton, Ohio, United States. Trichloroethylene has been detected in 852 Superfund sites across the United States, according to the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). Under the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, and as amended annual water quality testing is required for all public drinking water distributors. The EPA'S current guidelines for TCE are online. The EPA's table of "TCE Releases to Ground" is dated 1987 to 1993, thereby omitting one of the largest Superfund cleanup sites in the nation, the North IBW in Scottsdale, Arizona. Earlier, TCE was dumped here, and was subsequently detected in the municipal drinking water wells in 1982, prior to the study period.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 1986, and later again in 2009, 2 plumes containing trichloroethylene with found on Long Island, New York due to Northrop Grumman's Bethpage factories that worked in conjunction with the United States Navy during the 1930s and 1940s.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 1988, the EPA discovered tons of TCE that had been leaked or dumped into the ground by the United States military and semiconductor industry (companies including Fairchild Semiconductor, Intel Corporation, and Raytheon Company) just outside NASA Ames in Moffett Field, Mountain View, California.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 1987, Hill Air Force Base, in Layton, Utah, was declared a Superfund site in 1987 and added to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Priorities List. Contamination of TCE has been detected in the groundwater throughout Weber County, Utah. While at least 11 significant cancer clusters have been identified in the areas of TCE contamination, there has been no acknowledgment of a direct link between groundwater contamination and specific cancers.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 1990, Fort Ord, CA was added to the EPA's National Priorities List. Veterans have linked trichloroethylene as the underlying cause for high incidence rates of multiple myeloma.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 1998, the View-Master factory supply well in Beaverton, Oregon was found to have been contaminated with high levels of TCE. It was estimated that 25,000 factory workers had been exposed to it from 1950 to 2001.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In the case of Lisle, Illinois, releases of trichloroethylene (TCE) had allegedly occurred on the Lockformer property beginning in 1968 and continuing for an undetermined period. The company used TCE in the past as a degreaser to clean metal parts. Contamination at the Lockformer site is presently under investigation by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and Illinois EPA. In 1992, Lockformer conducted soil sampling on their property and found TCE in the soil at levels as high as 680 parts per million (ppm). During the summer of 2000, a group of residents hired legal counsel, and on October 11, 2000, these residents had their private well water tested by a private environmental consultant. The group owned homes south of the Lockformer property in the suspected path of groundwater flow. The consultant collected a second round of well water samples on November 10, 2000, and TCE was detected in some of the wells sampled. Beginning in December 2000, Illinois EPA collected about 350 more private well water samples north and south of the Lockformer property.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: As of 2007, 57,000 pounds, or 28.5 tons of TCE have been removed from the system of wells that once supplied drinking water to the residents of Scottsdale, Arizona. One of the three drinking water wells previously owned by the City of Phoenix and ultimately sold to the City of Scottsdale, tested at 390 ppb TCE when it was closed in 1982. The City of Scottsdale recently updated its website to clarify that the contaminated wells were "in the Scottsdale area," and amended all references to the measured levels of TCE discovered when the wells were closed (including "390 ppb") to "trace".


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in North Carolina may be the largest TCE contamination site in the country. Legislation could force the EPA to establish a health advisory and a national public drinking water regulation to limit trichloroethylene.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: For over 20 years of operation, RCA Corporation had been pouring toxic wastewater into a well in its Taoyuan City, Taiwan facility. The pollution from the plant was not revealed until 1994, when former workers brought it to light. Investigation by the Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration confirmed that RCA had been dumping chlorinated organic solvents into a secret well and caused contamination to the soil and groundwater surrounding the plant site. High levels of TCE and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) can be found in groundwater drawn as far as two kilometers from the site. An organization of former RCA employees reports 1375 cancer cases, 216 cancer deaths, and 102 cases of various tumors among its members.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In June 2012, residents of an area off of Stony Hill Road, Wake Forest, NC were contacted by the EPA and DWQ about possible TCE contamination after authorities followed up on existing TCE contamination in 2005. Subsequent EPA testing found multiple sites with detectable levels of TCE and several with levels above the MCL.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The 1998 film "A Civil Action" dramatizes the EPA lawsuit "Anne Anderson, et al., v. Cryovac, Inc." concerning trichloroethylene contamination that occurred in Woburn, Massachusetts in the 1980s.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In February 2020, McClymonds High School in West Oakland, California was temporarily closed after trichloroethylene was found in groundwater beneath the school.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Until recent years, the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) contended that trichloroethylene had little-to-no carcinogenic potential, and was probably a co-carcinogen—that is, it acted in concert with other substances to promote the formation of tumors.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: State, federal, and international agencies classify trichloroethylene as a known or probable carcinogen. In 2014, the International Agency for Research on Cancer updated its classification of trichloroethylene to Group 1, indicating that sufficient evidence exists that it causes cancer of the kidney in humans as well as some evidence of cancer of the liver and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. California EPA regulators consider it a known carcinogen and issued a risk assessment in 1999 that concluded that it was far more toxic than previous scientific studies had shown.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In the European Union, the Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limit Values (SCOEL) recommends an exposure limit for workers exposed to trichloroethylene of 10 ppm (54.7 mg/m) for 8-hour TWA and of 30 ppm (164.1 mg/m) for STEL (15 minutes).


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Existing EU legislation aimed at protection of workers against risks to their health (including Chemical Agents Directive 98/24/EC and Carcinogens Directive 2004/37/EC) currently do not impose binding minimum requirements for controlling risks to workers health during the use phase or throughout the life cycle of trichloroethylene. However, in case the ongoing discussions under the Carcinogens Directive will result in setting of a binding Occupational Exposure Limit for trichloroethylene for protection of workers; this conclusion may be revisited.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The Solvents Emissions Directive 1999/13/EC and Industrial Emissions Directive 2010/75/EC impose binding minimum requirements for emissions of trichloroethylene to the environment for certain activities, including surface cleaning. However, the activities with solvent consumption below a specified threshold are not covered by these minimum requirements.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: According to European regulation, the use of trichloroethylene is prohibited for individuals at a concentration greater than 0.1%. In industry, trichloroethylene should be substituted before April 21, 2016 (unless an exemption is requested before October 21, 2014) by other products such as tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), methylene chloride (dichloromethane), or other hydrocarbon derivatives (ketones, alcohols, ...).


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In 2001, a draft report of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) laid the groundwork for tough new standards to limit public exposure to trichloroethylene. The assessment set off a fight between the EPA and the Department of Defense (DoD), the Department of Energy, and NASA, who appealed directly to the White House. They argued that the EPA had produced junk science, its assumptions were badly flawed, and that evidence exonerating the chemical was ignored.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The DoD has about 1,400 military properties nationwide that are contaminated with trichloroethylene. Many of these sites are detailed and updated by www.cpeo.org and include a former ammunition plant in the Twin Cities area. Twenty three sites in the Energy Department's nuclear weapons complex—including Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in the San Francisco Bay area, and NASA centers, including the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Cañada Flintridge are reported to have TCE contamination.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Political appointees in the EPA sided with the Pentagon and agreed to pull back the risk assessment. In 2004, the National Academy of Sciences was given a $680,000 contract to study the matter, releasing its report in the summer of 2006. The report has raised more concerns about the health effects of TCE.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In response to the heightened awareness of environmental toxins such as TCE and the role they may be playing in childhood disease, in 2007, Senator Barack Obama proposed S1068, co-sponsored by Hillary Clinton and John Kerry. This legislation aimed to inform and protect communities that are threatened with environmental contamination. Senator Clinton's own bill, S1911, is known as the TCE Reduction Act.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: In recent times, there has been a substantial reduction in the production output of trichloroethylene; alternatives for use in metal degreasing abound, chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons being phased out in a large majority of industries due to the potential for irreversible health effects and the legal liability that ensues as a result.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: The U.S. military has virtually eliminated its use of the chemical, purchasing only 11 gallons in 2005. About 100 tons of it is used annually in the U.S. as of 2006.


title: Trichloroethylene

text: Recent research has focused on the in-place remediation of trichloroethylene in soil and ground water instead of removal for off-site treatment and disposal. Naturally-occurring bacteria have been identified with the ability to degrade TCE. "Dehalococcoides" sp. degrade trichloroethylene by reductive dechlorination under anaerobic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, "Pseudomonas fluorescens" can co-metabolize TCE. Soil and ground water contamination by TCE has also been successfully remediated by chemical treatment and extraction. The bacteria "Nitrosomonas europaea" can degrade a variety of halogenated compounds including trichloroethylene. Toluene dioxygenase has been reported to be involved in TCE degradation by "Pseudomonas putida". In some cases, "Xanthobacter autotrophicus" can convert up to 51% of TCE to CO and .


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The 2011–12 season was Manchester United's 20th season in the Premier League, and their 37th consecutive season in the top-flight of English football. United were defending Premier League champions, and aimed for an unprecedented 20th league title this season. Furthermore, they were competing in the Champions League for a 16th successive season. In addition, they were competing in the domestic tournaments, the FA Cup and the League Cup.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Manchester United began the season with a 3–2 win over local rivals Manchester City in the Community Shield at Wembley on 7 August 2011.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: They were, however, knocked out of the League Cup at the Fifth Round stage for the second successive season after losing 2–1 to Crystal Palace at Old Trafford on 30 November 2011.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 7 December 2011, United lost 2–1 away to Basel, a result which saw them finish third in their Champions League group. This meant that they competed in the UEFA Europa League (formerly the UEFA Cup) for the first time since the 1995–96 season. However, they only made it as far as the Round of 16, falling to Athletic Bilbao 5–3 on aggregate.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 4 January 2012 against Newcastle United, Ryan Giggs broke Sir Bobby Charlton's record for the most starts, the match being Giggs' 757th start.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 28 January 2012, United were knocked out of the FA Cup in the Fourth Round after losing 2–1 against Liverpool at Anfield.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Going into the last match of the season, on 13 May 2012, United and Manchester City were locked together on 86 points at the top the table, but City led with an eight-goal advantage in goal difference. United therefore needed to better City's result to win the title. They were on course to do this, winning 1–0 at Sunderland, whilst City trailed 2–1 at home to Queens Park Rangers. However, two stoppage time goals from Edin Džeko and Sergio Agüero gave City a 3–2 win and edged United out on goal difference. It was the first time in 23 years that the champions and the runners-up had finished level on points.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Manchester United preceded their 2011–12 campaign with a tour of the United States for the second year in a row. As in 2010, they played in the MLS All-Star Game, in which they took on a team of the best players in Major League Soccer. In the lead-up to this game, which was played on 27 July 2011, United took on the New England Revolution (13 July), the Seattle Sounders (20 July) and the Chicago Fire (23 July), before finishing the tour with a game against Barcelona at FedExField in Washington, D.C. on 30 July.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The club granted a testimonial to Paul Scholes, who retired on 31 May 2011, to honour his 17 years of service to United. The match was played at Old Trafford against New York Cosmos on 5 August 2011. United won the game 6–0 – with Scholes himself opening the scoring the opening goal – to complete an unbeaten pre-season.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The club also granted a testimonial to Harry Gregg, a survivor of the 1958 Munich air disaster, who rescued a 20-month-old girl, her pregnant mother and attempted to revive United manager Sir Matt Busby. The match was played at Windsor Park against Irish League XI on 15 May 2012. The Irish XI was managed by Martin O'Neill and David Jeffrey. United won the game 4–1.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As Premier League champions, United began the season against the holders of the FA Cup, local rivals Manchester City in the Community Shield. The match was played at Wembley on 7 August. This was the first time the Shield had been contested by the two clubs in 55 years. United had most of the possession and more shots on goal in the first half, but it was City who took the lead in the 38th minute when Joleon Lescott nodded in a David Silva free-kick. Edin Džeko then doubled City's lead on the stroke of half-time with a low strike from long-distance. However, seven minutes into the second half, Chris Smalling volleyed home an Ashley Young free-kick to reduce the deficit, and then Nani finished off an intricate passing move involving Wayne Rooney and Tom Cleverley in the 58th minute to bring the score back to 2–2. With a penalty shoot-out looming as the game moved into injury time, Nani forced a mistake from City captain Vincent Kompany, outpaced the defence and rounded goalkeeper Joe Hart before sliding the ball into the empty net to seal United's comeback and their 19th FA Community Shield.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The fixtures for the 2011–12 league season were announced on 17 June, with United beginning the defence of their title away from home for the first time since 2005–06.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United entered the FA Cup at the Third Round stage with the other Premier League clubs, as well as those from the Championship. The Third Round draw was made on 4 December 2011, and gave United an away match against holders Manchester City. The tie was played on 8 January 2012, and was the 162nd Manchester derby ending in a 3–2 win for United. The match saw the dramatic return of Manchester United legend Paul Scholes from his retirement after last season's Champions League Final against Barcelona. Two goals from Wayne Rooney and one from Danny Welbeck saw United go into the second half 3–0 up and a man up, Vincent Kompany having been sent off after 12 minutes of the first half. However, 10-man Manchester City bounced back immediately after the break with a free kick from Aleksandar Kolarov followed by a close-range goal from Sergio Agüero.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the Fourth Round took place on 8 January 2012, and gave United a tie against their other strong rivals Liverpool for the second successive season in the FA Cup. The match was played at Anfield on 28 January 2012. United lost 2–1. Daniel Agger's header put Liverpool in front, and Park Ji-sung equalised seven minutes before the break, but Dirk Kuyt's late winner ended United's hopes of winning the famous trophy. United had hit the post through Antonio Valencia in the first half. This loss meant that United still had not won the FA Cup since 2004, or even appeared in a final since 2007.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As one of eight English clubs who qualified for European competition in the 2010–11 season, United received a bye to the Third Round of the League Cup. The draw took place on 27 August 2011, giving United a trip to Elland Road to take on fierce rivals Leeds United. The match took place on 20 September 2011, where United won 3–0. Sir Alex Ferguson handed a start to debutant Zeki Fryers, 18 years old, and twice early on, Dimitar Berbatov had to clear off the line. But that was the closest the hosts came to causing an upset, as Michael Owen opened the scoring on 15 minutes with a scuffed shot and lashed home a second on 32. Ryan Giggs all but sealed the victory when he played a short corner to Park Ji-sung, got the return ball, nutmegged Robert Snodgrass, and shot past Andrew Lonergan via a deflection off Luciano Becchio. Late on, Ramón Núñez, a Leeds substitute, fluffed the chance to score a consolation for Leeds, firing wide.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the Fourth Round took place on 24 September 2011, and gave United a trip to the EBB Stadium to take on League Two side Aldershot Town. The match was played on 25 October 2011, with United once again winning 3–0, through goals from Dimitar Berbatov, Michael Owen, and Antonio Valencia.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the quarter-finals took place on 29 October 2011, and gave United a home match against Championship side Crystal Palace. Crystal Palace took the lead in the 65th minute, with a 40-yard strike from Darren Ambrose. However, their lead lasted less than four minutes, with Federico Macheda equalising from the penalty spot, after he was fouled himself, in the 69th minute. Despite increasing Manchester United pressure, the match went to extra-time, where Crystal Palace scored a second, with a Glenn Murray header, to put them 2–1 ahead in the 98th minute. The game eventually ended 2–1, with Palace facing Cardiff City in the semi-finals, a game which secured a Championship side in the final.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Manchester United began their Champions League campaign in the group stage after finishing in first place in the 2010–11 Premier League. The draw for the group stage was made on 25 August 2011. As one of the top eight-ranked teams in Europe, the club was seeded in Pot 1, meaning that they would avoid being drawn with defending champions Barcelona, as well as Bayern Munich, Inter Milan, Porto, Real Madrid and the other three English clubs, Chelsea, Arsenal and Manchester City. The draw eventually paired United with two previous opponents, Benfica and Swiss champions Basel, and one new opponent, Romanian champions Oțelul Galați.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United's first UEFA Champions League group game was away to Benfica on 14 September 2011, which ended in a 1–1 draw. Nicolás Gaitán's delightful long pass picked out Óscar Cardozo in the 24th minute, and he controlled on his chest then finished from 16 yards. But three minutes before half-time, Ryan Giggs cut inside from the right and fired a 20-yard strike to equalise. United goalkeeper Anders Lindegaard saved from Nolito and Gaitán late on.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United's next game in the Champions League was a home game against Basel. Two goals from Danny Welbeck in the 16th and 17th minutes looked to have put United in control. Welbeck's first goal came when he scuffed a shot in off the post, and the England forward's second was a far more convincing strike from Ryan Giggs' cross. Fabian Frei shot in off the post on 58 minutes to give Basel hope, and Alexander Frei's header, aided by awful defending from Rio Ferdinand, made it 2–2. With 15 minutes remaining, Basel were awarded a penalty and Alexander Frei sent David de Gea the wrong way to give Basel a shock lead and leave United on the brink of a first home defeat in almost 18 months. In the 90th minute, however, Ashley Young headed home Nani's cross at the back post to rescue a point. United could have earned all three points had substitute Dimitar Berbatov not shot into the side-netting rather than play it along the ground for a tap-in. Instead, United were forced to settle for a point, as they went down to third in Group C. This was the first time since 1999 that United had failed to win either of their first two Champions League group stage matches.<ref name="Uefa-CL-2011/12-United-FCB"></ref>


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United went on to win both their fixtures against Oțelul Galați 2–0, with two penalties, both scored by Wayne Rooney, leading United to victory away from home, and an early goal from Antonio Valencia and a late own goal from Cristian Sârghi to ensure a 2–0 United victory at Old Trafford.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: A 2–2 draw in Matchday 5 against Benfica followed. Phil Jones with an own goal put Benfica in front. Dimitar Berbatov in the 30th minute and Darren Fletcher in the 59th turned the tables, but Pablo Aimar's equaliser just two minutes later gave the final result.<ref name="Uefa-CL-2011/12-United-Benfica"></ref>


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: However, an unlikely 2–1 away defeat against Basel meant that United failed to progress past the group stage of the Champions League for only the third time in 17 years. The starting position for both clubs on matchday 6 in the sold-out St. Jakob Park with 36,894 fans was clear. With Benfica already assured of progress to the knock-out stage, Basel and United went head-to-head for the second qualifying berth. United needed only a point and the hosts would only stay in the competition with a win. It was a cool evening and at times it rained after referee Björn Kuipers of the Royal Dutch Football Association blew his whistle for the kick-off. United started well their hopes were somewhat dashed as their defence failed to clear a Markus Steinhöfer's cross from the right. The ball went to the far side and Xherdan Shaqiri claimed it on the left and sent it hard and high back into the centre. Keeper David de Gea could not clear the ball far enough and Basel's captain Marco Streller slammed a fierce shot home to put the hosts a goal ahead after nine minutes. The early goal gave Basel an optimism and they played with a good momentum and they continued to press forwards. United struggled to control the Basel wingers Shaqiri to the right and Fabian Frei on the left. As the game commenced Nani became equally influential for the visitors. After 30 minutes he brought a good cross to the middle but both Rooney and Park Ji-Sung were unable to reach it. A few minutes later Nani's own effort was bravely smothered by keeper Yann Sommer. Rooney had a second chance a few minutes later but the Basel keeper was equal to that too. United began the second half positively, but their increasing frustration was becoming obvious. All the more so, then as while trying to make a clearance, right-back Steinhöfer volleyed the ball against his own crossbar. Steinhöfer came away laughing and within minutes the Basel fans created a song to celebrate his feat. Basel created chances for themselves, Alexander Frei had one kick acrobatically saved. Then another counter-attack and Shaqiri played a neat cross from the right, Streller dummied by striding under the ball and Alexander Frei was there to head it home at the far post, with six minutes of play left. Although Phil Jones headed the ball home after Macheda's shot had rebounded off the cross-bar, Basel survived a tense final two minutes to advance to the knock-out phase with the 2–1 win.<ref name="Uefa-CL-2011/12-FCB-United"></ref>


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: According to football finance blogger Andy Green (a.k.a. "andersred"), United's failure to progress beyond the group stage of the Champions League could cost them up to £20 million, mostly in lost TV revenue. In the knockout phase Basel were drawn against Bayern Munich and were defeated 7–1 on aggregate. Bayern, in their turn advanced as far as the final. But here they were defeated by Chelsea after a penalty shoot-out.<ref name="Uefa-CL-2011/12-Chelsea-Bayern"></ref>


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As a result of finishing third in their group, United played in the UEFA Europa League for the first time since the 1995–96 season. They entered the tournament at the Round of 32 stage.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As one of the top four of the eight third-placed Champions League teams, United were seeded for the Round of 32 draw which took place at 12:00 GMT on 16 December 2011. United were drawn against Ajax. The only previous meeting between the two sides came in the 1st Round of the same competition in the 1976–77 season, United winning 2–1 on aggregate.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United were away from home for the first leg on 16 February 2012. United won the game 2–0. United struggled to get going in the first half, and David de Gea produced a brilliant save to deny Siem de Jong. But the "Red Devils" looked far stronger after the break, and Ashley Young put them ahead with a drilled finish. Javier Hernández doubled the lead late on to ensure that United took two away goals with them into the second leg at Old Trafford.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The return leg was at Old Trafford on 23 February 2012. United lost 2–1 (their fourth home loss of the season, having lost none at home the previous season), but went through 3–2 on aggregate. The "Red Devils" took the lead through Javier Hernández's finish following Dimitar Berbatov's fine pass. Aras Özbiliz levelled for Ajax from 20 yards. Toby Alderweireld headed home the winner with three minutes to go, but the goal came too late.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United were drawn with Athletic Bilbao in the Round of 16, after the Spanish side defeated Lokomotiv Moscow on away goals after a 2–2 aggregate draw in their Round of 32 tie.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United had only met Athletic Bilbao once before, in their debut season in European football. They met in the quarter-finals of the European Cup in the 1956–57 season. Matt Busby's babes lost 5–3 in Spain, before winning 3–0 at Maine Road – Old Trafford was not equipped with floodlights at that time – to progress 6–5 on aggregate. The second leg was played on 6 February 1957, and the majority of the players who played that day would perish exactly a year later in the Munich air disaster.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The first leg of the tie against Athletic Bilbao ended in a 3–2 defeat for United at Old Trafford on 8 March 2012. Wayne Rooney smashed United ahead from close range, before Fernando Llorente's header drew the visitors level. But the cavalier Spaniards refused to settle for a draw, as United failed to win yet another European home game. The hosts were stunned by two controversial second-half goals from Óscar de Marcos – who appeared to be offside from Ander Herrera's lofted pass – and Iker Muniain – whose goal resulted from a free-kick awarded after Patrice Evra kicked the ball with only one boot on – before a late consolation by Rooney from the penalty spot softened the blow as United succumbed to their fifth home defeat of the season.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United travelled to the San Mamés Stadium for the second leg of tie, on 15 March 2012. Having lost the first leg, United needed to win at least 2–0 to progress. However, United lost 2–1 on the night and 5–3 on aggregate, meaning that they tumbled out of Europe. Iker Muniain hit the post, before Fernando Llorente scored with a volley from Fernando Amorebieta's raking diagonal pass. Ryan Giggs then headed wide, but Óscar de Marcos put further daylight between the sides when he crashed in. Wayne Rooney scored from 25 yards late on, but it was merely a consolation.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Manchester United's first two departures of the 2011–12 off-season were Dutch goalkeeper Edwin van der Sar and English midfielder Paul Scholes, who both retired shortly after the end of the 2010–11 season. On 1 July, three players were released by the club: English midfielder Owen Hargreaves, Northern Irish goalkeeper Conor Devlin and English defender Oliver Gill. Four days later, Nicky Ajose was allowed to move to Peterborough United for an undisclosed fee. He was followed two days later by veteran defenders Wes Brown and John O'Shea, who were both offered four-year contracts at Sunderland. The final departure of the summer was French forward Gabriel Obertan, who signed a five-year contract with Newcastle United after the clubs agreed an undisclosed fee.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The club's first signing of the summer came on 13 June 2011 in the form of Blackburn Rovers centre-back Phil Jones. He was followed ten days later by Aston Villa winger Ashley Young. But with the departure of Van der Sar, the club needed a long-term replacement for him in goal, and a deal was done to sign young Spanish goalkeeper David de Gea from Atlético Madrid. Unlike Van der Sar, however, Paul Scholes' retirement was not permanent, and he returned to the club in January 2012 to alleviate the club's injury crisis. The only other arrival in January was young Swiss defender Frédéric Veseli, signed from cross-town rivals Manchester City.


title: 2011–12 Manchester United F.C. season

text: Four players left Manchester United during the January transfer window. First to depart was Irish midfielder Darron Gibson who signed for Everton for an undisclosed fee on 13 January. A week later, after spending the first half of the season on loan to Barnsley, Danny Drinkwater was bought by Leicester City also for an undisclosed fee. The last two players to leave were Mame Biram Diouf, who joined Hannover 96 on 28 January, and Ravel Morrison, who made a deadline day move to West Ham United. Italian defender Alberto Massacci was released from his contract on 23 April.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Mixed-sex education, also known as mixed-gender education, co-education, or coeducation (abbreviated to co-ed or coed), is a system of education where males and females are educated together. Whereas single-sex education was more common up to the 19th century, mixed-sex education has since become standard in many cultures, particularly in Western countries. Single-sex education remains prevalent in many Muslim countries. The relative merits of both systems have been the subject of debate.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The world's oldest co-educational school is thought to be Archbishop Tenison's Church of England High School, Croydon, established in 1714 in the United Kingdom, which admitted boys and girls from its opening onwards. This has always been a day school only.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The world's oldest co-educational both day and boarding school is Dollar Academy, a junior and senior school for males and females from ages 5 to 18 in Scotland, United Kingdom. From its opening in 1818, the school admitted both boys and girls of the parish of Dollar and the surrounding area. The school continues in existence to the present day with around 1,250 pupils.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The first co-educational college to be founded was Oberlin Collegiate Institute in Oberlin, Ohio. It opened on 3 December 1833, with 44 students, including 29 men and 15 women. Fully equal status for women did not arrive until 1837, and the first three women to graduate with bachelor's degrees did so in 1840. By the late 20th century, many institutions of higher learning that had been exclusively for men or women had become coeducational.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: In early civilizations, people were educated informally: primarily within the household. As time progressed, education became more structured and formal. Women often had very few rights when education started to become a more important aspect of civilization. Efforts of the ancient Greek and Chinese societies focused primarily on the education of males. In ancient Rome, the availability of education was gradually extended to women, but they were taught separately from men. The early Christians and medieval Europeans continued this trend, and single-sex schools for the privileged classes prevailed through the Reformation period.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: In the 16th century, at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic church reinforced the establishment of free elementary schools for children of all classes. The concept of universal elementary education, regardless of sex, had been created. After the Reformation, coeducation was introduced in western Europe, when certain Protestant groups urged that boys and girls should be taught to read the Bible. The practice became very popular in northern England, Scotland, and colonial New England, where young children, both male and female, attended dame schools. In the late 18th century, girls gradually were admitted to town schools. The Society of Friends in England, as well as in the United States, pioneered coeducation as they did universal education, and in Quaker settlements in the British colonies, boys and girls commonly attended school together. The new free public elementary, or common schools, which after the American Revolution supplanted church institutions, were almost always coeducational, and by 1900 most public high schools were coeducational as well. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coeducation grew much more widely accepted. In Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union, the education of girls and boys in the same classes became an approved practice.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: In Australia, there is a trend towards increased coeducational schooling with new coeducational schools opening, few new single-sex schools opening and existing single-sex schools combining or opening their doors to the opposite gender.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The first mixed-sex institution of higher learning in China was the Nanjing Higher Normal Institute, which was renamed National Central University and Nanjing University. For millennia in China, public schools, especially public higher learning schools, were for men. Generally, only schools established by zōng zú (宗族, gens) were for both male and female students. Some schools, such as Li Zhi's school during the Ming dynasty and Yuan Mei's school during the Qing Dynasty, enrolled both male and female students. In the 1910s, women's universities were established, such as Ginling Women's University and Peking Girls' Higher Normal School, but there was no coeducation in higher learning schools.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Tao Xingzhi, the Chinese advocator of mixed-sex education, proposed "The Audit Law for Women Students" (規定女子旁聽法案, Guī Dìng Nǚ Zi Páng Tīng Fǎ Àn) at the meeting of Nanjing Higher Normal School held on December seventh, 1919. He also proposed that the university recruit female students. The idea was supported by the president Kuo Ping-Wen, academic director Liu Boming, and such famous professors as Lu Zhiwei and Yang Xingfo, but opposed by many famous men of the time. The meeting passed the law and decided to recruit women students next year. Nanjing Higher Normal School enrolled eight Chinese female students in 1920. In the same year Peking University also began to allow women students to audit classes. One of the most notable female students of that time was Chien-Shiung Wu.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: In 1949, the People's Republic of China was founded. The Chinese government pursued a policy of moving towards co-education and nearly all schools and universities have become mixed-sex. In recent years, some female or single-sex schools have again emerged for special vocational training needs, but equal rights for education still applies to all citizens.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Indigenous Muslim populations in China, the Hui and Salars, find coeducation to be controversial, owing to Islamic ideas on gender roles. On the other hand, the Muslim Uyghurs have not historically objected to coeducation.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Admission to the Sorbonne was opened to girls in 1860. The baccalauréat became gender-blind in 1924, giving equal chances to all girls in applying to any universities. Mixed-sex education became mandatory for primary schools in 1957 and for all universities in 1975.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: St. Paul's Co-educational College was the first mixed-sex secondary school in Hong Kong. It was founded in 1915 as St. Paul's Girls' College. At the end of World War II, it was temporarily merged with St. Paul's College, which is a boys' school. When classes at the campus of St. Paul's College were resumed, it continued to be mixed and changed to its present name. Some other renowned mixed-sex secondary schools in town include Hong Kong Pui Ching Middle School, Queen Elizabeth School, and Tsuen Wan Government Secondary School. Most Hong Kong primary and secondary schools are mixed-sex, including government public schools, charter schools, and private schools.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Mongolia's first co-educational school, named Third School, opened in Ulaanbaatar on November 2, 1921. Subsequent schools have been co-educational and there are now no single-sex schools in Mongolia.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Pakistan is one of the many Muslim countries where most schools and colleges are single-gender although some schools and colleges, and most universities are coeducational. In schools that offer O levels and A levels, co-education is quite prevalent. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, most universities were coeducational but the proportion of women was less than 5%. After the Islamization policies in the early 1980s, the government established Women's colleges and Women's universities to promote education among women who were hesitant to study in mixed-sex environment. Today, however, most universities and a large number of schools in urban areas are co-educational.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: In the United Kingdom the official term is "mixed", and today most schools are mixed. A number of Quaker co-educational boarding schools were established before the 19th century.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The world's oldest co-educational school is thought to be Archbishop Tenison's Church of England High School, Croydon, established in 1714 in the United Kingdom, which admitted 10 boys and 10 girls from its opening, and remained co-educational thereafter. This is a day school only and still in existence.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The Scottish Dollar Academy was the first mixed-sex both day and boarding school in the UK. Founded in 1818, it is the oldest both boarding and day mixed-sex educational institution in the world still in existence. In England, the first non-Quaker mixed-sex public boarding school was Bedales School, founded in 1893 by John Haden Badley and becoming mixed in 1898. Ruckleigh School in Solihull was founded by Cathleen Cartland in 1909 as a non-denominational co-educational preparatory school many decades before others followed. Many previously single-sex schools have begun to accept both sexes in the past few decades: for example, Clifton College began to accept girls in 1987.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The first higher-education institution in the United Kingdom to allow women and men to enter on equal terms, and hence be admitted to academic degrees, was the University of Bristol (then established as University College, Bristol) in 1876.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Given their dual role as both boarding house and educational establishment, individual colleges at Oxford and Cambridge remained segregated for much longer. The first Oxford college to house both men and women was the graduate-only Nuffield College in 1937; the first five undergraduate colleges (Brasenose, Hertford, Jesus, St Catherine's, and Wadham) became mixed in 1974. The first mixed Cambridge college was the graduate-only Darwin from its foundation in 1964. Churchill, Clare, and King's Colleges were the first previously all-male colleges of the University of Cambridge to admit female undergraduates in 1972. Magdalene was the last all-male college to become mixed in 1988.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The last women's college in Oxford, St Hilda's, became mixed as of Michaelmas term 2008. Two colleges remain single-sex (women-only) at Cambridge: Murray Edwards (New Hall) and Newnham.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The oldest extant mixed-sex institute of higher education in the United States is Oberlin College in Oberlin, Ohio, which was established in 1833. Mixed-sex classes were admitted to the preparatory department at Oberlin in 1833 and the college department in 1837. The first four women to receive bachelor's degrees in the United States earned them at Oberlin in 1841. Later, in 1862, the first black woman to receive a bachelor's degree (Mary Jane Patterson) also earned it from Oberlin College. Beginning in 1844, Hillsdale College became the next college to admit mixed-sex classes to four-year degree programs.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: The University of Iowa became the first coeducational public or state university in the United States in 1855, and for much of the next century, public universities, and land grant universities in particular, would lead the way in mixed-sex higher education. There were also many private coeducational universities founded in the 19th century, especially west of the Mississippi River. East of the Mississippi, Wheaton College (Illinois) graduated its first female student in 1862. Bates College in Maine was open to women from its founding in 1855, and graduated its first female student in 1869. Cornell University and the University of Michigan each admitted their first female students in 1870.


title: Mixed-sex education

text: Around the same time, single-sex women's colleges were also appearing. According to Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra: "women's colleges were founded during the mid- and late-19th century in response to a need for advanced education for women at a time when they were not admitted to most institutions of higher education." Notable examples include the Seven Sisters colleges, of which Vassar College is now coeducational and Radcliffe College has merged with Harvard University. Other notable women's colleges that have become coeducational include Wheaton College in Massachusetts, Ohio Wesleyan Female College in Ohio, Skidmore College, Wells College, and Sarah Lawrence College in New York state, Pitzer College in California, Goucher College in Maryland and Connecticut College.